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88–89 Herbs & spices 158–163 Hinduism 244–247 Gardens
90–93 The forest 164–169 Buddhism 248–249 Clothing & costume
94–95 Trees 170–171 Taoism & Shinto 250–251 Headwear
96–97 Sacred trees 172–173 Judaism 252–253 Uniforms
98–99 Fruits of the earth 174–175 Kabbalah 254–255 Jewellery
100–101 Foods of the earth 176–179 Christianity 256–257 Body adornment
180–183 Islam 258–259 Group affiliation
102–103 HUMAN LIFE 184–185 Sikhism 260–261 Freemasonry
104–105 Introduction 186–187 Voodoo 262–267 Art
106–109 The head 188–189 Angels 268–269 Dance & theatre
110–111 Head trophies 190–191 Satan & demons 270–271 Masks
112–115 Human body 192–193 Witches & wicca 272–273 Fairy tales
116–119 Hands & feet 194–195 Amulets 274–275 Musical instruments
120–123 Fertility & childbirth 196–199 Divination
124–125 Initiation rites 200– 203 Western astrology 276–277 SYMBOL SYSTEMS
126–127 Love & marriage 204–205 Chinese horoscope 278–279 Introduction
128–131 Death & mourning 206–207 Numerology 280–283 Colours
132–133 Vanitas 208–209 The Holy Grail 284–289 Shapes
210–211 Alchemy 290–293 Patterns
134–135 MYTHS & 294–299 Numbers
RELIGIONS 212–213 SOCIETY & CULTU
L RE 300–305 Picture writing
136–137 Introduction 214–215 Introduction 306–309 Alphabets
138–139 Egyptian deities 216–217 Royalty 310–313 International signs
140–141 Greek & Roman deities 218–219 Trappings of royalty 314–315 Professional signs
142–143 Celtic & Nordic deities 220–221 Coronations 316–317 Brands & logos
144–145 Meso- & South 222–223 Nationality 318–323 Heraldic emblems
American deities 224–225 Tools & weapons 324–329 Flags
146–147 Ancestors 226–227 Architecture 330–331 Sign languages & signals
148–149 Nature spirits 228–231 Religious architecture 334–337 Symbolic gestures
150–151 Tribal totems, 232–233 Sacred places
heroes & tricksters 234–235 Buildings 338–343 Glossary
152–153 The Dreaming 236–237 Steps to Heaven 344–345 Further reading
154–155 Shamanism 238–241 The home 346–351 Index
156–157 Creation stories 242–243 Ships & boats 352 Acknowledgments
1
EJPNK@Q?PEKJ
ne of our distinguishing features as A sign is straightforward in its function: it may
Homo sapiens is our enquiring mind. be a constituent part of a written or a visual
We have always questioned things, language, a visual vocabulary of warnings
not least our existence on Earth: why we are about the road ahead, or a dramatic statement
here, where we come from, what happens after about a company’s product. Signs give us
death, and what is the meaning behind the a simple message that is of immediate
natural phenomena around us. Over thousands momentary relevance.
of years we have created a framework of beliefs A symbol, on the other hand, is a visual
that allows us, to some extent, to answer these image or sign representing an idea – a deeper
ancient questions. indicator of a universal truth. Fire, for example,
symbolizes both the Sun and the masculine
@ABEJEPEKJO=J@ =J=HUOEO life-force that is all around us, while a Spring
As part of this framework of beliefs, we have flower represents rebirth and new life. When
developed an extensive vocabulary of signs viewed in the light of symbols, life becomes
and symbols that remind us of our unity with enriched and meaningful.
the cosmos. Both signs and symbols are widely From earliest times, symbols have related
recognized, but the difference between the two to the cosmos, fertility, death, and renewal, but
is sometimes unclear. the advent of psychoanalytical theory has
EJPNK@Q?PEKJ
2
SIGNS GIVE US A SIMPLE MESSAGE THAT
IS OF IMMEDIATE MOMENTARY RELEVANCE.
A SYMBOL... IS A VISUAL IMAGE OR SIGN
caused ideas and objects to be examined in Heaven. Fabulous beasts, too, have appeared
the light of the psyche and psychological in art for millennia. These symbolize the joint
needs. A dark shadow, for instance, can be seen qualities of the creatures they represent; a satyr,
as symbolic of inner insecurities. Many fairy for example, is part-goat, part-man, indicating
stories, when analysed, relate to the process a human’s higher and lower self.
of growing up, encountering obstacles, and
emerging as adults; for example Little Red Riding IECN=PEKJKBOUI>KHO
Hood. For the most part, however, the ancient The fact that some symbols appear in widely
and archetypal symbols relate to the Universe scattered parts of the world gives rise to debate
and our relationship with the cosmos. on their origin. Did they occur spontaneously
Some symbols, such as the circle and the as a natural part of human’s unconscious
bird in flight, are universally recognized. The urgings, or were they the result of a transfusion
first symbolizes, among other things, birth, of ideas from one country to another?
rebirth, and the turning of the seasons, while We are increasingly aware of the amount
the bird can represent the soul’s ascent to of travel that took place in the ancient world.
EJPNK@Q?PEKJ
3
Trade routes criss-crossed the globe and PDACK@@AOO
religious ideas, art styles, and even artists A universal symbol that probably developed
travelled with the traders. That is how Islam in many places simultaneously is that of the
reached Southeast Asia, Buddhism extended goddess. Often depicted with a large belly and
to Japan, and Portuguese is spoken in the heart breasts, she represents fertility and abundance,
of South America. As goods and ideas were and her image appears in prehistoric art from
exchanged, so were symbols, which gained Malta to the Russian Steppes. She represents
significance far from their place of origin. birth and, as the Earth Mother, renewal.
The dragon, a Chinese creation, is one such Sometimes shown as a simple triangle,
symbol. In China it represents the glory of symbolic of female genitalia, the goddess
both the Emperor and the Sun, but in is also depicted as a circle, representing
European Christian art its symbolism is the continuous cycle of birth and rebirth.
negative, representing humankind’s baser self. Due to the passage of time and the
The image of the bird battling the serpent development of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam
is found from New Guinea to the Americas the myth of the archetypal goddess has largely
and symbolizes the eternal struggle of the sky, vanished from human consciousness; however,
Earth, and waters. Finally, the tao t’ieh, or some still recognize her symbols, and the
highly stylized face that appears on the bronze worship of the Virgin Mary remains a partial
vessels of Ancient China, re-emerges in the link with these beliefs. As people have become
gargoyles of European cathedrals and in the increasingly disengaged from the natural world,
motifs of cultures around the Pacific Rim. so the all-producing and all-nurturing goddess
SIMULTA
T NEOUSLY IS
THAT
A OF THE GODDESS
4
ONCE WE SEE OBJECTS AS REPRESENTING
TRUTHS OR DEEPER ISSUES, WE BEGIN TO
DEVELOP AN AWARENESS OF THE DUAL
has been replaced by creator gods, or by a and creation; a lily rising from the mud can
transcendent god who appears detached from be a reminder of purity of spirit; whilst a lamp
the creative process. Male gods, unlike the may signify the light of truth. Seeing objects in
Mother Goddess, control nature. this symbolic way allows us to live more
“harmoniously” by increasing our awareness,
OUI>KHOEJ@=EHUHEBA not only of day-to-day living but also of the
The use and recognition of symbols enriches universal truths of existence.
our lives. Once we see objects as representing
truths or deeper issues, we begin to develop OUI>KHOEJ=NP(
a realization of the dual nature of existence – HEPAN=PQNA(=J@@NA=IO
the inner and outer life – all around us. A simple When used in art, symbolism serves as a visual
ladder, for example, serves both as a tool and language for interpreting a scene; however,
a reminder of the spiritual climb towards symbols once routinely used in Renaissance
self-awareness or a higher truth; a bowl can art are no longer widely recognized, making it
represent the receptive feminine principle harder to understand the hidden meaning of
EJPNK@Q?PEKJ
5
...DREAM SYMBOLISM IS INTERPRETED
AS REFLECTING THE WORKINGS OF THE
UNCONSCIOUS MIND
a painting. In Christian art, for example, birds and surroundings make up his or her own
were a well known attribute of St. Francis, as unique “thumbprint”, often painted in the sand.
was the wheel for St. Catherine. Early Buddhist Symbolism occurs in some famous literary
art depicted the Buddha in aniconic form: his works. In The Pilgrim’s Progress, a Christian
body was not shown, but his presence was allegory, Pilgrim represents everyman, striving
symbolized by a throne or footprint. to attain union with God. In C. S. Lewis’s Narnia
More generally, the portrayal of water in art stories, Christian allegory also appears in the
might symbolize the unconscious mind or the form of Aslan the lion, who represents Christ.
Primordial waters, while Classical goddesses The symbolic nature of dreams has long
often represent specific virtues such as wisdom. been recognized. Being chased or falling are
In more modern art, objects included do not commonly interpreted as symbolic of an
necessarily mean anything to the viewer but individual’s fears of growing up and facing
have deep resonance for the artist, such as a the responsibilities of adult life. However, it
connection with childhood. Similarly, in the is not just in psychoanalysis that dream
Australian Aboriginal Dreaming, a person’s life symbolism is interpreted as reflecting the
EJPNK@Q?PEKJ
-,
workings of the unconscious mind: many people aspire. This attraction is presumably
societies also recognize its importance. The a response to the deep seated insecurities that
Semai of Malaysia, for example, believed in the we face today.
importance of dream symbolism and trained Other symbols are doom-laden: for example,
themselves to confront symbolic fears while the mushroom cloud over Hiroshima that
dreaming, so that they could then resolve the marked the advent of the atomic bomb, or
underlying fears in their waking life. the collapse of the Twin Towers of New York’s
World Trade Center, both of which represent
OUI>KHOPK@=U our worst fears of annihilation.
While much symbolism has remained
unchanged for millennia, a new form has =BNAODLANOLA?PERA
developed. Today’s culture heroes, such as Wherever we live, we are surrounded by
Superman and Spider-man, are similar to the symbols – if we choose to see them. We can
heroes in ancient creation myths who go through life ignorant of this rich imagery,
performed some heroic deed, such as stealing or we can open our eyes to the deeper truths
fire for humankind or recreating the world inherent in much that surrounds us. For those
after a flood. However, other modern culture interested in exploring the philosophical and
heroes include celebrities, who appeal to the metaphysical, a world filled with symbols
us because of their looks, because they are is infinitely rich and rewarding, leading us to
universally admired, or because their luxurious a greater understanding of ourselves and
lifestyle represents an ideal to which many bringing a fresh perspective to our lives.
EJPNK@Q?PEKJ
--
B
y observing the movement of the As a result, cosmic symbolism is closely bound
Sun, the Moon, stars, and planets, with religion. The Sun, for example, is a
and by noticing the changing universal cosmic symbol for divine power,
seasons, humans have gradually while Buddhists regard fire as the wisdom that
developed a view of the natural burns away all ignorance. To Christians and
rhythm of the Universe. Over milennia, we Hindus water is often symbolic of purification,
have constructed a cosmology that explained and to all the great world religions the
our observations and helped us fit into the heavens are home to the divine.
natural order; we also assigned control of Indeed, the sky and everything in it, from
nature’s forces to gods whom we worshipped. the Moon and stars to thunder and lightning,
This led to a widespread belief that in order is symbolically associated with the divine
to survive all the horrors that the gods could world. Mountains, too, have sacred status
unleash, humans and deities needed to co- because of their proximity to the heavens.
operate with one another. So, people made They each had their gods, goddesses, and
sacrifices and offerings to invoke cosmic supernatural representatives, which varied
harmony – gentle rain for the crops and fair according to culture.
winds for sailors – while natural disasters, Creation myths and myths concerning a
such as devastating droughts, global flood are common to all cultures and
earthquakes, or floods, make use of cosmic symbolism as well as
were invariably blamed themes of divine retribution in order to
on divine retribution. explain the mysteries of the Universe. Such
PDA?KOIKO
-0
symbols were the world in which we live: astronomy and
TO SURVIVE ALL important to early astrology, for example, evolved from ancient
THE HORRORS societies because times when people used cosmic symbolism to
THAT THE GODS they helped people explain why planets moved across the sky, or
COULD UNLEASH, to live in a more why stars formed constellations. Seasonal and
HUMANS AND harmonious way, cosmic symbolism, too, are often intertwined,
DEITIES NEEDED and also to as measurements of time have always been
TO CO-OPERATE understand and based on the daily and seasonal movements
WITH ONE strive towards of the Sun and the Moon.
ANOTHER their divine Despite the many discoveries of modern
enlightenment. science, cosmic symbolism remains relevant
Early science to many people throughout the world and
tried to establish symbolic links with the four continues to colour our language. Celebrities
main constituents of the cosmos, namely earth, are “stars”; many national flags bear cosmic
fire, water, and air. Air and fire were regarded symbols, such as the Sun and the Moon,
as symbolically masculine and active, while indicating divine rule and power; precious
earth and water were feminine and passive; stones, particularly birthstones, are still
achieving a balance between the elements was imbued with symbolic meaning; and astrology
seen as the foundation for cosmic harmony. remains as popular as ever. Even today, we
Signs and symbols have played a vital role still try to find meaning in our world through
in broadening our scientific understanding of signs and symbols.
EJPNK@Q?PEKJ
-1
THE SUN
Most cultures have at some time
worshipped the Sun as the supreme
cosmic power – the life-force that
enables all things to thrive and
grow. As the source of heat, the
Sun symbolizes vitality, passion,
and youth. As the source of light, it
represents enlightenment. It is also
an emblem of royalty and empire.
In some traditions the Sun is the
Universal Father. Its rising and settin
symbolizes birth, death, and resurrec
?EN?HEJCPDA A=NPD
The winter and summer solstices mark the
represents the Sun’s authority
shortest and longest days of the year and have abundant peak, although it also marks the Sun’s over the four compass points
inspired myths and festivals worldwide. The waning power; druids welcomed the summer (north, south, east, and west)
winter solstice symbolizes the victory of light solstice at dawn. Both solstices are marked and was used ceremonially.
It originates from the Bella
over darkness, or the end of one cycle and the with fire, representing the Sun’s warmth and Coola or Nuxalk tribe
beginning of a new cycle of light and growth. also fertility. of British Columbia.
The dawn
Dawn is a symbol of hope, joy,
and youth. It represents birth,
new beginnings, and freshness.
In Christianity it is a symbol of
resurrection. Often it is used
to symbolize the dawn
Vessels scattering sparks
of the world or
of fire to light the dawn
humankind, and
is therefore also
associated with
PDA?KOIKO
Stonehenge solstice
Britain’s most potent symbol Eos
of the summer solstice, The personification of youth,
Stonehenge in Wiltshire, hope, and awakening, Eos,
has been a focus for pagan goddess of the dawn, was
celebration for thousands of worshipped in Ancient Greece.
years. People gather there to Her fingers symbolized the
greet the dawn as it rises pastel fingers of dawn stealing
-2
2 over the Heel Stone on across the sky, and she was
midsummer’s day. adorned with morning dew.
CK@O=J@HACAJ@O
Much symbolism is associated with the Sun in
cultures around the world. Usually personified
as masculine, it was regarded as female in certain
cultures, including Japan and some American
Indian tribes. The most elaborate Sun cults were
those of Egypt, Central America, and Peru. The
Sun is seen as a benign,
fertilizing force, as
well as a fiery Phaeton Phoenix
destroyer. In Greek mythology the journey of the Sun across the sky is A universal symbol of death,
represented as a chariot driven by the Sun god, Helios, travelling rebirth, and the Sun, the
across the heavens. His son, Phaeton, drove the chariot recklessly and mythological phoenix is usually
Apollo was only stopped when Helios threw a lightning bolt, killing Phaeton. portrayed as an eagle-like bird
The Greek god rising from the flames.
Apollo brought life-
giving light to Earth. Dung ball
Portrayed as
vigorously youthful
and golden-haired, he
was associated with
Helios, the god who drove
the Sun’s chariot across the sky.
Compasses
LKSAN=J@PDAOQJ Sun-head, symbol of day
The Sun has been portrayed as the symbolic Sun King
centre of the cosmos. This most brilliant of the Louis XIV of France claimed
the solar symbol as his emblem,
celestial bodies is a symbol of royalty and imperial and became known as the Sun Freemasonry
splendour. The Chinese regard the Sun as an King. He was famous for the In Freemasonry the Sun
splendour of his lifestyle. Key represents divine love, while
imperial Yang symbol. The Japanese use it as gold signifies benificence of
represents
a national emblem, and believed their the heart God, both of which are
emperors were directly descended associated with Masonic
beliefs about charity. The
from the Sun goddess, Amaterasu. High Altar bears a red cloth
emblazoned with solar symbols.
This image shows a member
PDAOQJ
of a Masonic lodge composed
of the tools of his trade and is
HQJ=NEJBHQAJ?A
The Moon’s cyclical journey through the heavens The shadows created by craters on the surface of the Moon have
fascinated people throughout history and have been the inspiration
and its constantly evolving form provided early for myths and stories around the world.
societies with a powerful symbol for the cycle of
human life. From crescent to full Moon, its forms
were each attributed a special significance, as
were lunar eclipses. In addition to influencing HE FULL MOON
the tides, weather, and life in general, the Moon Lunar eclipse
was credited with ruling over human destiny. Worldwide, cultures have The full Moon shares the symbolism of the
developed myths about eclipses.
circle as an image of wholeness and strength.
Many believe they are omens of
natural disasters or a ruler’s The Chinese associate it with the essence
death. Certain Asian cultures of Yin and the ffeminine; to Buddhists it
thought eclipses were caused
represents spiritual power. The Harvest Moon
by a demon or dragon
swallowing the Moon. (aa full Moon near the
th September equinox)
symbolizes
mbolizes agricultural fertility. The word
Waxing and waning “lunatic” comes
ome from the Latin for moon, luna,
The cyclical waxing and waning of the Moon and originally
lly meant “Moonstruck”.
“Moonst The full
PDA?KOIKO
WERE-JAGUAR
Twin sister of the Greek Sun god, Apollo, Artemis
merged with Moon goddesses, Selene and Hecate.
Artemis, virginal hunting goddess, is the New
Moon, mature Selene is the full Moon, and
mysterious Hecate the dark side of the Moon.
Chang E
The Chinese goddess, Chang E,
is the Eastern version of the
“Man in the Moon”. Offerings
are made to her at the annual Ixchel
Moon Festival. Ixchel is the Maya
Moon goddess. WERE-WOLF
A mother goddess
PDAIKKJ
who controls the life-
giving rains, she has WERE-FOX
both nurturing and
destructive qualities.
4
3
1
6
5
1. Mercury
Named after the messenger god, Mercury is linked to reason,
commerce, Wednesday, and the metal quicksilver.
2. Venus
Named after the goddess of love, Venus is associated with sexuality,
desire, rebirth, and happiness. It is linked with Friday and copper.
3. Mars
Personified by a forceful male, Mars symbolizes violence,
passion, fire, and bravery. Its day is Tuesday, and its metal iron.
4. Jupiter
Symbolic of balance and justice, Jupiter is associated with
Thursday and the metal tin.
5. Saturn
Represented by a bearded elderly man, Saturn is about morality,
melancholy, and rigidity. It is symbolic of Saturday and lead.
6. Planets as signs
As well as illustrating the planets as gods in his depiction
of the cosmos, Cellarius also included the sign associated with
each planet. Such signs are utilized in both astrology and alchemy.
.-
THE NIGHT SKY
T
The awe-inspiring mystery and infinity and aspiration. Astronomy and astrology
of space has held sway over humans for evolved from ancient times when observers
thousands of years. Stars and planets – noticed the wanderings of the planets across
shining like beacons in the dark – were the night sky, and saw patterns (constellations)
associated with supernatural forces in the stars. Star symbols are used on flags,
symbolizing guidance, divine influence, in religion, and to denote celebrity.
OP=NO
Representing divine guidance, guardianship, MODERN STAR
TARS
and hope, stars are hugely important symbols.
Scorpio
American Indians believed that they represented Today stars are often used to symbolize our
the campfires of their ancestors, and other hopes and wishes. They are also associated
cultures thought they were gateways to Heaven with celebrity, and famous people are labelled
labell
or angelic messengers of the gods. In Christianity as “stars”. Stars are frequently
uently used on
o flags,
the Star of Bethlehem heralded the birth of and rows of stars are a markk of quality.
q The
Christ, and some saints are depicted with a first flag to use the five-pointed
five-poin star was that
star in Christian art. In heraldry the star is the off the newly formed USA in 1777.
ensign of knightly rank. The zodiac is made
up of 12 star signs.
Constellations
A constellation is a grouping of
stars that forms a recognizable
pattern. There are 88 known
groups named after characters
from classical mythology. TEXAS FLAG, THE LONE-STAR
T STA
TATE
Five-pointed star
Known as a pentagram, a five-pointed star drawn upwards symbolizes
aspiration, the spiritual world, and education; Christians see it as a
symbol of Christ as “Alpha and Omega” (first and last). When
inverted, the pentagram signifies the devil.
Male principle
PDA?KOIKO
Six-pointed star
Known as a hexagram or the AUSTRALIAN FLAG
Star of David in Judaism, this
star is formed from two Hollywood stars
triangles, symbols of the male The Hollywood Walk
and female principles. It is a of Fame in Los Angeles,
Shooting stars iss embedded with
symbol for the link between Representing sparks of heavenly
Heaven and Earth and represents more than 2,000 stars,
fire, shooting stars were a sign each bearing the name
the union of opposites and of divinity. They acted as
creation. The symbol is also of a celebrity who has
heavenly messengers, reminding made an impact on the
known as the Seal of Solomon,
.. Female
after a design on a ring owned
people of the existence of a entertainment
ainment industry.
industry
principle higher life. Seen as a good
by the prophet King Solomon. omen, they also signified birth.
OP=NCK@O
Heavenly symbols are linked to royalty and
governance and indicate the divine presence.
Early cultures believed that the stars influenced
human life, often as divinities. Many stories are
told about the symbolism of stars and there are
numerous gods and goddesses associated with
them. Stars also formed the crowns of several of Star and crescent
the world’s major fertility goddesses, including Ishtar Virgin Mary The crescent emblem of
The five-pointed star was the As Queen of Heaven, the Islam signifies divine authority
Ishtar from Babylon, and the Virgin Mary. and resurrection and, in
emblem of the Sumerian fertility Virgin Mary is shown wearing
goddess, Ishtar, in her warrior a crown of stars. She is also conjunction with a five-pointed
Isis and Osiris aspect as the morning star. associated with the six-pointed star, Paradise.
The Egyptian goddess of fertility Marian Star.
and motherhood, Isis, was the
wife of Osiris, Lord of the Dead, Pole Star
whose soul inhabited the star In Ancient Egypt the soul of a
Orion. She was symbolized by dead pharaoh was thought to
the star Sirius, which heralded inhabit the Pole Star. It was also
the annual flooding of the Nile, linked with the god Seth and
bringing renewed prosperity the Phoenician god Baal Sapon.
Osiris and fertility to the country;
Sirius’s appearance also marked
Maori doorway decoration
Isis the beginning of the new year.
According to Maori beliefs, the
star warded off evil. It was also
linked with going into battle.
OGU)S=P?DEJC
In primitive cultures sky-watching was an
important part of life, and celestial phenomena
were considered highly significant. When these
coincided with events on Earth, they evolved
into omens. Many myths and superstitions are
associated with the aurora from which the
dragon legends of the West and China are
believed to have originated. St. Elmo’s Fire,
a continuous electric spark that occurs during
thunderstorms, was regarded by sailors as an
omen of divine intervention. The Maya thought
that the Milky Way was a great white serpent
writhing across the night sky.
Cihuacoatl
The Aztec goddess of Bryce Canyon
the Earth and childbirth, In Bryce Canyon, Utah, erosion
Cihuacoatl, devoured has created distinctive pillars
the dead to sustain the and spires within a spectacular
living. Her name means Demeter amphitheatre of red rock. The C
“Snake Woman” and The Greek Earth goddess is American Indian Paiute believed A goddess of nature and fertility,
she is sometimes associated with harvest, grain, that these pinnacles were the Cybele was worshipped in Rome
depicted holding a and with teaching humans how Legend People, turned to stone in the form of a stone, having
child in her arms. Her to sow and plough. As a fertility by the trickster Coyote. been born from a black rock
roar signalled war. goddess, Demeter is sometimes hurled from the heavens.
identified with Gaia.
H=J@O?=LAO
Whatever our relationship with the land, it is bound up with identity,
nationhood, and life itself. The Earth’s varied landscapes are rich in
symbolism and meaning that reflect the origins, religious beliefs,
and rituals of the people who live in them.
Mount Fuji
An iconic symbol of
Japan, Mount Fuji is
regarded as sacred in
both Shinto and Buddhism. Hindu earthquakes
Thousands of people make an In one Hindu interpretation
annual pilgrimage to its summit. of the cosmos, the Earth was
One meaning of the name “Fuji” carried by four male elephants
is “deity of fire”. standing on a female tortoise,
representing the two creative PDAA=NPD
powers. It was their movement
Volcano goddess that set off earthquakes.
The Ancient Hawaiian volcano
goddess, Pele, was volatile and
capricious and lived in the SEE ALSO
craters of the Big Island’s Reptiles & amphibians
pp.64–65
Kilauea Volcano. She caused
Aquatic creatures pp.68–71
earthquakes by stamping her
Fertility & childbirth pp.120–23
feet and volcanic eruptions by Greek & Roman deities
digging with her magic stick. pp.140–41
Hinduism pp.158–63 .1
Tribal totems, heroes &
tricksters pp.150–51
UEJ)U=JC
H=J@O?=LA
Chinese landscape painting has
been a major art form since the
T’ang dynasty (618–907CE). At
a time of political unrest such
paintings symbolized the peace
and tranquillity of our union
with nature, and a human figure
is often set against the backdrop
of mountains and water. Each
element of the painting is
symbolic and the whole
signifies order and harmony.
2
3
1 4
3. United elements
Taoists believe in a mystic sense of cosmic
brotherhood that unites all the elements. As
the philosopher Chuang Tzu put it, “Heaven
and Earth and I live together, and all things
and I are one”. Here the dominant mountain
is flanked by lesser mountains, and larger or
smaller rocks and trees symbolize the belief
that all elements within nature are related.
4. Human figure
People are often included in Chinese
landscapes. Their size emphasizes the fact
that humans are a small part of a vast cosmic
creation. The figure shown here could be
meditating or thinking; if men and women do
not follow their proper wisdom, the whole
cosmic order is damaged.
.3
Shen Zhou, Figure Sitting on a Riverbank
PDA?KOIKO
Mount Sumeru
.
.4 Hindus and Buddhists regard the mythological Mount Sumeru, or
Meru, as representing the centre of the universe. It is often found,
as above, in Tibetan mandalas, used to aid meditation.
MOUNTAINS
As near to Heaven as you can get on Earth, mountains are revered,
sometimes feared, and regarded as sacred by the world’s religions.
Mount of Olives
In the Bible Jesus was said to have They are often associated with gods, spirits, and prophets.
ascended to Heaven from the Mount
of Olives outside Jerusalem.
Mountains command attention. Towering over us, their peaks CK@O =J@ LNKLDAPO
often wreathed in cloud, they stand apart from our daily Mountains have long been associated with biblical revelations,
existence: remote, challenging, and mysterious. Seen as the prophets, gods (especially Sun and weather gods), and heroes.
embodiment of cosmic forces and life, for early cultures Mount Olympus was the home of the Classical Greek gods,
mountains represented the Earth’s from where they ruled the world and
spiritual centre and axis at the point human affairs. Moses climbed to the top
where it joins Heaven: a divine meeting of Mount Sinai to receive the Ten
place for God and humans in a space and Commandments from God. Legend has it
time apart. Men built temples in the shape that the Prophet Muhammad turned the
of mountains to represent the spiritual immutability of mountains into an
ascent of the soul. allegory for humility when he ordered
Mount Safa to move.
O=?NA@LH=?AO The American Indian Navajo thought
High places have always been associated Mexican temple certain mountains embodied important
with sacred quests and are a symbol of These four-sided, mountain-like structures had stairs nature spirits, while in Mexico Mount
going up one or more sides, and flat tops where
spiritual transcendence, purity, and even sacrifices took place. Old temples were not destroyed Tlaloc was thought to personify an Aztec
eternity. Climbing a mountain is arduous, but simply built over so that they became many-layered. fertility and rain god.
the air becomes thinner, causing breathing For the Ancient Egyptians mountains
difficulties and hallucinations. Conquering the summit is a represented Earth’s desire for sky. They showed the body of
supreme achievement, and the view from the top offers sky goddess, Nut, curved over that of her lover. The upward-
a fresh perspective. This can be likened to a spiritual thrusting mountain symbolizes this physical desire. This belief
journey, at the summit of which the pure- is similar to the Chinese idea that a mountain’s phallic shape
hearted attain enlightenment. makes it a masculine or Yang symbol signifying life.
Many mountains are considered sacred. In
China there are nine sacred mountains that PAILHAO =J@PSEJ IKQJPO
Buddhists venerate. Some mountains, Temples built in the shape of mountains, such as those
such as Croag Patrick in Ireland or in Asia, Central America, and Mesopotamia, represent the
Mount Fuji in Japan, inspire people to cosmic centre. Their terraces are associated with both spiritual
climb them. Such sacred pilgrimages ascent and gateways to Heaven. The Egyptian pyramids have IKQJP=EJO
represent aspiration, renunciation of similar cosmological significance. Mountains with twin
worldly desires, and enlightenment; summits are regarded as either the seat of astral or solar
spritually, mountain peaks are linked to divinities or, as in China, Sumeria, and the Hebrew mountains
the state of full consciousness. of Sinai and Horeb, the seat of the Sun and the Moon.
BENACK@O
Fire is associated with the space above us: it
comes from the sky in the form of the Sun or
lightning, and smoke drifts up to the heavens.
It is easy to see why this all-powerful element,
both violent and beneficent, was attributed to
the gods. The worship or deification of fire is
known from many religions and dates back to
early humans. Fire gods feature in cultures
around the globe. The Greeks and Romans had
gods of both the forge and the hearth.
Chantico
The Aztec goddess of volcanoes
and the hearth, Chantico had a
PDA?KOIKO
BENA?ANAIKJEAO
Its associations with regeneration, purification, and the divine ensured DIVINE FLAME
that fire played a ceremonial part in many different cultures and religions.
It had a central role in the sacrificial rites of the Aztecs, who ritually burned Fire is an important feature in m many religions.
tobacco and incense, along with body parts. Among Zoroastrians, who In Christianity Hell is associated
sociated with fire and
traditionally worship in fire temples, it represents the energy of the Creator. some saints are depicted withwit flaming hearts.
Other cultures, such as the North American Indians, used fire in their In Christiann churches cand
candles represent God’s
purification ceremonies and vision quests. presence, hope, and life.
ife. Old Testament storiess
tell of the burning bush.
s
FLAM
AMING HEART BURNING BUSH
SH
In China the noise of fire Zoroastrian temples house Azztec priests heralded potential
SEE ALSO
crackers at New Year is the sacred fire, a symbol of the world destruction every 52
The Sun pp.16–17 Hinduism pp.158–63
designed to scare away evil gods. This is kept constantly years by dousing all fires and
Egyptian deities pp.138–39 Colours pp.280–83
spirits and misfortune. It also alight by priests; worshippers lighting a new fire within the Greek & Roman deities
awakens the golden dragon wear white linen masks to chest cavity of a human pp.140–41 /-
so that it flies across the sky, prevent their breath from sacrificial victim, symbolizing Meso- & South American
bringing rain for the crops. contaminating it. that out of sacrifice came life. deities pp.144–45
WATER
Water constantly changes shape and stagnant, stormy, or deep, each with its own
transforms. Symbolically it is feminine and symbolism. Although water is passive, it
associated with the Moon and, as the origin is influenced by the weather and can destroy,
of all life, with fertility. It may appear as rain dissolve, wash away, or regenerate. It is also
or snow, as a raging torrent or placid lake. It a source of purification and healing in
also has various states, such as running, many religions.
PDA OA=
Regarded as symbolically maternal, the sea’s depths represent the Earth’s WATER AND WORSHIP
womb. All life sprang from its primordial waters, as reflected in the creation
myths of numerous cultures. Often seen as mysterious, the sea also Water is central to many of
represents the unconscious mind, while deep waters have a symbolism the world’s religions. In
related to the dead and the supernatural. There are many gods, spirits, and Christian baptism,
monsters associated with the sea and with natural phenomena such as pictured
c here, it
whirlpools and tsunamis. symbolizes
purification and the
purifica
washing away of
was
original sin. In Hinduism
H
water is also used to
wate
bathe and purify ritual
ba
images
ma of the divine.
Charybdis
The daughter of Poseidon, Charybdis
became a sea monster when Zeus stole her
body, leaving only a mouth that became a
Waves whirlpool. In mythology Charybdis occupied
Constantly driving forward through peaks and troughs, waves one side of a narrow strait, while Scylla,
represent both constancy and changeability; people speak of another sea monster, took the other. Sailors
waves of joy or sadness. Tidal waves symbolize destruction and navigating the strait too close to one side or
regeneration; in dreams they may mean a fear of change. the other risked death.
NERANO
River symbolism is based around running water
and reflects the creative power of nature and
time. It signifies fertility and soil irrigation, giving
life along its banks, yet is also a metaphor for the
passage of time – a river flows from its source
to the sea, as life flows from birth to death. A Four rivers of Paradise Styx Ganga
river can also symbolize a barrier between two The Bible’s Rivers of Paradise In Greek mythology the River Representing the sacred water
flowed out in the cardinal Styx formed the boundary of the River Ganges, the Hindu
realms, Life and Death. Great rivers are given directions from the roots of between Earth and Hades. goddess, Ganga, is shown
personalities and many are considered sacred. the Tree of Life. Their waters Legends feature the ferryman, sitting on a makara, a
Numerous cultures have river gods and spirits. symbolized life and nourishment. Charon, who took the dead combination of fish and
across the River Acheron, which crocodile, denoting fertility and
flowed into the Styx. the wisdom of land and sea.
Spring
Springs like this one in Bali
are often attributed with
healing or magical powers.
Often towns were built around
springs and their name may
reflect this. Bath, in England,
is one example of a town that
grew around a hot spring.
Hapi Waterfall
The Egyptian god of the Nile Buddhists believe that
floods, Hapi, was portrayed as waterfalls represent the
a man with a prominent belly, “permanent impermanence”
indicating the fertility of the of the universe, which is partly
land through flooding. why they play an important role
in Chinese and Japanese
landscape painting. In Shinto
Delta waterfalls are held sacred and
A delta is symbolic of death and standing under one is thought
journey’s end, marking a river’s long to purify the soul.
meanderings from its source all the
way down to where it spills into
the sea.
Sacred lake
A sacred lake was central to most Ancient SEE ALSO
Egyptian temples. Pictured is the Temple of Egyptian deities pp.138–39
Amon at Karnak. The sacred lake was used for Greek & Roman deities pp.140–41
a daily ritual during which a goose, symbol of Hinduism pp.158–63
Amon himself, was freed at sunrise. Buddhism pp.164–69 //
Taoism & Shinto pp.170–71
Witches & wicca pp.192–93
THE WEATHER
Changes in the weather have a fundamental gods, and blamed folklore personifications
impact on humans and can sometimes create such as the North Wind for cold weather. As
life or death situations. People have long well as being linked with divine retribution
associated these vagaries and supernatural powers, the weather is also
with the whims of the associated with benign forces and creativity.
PDQJ@AN(HECDPJEJC(=J@OPKNIO
Ryujin Storms are often associated with warrior gods and supreme deities.
Ryujin is the most important of Thunder was seen in many cultures as the creative power and harbinger
the Rajin, Japanese weather
gods. He is usually portrayed as of vital, fertilizing rain. In Bible stories it represented God’s voice, while
a demon, forming mists and lightning delivered fecundity and illumination. A thunderbolt was the
black rain clouds, and beating weapon of choice for the Greek god, Zeus, and the Hindu god of war,
drums to create thunder. He
also devours children’s Indra. The Thunderbird of American Indian belief represents the Universal
bellybuttons. Spirit and is linked with war.
Shango
Sacred to Nigeria’s Yoruba
people, Shango is a god of
thunder and lightning. His
symbol is the oshe, a double-
headed axe representing the
stone thunderbolts he hurls
from the sky.
Shiva Thor
In Hinduism lightning or Thor is the red-haired and bearded god of
destructive fire is the third thunder and war in Nordic mythology. Often
eye on the forehead of Shiva. portrayed wielding a hammer or thunderbolt, his
It symbolizes divine force, chariot was pulled across the sky by two goats
Rudra cosmic intelligence, with the unlikely names of Tooth-grinder
The Vedic forerunner of the Hindu god, Shiva, Rudra was a god of enlightenment, and the forces and Tooth-gnasher.
storms and lightning who fired arrows of disease, but who also of destruction and regeneration.
/0 brought good health and performed good deeds. His name means One of his weapons is a trident,
“Howler” or “Red One” and he personifies untamed nature. representing lightning.
PDASEJ@O Greek wind gods
In modern times wind has become a symbol In Greek myth Aeolus, chief god
of the directional winds, kept
of change and freedom, but traditionally it is the winds in a cave and ruled
linked with the four compass points, the over the four gods. Often shown
gods, and even demons. Its role in pollination BOREAS (NORTH WIND) EURUS (EAST WIND) as winged men with puffed
cheeks, each wind brought
also makes wind a sexual symbol. The Apache different weather conditions,
American Indians believed that the whorls from light spring breezes to cold
on the fingertips represented the wind’s path winter winds.
as it entered the body at creation. In China
wind is associated with rumour, a symbolism
linked to hunting and “getting wind”
of a scent. ZEPHYRUS (WEST WIND) NOTUS (SOUTH WIND)
?HKQ@O=J@IEOP
The symbolism of weather conditions from good luck and happiness. In some cultures
wispy mists to brooding storm banks can be clouds are associated with gloom; people also
varied. Rain clouds are linked with fecundity, link being out of touch with reality as having
hence the reference “pregnant with rain”. In one’s head “in the clouds”. Mist is often
Judeo-Christian tradition they can indicate God’s associated with supernatural intervention,
presence, while in China pink clouds symbolize especially in Chinese landscape painting. Divine presence
Their heavenly associations
have symbolically linked clouds
to divine presence; in Christian
PDASA=PDAN
iconography God is often
shown as a hand emerging
from a cloud.
SEE ALSO
Fertility & childbirth
pp.120–23
Celtic & Nordic deities
The indeterminate The steeds of Valkyrie pp.142–43
Fog and mist are commonly used to symbolize the indeterminate, In Greek mythology clouds represented the flocks of the god Apollo. Nature spirits pp.148–49
or the state that comes before revelation. Taoists link fog to the state In Nordic legend, however, they are the steeds of the Valkyrie, the god Creation stories pp.156–57
humans must pass through before enlightenment, like the mental Odin’s handmaidens who hovered over battlefields, escorting the slain
Christianity pp.176–79 /1
Angels pp.188–89
fog that precedes clarity of thought. to Valhalla (Paradise).
RAIN & SNOW
All precipitation, whether it comes as rain, and myth, while rainbows combine both
hail, snow, or dew, is associated with water solar and water symbolism. Due to its
symbolism, and both life and death. It can heavenly origin, precipitation is associated
result in destruction or generation. As rain, with gods of the sky. Human survival
it represents fertility, while dew signifies a depended on cooperation between gods and
blessing. As ice and snow, its links with cold humans, so that the weather’s unpredictable
and impermanence are reflected in folklore and often violent power could be controlled.
N=EJB=HH
Rain has always been an important symbol of
fecundity and in certain primitive cultures it is
linked with divine semen. It is also associated
with purification. For thousands of years people
believed that the sky gods determined whether
to withhold rain, unleash it with terrifying force,
or release a gentle shower. Various rituals were
carried out to invoke rainfall, and rain was
associated with certain animals such as
dragons, dogs, and Torrential rain
even parrots. When cold, penetrating rain
pours down in torrents, it can
Dragon bring misery and suffering as
In China dragons were associated with the weather and were thought well as being a divine blessing.
to be rain-bringers; some of the country’s worst floods were attributed Heavy rain shares its symbolism
to humans upsetting a dragon. Chinese dragons were believed to with that of storms and the
Rain control water, vital for crops. In contrast, western dragons control fire. wrath of the gods.
dances
Different
interpretations of
rain dances can be found in
many cultures throughout the
world. The American Indian
Cherokee tribe, for example,
performed rain dances to invoke
rain and to banish evil spirits. The stamping
of feet imitates the patter of rain on hard ground.
PDA?KOIKO
Tlaloc
Tlaloc is the Aztec god of
rain and fertility. He was
often depicted wearing a Indra
crown of heron feathers, The Hindu god of thunder,
symbolic of the waters, rain, fertility, and war, Indra,
carrying a rattle to create is often shown seated in his
thunder, and holding heavenly court, Svarga, in the Zeus and Danaë
brimming water pots. clouds wreathing sacred Mount This painting illustrates a story from Greek mythology in which Danaë,
Meru. Indra is shown wielding the human mother of the hero, Perseus, is impregnated by the god,
a thunderbolt in one hand, Zeus, in the form of a shower of coins. It is an erotic symbol of the
/2 symbolizing enlightenment, divine fertility of rain.
destruction, and regeneration.
OJKS=J@E?A Glacier
Not surprisingly, snow and ice symbolism As a huge mass of perennial land
ice that moves forward under its
is almost entirely associated with themes of own weight, a glacier is symbolic
coldness and hardness. There are also references of slow, relentless change. In
to purity and white, pristine beauty. Emotionally, common with ice, it is also
associated with the polluted
snow and ice are linked with rigidity, frigidity, waters of Earth rather than the
brittleness, impermanence, and a general fresh waters of Paradise.
absence of love; expressions such as “icily polite”
are widely used. In contrast, melting ice
represents a hard heart softening.
>NE@CAPKPDADA=RAJO
Elusive, ethereal, and transient, the rainbow has a wide range
of symbolic meanings. It has been seen as a sign of hope, peace,
and divine covenant, an omen of war, an object of worship, and
even fear. Rainbow legends and customs are widespread. The rainbow
is a bridge to the heavens and wisdom is said to lie at its end.
Iris Rainbow body
Rainbow serpent Goddess of the rainbow and In Tibetan tantric Buddhism the
The rainbow serpent of messenger of the Olympian rainbow body is the transitional
Australian Aboriginal myth is gods, Iris is often portrayed as state of enlightenment in which
linked to seasonal shifts and a young woman with golden the practitioner’s body literally
human reliance on water. The wings and a herald’s rod. The disappears and is transformed
monstrous serpent inhabits rainbow represents her path into pure light. This usually
the permanent water holes and between Earth and Heaven. happens after death.
therefore controls life’s most
precious resource.
Crock of gold
N=EJ"OJKS
In Irish folklore the leprechaun
stores a pot of gold at the end
of the rainbow; in the West the
end of the rainbow is linked to Kahukura
finding one’s fortune. The Maori rainbow god, Kahukura, is invoked in war. It is also a
Noah’s Ark
The biblical story of Noah describes
the Flood as God’s punishment for
human sin. Noah, a devout man,
was instructed by God to build an
/
/4 ark, which ultimately survived, and
hee and his family went on to
repopulate the world.
FLOODS
The story of a Great Flood sent by God, or the gods, to destroy
civilization in an act of divine retribution is a widespread theme
in mythology from cultures around the world.
Symbolically, floods represent death and (now southern Iraq) where the Tigris and
regeneration – the end of one cycle and the Euphrates rivers join. This fertile region is
beginning of another. They are associated prone to severe flooding, and geological
with the lunar powers of the waters, fertility, evidence indicates floods may have caused
and new life. They also have links with the significant disruption of several human
washing away of sin and the purification settlements. To ancient cultures, a flood that
of humanity. swamped them would have appeared global,
and spawned explanatory myths.
QJERANO=H PDAIA
Global flood stories are common to almost JKP=>HAAT?ALPEKJO
every civilization around the world, from Areas where ancient cultures benefited from
China and Russia to Sumatra and Peru. annual flooding, such as the Amazon and the
In general terms, they represent the chaos Nile, do not have apocalyptical flood stories.
that results when humans are out of harmony In Egypt the annual Nile floods made the
with nature and the gods. surrounding land extremely fertile, providing
Many are similar to the famous biblical food for the people. The floods were so
flood story about Noah’s ark: they include Matsya myth significant that they created a god, Hapi,
themes such as divine retribution, advance In this Hindu myth, Manu saved Vishnu in the a positive figure who, together with the
form of fish called Matsya, which later warned
warning of a flood, the building of a boat to him of a coming flood; Manu built a boat, pharaoh, was believed to control the rise and
house family and animals, and the release of survived, and re-established life on Earth. fall of the water, bringing fertility to the
birds to determine whether the flood waters region. Without the use of the Nile’s waters
had receded. The stories of Matsya in the Puranaa scriptures for irrigation, Egypt’s civilization would probably never have
of Hinduism, and Utnapishtim in the Babylonian Epic of developed in the sophisticated way that it did.
Gilgamesh are the most familiar
of these myths. Nile inundation
The Nile attracted valuable
game and this 2nd-century BCE
KNECEJO detail of a Nile mosaic shows a
Theories abound about the rhinocerous stranded on a rock
origins of the biblical flood during the annual flood.
story. However, it may have
originated in Mesopotamia
BHKK@O
Yaeyama dancer
On the Yaeyama islands
of Japan traditional
t
dances aree performed to Chinese mooncakes
mooncake
Bacchus Persephone C bring
ng about a successful
successf Mooncakes are eatenen
The Greek god of wine and The goddess Persephone A figure made by plaiting harvest. The
he dances
dance reflect during a Chinese festival
stival to
excess, Bacchus (also known symbolizes the grain, which wheat, the corn dolly is everyday activities. Here celebrate
elebrate the harvest. They
as Dionysus), is associated with comes up each year before associated with Ancient the dancer rides a hobby-
obby may contain egg yolks,
yolk a
the celebrations of the autumn returning to the Earth, in a European harvest customs and horse into
to a mock battle.
batt symbol of the Moon.
Moo
grape harvest. constant cycle of renewal. was used in Celtic fertility rites.
SEJPAN
Winter is the dead time when cold winds howl, many trees are leafless, and
the Earth appears hard and barren. Many cultures have their own stories to
explain the changing of the seasons. In Ancient Greek mythology
phone was abducted and taken to the Underworld,
ng which time the Ear
hing would grow. Eve
des forced her to retur
derworld for several m
every year when the E Boreas
became barren The bringer of the cold North The Ancient Roman writer, DAOA=OKJO
Wind and winter, in Classical Pliny, said of salamanders,“This
again. This period mythology Boreas was feared animal is so intensely cold as to
became winter. due to his destructive potential. extinguish fire ... as ice does.”
The
him and held a festival,
Boreasmi, in his honour.
Winter personified Duck
This Ancient Roman statuette shows The duck is associated with SEE ALSO
a traditional interpretation of winter Isis, Egyptian goddess of the The Moon pp.18–19 Greek & Roman deities
portrayed as an elderly man or woman, dead, and is also traditionally Mammals pp.52–55 pp.140–41
wrapped in a cloak to keep out the cold. linked with winter. The wild Birds pp.58–61 Christianity pp.176–79
0
0-
Often the figure is shown hunched over, duck is also a popular winter Fertility & childbirth pp.120–23
struggling against inclement weather. game bird. Egyptian deities pp.138–39
PRECIOUS STONES
Precious and semi-precious stones flash with colou
light. The fact that they come from the Earth links
with divine energy as symbols of spiritual power a
purity; some were credited with powers of healing
and protection. They have been used for centuries
to signify status. Transparent stones are linked
with divination, while red ones indicate ardour
and vitality. Some stones are linked to birth
months and some have their own associations.
Crystal
Symbolic of purity, traditionally,
crystals are important in magic
– hence crystal balls and
folk tales of magical crystal
slippers. Their reputed ability
to store and transmit energy
makes them a healing and
meditation tool.
Lapis lazuli Onyx Moonstone
A blue stone with celestial Black stones are reputed to With its pale iridescence,
symbolism, lapis lazuli have protective energies. the moonstone has long been
represents power, wisdom, Onyx was traditionally worn associated with the Moon and B IRTHSTONES
and inner strength. It was to deflect negativity and lovers. Its links with fertility
believed to enhance psychic symbolizes heightened senses, induced Arabian women to Certain stones are associated with different
abilities and insight. It is also self-confidence, and spiritual sew them into their robes.
months of the year and are thought to bring
a friendship stone. strength. It is also linked with Moonstones are also reputed
conjugal happiness and sincerity. to balance menstrual cycles. luck or influence to those born in those
months. Thee seselection varies, but a popular
version is: Garnet (January); Amethyst
(February); Aquamarine
amar (March); Diamond
(April);
pril); Emerald (May); Moonstone (June);
Ruby (July); Peridot
Per (August); Sapphire
(September);
er); Opal
al (O
Octobe
ctober); Topaz
(November); and Turquoise (December).
Aquamarine Peridot
A popular gemstone since The ancients believed that An emblem of fame, strength, Turquoise
Tur necklace
LNA?EKQOOPKJAO
the Bronze Age, the garnet is the energy of the sea was and energy, the peridot is the Turquoise (December) is
Turquo
protective, repelling negativity, contained within the birthstone for those born in traditionally
na associated
guarding against depression, aquamarine so sailors wore the August. In Hawaiian mythology with good luck and
and inspiring courage. It is stones to protect them in heavy peridot represents the tears of the promotion of
also traditionally thought to seas. Aquamarine is associated Pele, their volcano goddess. friendship. Its
symbolize energy, devotion, with creativity, communication, bright colour
ur is also
and fidelity. self-awareness, and confidence. thought to enhance
self-confidence.
Inner radiance
Cut and faceted gemstones, such as this
topaz, reveal their inner beauty and
radiance. Symbolically, the process of
working the stone reflects the gradual SEE ALSO
perfection of the spirits and progress Dragons pp.78–79
towards divine wisdom, and represents Love & marriage pp.126–27
the soul released from the base confines Amulets pp.194–95 0/
of the human body. Royalty pp.216–17
Jewellery pp.254–55
PDA?KOIKO
Pearls
Pearls are among the gemstones embellishing
this 12th-century Byzantine crown, below.
Symbolizing royalty, justice, wisdom, and
purity, they were once exclusive to royalty.
Representing perfection in Islamic and Hindu
philosophies, pearls have long been a status
symbol and have adorned rulers throughout
the world.
Johannes Vermeer’s portrait, Girl with a
Pearl Earring, (right),) perfectly illustrates this
luminous symbol of purity. Much prized as a
sign of wealth, the pearl also represents the
Moon, femininity, and spiritual wisdom. To
the Chinese, pearls symbolically combine
fire and water.
Amber
Actually a fossilized sap from
prehistoric trees, amber was
traditionally regarded as a talisman
for travellers. To early Christians it
represented divine presence, while durability. Many cultures
in China amber symbolizes courage or regarded iron smelting as
the soul of the tiger. It was also used spiritual, the forming of a
to combat ailments such as arthritis. object through smelting l
to a symbolic birth.
Silver
This Byzantine cup is made
silver, which is linked to the
Moon, Moon goddesses suc
Diana, and queens. It signifi
chastity, purity, wisdom, and
light of hope. In Ancient Egy
people thought that the god
were made of silver. Used a
it also symbolizes wealth.
1,
tea and coffee, a “language of flowers”, which survives today;
LITERALLY AND are connected to red roses, for example, remain a widely
SYMBOLICALLY, hospitality and recognized symbol of love and passion.
PLANTS AND ritual. Fruit – the In common with other plant life, trees are
ANIMALS HAVE culmination of a associated with fertility and the cycle of life, but
FUNDAMENTALLY plant’s productive their large size and longevity inspire additional
INFLUENCED THE powers – is associated themes of shelter, permanence, and immortality.
WAY WE VIEW with immortality Many were worshipped and the vast cosmic
THE WORLD because, although it tree was thought to link Earth, Heaven, and the
has reached the end underworld; other sacred trees are usually
of one cycle, it regionally significant, such as the life-sustaining
contains the seeds for eternal renewal. date palm in the Middle East.
A vast number of plants are used in healing, Most plant symbolism is positive but where
while others are hallucinogens, poisons, or nature appears “untamed”, as in woods and
stimulants, which early societies regarded as forests, psychological elements come into play
magical, and which have a marked effect on that spawn a darker symbolism. As a dark and
our mental and physical well-being. Many dangerous place in which one can easily get
plants are also fragrant or colourful, giving lost, the forest serves as a powerful metaphor
them an emotional resonance. The fleeting for the transition to adulthood. Even today, we
beauty of flowers symbolizes the glory and still try to find meaning in our world through
brevity of youth and there has also evolved signs and symbols.
EJPNK@Q?PEKJ
1-
MAMMALS
Since earliest times the lives of humans and with a human quality. Hunter-gatherers
animals have been intertwined, providing a respected and sometimes revered animals as
rich source of symbolism. Animals have been being part of the natural world, which they
worshipped as gods, linked with good sacred. To access their instinctual
luck, and seen as sources of power an ecific animals were adopted as
wisdom. Many are symbolically assoc
Coyote
In American Indian culture the wily
coyote, shown here as a warrior’s mask,
is seen as a tric
tea
bot
bet
Racoon
A favourite in American Indian
folklore, the racoon is a trickst
and symbolizes mischief, dexte
and adaptability. Its mask-like
face represents an ability to
assume disguise.
Coat of arms
Cerberus Depicted on a coat of arms,
As guardian
guardia of the the dog symbolizes courage,
gateway
way to the spirit
sp vigilance,
e and loyalty. Commonly
world, Cerberus,
s, the featured breeds are
three-headed
r the
he greyhound
watchdog of Greek and mastiff.
myth, symbolizes
guardianship of the Tombstone
mbstone
secret knowledge of Many cultures regard dogs as
death and resurrection. faithful
hful companions, even
eve in death.
They
ey are often carved in postures of
steadfast watchfulness on tombs.bs.
Kan
An em
forwar
its cou
ability
water a
An important animal in energy
shama Hare
American Indian myth, this ar symbol, the rabbit The hare is a trickster, hero,
master builder signifies industry represe
to the A ncient links with fertility or fertility symbol associated
I=II=HO
and perseverance, as well as birth. Its alertness, with the Moon. In Europe
home and family. In Christian the kan
and a t , and timidity made it it was a witch’s companion;
symbolism the beaver stian symbol of vigilance, in the East, it was a previous
represents chastit g temptation. incarnation of the Buddha.
Hedgehog
The hedgehog ALSO
was an American d trees pp.96–97 The dreaming pp.152–53
Indian symbol of Shamanism pp.154–55
self-preservation.
ead pp.106–09
ty & childbirth pp.120–23 Chinese horoscope pp.204–05
1/
However, Christians associated it with evil an totems, heroes
witches took on hedgehog form to suckle mil cksters pp.150–51
Hippopotamus Goat
In Ancient Egypt, where it wallowed in the fertile A masculine symbol associated with lust and
mud of the Nile, the hippopotamus symbolized fertility, the goat also represents agility; the
rebirth and rejuvenation. Tawaret, goddess of climbing goat signifies determination. The goat
childbirth and protection, was shown as a pregnant is linked to the Ancient Greek gods, Pan,
y hippo, while the red hippo was associated with Dionysus, and Zeus.
of prayer. disharmony and the god, Seth.
Ox
The ox, shown here being
ridden by Lao Tzu, the founder
of Taoism, represents toil,
strength, and wealth. To
Christians it is the yoke of
Christ, while Buddhists see
the white ox as a symbol
of contemplative wisdom.
Cow Pig
A symbol of maternal nourishment, the cow is seen The pig is associated with the Mother Goddess,
as a personification of Mother Earth. Both lunar representing fertility and prosperity, but is also
and astral, its crescent horns represent the Moon, associated with selfishness and ignorance. Jews
and its milk the stars of the Milky Way. and Muslims regard the pig as an unclean
The cow is Hinduism’s most sacred animal. scavenger. Christians link its gluttony to Satan.
THE HORSE
A symbol of nobility, speed, freedom, and beauty, the horse is widely
associated with conquering power, as represented by Classical equestrian
statues. In the Ancient world the horse was an emblem of the life-force and
was linked to Sun and sky gods. Different symbolism was attributed to
n,
white, black, or golden horses. e,
ods.
s.
t
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Pegasus
In common with the white
horse, the winged horse is
a solar or spiritual symbol.
Cave art Pegasus
egasus was the legendary
legend Galloping horse
The spotted horse appears in the 20,000-year-old cave paintings winged horse of Greek Traditionally representing speed and vitality, the horse
at Pech Merle, France. An ancient symbol, the horse represents mythology and often symbolically gallops “as fast as the wind”, associating
iatin it with
wind, rain,
ain, storm, fire, running water,
w and waves. represents speed of thought. elemental power and freedom; it is also seenen as
a a messenger.
Gazelle Lamb
A solar emblem of fertility, the A symbol of peace, speed, and The lamb is a universal symbol
stag is associated with hunting grace, the gazelle was a mount of innocence, gentleness, and
and divine symbolism. Its antlers for gods in African and Indian meekness. It is strongly
represent the Tree of Life and cultures. Fleeing from predators, associated with Christianity
regeneration. The stag often it represents the soul taking which uses it to represent both
features in heraldic motifs. flight from earthly passions. Christ and sacrifice.
Monkey
In Christianity the monkey is associated with deception and vanity,
I=II=HO
but in Hinduism the monkey deity, Hanuman, was a great warrior,
champion of Rama. In Japan the monkey is revered: the three Mystic
r and lunar symbolism of jaguar skin costumes during sacrificial ceremonies. The jaguar
ust one example of their is also associated with South American shamans, who may
sting associations. The lion, assume animal shapes or wear jaguar skins as a symbol of
with its yellow coat and fiery mane, is a solar beast, although their power. After death shamans were thought to become
the lioness may also be linked to mother goddesses and so to jaguars. In the Classical world the leopard was an attribute
the Moon. As solar symbols, lions are often carved into temple of the Roman god Bacchus (Greek Dionysus), and was linked
gateposts as guardians of the sacred space, and to his fertility cult, while in Egypt it was the
protective lion’s heads may adorn buildings as emblem of Osiris, god of the underworld and
gargoyles. By carrying water away from the vegetation, so its symbolism was again linked
walls, these solar conduits combine with the to fertility. The Ancient Egyptians revered cats
water to create a symbol of fertility. The and worshipped the cat goddess, Bastet.
domestic cat’s aloofness and nocturnal habits
give it the symbolism of both the Moon and ?=POEJ=NP
darkness. Black cats are now considered lucky, Cats, and lions in particular, have appeared
but they were once associated with witchcraft Night eyes in many paintings. In Greek mythology one
as witches were often depicted with a black cat. As creatures of the night cats have been of the twelve
linked with magic.
labours of
GEJCKB>A=OPO Hercules was to bring a lion’s
In the West the lion is most widely known as the King of skin to King Eurystheus. He
Beasts, whereas in the East that role is taken by the tiger, fought the lion with his bare
and in the Americas by the jaguar. All the big cats are fierce hands and the scene appears
hunters, and for this reason they are feared and respected. In in several paintings, as do
China, where they are regarded as symbols of courage, tigers other scenes in which a fierce
represent speed, power, and beauty. The Hindu goddess, Durga, lion is tamed by a good man.
rides a tiger, symbolizing her mastery over animal passions, St. Jerome, for instance, is
and Shiva wears a tiger’s skin for similar reasons. Because of usually painted with a lion as
their courage and strength, lions and leopards feature in his companion. He is said to St. Jerome and the lion
heraldic art, accentuating these qualities in noble lineages. have removed a thorn from By helping the lion, St. Jerome mastered
his animal nature and demonstrated the
the lion’s paw, after which it strength of his Christian faith.
O=?NA@J=PQNA renounced its fierce nature
Cats have had many sacred associations throughout the and lived peacefully as St. Jerome’s follower. Such tales are
orld. The jaguar is the incarnation of the much-loved for the story, but they also have added meaning as
?=PO
supreme Aztec deity, Texcatlipoca, and they symbolize our ability to overcome our animal nature.
Mayan reliefs depict priests wearing
SEE ALSO
Jaguar The Moon pp.18–19 Shamanism pp.154–55
Water pp.32–33
hought by Meso-American cultures to be the lord of the
Egyptian deities pp.138–39
Taoism & Shinto pp.170–71
Witches & wicca pp.192–93
13
ght, the guardian, and the protector, the jaguar was often
Greek & Roman deities pp.140–41 Heraldic emblems pp.318–23
epicted in Aztec pottery.
BIRDS
Their ability to fly symbolically established deities in Egyptian art symbolize the spiritual
birds as messengers between Heaven and side of human nature. Traditionally, too,
Earth. They also represent souls because birds were linked with wisdom, intelligence,
flying signifies release from the and rapid thought; the expression “a little
physical restrictions of the bird told me” comes from the ancient belief
earthbound world. Bird-headed that birds confided secrets.
and gossip.
Stork Flamingo
Its migratory habit associates Ancient Egyptians revered the
the stork with spring and new flamingo as a personification
life. It is also a herald of good of the Sun god, Re. Because Swan Duck
news. Its symbolic link with their colour changes according The swan is a symbol of beauty and purity. A solar Regarded as a creator bird in the myths of various
bird, it is associated with light and was linked to cultures, the duck is widely associated with
14 childbirth goes back to Greek to diet, flamingos were also
Apollo. Its habit of mating for life also makes it a immortality. In China the mandarin duck signifies
mythology where it was sacred associated with illusion
to Hera, patron of childbirth. and shapeshifting. symbol of fidelity. In Greek myth Zeus, disguised as wedded bliss and fidelity, while Celts believed the
a swan, seduced Leda. duck represented resourcefulness and honesty.
Ostrich Crane Kiwi
heraldic symbol of faith and In Asia the crane’s careful The quail is associated with The national emblem of New
Ancient Egypt, the hoopoe also contemplation, in Ancient Egypt movements represent tact. In spring or summer, eroticism, Zealand and slang for a New
represents filial devotion since the ostrich’s feather symbolized China it signifies immortality. and new life. Given as a lover’s Zealander, the kiwi has also
it is said to care for its aged truth. To Zoroastrians it was a It has also become a symbol of gift, a caged quail was a symbol been used as a military symbol.
parents. In China it is divine storm bird, whereas in vigilance. The double-headed of the imprisoned soul. To the According to Polynesian myth, it
considered lucky. Semitic and Babylonian cultures crane of Egyptian mythology Romans it symbolized courage was created from the calabash,
it was demonic. signifies prosperity. and was used as a fighting bird. a vine plant.
Hawk
An attribute o
hawk symbol
power, royalt
Aztecs saw it
the gods. In C
meant war an
in Ancient
Egypt it
represented
the soul.
Vulture Condor
cause it scavenges on dead flesh, the The condor is an important American Indian symbol. Seen as both
ture has mixed symbolism: on the one creator and destroyer, its massive wingspan was thought to cause
nd it symbolizes death and opportunism, eclipses. The California condor is associated with healing and
ile on the other purification. Tibetans supernatural powers and was used in ritual sacrifice.
>EN@O
Raven Crow
arded as a talking bird, Like the raven, the carrion-
raven is associated with eating crow has negative
phecy, but it attracts mixed symbolism in Europe and is
Hen symbolism. In some cultures it linked to bad luck, death, and
The traditional image of a represents the Sun and wisdom evil. However, American Indians
plump hen fussing over her and in others darkness and see it as a creative, civilizing,
brood is generally associated destruction. In Nordic mythology and solar bird. In Japan the
with clucking maternal care. It Odin, god of war, was crow symbolizes family love,
also signifies procreation and accompanied by two ravens, while Christians associate its
divine intervention. In Hebrew while American Indians saw it plucking out eyes from carrion
law a hen and cock together as a creator and trickster. with the Devil blinding sinners.
symbolize a bridal couple.
J=PQN=HSK
Nightingale
The nightingale is renowned for its glorious song that continues
through the night as well as throughout the day; it is associated
with mischief and bad luck. with yearning, love, and death. In Christian tradition the
American Indians see it as a nightingale’s song represents a longing for Paradise, while its
trickster, creator, and guardian; joyous dawn chorus symbolizes the coming of Christ’s Light.
its chattering warned of
approaching enemies.
Swallow Cuckoo Bird of Paradise
Harbinger of hope and A traditional herald of spring in northern Europe, the cuckoo Famed for its extravagant plumage and elaborate mating rituals, the
springtime, the swooping symbolizes fertility. Its parasitical habit of laying its eggs in another Bird of Paradise is a symbol of New Guinea; it flies across the red
swallow signifies good bird’s nest is associated with selfishness and infidelity, giving rise to section of the national flag, representing the country’s triumphant
fortune. Its annual migration the word “cuckold” for a man whose wife is unfaithful. However, emergence into nationhood. Local tr
and habit of returning to the Tibetans consider the cuckoo a sacred bird and attribute it with i
same nesting site associate magical powers.
it with both departure and
return, representing d
and resurrection.
Dove
A universal symbol of
peace and the soul, th
dove returned to Noah
bearing an olive branc
signifying God’s
forgiveness of
humankind after the
Flood. It is associated
with the divine spirit I
and is symbolic of b
baptism. In Ancient Ro b
the dove was sacred t of
Venus, while in China
represented fertility. T
Dodo
turtle dove symbolizes
Extinct since the 17th century,
both love and fidelity.
the dodo symbolizes something
that is dead or obsolete. It
appears on the coat of arms of
Mauritius, its native island, and
mblem of certain
on organizations.
Sparrow
The humble sparrow is a Christian symbol of lowliness; St. Francis of
>EN@O
Wren
The tiny wren is a symbol of the
face symbolizes the Passion of Christmas symbol associated spirit and was known in
Christ as the goldfinch is with the winter solstice. Like European folklore as “the King SEE ALSO
associated with thistles and the goldfinch, the robin is said of the Birds”. To American The Sun pp.16–17
thorns. Elsewhere, it represents to have plucked a thorn from Indians it is a symbol of joy. The The head pp.106–09
Tribal totems, heroes & tricksters pp.150–51
2-
fertility and was a symbol of Christ’s crown, splashing blood wren is traditionally seen as a
Hinduism pp.158–63
protection against the plague. over its breast. symbol of the old year.
Christianity pp.176–79
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2.
2.
COAT OF ARMS
EAGLES
An unambiguous and universally recognized symbol of power,
the eagle is widely associated with solar and celestial symbolism
and is linked to royalty and the gods.
Its size, strength, and authority has made the “victorious over darkness”, and was used to
eagle an emblem of power, while its keen represent the Emperor. In American Indian
eyesight, speed, hunting prowess, and ability culture the Sioux believed that eagle feathers
to wheel effortlessly through the heavens all represented the Sun’s rays. The Aztecs saw
contribute to its symbolic associations. The the bird as the rising Sun, devourer of the
eagle is often paired with the serpent, bull, serpent of darkness. In the Hebrew tradition
or lion, which are symbolically linked to it symbolizes the East and renewal. The
spiritual victory. double-headed eagle is an ancient solar symbol
and is used in heraldry and coats of arms.
OECJKBLKSAN
The king of birds, the eagle is a “high-flier” @EREJ
symbolizing status, victory, and omniscience. IAOO
Associated with power and leadership, it has Soaring hig
been adopted as a symbol of sovereignty and United States presidential seal the sky, the
national identity by nations including the US The mighty eagle appears here in the original represents
design of 1888. The olive branch symbolizes
and Germany, as well as mighty civilizations peace, and 13 arrows (the 13 original colonies) to God and
he Roman Empire. The represents willingness to defend the country. associated
was also the imperial ascension.
blem of the Russian and Austrian In churches, the Bible is ofte
mpires and was borne on the standard of placed on an eagle-shaped
Napoleon. The eagle’s physical attributes, lectern, representing the pow
and its reputation as a formidable inspiration of God’s word. S
hunter, link it to warrior symbolism of mystical power, the eagle
and war gods such as Scandinavia’s regarded as a divine messen
Odin. The Chinese equate the eagle represents spiritual protectio
with courage, tenacity, strength, and ability to rise above the mate
fearlessness, while in Christianity it to see hidden spiritual truths
represents the power of God. American Indian culture the
signifies revelation. It is associated Eagle warrior
>EN@KBPDA OQJ with numerous gods and is also a Celtic This Aztec sculpture from
New Mexico represents an
s a solar bird, the eagle is symbolic of symbol of rebirth and renewal. To the eagle warrior, symbolic of
A=CHAO
e gods of the sky. It was the emblem of Ancient Egyptians the eagle was a
Roman Sun god, sol invictus, meaning symbol of eternal life.
SEE ALSO
ungu bird The Sun pp.16–17 Christianity pp.176–79
Egyptian deities pp.138–39 Heraldic emblems pp.318–23
word meaning “Bateleur Eagle”, the Chapungu bird was
Greek & Roman deities pp.140–41
2/
a protector, guiding spirit, and divine messenger. This
Judaism pp.172–73
he bird is from the ruined city of Great Zimbabwe.
REPTILES & AMPHIBIANS
Ancient, mysterious, and often threatening, in water as well as on land, representing
reptiles and amphibians have long captured the ability to move between the physical and
the human imagination. They are associated spirit world. Their habits, appearance, and
with the Sun and Moon, and also cosmos ft bi d f
and creation symbolism, an
and renewal because many
their skin or change colour
and certain reptiles can sur
believed to be sexless, it
also represents chastity.
Horned lizard
e horned lizard
merican Indian s
ealth and happin
nasazi and Mim
Tadpole bes of the
The metamorphosis of outhwest United
the tadpole into a frog ates often featu
symbolizes resurrection. ottery and in petroglyphs.
In Ancient Egypt the frog
was a foetal symbol, while
Heket, frog goddess of
birth, is linked with
evolution. In Celtic myth the frog was lord of the Earth
t and the healing
waters, while Mayans saw it as a water god whose croaking
it is a lunar Ying symbol
Closely linked to lunar, water, and Earth Mother symbolism, the
lumbering tortoise is often portrayed as supporting the world at the
beginning of creation. It is associated with longevity and plodding
slowness. In China it is believed to have oracular powers.
NALPEHAO"=ILDE>E=JO
to cause eclipses by swallowing the Moon. It is the state emblem their ways.
of Missouri and Oklahama.
Terrapin
In the sacred springs of North
Africa terrapins are believed to
embody powerful water spirits;
it is therefore considered
unlucky to kill one. The terrapin
is portrayed as a trickster in
Toad American Indian myth.
In Europe the toad’s toxic Cane toad
secretions link it to demonic To Australian Aboriginals the highly-toxic cane toad is a symbol
m of
symbolism. It is also an white man’s stupidity because they introduced the speciess to the
attribute
ribute of death and a continent. It shares its symbolism with other toads, and as
a a SEE ALSO
witch’s familiar.
miliar. In
I China prolific
rolific breeder, is associated with fertility. The Sun pp.16–17
the toad is a rain-bringer,
signifying
nifying good luck.
ringer, The Moon pp.18–19
Fertility & childbirth pp.120–23
21
Tribal totems, heroes & tricksters pp.150–51
J=PQN=HSKNH@
mysterious, OANLAJPSEO@KI
ground burrows, Ancestral and cosmic associations, combined
skin, the snake with the snake’s ability to glide through
eature, that is, darkness, and its enigmatic, lidless gaze link
o the it with wisdom. In Ancient Egypt the cobra
Its undulating represented both divine and royal wisdom.
eminded early Maoris equate snakes with earthly wisdom
Medical symbol cultures in many parts while in many cultures snakes are the wise
The caduceus, a rod of the world of winding and cunning mediators between Heaven,
entwined with two snakes,
is an ancient emblem of rivers, rolling hills, Earth, and the underworld. In India serpents
healing associated with tangled roots, and even are associated with Shiva, Vishnu, and
Hermes, messenger of the the spiralling cosmos. Ganesha. In Tantra the column of spiritual
Greek gods.
As a result, its myriad energy within the spinal column is
symbolism embraces themes of duality, symbolized by the “kundalini”, or serpent.
fertility, the primeval life force, and creation. Naga
The Hindu naga, or serpent, is a benevolent
threshold guardian associated with rain,
BANPEHEPU=J@>ENPD
= @Q=HLKSAN Due to its shape, closeness
fertility, and renewal. It is often depicted with
In mythology and religion the snake is a dual a human upper body and a snake tail. to the Earth, and ability
power signifying both positive and negative to shed its skin, the snak
symbolism. It is guardian and destroyer, light and dark, good is a fertility and phallic symbol. It is
and evil. Its venom can kill and it swallows creatures much associated with Mother Earth and in
larger than itself, yet its habit of shedding its skin links it to parts of Oceania it is linked to pregnancy.
resurrection and healing. In Christianity the snake corrupts Elsewhere, it is a rain-bringer and
Eve by persuading her to taste the forbidden fruit. God cursed represents a life force in tune with the
the snake who was then seen as the Devil. However, in Earth’s mysteries. In Hindu mythology
Buddhism, the king of the snakes gave shelter to the Buddha Vishnu rests on the serpent as it floats
and is seen in a more positive light. Being at home in dark on the cosmic ocean. In Oceania, the
places below the ground, the snake is associated with the snake is a creator figure; elsewhere, a Guardian of the dead
underworld where it accesses mythical ancestor. As a rainbringer, like Meretseger, guardian of
the entombed dead shown
the powers of the dead. In the Rainbow Serpent of Australian as a coiled cobra at a burial
contrast it is also linked to Aboriginal Dreamtime, it represents site at Waset, Egypt; her
OJ=GAO
deities and divine power. fertility and agricultural abundance. name means “She who
loves silence”.
Carp
In China and Japan ca
shaped kites symboliz
courage and enduran
qualities associated w
the carp because it
swims against a river
flow. It also represent
academic achievement and
business acumen, a
of good luck and lon
Crab
Associated with the
astrological sign,
Cancer, the crab’s
watery habitat make
it a lunar animal;
reminiscent of the
Moon’s changing fo
it also casts its shel
symbolizing renewa events, such as New Year; to the Chinese it is a symbol of wealth oce
and marital harmony, and is often eaten at wedding feasts. As a tra
food, its high cost has made it a contemporary symbol of extravagance. Gr
se
ulled
J=PQN=HSKNH@
Dolphin
A symbol of masculi The dolphin is often seen as
the shark is revered in Pacific and African cultur a psychopomp, a being who
in male initiation ceremonies and also used as a totem. A popular escorts souls to the underworld
ancestor figure in Oceania, Australian Aboriginals saw it as a and is associated with salvatio
creator figure. transformation, and love. It a
has lunar and solar associations.
Seal
Representing
transformation, the THE SHELL
seal was often chang
into a mermaid or nym Linked
inked to water and lunar symbolism,
symbol shells
in Greek and northern are regarded as feminine; their concave shape
European myths. In In
tradition the seal is a
signifies the womb and birth. They are also
ancestor figure and associated with creation. Several deities
divine messenger. have been portrayed emerging ing from a sh
shell.
Sea urchin In Christianity, shells are linked to baptism
b
A symbol of dormant force, the because they are used to sprinkle
rink water.
sea urchin is associated with
the cosmic egg representing
embryonic life, and with related
symbolism concerning stones.
In medieval compendiums, its
habit of anchoring itself to a
Scallop
=MQ=PE??NA=PQNAO
In Christianity this
shell came to
Indian totem, it is a lunar symbol of renewal because it mysteriously symbolize pilgrimage
returns from the ocean to its birth river to spawn and die. after it was carried by
afte
thosee on the route to
de
ela. Inn
Rome the
was linked
y and
Scallop shell
e
25
ies pp.156–57
p.164–69
3,
PDA>ENPD
KBRAJQO
This icon of Renaissance art
represents the moment when the
goddess Venus emerges on a shell
from the sea. She is blown to
shore by the west winds, where a
goddess of the seasons hands her a
flowered cloak. Far from a simple
representation of the myth, the
artist has added many symbolic
details to the painting.
5 1
2 4
1. Venus
Traditionally, Venus was a symbol of birth and
fertility, love, and sexual desire. Here the naked
goddess is a symbol not just of earthly, but of
spiritual love. Some have likened the image to
that of the Virgin Mary.
2. Pink rose
Venus was the goddess of flowers and was
associated with the pink rose in particular.
This represents human sexuality and desire.
3. Scallop shell
The scallop shell upon which Venus stands was
originally a symbol of the female sexual organs.
Christianity transformed this fertility myth and made
the scallop shell a symbol of the hope of resurrection
and rebirth.
4. The nymph
Horae was a goddess of Spring, a season symbolizing
fertility and birth. She wears Spring flowers and myrtle,
a plant symbolic of happiness that was often used
in marriage rituals.
6. Gold
Used throughout the painting, gold accentuates
the picture’s role as a precious object and echoes
the divine status of Venus. Gold is also symbolic of
perfection, warmth, and love.
3-
Sandro Botticelli, The Birth of Venus, c1482
CREEPY CRAWLIES
Bugs symbolize all that is small and the decomposition of dead materials; these
insignificant in our world, yet the habits and their diverse forms have inspired
inescapable fact remains that
without them, human life would
soon die out. They perform an
extraordinary array of vital
functions in our ecosystem,
including soil aeration,
pollination, pest control, and
Praying mantis
Seen as magical and holy, or demonic and devouring, the prayin
mantis attracts ambivalent symbolism. “Mantis” comes from th
Greek word for “prophet”, associating it with mystical powers.
Japan it is a popular Samurai emblem of courage and cunning.
The butterfly’s miraculous cycle From Ancient Egypt to Poland,
of metamorphosis links it with associated with darkness; in the wasp has been widely
Fly transformation, resurrection, Bosnia it is believed witches regarded as evil and an inverted
As disease-carriers In China the dragonfly’s and the soul. It also signifies may take the form of a moth. symbol of the bee, which
symbolize corruption and evil; erratic, darting flight represents happiness and beauty; in Japan Their habit of hovering around traditionally represents
Beezlebub, the Devil, originates unreliability, while in Japan it is a symbol of the geisha but a flame attracts ambivalent goodness. In Hindu tradition
from a Hebrew word meaning it is a symbol of joy as well two butterflies together signify symbolism: as the soul the wasp is the lowest
“Lord of the Flies”. Among the as an imperial emblem. a joyful marriage. seeking God, and also as living creature
American Indian Navajo, The dragonfly’s iridescent insanity, rushing headlong
Dontso, “Big Fly”, is a spirit colours associate it with towards doom.
messenger linked to healing. magic and illusion.
J=PQN=HSKNH@
eetle Ladybird
scarab beetle was sacred The ladybird’s huge appetite symbol of abundance in Ancient
the Ancient Egyptians for insect pests probably Greece, where the nobility wore golden grasshoppers in their hair. In
and was associated with explains why it became a good Asia the insect’s singing represents the chanting of the Buddhist
the god of the rising luck symbol. It was traditionally monks, and in China the grasshopper is a symbol of good luck.
3. Sun, Khepri. It represents associated with the Virgin
neration, immortality, Mary (“Our Lady’s bird”),
divine wisdom. fertility, and motherhood.
THE BEE Kama’s
The Hindu god of love,
ove,
Kama, is accompanied
panied by
b
The bee is a popular symbol of order, honeybees, symbolizing
diligence, immortality, and collaboration. the pain and sweetness
These qualities contribute to its prolific use in of love. He appears as a
winged youth bearing a
Christian symbolism, as does honey, bow and arrow, similar
representing sweetness, and beeswax (used to Cupid, and riding a
for candles), which signifies light. The bee is parrot; his bowstring is
i
actually a line of bees.
be
also associated with royalty and deities.
. Locust
Their ability to decim
associates locusts wi
calamity and destruct
the Old Testament Go
plague of locusts as a
punishment; in medie
bestiaries they symbo
spiritual torment,
indecision, and ruin.
Termite
mbolism reflects its Termite and ant symbolism are
industrious, orderly behaviour. intertwined in terms of fertility a weaver of destiny, a solar
In Mali, West Africa, ants and industry. In India termite symbol, and predator, the spider
signify fertility, and wells are mounds represent the entrance and its web are both symbolic.
often sunk near anthills as it to the otherworld, guarded by In Camaroon it represents
is believed that ants know the Nagas (divine serpents) and diligence and wisdom. In China
location of streams. decorated with offerings. a spider on a thread is a symbol
of good luck.
?NAALU?N=SHEAO
Worm
Symbolic of the Earth, death,
and dissolution, the worm is
sometimes used in art to
represent mortality. Cultures,
including those of Ireland and
China, link the worm to ancestor
and creator myths.
Scorpion Snail
As an astrological sign, Scorpio, the scorpion is associated with Pluto, In heraldry the snail signifies
Lord of the Underworld. Generally, its lethal sting symbolizes death deliberation and steadfastness
and destruction. Christians associate it with treachery, while in Africa but it is more widely associated SEE ALSO
many people use a euphemism when referring to it, believing that with slowness. A lunar and The Sun pp.16–17 Freemasonry pp.260–61
Shapes pp.284–89
uttering its name would invoke evil. Among the Ashanti of West Africa, feminine symbol, the spiral Fertility & childbirth pp.120–23
Western astrology pp.200–01 Heraldic emblems pp.318–23
3/
people wear scorpion talismans as protection against their sting. shell represents infinity and the
labyrinth; also the womb.
FABULOUS BEASTS
Regarded as symbols of supernatural power to triumph over evil, or order over chaos.
or different aspects of the human psyche, Fabulous beasts are often associated with
imaginary beasts have long played an deities, sometimes acting
important role in folklore, m icle
and religious imagery. They A
sometimes act as messenger –
or teachers, or represent da imal
untamed forces in nature th
be overcome. As such, they ts
fought by a hero figure, suc ism
knight slaying a dragon, all g.
Phoenix Thunderbir
A legendary fire bird that To American Ind , and
resurrects itself from the thunderbird is a reptilian
flames, the phoenix originated that creates thunder by beating body, the fearsome basilisk
as a myth to explain the cyclical its wings, and hurls lightning as Griffin (or cockatrice) became a
rising and setting of the Sun; it its weapon. It represents the Part-eagle, part-lion, the griffin is a popular symbol in the Christian symbol of the Devil;
later evolved into an emblem powerful forces of nature, the Classical world as well as in medieval Christianity and heraldry. in the medieval period it
of resurrection. sky, war, and transformation. It evolved from an emblem signifying the Sun, strength, and was associated with lust
vengeance into one of vigilant protection. In hieroglyphics it and disease.
symbolizes divine retribution.
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Hydra
s The nine-headed monster of
In Greek myth, Hydra, is depicted
cu as a serpent. If one of its heads
m was lost, another would grow
h in its place. Its ability to
th regenerate led to it being
a associated with fertility.
d
B=>QHKQO>A=OPO
a Gorgon
emblem of power. It represents In Ancient Greece the emblem
control over both Earth and of the Gorgon was often used
the cosmos. to ward off evil. This monster-
woman with writhing,
venomous snakes for hair is
associated with the ocean, the
Makara underworld, and Athena in her
A composite aquatic dragon of Hindu destructive, solar aspect.
myth, the Makara is part-animal, part-
reptile, and part-fish. It symbolizes the
astrological sign of Capricorn, called
Makara in the Hindu calendar. SEE ALSO
It is also associated with Sacred trees pp.96–97
Kamadeva, god of lust, and
water, the source of life
Greek & Roman deities pp.140–41
Buddhism pp.164–69
31
and fertility. Western astrology pp.200–01
Heraldic emblems pp.318–23
Qitou Kirttimukha Chinthe (Chin-thei)
The mythical qitou is a Chinese According to myth, the Often depicted in pairs guarding
tomb guardian and protector of Kirttimukha, or Face of Glory, is temple entrances to ward off chimera of Greek mythology is portrayed here with all three animal
the dead. It is an earth spirit a demon who devoured himself evil, the Chinthe is a Burmese heads emerging. Generally, it represents elemental fury and danger;
with an ogre-like face, large at the order of Shiva, and symbol of omniscient power however, since it is an imaginary creature it is also a symbol of non-
elephant ears, wings, and a whose image was placed above and protection. Part-lion, part- existent or of wild fancifulness.
lion’s body with a plume temple doorways as a symbol of dragon, the auspicious Chinthe
cresting its spine. devotion and protection. is also associated with the
astrological sign, Leo.
Ky-lin
The Egyptian sphinx is a A guardian figure known as
human-headed lion symbolizing the Chinese unicorn, ky-lin
the power of the Sun and the is a composite creature with
ruling pharaoh. It was used hooves, a horn on its head,
to guard tombs, palaces, and and a scaly body. A Yin-Yang
sacred highways. symbol, it represents fertility,
kindness, and purity.
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Pegasus Unicorn
The white, winged horse of The magical and much-loved white unicorn is a mythical horse with
Greek legend, Pegasus a single horn and symbolized purity, courage, and courtly love; only a
symbolizes the duality in human virgin was thought capable of catching one. It is associated with the
nature between animal instinct Virgin Mary and is an attribute of St. Justina. Its horn was believed to
and spiritual aspiration. In myth, be an antidote to poison.
the hero Bellerophon riding
Pegasus kills the monstrous
chimera in a symbolic
representation of light
triumphing over dark.
MERMAID Mermaidd
A beautiful marine hybrid, the mermaid
is a symbol of doomed passion.
s She
Symbolically ambivalent, mermaids, sirens, represents love, hope, transformation,
and mermen are half-human sea creatures safe passage, and allurement, but
closely
ose bound to water, lunar, and fertility also loss of soul and treachery. To the
medieval Church, mermaids personified
symbolism. Water is a source of life but also base, unnatural desires, luring men away
death through drowning, and represents from salvation.
unconscious desires – hence stories of luring
humans into the watery unknown. Triton
Son of Poseidon
eidon the god
Triton was a merman. He
had tthe upper body of a
man and the tail of a fish.
Triton is usually depicted
holding or blowing a horn
or conch shell, and controls
Siren the power of the waters.
Sirens were dangerous creatures who lured sailors to their deaths
with their enchanting
ench voices, lyres, and flutes. They represent illusion
and the seductive powers of the senses.
sens Originally, sirens were birds
with women’s heads associated e with capturing souls, and later were
sometimes identified with mermaids.
so
Capricornus
Ancient cultures likened t
to the ocean and devised
stories of wondrous
creatures comprising
both elements – air and
water – hence the hybrid
goat-fish, Capricornus,
a winter constellation
associated with the winte
solstice. It is also linked t
Babylonian god, Ea-Oannes Sea goat
Sleipnir (“Antelope of the Seas”).
An eight-legged horse, Sleipnir
(“Gliding One”) is the mount of
Nordic god, Odin, and transports
him between the physical and
divine world. Its eight legs
symbolize the compass
directions and
Sleipnir’s ability
=>QHKQO>A=OPO
to move through Centaur Harpy
air and on land; they also In Greek myth centaurs have These fearsome bird women
symbolize the eight-spoked conflicting symbolism: some, with hideous faces, vulture’s
solar wheel. like Chiron, were noble and bodies, and claws are
gentle, others were wild, associated with death, fate, and
adulterous, and warlike. They divine punishment. Harpies are
symbolize the animal instinct sometimes seen as demons
combined with man’s intellect. that spirit away the souls of
Minotaur the dead.
Part-bull, part-man, the minotaur of Greek
legend was the mythological offspring of
a Cretan queen and a white bull.
Imprisoned in the labyrinth by SEE AL
Minos, it symbolized the Mammals
savagery within. Celtic & Nordic deities pp.142–43
Hinduism pp.158–63
33
Western astrology pp.200–01
J=PQN=HSKNH@
Chinese dragon
with pearl
This Chinese dragon is
often shown with a pearl
surrounded by branching
flames (see centre of
image). The pearl and
dragon can represent
rolling thunder, the Moon
as rain-bringer, or the
=
“pearl of perfection”,
which is linked with
Taoist philosophy. The
Five-clawed Dragon
represents
n the power of
the Sun and the emperor.
DRAGONS
A symbolic fusion of serpent and bird, the mighty dragon is a complex
and universal representation of awe-inspiring power, and appears in
myths and legends around the world.
Originating from the Greek word for serpent a maiden from a dragon represents the
(“drakon”), the dragon began as a benign release of pure forces after vanquishing evil.
symbol representing the fertilizing waters of Treasure-guarding dragons often signify the
the serpent and the divine “breath of life” of struggle to attain coveted inner knowledge.
the bird; the latter also associated it with sky The dragon was also associated with kings
deities and rulers. Later the dragon became and warriors.
symbolically ambivalent, and was seen as
both creative and destructive. A=OPANJ@N=CKJO
Eastern dragons are seen as auspicious,
?NA=PKN @AOPNKUAN benevolent, and wise. They are symbols of
Mythology reveals the dragon as both creator great power, spiritual and temporal, and are
and destroyer and involves epic themes such associated with wisdom,
as cosmic chaos, creation, and rebirth. In creative forces of na
nature the dragon symbolizes the life- and temples are
bringing rain that follows thunder, as well as St. George dedicated to them.
the destructive forces of lightning and flood. St. George’s epic battle against a marauding The dragon
dragon, in which he saves the princess and her
The earliest known dragon myth tells of a people from an oppressor-figure, reflects appears in many
Sumerian dragon, Zu, who stole the Tablets Christian values and good triumphing over evil. forms, each with its
of Law that ensured cosmic harmony, only to own symbolism.
be slain by sun god, Ninurta, to prevent darkness and chaos. Portrayed with the phoenix, for exampl
it represents the union of Heaven and Ea
@N=CKJO KBPDASAOP important is the sky-dwelling turquoise F
Medieval dragons combine air, water, fire, and earth clawed Dragon, Lung, which symbolizes
symbolism and are portrayed as horned, fire-breathing celestial and imperial power, the Sun,
monsters with scaly bodies, wings, clawed feet, and a barbed, fertility, joy, spiritual knowledge, and
serpentine tail. In western myth battles with dragons immortality. The Four-clawed Dragon
symbolize the struggle between good and evil orr the mastering signifies earthly power, while the Three-
n’s basse nature and clawed Dragon is a rain symbol. Viking dragon
t early Christian The Chinese believe they are The dragon figurehead
on Viking longboats is
belieefs. Rescuing descended from dragons, and those born a guardian symbol of
@N=CKJO
in the Chinese Year of the Dragon are protection and good fortune
especially blessed as they are thought when away from the safety
of the home harbour.
WWelsh dragon to have health, wealth, and long life.
The red dragon is the
embleem of Wales. It
originattes from a legend SEE ALSO
bout a struggle between the Precious stones pp.42–43 Heraldic emblems pp.318–23
Fabulous beasts pp.74–77 Flags pp.324–29
Welshh red dragon and a
Taoism & Shinto pp.170–71
35
white dragon representing
Chinese horoscope pp.204–05
the invading Saxons.
P
PLANTS
Plants are associated with Mother Earth god or hero figure – a reference to death
and the cycle of life. Many are attributes of and resurrection. According to ancient
fertility deities, and plant sap represents the philosophy recorded in the Doctrine of
fertilizing waters and motherhood. Some Signatures, plant features that look like
plants are seen as mythical ancestors, while particular parts of the body can be used
others supposedly sprang from the blood of a to cure ailments in that body part.
Bamboo Mandrake
A vital building The reed’s habitat associates The mandrake is associated
Signifying solitude, the fern is material and food it with purification in Celtic with magic; its roots resemble
also an ancient heraldic symbol source in the East, tradition where it was thought a human figure and it is said to
associated with fecundity and the strong yet to repel witches. The Egyptians shriek in agony when picked.
loyalty. A national emblem in pliant bamboo has associated reeds with royalty Mandrake in Hebrew means
New Zealand, the silver fern long been a and the Nile; they were also “love plant”. Some cultures
means perseverance. The Maori fundamental part linked to Greek music god, Pan. believe it ensures conception.
fern frond symbol, koru, of Zen and
represents unfurling new life Buddhist
philosophy. It
represents
J=PQN=HSKNH@
fertility, courage,
and modesty. In
China its upright
yet flexible habit
symbolizes the
path towards
enlightenment.
bis
or hemp
sed as
siac for
t has al
tual in J W Myrtle
nism and According to Greek myth, Evergreen myrtle represents
fertility, and holiness. In the West, its poisonous wolfsbane, or aconite, immortality, and sprigs were
leaf symbolizes youthful rebellion. fell from the saliva of the three- often buried with the dead to
headed dog, Cerberus. Its name help the soul on its journey.
reflects its original use as Associated with Venus, goddess
poisoned wolf bait; it was also of love, it signifies fertility and
FUNGI used to poison people and has marital harmony. In China it
associations with witchcraft. symbolizes success.
Their bizarre appearance and occasionally poisonous or hallucinogenic
hallu
properties have long associated fungi with magic and, in European folklore,
with fairy enchantment. The Australian Arunta believe mushrooms are
fallen stars, while the Chinese associate mushrooms with immortality.
In modern times they have been associated with the nuclear bomb cloud.
SEE ALSO
Love & marriage pp.126–27 Witches & wicca pp.192–93
ENOKI
OKI MU
MUSSHROOM COMM N
Greek & Roman deities
pp.140–41
Heraldic emblems pp.318–23
4-
Taoism & Shinto pp.170–71
Christianity pp.176–79
FLOWERS
Flowers in full bloom are a symbol of nature spiritual perfection and peace. Much flower
at its glorious zenith. They reflect all that is symbolism is linked to colour, scent, and
passive and feminine and are associated with appearance; in the Victorian period a
beauty, youth, and springtime, as well as “language of flowers” developed and flowers
were used to send hidden messages. Flowers
have also been used in healing and ritual
since ancient times.
Chrysanthemum
Its late flowering associates the
chrysanthemum with autumn,
while in the East, because it
flowers into the winter, it is
an auspicious symbol of
longevity, wealth, and
happiness. Its radiating petals
link the chrysanthemum to Sun
symbolism, and to the Japanese
imperial family. In Western art t
chrysanthemum signifies
decadence and death.
is also
stian
s, links it
fell in love
efore came
o ep ese se oe
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Violet
The expression “shrinking violet” is traditi
used to describe a timid person and allude
the way the violet hugs the ground, half-hi
beneath leaves. In paintings of the Adorat
Christ violets represent Mary’s chastity an
Christ Child’s meekness. In the medieval p
violets symbolized constancy.
Peony
The imperial flower of China, where it is the flower of spring, the
BHKSANO
peony is also associated with beauty and femininity. The Japanese
regard it as a symbol of fertility and link it to marital bliss. The peony
Pansy Honeysuckle Iris was also widely used in traditional medicine.
The open-faced pansy is also The honeysuckle’s clinging The iris represents hope and the
known as “heartsease” and is tendrils symbolize a lover’s power of light and is linked to
associated with thought, love, embrace, while its scent is Iris, the Greek goddess of the
and problems of the heart. thought to invoke passionate rainbow. In China it signals SEE AL
Folklore maintained that anyone dreams. According to folklore, if beauty in solitude; in the Love & marriage
wanting to ensure their
sweetheart’s affections should
honeysuckle is brought into the
house, a wedding will take
French fleur de lyss its three
petals represent faith, wisdom,
Death & mourning pp.128–31
Greek & Roman deities pp.140–41
4/
carry a pansy. place within a year. and valour. Celtic & Nordic deities pp.142–43
ROSES
The complex and fragrant rose is a symbol of perfection
fection and passion.
passio
It is universally associated with love, earthly and divine; attributed to
goddesses, it signifies fertility, virginity, or beauty. Unfurling from
o a bud,
it represents secrecy and the mystery of life. In Christianity the rose’s
symbolism is similar to that of the lotus in the East. Both red and white
roses are associated with Christianity, and their thorns symbolize the
crown of thorns and Christ’s martyrdom. Elsewhere, different coloured
roses have specific meanings.
Buttercup
The golden buttercup signifies
wealth and is an emblem of
Mars, originally a Roman
fertility god. Its simplicity
and low-growing habit
symbolizes humility and
neatness. Once thought to cure
White rose Yellow rose Red rose insanity, buttercups are also
The white rose is linked The yellow rose is linked to the An attribute of Venus, goddess
d associated with mockery and
to purity, water, the Moon, Sun, making it a symbol of of love, the red rose denotes
o childhood and playfully used
reverence, and the Virgin warm friendship and joy. beauty, love, passion, and
an to divine a liking for butter.
Mary. Architectural ceiling Traditionally, it was also consummation, and iss
roses traditionally denote associated with jealousy and associated with the element
e
confidentiality concerning dying love. Today this flower is of fire. In the Christian
st
anything said or done the symbol of the US State of tradition it signifies
fie the blood
beneath them, deriving Texas. In Catholicism the of martyrs and the
th
from the Latin for secrecy, golden rose is a papal emblem. resurrection. Inn Islam it
sub rosa. represents the blood of the
Prophet and his two sons.
J=PQN=HSKNH@
Tudor rose
The Wars of the Roses
(1455–85) were a series
of civil wars fought over
the English throne between
the royal houses of
Lancaster and York.
ork Each
house had its own rose
emblem; the Red Rose of
Rose window Lancaster and the White
Wh
Stained
ned glass windows based on the rose design, rose windows Rose of York. These were A solar emblem whose name evolved from its original description
aree particularly associated with Gothic
Goth architecture and are full merged to form the he Tudor as the “day’s eye”, the daisy is a perfect symbol of modesty, and
of symbolism, oftenten concerning the Virgin
Virgi and Child. This rose as a symbol o of unity simplicity. It is also associated with innocence and loyal love.
example comes from Chartres
artres Cathedral in France.
Fr after the wars.. Traditionally, girls determined whether their suitor was true by
plucking a daisy’s petals and chanting “He loves me, he loves
me not” until there was only one petal remaining.
Poppy
n the West the blood-red
poppy commemorates the war
dead because poppies grew on
he battlefields of World War I.
The Chinese associate it with
he evils of opium made from
ts seeds, while in Ancient Lavender
Greece the poppy was linked Used since ancient times for perfume, cleansing, and healing,
Its huge, no to the gods of sleep and fragrant lavender has many symbolic associations. It has been seen
represents s lucky charm, a token of affection, and an aid to sleep. Used in
signifies un pourris to ward off evil, it is also associated with love.
which asso
the sunflow Carnation
The pink carnation symbolizes
motherhood and the white
carnation, pure love. Credited
with aphrodisiac properties, the
red carnation is a widespread
symbol of love and fertility,
associated with marriage. In
paintings of Mary and child it
often represents maternal love.
Anemone
BHKSANO
Da Derived from the Greek word anemoss meaning “wind”, the scarlet
The dandelion is associated anemone, or windflower, represents the ephemeral quality of life, as
with healing and divination; its ts flowers are so short-lived, and is associated with mourning.
fluffy seed-head is traditionally
used as a love oracle, while
dandelion tea is said to SEE ALSO
increase psychic abilities. The lotus pp.86–87
Its golden, radiating petals
represent the Sun. Elsewhere,
Death & mourning pp.128–31
Hinduism pp.158–63
41
it symbolizes bitterness due Christianity pp.176–79
to the taste of its leaves.
J=PQN=HSKNH@
Thousand-petalled lotus
In Buddhist cosmology the Buddha, the Chosen One, A thousand-petalled lotus is a potent symbol of
is often represented as the jewel in the lotus, seated spiritual enlightenment, especially in conjunction
oon a lotus-flower throne, the pinnacle of perfection. with the Buddha, who is sitting in the lotus position.
E LOTUS
of creation and fertility, the lotus is widely
Jewel like flower
The lotus opens its radiant revered in India, Egypt, China, and Japan. It also symbolizes
petals as the Sun comes up,
giving rise to many
purity because it emerges unsullied from the murky waters.
creation myths.
The long, winding stem of the lotus Buddhist doctrine that man is able
symbolizes the umbilical cord that binds man to raise himself above his lower nature.
to his roots, and the flower bud represents The bud, opening up at the surface of the
human potential. The radiant petals of the water, is considered an image of purity, and
lotus open at dawn then close again as the the open flower represents enlightenment.
Sun sets, and this is seen as symbolic of the The lotus also plays an important part in
Sun emerging from the cosmic ocean. Buddhist iconography. Images of the Buddha
are frequently seated on a stylized lotus
PDAOQJ=J@ throne in padmasana, or the lotus posture
?NA=PEKJ (
(padma means “lotus” in Sanskrit).
One of the most widespread symbols in Padmapani, a Buddhist deity, holds a lotus.
Indian culture, the lotus represents the Sun The popular mantra, om mani padme hum,
and creation, purity and perfection. It often means “the jewel in the lotus”. In esoteric
features in Indian architecture and sculpture. Buddhism this is taken to mean the union
In the central Hindu creation myth Brahma, of the male organ (the jewel) with the female
the creator, emerges on a thousand-petalled organ (lotus), symbolizing the power of the
lotus from the navel of the great god Vishnu creative force.
as he sleeps upon the milky ocean and creates
the universe afresh. The Sun god, Surya, is The golden lotus >ENPD=J@NA>ENPD
depicted holding two open lotus flowers, A Buddha holds the symbol of purity To the Ancient Egyptians the lotus, opening
and enlightenment in his left hand.
symbolizing enlightenment. and closing with the movement of the Sun,
Often adorning the lintels of temple gates, the lotus flower was a symbol of birth and rebirth. It was associated with the
bestows good fortune on all who enter. The petals at the base god Nefertem and the Sun god, Re, who was sometimes
of temple columns indicate that the temple stands on an open depicted as a child or a golden youth lying on a lotus.
lotus flower, representing the Earth and the cosmic ocean. The association of water and the Sun makes the flower a
powerful image. According to one Egyptian creation myth,
AJHECDPAJIAJP a giant lotus emerged from the primeval waters at the
The lotus is pivotal in Buddhist philosophy. The muddy beginning of time. The Sun itself rose out of its centre on
waters from which the plant grows represent ignorance and the first morning. PDAHKPQO
hile the The lotus was also an emblem of the early Christian
ng Church, although it was later replaced by the water lily. In
Buddhist legend lotuses bloomed at the feet of the newborn
re Prince Siddhartha, the future Buddha.
SEE ALSO
have The Sun pp.16–17 Creation stories pp.156–57
hape of Plants pp.80–81 Buddhism pp.164–69
Flowers pp.82–85
43
Egyptian deities pp.138–39
HERBS & SPICES
H
The distinctive taste and smell of herbs considered sacred. Associations concerned
and spices has long associated them with with herbs and spices can be linked with
cookery, but they have also been used for magic or evil, as many have the power to
thousands of years for healing and religious harm or heal. According to traditional
ritual. Many herbs and spices are fragrant, European lore, the symbolism of herbs
so have emotional connections; others are as with plants, relates to their appearance.
Basil
From the African Congo to
Tudor England, basil has been
widely associated as a
talisman against evil; in Greek
myth, it was an antidote to the
monstrous basilisk’s venom.
Elsewhere, it was linked to
love and wealth, and was also
used in funeral rites.
Rosemary
Often planted on graves d with courage,
as a symbol of immortality, powers, sage derives its name 15th-century English women
rosemary is associated with from the Latin, salvare, which embroidered wild thyme on
remembrance. In Europe it was means “to save”. Associated tributes presented to knights.
a traditional emblem of fidelity, with immortality, protection, Roman soldiers were known to
and was once included in bridal and wisdom, sage was a bathe in thyme to promote y p y y
bouquets. Students in Ancient Christian symbol of the Virgin courage. It is also associated transformed the nymph, Menthe, into a mint bush to save her from
Rome used rosemary to boost Mary. American Indians burned with healing, sleep, purification, his jealous wife. Mint was used ritually for protection, divination,
concentration. white sage in healing rituals. love, and psychic power. and exorcism.
Cinnamon
amans searching for The phoenix was said
e elixir of eternal life to set itself alight on a pyre
an emblem of royalty carried experimented with ginseng, incorporating cinnamon –
by chieftains. Its edible hence its link to immortality a belief that led to the spice
underground root is fiery and longevity. A masculine, becoming a yule symbol of
hot, linking it to passion and Yang herb, ginseng is linked to renewal. Highly prized and
success. Long traded as a virility. Its name means “man- valuable, it has been used as
spice, its high value associated root”, and legend says that the an aphrodisiac. In China it is
it with wealth and power. “Ginseng Child” living within a purification incense
serves those who eat it.
Betel nut
esia, Symbolic of love and A mildly euphoric stimulant,
rgely grown protection, a clove tree was chewing betel nut is an
in Grenada where it appears traditionally planted to mark important part of Asian and
on the national flag. Widely the birth of a child; it also Pacific cultures. Associated
used as an aphrodisiac, it personified that child and, if the with hospitality, reciprocity,
became a symbol of wealth in tree was felled, it heralded the and fertility, the nut is seen as
Europe in the 18th and 19th child’s death. A sought-after feminine, the leaves masculine.
centuries when those who and costly spice, cloves also Vietnamese regard betel nuts
could afford it carried a supply became a symbol of wealth. as a symbol of love and marriage.
to grate on food.
Myrrh
As incense in religious ritual,
myrrh symbolizes prayers rising
to heaven. It is also associated
DAN>O"OLE?AO
with purity and sweetness. In
Ancient Egypt it was used in
mummification, linking it to
Garlic death. Named after the Arabic
The ancient superstition word for “bitter”, it came to
concerning garlic’s protective symbolize suffering, repentance,
powers against vampires
persists, even today. Ancient
Greeks left garlic offerings at S
crossroads for Hecate, goddess Pr
of the underworld, and st
associated garlic with strength. sa LSO
In China garlic is seen as lucky, w pp.80–81 Judaism pp.172–73
rs pp.82–85 Amulets pp.194–95
and is linked to fertility. ro
it & marriage pp.126–27
45
hu k & Roman deities
w 140–41
J=PQN=HSKNH@
Psychological symbol
In this fairytale by the Grimm Brothers entitled The Two Brothers, the forest represents
the dark shadows of inner fears, which must be confronted and resolved. In this way,
fear fades away, ultimately leading to the symbolic illumination of self-discovery.
THE FOREST
Seen as both a place of fear and a spiritual retreat, the shadow-filled
forest has long attracted mixed symbolism, and has deep-rooted
psychological and spiritual significance in many cultures.
Forests have always gripped the human it is a place of spiritual development and
psyche. They stand, vast and mysterious, yet meditation; in the Hindu tradition a forest
pulsating with hidden life. They are barriers dweller is one who has retreated into a life
between the known and the unknown – of contemplation.
symbolically dark, mysterious, and feminine
– and are associated with germination and =LH=?A KB@=JCAN
the womb, initiation, and the supernatural. In the forest distinctions are blurred between
sight and sound, real and unreal, light and
=OLENEPQ=HLH=?A dark. The canopy filters out sunlight,
Forests were among the first places in the making the forest symbolically opposed to
natural world to be associated with spirits Modern symbol the Sun’s power – hence fear and coolness.
and deities, and offerings were strung from The rainforest has become a “final frontier” Alive with potentially dangerous animals,
symbol of luxuriant, untamed nature facing
trees. Many cultures believed that trees annihilation by humans. it also represents untamed nature.
housed spirits or souls; in Australia the European fairy tales, such as Hansel and
Warlpiri people thought that souls gathered in trees, and the Gretel, are full of forest symbolism and tap into the ancient,
presence of many, possibly malevolent, trees with little light western fear that the forest is a dangerous realm where one
filtering through symbolized the unknown and death. can easily lose the way.
Tree trunks have been likened to the columns in temples
and churches, and forest canopies to the sweeping, interior = PDNAODKH@
architecture of cathedrals; indeed, many places of worship The forest is where fears are symbolically confronted and
have been built on the site of sacred groves, including a true understanding of self emerges. This idea is echoed in
Chartres cathedral in France. Jungian psychological theory, where the forest is a threshold
In Christianity the forest is “untamed nature” associated symbol for the unconscious fear that obscures reason. It
with paganism and is symbolic of humankind lost in the also serves as a metaphor for overcoming inexperience and
darkness without spiritual illumination. In Asia, however, entering adulthood – a testing ground or place of initiation.
Today global deforestation brings a new
testing ground and a new symbolic threshold.
The rainforest has become a modern symbol
of nature under threat. PDABKNAOP
2
5
1
3
1. Radha
Radha’s passion for Krishna symbolizes the soul’s intense
longing and willingness for the ultimate unification with
God. Their embrace represents the Shiva and the Shakti;
the male and female aspects of ourselves, longing to reunite
with one another.
2. Krishna
The symbol of an able statesman, Krishna is a warrior, a
great philosopher, and a teacher. Here he is represented as
a beautiful young man; the symbol of love, devotion, and joy.
3. Tree creeper
The flowering creeper embracing a trunk suggests passion
and romance and symbolically recreates the embrace of
Radha and Krishna.
4. Lotus
The lotus flower represents beauty and non-attachment.
It grows from the muddy waters without becoming dirty.
This symbolizes the Hindu belief that one should live in the
world without attachment to one’s surroundings.
5. Herons
There are several white herons in the river, which are
symbolic of vigilance, longevity, and happiness.
5.
TREES
A source of sustenance, shelter, building associated with specific deities or spirits,
material, and firewood, trees are associated while fruit-bearing trees, such as the date
with fertility, longevity, and strength. They palm, often represent the Tree of Life.
represent dynamic life, death, and new Evergreens denote immortality, while
growth, and symbolically link Heaven, Earth, deciduous trees signify rebirth; others
and the underworld. Many are sacred and serve as community focal points.
Fig
a source of food since earliest
times, the fig was regarded as
a Tree of life in parts of asia,
oceania, and egypt. It
symbolizes fecundity, prosperity,
and peace; in Buddhism it
represents moral instruction.
The fig leaf is associated with
male genitalia.
Almond Peach
The Persian Tree of Heaven, one of the Three Blessed
the almond tree also represents Fruits of Buddhism, the peach
divine grace, hidden truth, and is a highly auspicious symbol in
virginity. In Chinese culture it Japanese and Chinese cultures.
symbolizes feminine beauty and It signifies joy, immortality, and
resilience. as the first flower feminine charms. Peach wood
of the year to “awaken”, the was thought to repel demons,
almond is also associated while fallen blossom represents
with vigilance. femininity and prostitutes.
PNAAO
Yggdrasil
52 The Tree of Life in Nordic mythology was a giant ash, Yggdrasil,
which linked the realms of the gods, humans, and the underworld;
from its roots sprang a fountain from which rivers flowed.
sacred trees
Bodhi tree Trees have always been seen as powerful symbols of life, death,
a sacred fig tree under
which the Buddha gained and renewal and some are deemed sacred. They are associated
enlightenment, the Bodhi,
or Bo, is associated with with fertility, knowledge, protection, and creation.
wisdom and mindfulness.
O=?NA@PNAAO
symbolic of the stages of revelation. For Buddhists it is a
Tree of Knowledge specific tree that has religious significance. The Bodhi tree
The biblical Tree of the is believed to be a descendant of the sacred fig tree under
Knowledge of Good and
evil represents duality which the Buddha found Enlightenment while meditating
and the separation of over 2,500 years ago. The site of this original tree and of other
nature and the divine. trees grown from its shoots are regarded as holy sites.
The snake is temptation,
while the fruit represents
forbidden knowledge. See alSo
Trees pp.94–95
Creation stories pp.156–57
Buddhism pp.164–69
53
Kabbalah pp.174–75
fruits of the earth
Symbolic of fertility and immortality, fruit is of humans fall from grace. The smell and
a glorious product that encompasses the seed taste of fruit, packed with seeds and dripping
of the next generation. Fruit is associated juices, is linked to sensuality. This symbolism
with the Tree of Life, which provided food has often been used in art. Many fruits
for the gods. It is also linked to the Tree of are also attributed to deities and have
Knowledge of Good and Evil as an emblem religious significance.
Fig Pineapple
The fig is an almost universal In the West
symbol of fertility. Traditionally, Indies the
the fig tree represents the Tree pineapple was
of Life and symbolizes both a dual symbol Melon
male and female; the fig leaf of deterrence Melons represent fertility, sweetness, moisture, and vitality. Their
standing for male and the fruit and hospitality; sensual abundance also links them to luxury and gluttony, while their
for female. In Hebrew tradition it is known as rapid growth signifies creative power. In China melons are traditionally
54 the fig stands for peace and a hospitality associated with fertility and their seeds are sometimes seen at
prosperity. The Kotoko of Chad emblem in the weddings. In northern Europe their rarity once suggested wealth.
associate it with childbearing. United States.
Gourd Mango
The gourd has been used Sometimes described as the
as a water bottle, ritual mask, food of the gods, the mango
musical instrument, and even is a Hindu symbol of love and
a penis sheath. It is widely fertility. Its leaf represents life
associated with creation and and is used ritually to invoke
fertility myths in many cultures; good fortune. The paisley
Maoris use it in birthing rituals. pattern is a mango motif
elsewhere, it is linked to copied from 15th-century
healing and the supernatural. Kashmiri shawls. Pomegranate
Shown here in a Roman mosaic, the pomegranate is a fruit bursting with
glistening seeds. It is a solar emblem representing fertility (the womb) and life-
blood. In China this theme evolved to signify the blessing of many virtuous
children. In Greek myth the pomegranate is associated with rejuvenation.
BNQEPOKBPDAA=NPD
Almond
The almond’s association with
purity originates from a Greek
myth concerning the virgin birth
of attis; in China, it represents
feminine beauty. an odd
number of almonds are given
for luck at weddings. The
almond is also a biblical symbol
of hastening old age.
Honey
Golden honey represents
immortality and was the food
of the gods. associated
with fertility, it was
thought to be an
aphrodisiac. In
Christianity honey Coffee
represents the legend maintains that coffee
sweetness of the was discovered by ethiopian
divine word; shepherds who noticed goats
combined with oil, became skittish after chewing
the Chinese equate it Chocolate coffee berries. as its popularity
with false friendship. Regarded as an aphrodisiac, chocolate symbolizes sensuality and spread and coffee houses
decadence. It was sacred to the Maya and aztecs, and chocolate proliferated, coffee came
drinks played an important role in Mayan betrothal and marriage to symbolize sociability
rituals. The aztecs used cacao seeds as currency and chocolate- and hospitality.
drinking was restriced to the elite; its luxury image remains.
BKK@OKBPDAA=NPD
Salt
once a precious commodity, salt
was given in lieu of wages to
soldiers in ancient Rome. Its
long association with meat
preservation led to symbolism
concerning purity and spiritual
incorruptibility. In Christianity,
it represents divine wisdom; in
folklore, throwing salt over
one’s shoulder dispels bad luck.
Tea
Symbolic of family,
hospitality, and
harmony, tea is ritually
significant in the east. In China visiting See alSo
diplomats are often presented with The head pp.106–09 Judaism pp.172–73
tea-making paraphernalia to symbolize Fertility & childbirth Christianity pp.176–79
peaceful resolution; in Japan the tea ceremony pp.120–23
-,-
is a Zen-influenced art form that signifies discipline, Love & marriage pp.126–27
respect, and tranquillity. Creation stories pp.156–57
W
e are set apart from part of the body has its own symbolism,
animals by our ability to inspired by its function or appearance. The
reason, to invent, and to head, for example, variously represents the
create, as exemplified in life-force, the seat of reason, and spirituality;
our myths, symbols, and its importance is reflected by the fact that
signs. For milennia, philosophers have people in authority are called “heads”, and
debated the human place in the cosmos, and royalty is crowned. The eye is all-seeing and
how we should deal with the fundamental the “window of the soul”, whereas the nose is
issues of birth, life, and death. To create order usually seen as phallic, and the hair is thought
and meaning in our lives, we have constructed to be a sign of strength. Symbolically, the male
various rituals and symbolisms to accompany is equated to fire and is phallic, while the
the key milestones in people’s lives, such as female is related to water and is receptive.
birth, puberty, marriage, and death. Together, they form a whole and, like the Sun
In the ancient world the human body was and waters, symbolize creativity.
often seen as the universe in microcosm; the Early societies noticed that the human life
Chinese believed that a healthy body cycle, particularly that of the female, had its
represented Yin-Yang in perfect balance, while parallel in the changing rhythm of the seasons.
many religions associate it Gods and symbols were closely connected
with Divine Power – with the fertility of the soil and the seasonal
hence, gods appeared patterns of growth, death, and regeneration.
in human form. Every A golden wheat sheaf, for example, symbolizes
-,0
fertility and child, and initiation and marriage ceremonies.
EARLY SOCIETIES abundance. Many These rituals not only marked important
NOTICED THAT THE cultures emphasize transition points but also served as a means
HUMAN LIFE CYCLE, the male principle of regulating and unifying society.
PARTICULARLY in fertility, and the Every culture deals with death differently
THAT OF THE phallus became and this is reflected in the way people bury
FEMALE, HAD ITS venerated as a their dead, and how they mourn and
PARALLEL IN THE potent symbol remember them. Great care is often taken to
CHANGING of male fertility, ensure the deceased would have a safe passage
RHYTHM OF THE represented in to the afterlife, and there are numerous myths
SEASONS columns, obelisks, about life beyond death. Some afterworlds are
and maypoles. joyous places, others places of limbo or dread;
However, in early agrarian communities a often this is seen as either a reward or a
mother goddess embodying the female punishment for an individual’s behaviour
principle was seen as the source of all life. during his or her lifetime.
Deities and symbols of childbirth and Death and mourning rituals are also laden
fertility helped promote conception, ease a with symbolism, from the placement of graves
painful labour, or ensure a healthy child; the to the colour of mourning clothes; other
vulva-like cowrie shell is one such symbolic symbols also evolved that spoke of death, such
talisman. Various complex social and religious as the Grim Reaper or rotting fruit, and serve
rituals were also developed, such as naming a as a reminder that life on this Earth is short.
EJPNK@Q?PEKJ
-,1
THE HEAD
In many cultures the head is considered spirituality. Such is its significance as a
the most important part of the human symbol of life that heads are bowed as
body because it contains the brain. a sign of respect, crowns are placed on
It is symbolic of the life force the heads of royalty, winners are given
within. The head is the seat of crowns of glory, and people in
reason, wisdom, intellect, and authority are known as “heads”.
IQHPELHADA=@O PDAA=NO
Mythology is full of creatures – whether men, Symbolically, the ear’s shape associates it with the
spirits, or gods – with many heads, each of which spiral and the shell. The shell is a birth symbol
represents an aspect of its owner. Hecate was linked to the vulva and this accounts for the idea
first depicted as a three-headed deity in the 5th of birth from an ear, which occurs in Hindu
century. Her heads show three sides of her mythology: Karma was born from his mother’s
character and are sometimes replaced with a dog, ear. The ear is also linked to the breath of life; in
a horse, and a serpent. Multiple-headed beings, Egyptian symbolism the right ear receives the
such as Brahma, are more common in the East, “air of life” and the left ear the “air of death”. In
especially in Hinduism and Buddhism. Africa ears are symbols of sexual nature, while in
Buddhism and Jainism long ears relate to wisdom.
Shiva Satyr
Usually shown with only one Hecate The goat-like satyrs, the followers
head, Shiva has three here. Statues of the Roman goddess of Dionysus, are depicted with
The one in the centre is Hecate were often found at prominent, pointed ears. The goat
Shiva himself; the right forks in the road. Her three symbolizes male sexuality,
head represents his heads symbolize her ability to and these ears highlight the
consort, Parvati; the see in all directions, offering satyrs’ wild, uncontrollable spirit,
left head is Bhairava, protection to travellers at as well as their attraction to
Shiva’s fierce aspect. these dangerous junctions. sensual pleasure.
DQI=JHEBA
PDAJKOA
Widely seen as a symbol of sharpness, the nose
means discernment and perceptiveness. It is also
characterized as a symbol of prying or meddling.
Osiris Enlightenment Because it is used for the sense of smell, it is
The Egyptian hieroglyph for the In Hinduism and Buddhism the respected by hunter-gatherer tribes, who collect
god Osiris is an eye above a third eye, or Eye of Wisdom,
throne, meaning “the place of located on the sixth chakra (or the snouts of the beasts they have killed. It is
the eye”. According to myth, brow chakra) of a deity, signifies widely seen as a phallic symbol, so men prefer
Horus gave the eye to Osiris enlightenment. a large nose, whereas women prefer a small nose,
as a gift, to help him rule
the underworld. indicating femininity and sexual awareness.
Cyclops
In Greek mythology the Cyclops
were a race of brutish giants,
each with a single eye in the
middle of its forehead. This is
considered by some to indicate
the subhuman condition and
The prow of a boat Peacock feathers diminished consciousness.
The evil eye is one of the most The Greek giant Argos had 100 Tengu Pinocchio
widespread superstitions, and eyes, and only a few slept at any In Japan priests who seek In the Italian novel Pinocchio
talismans in the form of eyes one time. On Argos’s death, Hera, fame and misuse the Buddhist by Carlo Collodi the eponymous
are used to protect against it. queen of the gods, set his eyes scriptures become tenguu – long- puppet’s nose grew longer
In the Mediterranean, eyes into the peacock’s tail, which nosed mountain demons – after whenever he lied. A hand
are sometimes painted on came to signify a preoccupation their deaths. Proud people in gesture pulling out from the
boats to ward off the evil spell. with the external world. Japan are shown with long nose now signifies that a
noses and are also called tengu. person is lying.
Zeus Shiva
Several Ancient Greek heroes Often shown with a pile of
had long hair, and Greek densely matted hair resembling
soldiers wore their hair long in a crown, Shiva never cut his
battle as a sign of aristocracy. hair because it was believed
Here the luxuriant locks of Zeus, to hold a magical source of
king of the gods, symbolize his power and energy. It is usually
divine power and virility. decorated with a crescent.
PDAPKJCQA
As the organ of speech, the tongue can destroy
or create. It is often likened to a flame because
of its darting movement and red colour. To the
Ancient Egyptians, the tongue was the visible
manifestation of the spoken word, through
which the god Ptah created the universe. In
many cultures images of a face with a “stuck-out”
tongue are used to ward off harmful spirits.
DQI=JHEBA
PDAIKQPD
The mouth is the channel through which we talk, eat, and breathe. It is THE LIPS
seen as a symbol of creative force. But the ability to reason and speak our
thoughts can be undermined by what we say. Our words can lead us into The full, reddened lips of a woman are
either an elevated world or a lower, debased world. The mouth is considered attractive because they mimic the
sometimes depicted as the lips of an angel or the jaws of a monster. sexual swelling of the female genitalia. Full
lips are appealing because the more oestrogen
a woman has, the fuller her lips will be, thereby
signalling fertility. Lipstick mimics this, giving
vi
the impression of sexual arousal.
Mouth of Hell
In medieval Christian art the entrance to Hell is often shown as the
PDADA=@
gaping fiery mouth of the huge reptilian monster Leviathan. In this
Doom painting, those unworthy of Heaven are taken by demons to the
mouth of Hell, beyond which lies eternal pain and torment.
SEE ALSO
Egyptian deities pp.138–39
Greek & Roman deities pp. 140–141
Hinduism pp.158–63
Buddhism pp.164–69
Christianity pp.176–79
Picture writing pp.300–05
DQI=JHEBA
Scalping
To the American Indians, a man’s scalp symbolized his life force. It was removed not only
as a trophy of war but also to verify the courage of the warrior who won it. Occasionally,
the victim of a scalping survived, though with severe injuries. Many rituals surrounded
the bringing home of scalps from war, and their drying and decoration.
HEAD TROPHIES
Skull cup The skull is one of the most striking of all symbols. A widely-
Used in Tibetan Buddhism,
the skull cap is a decorated held belief that the power of the human soul resided in the
cup or bowl made from a
human skull. It represents head made skulls, and heads, prized trophies in many cultures.
impermanence.
The image of a grinning skull is a visual metaphor for sought to transfer the victim’s soul, or life force, to himself,
mortality, particularly in the West. It appears as a warning his land, and his community. Headhunting was an important
on toxic products, for example, or as a grim means of renewing fertility and spiritual
icon on a memorial stone. But in some power after a death in the community, or a
cultures attitudes are very different and failed harvest. In some cultures heads were
people honour the skull as powerful source tokens of manhood, and young men could
of life and fertility, rather than fearing it as a marry only after taking their first head. In
terrifying symbol of death. Southeast Asia and Melanesia among tribes
such as the Iban, Ilongot, and Dayak,
O=?NA@OGQHHO headhunting was a ritual, as well as an act
Because of its association with the soul and of war. The Maoris preserved their enemies’
the afterlife, the skull has strong religious heads by smoking them after removing the
connotations. The cult of the skull as a skull. In China, too, Qin soldiers collected
sacred object was widespread among ancient their enemies’ heads. As most of the soldiers
peoples. In Nordic mythology, the skull of the The place of the skull were slaves, they gained their freedom by
giant Ymir became the vault of Heaven after The crucifixion of Christ occurred at Golgotha, returning from war with such trophies.
said by some to be the spot where Adam’s
his death; in pre-Columbian America, the skull lay buried. Christ’s blood dripping on it
skull was honoured by the Aztecs and other was said to cleanse man of Original Sin. ODNQJGAJDA=@O
tribes. Skulls also appear in the iconography Of the many
of many Hindu and Buddhist deities, often in garlands or on headhunting cultures worldwide,
a sceptre. As a Christian emblem, the skull is associated with only the Jivaro clan, of the Amazon
penitence and is a pious reminder of the transience of life. forests of Ecuador and Peru, is
known for the practice of shrinking
DA=@DQJPEJCNEPQ=HO human heads, or tsantsa. By
Until recently, taking human acquiring a head in battle, a Jivaro
heads as symbols of power warrior increased his own personal
was common among certain power, or arutam, but the dead
peoples in parts of Southeast man’s soul was still considered
Asia, Oceania, and South dangerous. Shrinking the head
skull was removed, and the
America. The custom arose destroyed its power and prevented the skin was filled with hot
from the belief that the soul victim’s avenging spirit from returning. sand or pebbles. The head
resided in the head; through The head was also thought to improve was then massaged until
it shrank.
decapitation, the headhunter the growth of crops.
1. The circle
During the Renaissance humanists likened the perfection
of the circle to God. They believed that a person,
represented here by Leonardo’s figure, formed the circle,
or spiritual world, by the circular motion of his/her body,
which symbolized the creative spirit that lifted people
above the limitations of the physical world, or square.
2. The square
Man the microcosm
The figure stands within the square that is superimposed on
Agrippa of Nettesheim (1486–1535) was the foremost Renaissance author on the
the circle. Some people believe that Leonardo was not only
subjects of magic, astrology, and esoterica. His best-known work, the three-part
providing an exercise in proportion but also showing
De Occulta Philosophia, examines the concept – widely held at the time – that the
symbolically how someone can be simultaneously in the
Universe is built on the model of a man and has a soul. Agrippa visualized a man,
natural and spiritual worlds.
the microcosm, in the same shape as a pentagram representing the Universe, or
macrocosm. In this drawing, the five points of the pentagram jointly represent
3. Divine proportion
the parts of the body and the planets, shown as symbols, that were known to
Following Vitruvius’s lead, Leonardo’s main intention in this
astrologers at the time, At the top are the head and the planet Mars; the arms
drawing was to illustrate the concept of what is known as
correlate to Venus (left) and Jupiter (right); the legs correlate to Mercury (left) and
the Divine Proportion. According to this principle, each
Saturn (right). The Moon appears at the centre of the pentagram, near the genitals.
separate part of the body is a simple fraction of the whole.
For example, the head measured from the forehead to
the chin is exactly one tenth of the total height, and the
outstretched arms are always as wide as the body is tall.
The Divine Proportion of the human body reflects the
symmetry that occurs throughout the Universe.
--/
Leonardo da Vinci,The Vitruvian Man, 1492
HUMAN BODY
H
The human body was considered in many beyond their biological functions. In many
traditions to be the microcosm of the religions the human figure symbolized the
universe: everything that existed outside of a Divine Power and was the principal symbol
person was represented within. Most cultures of the sacred. Gods appeared in human form,
allocated symbolism to every part of the and the Old Testament states that “God made
body and gave these parts meaning man in his own image”.
PDAOGAHAPKJ PDA>KJAO
The grim image of a human ske As the framework of the human body, bones
the personification of Death. In epresent strength, stability, and determination.
antiquity skeletons are present The Amazonian Yanomana tribe believed the
as a reminder of life’s fleeting pl oul resided in bone marrow, so they ate the
The skeleton is often depicted s marrow of deceased relatives to ensure their
to both priests and peasants as pirit lived on. For this reason, bone marrow
that Death treats all people equ ymbolizes immortality and resurrection.
Tarot
of Death Ribs
In tarot th The Bible’s book of
shows arm Genesis tells how God
heads gro took a rib from Adam
field of life to make Eve. The rib
skeleton i has therefore come
one of the to symbolize woman,
The card c born of man.
change an
transforma
as well
as death.
Day o
In Mexico
as one mo
contend w
ultimate l
venerate t
during Day
ceremonie
DJED PRIMARY CHAKRAS
sweets ar
of a skele Spine
couple wa he pillar-like djedd represents the backbone of Egyptian god Osiris.
wedding c n Tantric Buddhism the primary chakras (centres of energy in the body)
un down the spine and open to release energy during meditation.
PDAKNC=JO
In Egypt, during mummification, four THE HEART
organs – the liver, lungs, stomach, and intestines
– were placed in separate canopic jars. Each Long used to symbolize the spiritual and emotional core of a human being,
was protected by one of the four sons of Horus the heart is widely associated with love, while
hile the word “heart”
he is used
and associated with one of the four cardinal poetically to refer to the soul. Stylized depictions of hearts are used to
directions. In China the organs are associated represent love, and the Sacred Heart, often wrapped in a crown of thorns
with the seven bodily orifices. and situated on the chest of Christ, is a popular motif in Christian art.
Intestines
The endless knot, a symbol of longevity and eternity, is thought to Weighing the heart
be a stylized image of the intestines, while the giant Humbaba in The heart played a fundamental part in Ancient Egyptian beliefs.
Assyrian mythology is said in some accounts to have had a face In the Hall of Judgment the heart of the deceased was weighed
resembling the coiled entrails of men and beasts. against an ostrich feather of Ma’at, goddess of truth and justice. Human sacrifice
For the Aztecs the heart
was the centre of their
life force and religion.
Thousands of human
hearts, often still beating,
were offered up to the
The winged heart Sun god to ensure thee
The winged heart, meaning ascension, is a symbol of the Sufi renewal of crops and
movement,
ovement, a mystic branch of Islam. It indicates
in that the heart regeneration off the
th soil.
is between soul and body, a medium between spirit and matter.
PDAHEI>O
Our legs and arms are seen as the most active
RAISED ARMS IN SAYDEH MURAL
parts of the body. Legs are a sign of balance and
onward movement. They symbolize good luck
DQI=J>K@U
and are depicted in the four-limbed swastika and
in three-legged signs, portraying fertility and
regeneration. The arm shows strength, power, EGYPTIAN HIEROGLYPHIC ARM SIGN
PDAD=J@O
The hands are infinitely expressive and capable
of displaying a wide range of gestures, each with
different meanings. Hands can be an instrument
of command but may also signify protection,
creation, blessing, power, a pledge, strength,
and teaching. Healers work by the “laying on”
of hands; people holding hands convey love and
affection; we shake hands when meeting others;
and we offer a “helping hand” to those in need.
Hand of God
A hand reaching out from Heaven is often a depiction of the hand of
God. Traditionally, God’s left hand is concerned with justice, and His
right with mercy. The hand of God creates and protects, but if His
laws are not obeyed, it also punishes.
Hamsa hand
This ancient hand symbol,
most commonly known as the
Hamsa or Hamesh, is used as a
protective amulet by both
Jews and Muslims to
guard against the evil
eye. In some instances,
a stylized eye appears
in the centre of the palm
of the hand.
Creator gods Faith and justice Hand washing
The hands of the Egyptian In heraldry a hand on a crest The washing of hands indicates
creator gods, Ptah and Khnum, or shield is a pledge of faith, innocence, and stems from
are symbols of creative power. sincerity, and justice; two joined Pontius Pilate washing his
Ptah created the heavens and right hands represent union and hands after the trial of Christ.
DQI=JHEBA
Earth, while Khnum (shown alliance. The open hand may Clean hands imply a pure and
here) made people. also signify the Sun. sin-free soul.
Hands on gravestones
Many meanings are seen in
hands on gravestones. Shaking
hands are a farewell to Earth; an
upward index finger is the hope
of Heaven; clutching an arrow
--2 means “mortality”; and hands
held over a broken chain mean
the loss of a family member.
HANDSHAKE INDEX FINGER POINTING UP CLUTCHING AN ARROW HANDS ABOVE A BROKEN CHAIN
Unit of measurement
In Asia, long fingernails were The hand as a unit of
considered a sign of wealth, measurement dates back to
since only the rich could Egyptian times. Today this
preserve their nails by being unit of measurement is used
Clasped and hidden hands idle. These intricately carved primarily in defining the height
In China clasping one’s hands together, often hidden by long sleeves, gold nail guards are from China of horses, though in Bali
denotes respect and amiability, since the hands cannot then be used and would have been used to a man’s house is still built
in aggression. Hands raised, palms together, as a form of greeting are preserve long fingernails. according to his own size, based
also symbolic of respect being shown. on hand width and arm length.
PDA BAAP
The power of mobility and a “solid foundation” is symbolized by our feet.
In Hinduism, feet are seen as a point of divine contact between human
beings and Earth. In the Middle East one showed respect for a visitor or
friend by washing their feet, while in Asia feet are considered unclean, so
it is taboo to point the soles of your feet towards another person.
D=J@O"BAAP
incarnation, he requested King reason, demonic beings are
Bali grant him as much land as often depicted with feet that
he could cover in three steps. differ from those of a person –
On reverting to full size, he set either hairy, emphasizing the
Bare feet one foot on Earth, one in the air, demon’s animal nature, or
In the West bare feet are a
sign of humility and poverty.
Christ and the Apostles,
Franciscan friars, and saints Feet washing SEE ALSO
are all depicted in art without Washing a pilgrim’s feet is the first symbolic act of hospitality Death & mourning pp.128–31
footwear. Eastern nations performed in monasteries along the pilgrimage roads. The washing Hinduism pp.158–63
customarily perform all acts itself recalls Christ’s own actions at the Last Supper. He washed Satan & demons pp.190–91
of religious worship with bare the feet of His disciples at the meal as a means of expressing His Amulets pp.194–95
feet. In antiquity bare feet were humble service and love. The humility is implied due to the perception Heraldic emblems pp.318–23
also a sign of mourning. of the feet as unclean parts of the body. Symbolic gestures pp.334–37
Q@@D=ÑOBKKPLNEJP
ddha’s footprints, Buddhapada, are found at
any Buddhist temples and are seen as signs of
e Buddha’s presence. It is believed that he left
em to guide us to enlightenment. Many are
corated with symbolic images, including the
, 108, or 132 distinctive signs of the Buddha.
hese footprints from the Indian stupa of
maravati are surrounded by symbolic motifs.
2 1
5 3
7
4
Swastika
swastika means “the auspicious” and is an Ancient
an symbol.
Triratna
triratna mark is a felicitous symbol in which a three-
nged element surmounts a flower motif; it symbolizes
three jewels of Buddhism – the Buddha, Buddhist Law
arma), and the community of monks (sangha).
Lotus flowers
feet are surrounded by intertwined lotus flowers.
lotus is another of the Eight Auspicious Symbols. The
ts of a lotus are entrenched in the mud, the stem grows
hrough the water, and the flower lies in the sunlight,
mbolizing purity and enlightenment.
Toes
g, straight toes that are all the same length are one
he 32 signs of Buddhahood.
Knot
knotted shape symbolizes the infinite wisdom
he Buddha.
Small figure
enevolent spirit, or yaksha, sits in the area around the
s. His umbilical cord is a vine on which grows jewels in
form of fruit.
--5
FERTILITY &
F
CHILDBIRTH
Throughout human history people have while the Egyptians had countless gods to
revered fertility and birth symbols, from call upon to aid fertility. Major pagan rituals
phalluses to patron saints. Every ancient occurred in spring, celebrating rebirth and
civilization had important rituals focusing fertility. The arrival of Christianity did not
on the creation of new life and plentiful end the belief in fertility symbols. Indeed,
harvests. The Mesopotamians are believed to they are so deeply rooted in our culture that
have made figurines for use in fertility rites, many are still used today.
BANPEHEPUCK@O Min
From the earliest times and in every culture, Egyptian deity Min was the god of fertility in animals and crops,
and as such he was in charge of the rain. At harvest time he was
the regular birth of children ensured survival. praised in the hope that he would bless the cro
Cultures developed many deities to watch Min is always d
over and promote fertility. By paying homage
to deities, worshippers were calling forth
specialized energy to aid them in their
endeavour. These gods represented the fertility
of people and the land upon which they lived.
The linga
In India Shiva, the supreme god Astarte
of creative energy, was often This exaggerated gold figure depicts
represented by and worshipped Astarte, or Ashtart, a Semitic goddes
as a phallic symbol called the sexual love, maternity, and fertility. It
DQI=JHEBA
Cornucopia
The word “cornucopia” literally means “horn of plenty”, from cornu
(horn) and copiaee (abundance, plenty). The cornucopia was used to
Wheat sheaf Sheela na Gig evoke abundance in Ancient Greek and Roman art, and it was often
EH@>ENPD
The sheaf of wheat Carvings of women with shown overflowing with fruit, wheat, and flowers.
signifies a good an exaggerated vulva
harvest, fertility, are commonly found
and a closeness to the in Ireland on
Earth and her resources. churches of SEE ALSO
To early agricultural people, the medieval
Aquatic creatures pp.68–71
a good wheat harvest period. They Fruits of the Earth pp.98–99
assured plenty of the were seen as Hinduism pp.158–63
bread that would keep protective fertility Christianity pp.176–79 -.-
the community alive symbols.
throughout the winter.
LD=HHE?OUI>KHO
The phallus, the erect male sex organ, is a
symbol of fertility and strength. Phallic symbols
are among the most ancient objects excavated
in both Asia and Europe, indicating a longtime
concern with fertility. The phallus can be seen in
deities, such as the Greco-Roman god Priapus, or Cerne Abbas
objects, like the Shiva linga of India. It was also The Cerne Abbas giant, or
“Rude Man”, is the largest hill
glorified through fertility rites centred around figure in Britain. Carved into
the maypole and the pillar. the earth to expose the chalk
beneath, the giant is 55m
(180ft) long. His monstrous
Bull’s horn on chain phallus and huge club symbolize
The bull is a potent symbol of the fertility and renewal.
masculine principle in nature, full
of procreative power, and was
worshipped in Egypt, India, and
parts of the Mediterranean. Today Maenad and thyrsos
a bull’s horn on a chain is a popular Sacred to the Greek god
jewellery item among young men. Dionysus, the thyrsos, an
ivy-twined, pine-cone-tipped
Herm staff, is an obvious phallic
The street corners in Ancient Athens each
had a herm, dedicated to Hermes. A herm
was a square column topped with the god’s
head, on which were sculpted erect penises,
which passers-by would touch for luck.
Rocket
The rocket is a classic
phallic shape, and even
the language associated
with it, such as “thrust”, is
pseudo-sexual. It may Psychologists claim that any vehicle – such as a car, motorbike,
ke
be interpreted as a male or scooter – has the potential of a phallic symbol, and for many
ny
desire to conquer – in the sports car is the ultimate. It represents sexual potency and
-.. this instance,
instance space.
space generative power with its expense, length, and high-octane engi
>ENPDOUI>KHO
Bringing a child into the world is the ultimate
act of procreation and regeneration, and as
such it has been revered and mythologized
throughout history. Childbirth has many
accompanying symbols and rituals designed to
protect the mother, to assure the health of the
child, or simply to celebrate the miracle of birth. Scorpio
One of the most potent universal symbols of The zodiac sign for Scorpio
rules the male and female sex
birth is water, which is associated with the organs and therefore has close
feminine principle and the universal womb. links to reproduction. All
arrowed zodiac symbols are
linked to the masculine.
Hippopotamus
In Ancient Egypt the
part-hippo deity,
Tawaret, was goddess Ka Stork
of all things feared by The Egyptian hieroglyph ka Long associated with childbirth,
man. But once it was is usually translated as “soul”, the stork is a fertility symbol
understood that the or “spirit”. The kaa came into that is also linked to birth and
female hippo’s existence when an individual springtime. The concept of a
aggression was to was born and acted as an stork delivering newborn babies
protect her young, invisible double, representing to their mothers is taught to
Tawaret became that person’s life force. children throughout North
overseer of childbirth. America and Europe.
CQ=N@E=JOKB Frigg
?DEH@>ENPD A Nordic goddess of women,
motherhood, and household
Because childbirth has always been a risky and management, Frigg was the
important event, it is unsurprising that so many wife of Odin and the patron of
guardians and goddesses are called upon for childbirth, granting aid to
women suffering the pains of
help. Most cultures had some kind of protector labour. Scandinavians used the
at this time, whether a goddess of childbirth, such plant lady’s bedstraw (Galium
as the Romans’ Lucina, a guardian of both mother verum) as a gentle sedative
during a difficult birth, dubbing
and child, the Greek goddess Juno, and the it “Frigg’s grass”.
Egyptians’ Isis and Hathor; or the many Roman
Catholic saints.
BANPEHEPU"?DEH@>ENPD
St. Anne
According to apocryphal
Christian literature, St. Anne
was the mother of the Virgin
Mary. She is the saint to whom
pregnant women pray for a
safe pregnancy and delivery
Hecate and enough milk to feed the
In addition to her role as newborn child. Over the
protector of travellers at road centuries, St. Anne has become
junctions, Hecate was also a one of the most popular saints.
goddess of childbirth. In this
Ixchel St. Gerard Majella guise, she was often called
In Mayan culture Ixchel was the Many hospitals dedicate their upon to ease the pains of
labour, as well as to guarantee SEE ALSO
goddess of pregnancy and maternity wards to the patron
the health of a child. As a Birds pp.58–61
childbirth. She was also called saint of pregnancy and
midwife, she carried a sacred Greek and Roman deities pp.140–41
the goddess of becoming. As expectant mothers. In life, he Celtic and Nordic deities pp.142–43
a fertility deity, she made devoted himself to pregnant knife to cut the umbilical cord.
Meso- and South American deities pp.144–45 -./
women fruitful and sent women after being falsely Western astrology pp.200–03
fertilizing rains to the Earth. accused of fathering a child. Picture writing pp.300–05
DQI=JHEBA
Circumcision
The ritual of circumcision has a long history and is practised in many
traditional communities. The Ancient Egyptians, seen here in this carved
stone panel, regarded the circumcized penis as a symbol of fertility.
INITIATION RITES
Baptism Between the two fixed points of birth and death humans go
The rite of purification
with water is usually through significant changes. Milestones in life, such as entry
associated with
acceptance into the to the adult world, are often marked by symbolic rites.
Christian faith.
Among the most important events in the human life cycle with, which is thought to carry negative influences from
is the passage of an individual from one status to another. a previous life. The shaving symbolizes cutting off the past
Occasions such as a child acquiring a name and preparing the child for the future.
or passing into adulthood are often defined
by ceremonies to introduce the person to =@KHAO?AJ?A
their new status and wish them well. Life’s milestones are often recognized in a
religious ceremony, such as Bar Mitzvah in
J=IEJC?ANAIKJEAO Judaism. In some societies a young person
A ceremony observed in almost every culture on the brink of maturity undergoes
is the naming of a child. Many Christians character-testing rituals during which he
baptize their children in a symbolic or she experiences a symbolic “death”, only
purification rite that confers membership to reappear as an adult. Usually, the rites
of the Christian Church. In Greece babies are include a period of trial and learning, when
named in a ceremony that takes place either the initiate is separated from the community.
on the fifth or seventh day after birth. For adolescent boys, circumcision, removal
Traditionally, when a boy is born, the family of the foreskin of the penis, is often the final
hangs a crown of olive leaves above their Life transition stage of such ceremonies. The painful rite is
door to symbolize success. At Islamic naming After spending time in the bush, gaining symbolic of the child’s entry into manhood;
knowledge, these ochre-painted Australian
ceremonies an animal is sometimes sacrificed Aboriginal boys are awaiting circumcision. in some cultures circumcision represents the
as a symbol of thanksgiving to God for the removal of “female” aspects of the male.
gift of the child. Female circumcision is less common and girls are more likely
to celebrate the onset of
NEPQ=HD=EN?QPPEJC menstruation. In Ghana
Around the world, initiation rites vary according to belief the girl is ritually bathed
and culture. However, some, such as ritual haircutting, are and given new cloth; in
EJEPE=PEKJNEPAO
common to a wide diversity of societies and religions. Jewish Nepal a Buddhist ritual
boys, for example, have their first haircut at the age of three, keeps the girl away from
as a sign that they are ready to start learning. Hindu babies sunlight and all men for 12
have their heads shaved to remove the hair they were born days. Zulu girls smear clay
on their bodies to represent Puberty ritual
Bar Mitzvah a return to the innocence In the dipoo puberty ritual performed by the Krobo
Meaning “Son of the people of Ghana, young girls spend time in
of infancy, after which they seclusion before appearing at a public ceremony
Commandment”, Bar Mitzvah
marks the initiation of the emerge as adults. dressed in traditional clothes and jewellery.
13-year-old Jewish boy into
adherence to the Torah. For SEE ALSO
girls, the similarly named Hinduism pp.158–63
Bat Mitzvah occurs at the Buddhism pp.164–69
age of 12. This boy is being Judaism pp.172–73
initiated at the Western Christianity pp.176–79
Wall in Jerusalem.
LOVE & MARRIAGE
The earliest, and perhaps strongest, social love is what makes the world go round, and
ties experienced by people everywhere are it is certainly central to the life and well-being
those of the family. Marriage therefore plays of many people. Symbols of love have evolved
a vital role in society and symbolizes order almost everywhere – from the English red
and stability. In the West it is declared that rose to the maple leaf of Japan and China.
HKRAPKGAJO
Love tokens have long been used in bids to
woo women, because they were considered
a genuine and respectable way to show one’s
affection. Many love symbols and tokens hav
their origin in ancient times – the Moon and Heart pierced by arrow TTurtlel doves
d
stars are emblematic of passion, seduction, any cultures believe that Turtle doves mate for life and
e heart is the seat of human are therefore seen as a symbol
and fidelity, for example – but lovers through motion, particularly love. When of love, fidelity, and peace.
the centuries have also turned to flowers, pid (Eros) shoots an arrow The dove is associated with
perfumes, gemstones, animals, tarot imagery, o a heart, it causes the victim Venus as sign of spring and
fall passionately in love. This sensuality. In association with
and colour to help them express their feeling why love is said to be both the olive branch it is a sign of
easurable and painful. peace and renewed life.
ALENTINES
ALENTINE Valentine’s Day card
The Victorians
Vict took
Valentine’s
alentine’s cards to
The earliest surviving written
writ valentine is a verse by elaborate lengths, Love spoons
Charles, Duke of Orleans.
rleans It was sent to his wife in France depicting any or all of o the Ornately carved love spoons
symbols associatedd w with are traditionally given by young
while he was held at the Tower of London, following Welsh suitors as tokens of
love and lovers: turtle
turtl
capture at the Battle of Agincourt in 1415. Today, cards doves, lovers’s’ knots ini gold affection. Made from a single
are sent on St. Valentine’s Day, 14 February. The first or silver, bows and arrows,
a piece of wood, a love spoon
rings,
s, red roses, Cupids,
Cup may incorporate several
literary link between this day and romance
omance was probably romantic symbols, such as
hands, forget-me-nots,
forget-me-not and
in Geoffrey Chaucer’s Parliament of Fowlss (1382).) bleeding hearts. hearts (“my heart is yours”).
I=NNE=CA
Marriage is one of the earliest social institutions
created by man, and marriage rites are observed
in almost every historically known society.
Formed for the purpose of procreation, it is the
union of opposites – male-female, Yin-Yang,
god-goddess – to form a whole. People marry Gold ring Russian wedding ring Puzzle ring
within their own group or outside it. Alliances The wedding band symbolizes These rings intertwine bands of In the Middle East puzzle rings
eternity by having no beginning three different colours of gold: were worn by wives to show
are made between families and strong social ties or end. Traditionally, both rose, yellow, and white. They faithfulness to their husband.
are formed. Marriage rites vary from extremely spouses wear one on the third are believed to represent the It is made up of many rings that,
elaborate to low-key and simple, and they may finger of the left hand, the vein Holy Trinity and are still very when worn correctly, form a
of which was believed to lead popular today. Elizabethans band ring. The complexity of
be secular events or religious ceremonies. to the heart, thereby linking the wore a version of this ring this design meant that they
couple’s destiny. called the gimmal ring. were rarely taken off.
Love knot
According
c to Roman lore, this
knot
n symbolized the legendary
fertility
e of Hercules. Also
known
n as the marriage knot,
it is a symbol of eternal love
and was incorporated into a
an
bride’s protective girdle, to
be untied by her groom.
Shiro-maku kimono
The white Japanese wedding
kimono, shiro-maku, takes
its name from the words for
Kiddush Loving cup Hennaed hands “white” and “pure”, signifying
At a Jewish wedding ceremony, The use of the loving cup is For the Hindu bride, Mehndi Day is when the bride’s hands and feet innocence. The bride also wears
the bride and groom drink from an ancient tradition that has are decorated with intricate henna designs, signifying the strength of a white obii (sash), which
a Kiddush cup to symbolize their its roots in Celtic and Jewish love in marriage. A deeply coloured design is a sign of good luck. The represents female virtue.
love. Traditionally, a drinking cultures. The bride and groom names of the bride and groom are often hidden in the pattern.
glass is broken at a Jewish share their first drink together
wedding to represent the end of as husband and wife,
their single life and beginning demonstrating the coming
of their union. together of two families.
HKRA"I=NNE=CA
Bridal bouquet Wedding cake
In times gone by, it was thought The wedding cake is a key
a bride could pass on good luck, symbol of western marriage.
so wedding guests would try to Newlyweds make the first cut
touch her. In her bid to escape, together to symbolize their
she would toss her bouquet. shared future. In Britain
Veil Tying wrists Rice and confetti
Worn in many cultures, The ancient tradition of binding Throwing things at a newly
the veil was thought to disguise newlyweds’ wrists together married couple is a very old
the bride from malevolent with ribbon or cord is intended tradition that dates back to SEE ALSO
spirits and ward off evil, but to create the infinity symbol Ancient Rome or Egypt. A Flowers pp.82–85
it also symbolizes innocence. between the bride and groom. symbol of abundance, rice was Human body pp.112–15
Greek & Roman deities pp.140–41
The ceremonial removal of
the veil represents revelation
It is said that the phrase “to tie
the knot”, meaning to marry,
thrown in the hopes that the
couple would be prosperous
Christianity pp.176–79 -.3
and light. originated with this ritual. and have a fertile marriage.
DEATH & MOURNING
People live in the shadow of death and the of death – the tending of the corpse, the way
unknown. How each culture deals with it is disposed of, commemorative ceremonies,
the fear of death depends upon its beliefs, and mourning – are of great importance.
myths, and practices. Some have developed Death is laden with symbols that reflect
a belief in the afterlife, others in immortality foreboding, sorrow, the journey to another
or rebirth. As a result, the ritual procedures life, and the joy this might bring.
OUI>KHOKB@A=PD
Images of death range from the blunt depictions
of the Grim Reaper to more subtle depictions of
the fragility of life. The human skull is a symbol
of death found in many cultures and religious
traditions. The passing of time is represented by
clocks, candles, hourglasses, and sundials. Certain
animals, such as crows, cats, owls, vultures, and
bats, are also associated with death – some
because they feed on carrion, others because
they are black or are creatures of the night. m Reaper
Despite being viewed ern cultures, death is
many cultures as a symbol of eating dead matter made the often dubbed the Grim Reaper.
wisdom, hope, and fertility, vulture a symbol of death. In He is depicted as a skeletal
to Christians the raven is the Tibet, they are used for figure carrying a large scythe –
antithesis of the innocent white “sky burials”, in which they a harvesting tool for cutting life
dove. Eaters of carrion, ravens feast on corpses. short – and wearing a hooded
were messengers of death, midnight-black cloak.
pestilence, and battle, and
were associated with Satan. Owls
As a creature of the night, the owl
can represent misfortune and spiritual
darkness. Some cultures believe that
owls swoop down to Earth to eat
the souls of the dying. Their loud
screeching cry and glassy-eyed
stare are thought to be omens of
death and disaster.
DQI=JHEBA
?NAI=PEKJ
Danse macabre Funeral rites by cremation were widely practised in ancient civilizations,
This allegorical scene first and the funeral pyre was part of the burial ritual of the Ancient Greeks and
appeared at the time of the
Black Death. Also known as the Romans. Almost alone among ancient peoples, the Jews forbade cremation
on the grounds that it is a desecration of the body. Hindus are always
@A=PD"IKQNJEJC
dance of death, it depicts Death
leading revellers, showing that cremated; the fire helps free the soul from the body, ready for reincarnation.
Candle
The candle is representative
of the passage of time and the
Birds pp.58–61
brevity of human existence,
Flowers pp.82–85
which will eventually burn itself Trees pp.94–95
out. It was often incorporated Greek & Roman deities pp.140–41 -.5
into vanitas paintings, a type Hinduism pp.158–63
of still life full of symbolism. The home pp.238–41
IKQNJEJC
While death unites everyone in grief, its expression depends on cultural
beliefs. In some societies the mourning period can last for years, while
in others there are no mourning rituals at all. Generally the focus is on
honouring the dead and comforting the living. Symbolically, in western
culture, this includes memorial plaques on benches and gravestones, and
in memorial gardens. It also carries over into clothing, commonly black,
which symbolizes night and grief. Some cultures, including Buddhist and
Hindu, mourn in white, signifying the light reached by the deceased.
Widow’s cap Queen Victoria
Black armband In 19th-century England, a After the death of her husband,
In Victorian times men in widow wore a distinctive black Prince Albert, Queen Victoria
mourning wore black armbands, cap and “weeping veil” without went into deep mourning. She
which remained commonplace ornament. She was expected to wore her trademark widow’s
up to the 1940s. Despite falling mourn for over two years. An dress for the remainder of her
out of fashion, they are still elderly widow might remain in long life, greatly influencing
worn by sports teams following mourning for the rest of her life. 19th-century mourning customs.
the death of a teammate or
community member. Mourning clothes
White was once the colour of mourning among European royalty and,
although black has replaced it in the West, many cultures still wear white
to signify grief. Here, a group of women in Macau – where most of the
population is Buddhist – are wearing white mourning dress.
MOURNING JEWELLERY
Mourning, or memorial, jewellery was worn from
medieval times and served a very real purpose. It
was worn in memory of those
h who were departed
and was highly sentimental. Many pieces had
inscriptions or contained a lock of the loved one’s
hair. Favourite symbols used in Victorian mourning
jewellery included flowers such as forget-me-nots, Rings Lockets Brooches
hearts, crosses, and ivy leaves. These became Mourning rings were status Locks of the deceased’s hair Mourning jewellery was
symbols in the 17th and were often either set into rings most often black and ideally
more popular than the more macabre symbols 18th centuries. Skull rings, or lockets or woven into braid matt in finish. Jet, a deep
of skulls, coffins, and gravestones, which were often made of gold and for necklaces. Hair is a symbol black coal, was popularr in
intended to ward off death and sinister occurrences. black
lack enamel, acted as a of life, and cutting it is linked to the manufacture
anufacture of much
reminder of death.
h funerals in many cultures. mourning ornamentation.
rnamen
IAIKNE=HO
=J@BAOPER=HO
Every culture honours and remembers its dead.
DQI=JHEBA
CN=RAOPKJAO
Thousands of different religious and secular
symbols and emblems have adorned tombstones
through the ages, indicating different attitudes
towards death and the hereafter, membership in
a fraternal organization, or an individual’s trade.
In Christianity winged angels represented the
soul rising towards Heaven, skulls and hourglasses
were reminders that mortal life was short, and
biblical scenes expressed a range of ideas, such Lamp Lion Hourglass
as the Resurrection, strict adherence to the Word Lamps, including the type of The lion’s eternal watch guards The traditional symbol of Father
oil lamp on this gravestone, the tomb against evil spirits and Time, the hourglass represents
of God, or the sinfulness of humans. symbolize immortality, faith, signifies courage, strength, and the passage of time, while a
the light of wisdom, and the resurrection. A statue of a lion flying hourglass was a reminder
knowledge of God. was often placed on the that time flies. An hourglass on
gravestone of a guardian its side meant that time had
or fallen hero. stopped for the deceased.
@A=PD"IKQNJEJC
Oak leaf
Oak leaves, which are often
seen on military tombs, can mean
power, authority, and victory. The
oak signifies strength, glory, and
Butterfly durability, while its fruit, the acorn,
The use of these creatures symbolizes the promise of maturity
suggests a short life, so they and strength.
are often seen on children’s
graves. They also represent
Christian metamorphosis: the Five-pointed star
caterpillar, chrysalis, and A five-pointed star symbolizes
butterfly are all symbolic of life, SEE ALSO
the Star of Bethlehem, offering
death, and resurrection. Trees pp.94–95
divine guidance and protection
Hands & feet pp.116–19
Torch to the deceased. It may also Sacred places pp.232–33
The torch of triumphant life signifies immortality and life versus represent the five wounds Colours pp.280–83
death. It can be passed from hand to hand, as in a relay race, and of Christ. Shapes pp.284–89
when shown upside down it indicates that life has been snuffed out.
DQI=JHEBA
As a style of painting, vanitas rose to prominence in the holds the skull of Yorick, a former servant, and bemoans the
16th and 17th centuries, primarily in the Netherlands, pointlessness and temporary nature of worldly matters. Death
Flanders, and France. The term “vanitas” refers to the vanity is unavoidable; the things of this life are inconsequential.
of all worldly things, such as riches, beauty,
pastimes, and learning, and it is derived from R=JEP=OOUI>KHO
the Latin, meaning emptiness or futility. In this artistic style, objects are seldom what
The ultimate root of the genre takes as its they seem. A glass of red wine may simply
inspiration the Bible’s Ecclesiastes 1:2: be included as a vessel containing fermented
“Vanity of vanities; all is vanity.” grape juice, but it could also represent the
blood of Christ (particularly if it is situated
IKN=HIAOO=CA next to a loaf of bread), or it might refer to the
Designed to work on several levels and not human sense of taste, or even to debauchery.
simply to be viewed as exquisite works of Vanitas with a Sundial, French School The elements of vanitas still lifes typically
art, vanitas paintings are full of symbolism, Timepieces, including sundials, signified the belong to one of three categories: the
passing of time and often sported mottos such
inviting the viewer to reflect upon the as ultima forsann (“perhaps the last [hour]”). accoutrements of mortal life, such as books,
inevitability of death and the consequent tools, purses, or deeds; objects that reflect the
foolishness of all human ambition. The paintings were impermanence of this life, such as skulls or hourglasses; and
moralizing in intent and served as reminders – objects that suggest the promise of salvation and eternal life,
admonishments, even – not to attach meaning or importance such as ears of corn or branches of laurel or ivory.
to the things of this world. Traditionally in vanitas paintings, Symbols of wealth included seashells and purple cloth, while
attributes that symbolize material wealth, knowledge, nature, a disordered pile of dishes might hint at the foolishness of a
and the material or temporal things of this earth, tend to be life that is focused on
juxtaposed with objects that embody the hope of Christ’s earthly concerns as
resurrection and everlasting life. opposed to one
focused on the soul’s
IKNP=HEPU redemption. The
Other elements that were mirror was used to
commonly included were rotten represent wisdom and
fruit, which symbolizes aging; knowledge, though
bubbles, which suggest the when covered with
R=JEP=O
suddenness of death; and dust, it assumes the Three Monkeys
snuffed candles and watches, meaning of a spirit The monkey symbolized greed and lechery. Here,
painted by Frans Snyders, the monkeys’ attitudes
which remind us of the brevity clouded by ignorance. towards food warn of being led by animal instinct.
of life. However, the most often
Young Man Holding a Skull used macabre symbol of death SEE ALSO
In this Frans Hals painting, sometimes in vanitas painting was the Head trophies pp.110–111
thought to be of Hamlet, the skull voices Death & mourning pp.128–131
a warning, calling on the spectator to skull. In the Shakespeare play Colours pp.280–83
think upon death, even in youth. Hamlet, the eponymous prince
F
earful of the unknown, we have the imagination and spread beyond their place
created religions and peopled the of origin to become, in some instances, world
cosmos with deities who guide us religions. Hinduism is a religion that has
on our life’s journey and beyond. evolved through the amalgam of many beliefs,
Each culture has its own symbols, but more commonly the great religions have a
creation stories, and tales of ancestors, founding father, a prophet, or teacher, such as
providing deep, shared roots and reinforcing the Buddha, Christ, Muhammad, and
our sense of identity. Sikhism’s Guru Nanak who revealed the
From earliest times, cultures have invented doctrine and whose teachings were later
various deities who each represent different enshrined in a holy book.
attributes – Eros, the Greek god of love, for In some cultures a system of beliefs and
example. Symbolic mythological figures also symbols has developed in isolation that can
occur in all cultures and include heroes and appear obscure to outsiders. The Australian
tricksters who feature in ancient stories about Aboriginal “Dreaming” is one such example.
creation. Divination – the ability to see into Symbolism within many American Indian
the past and future – has also been practised groups is similarly insular, but despite
for millennia, and ranges from the use of differences in belief, ritual, and tradition, the
crystal balls to astrology. same fundamental concerns with life, death,
Over thousands of and the afterlife are present in all cultures.
years, a few belief In many societies, such as China, the cult
systems have captured of the ancestors plays a major part in dealing
IUPDO"NAHECEKJO
-/2
with after-death homes have their own house spirit, set beside
EACH CULTURE issues. When a a shrine to the Buddha or the ancestors. The
HAS ITS SYMBOLS, person dies they making of symbolic offerings originates from
CREATION join the ranks of the the same basic instinct as the ritual performing
STORIES, AND ancestors, who then of sacrifice to please the gods.
TALES OF watch over their Each culture has its mediators – priests or
ANCESTORS, descendants and are shamans who, through their higher spiritual
PROVIDING DEEP, honoured and often awareness, commune with deities or spirits,
SHARED ROOTS present in spirit at often through the use of symbols. Some, such
ceremonies, battles, as Catholic priests, conduct rituals and teach
and festivals. Their the word of God, while others, such as
presence is evident on a daily basis, through shamans, commune with the spirits and use
their images and through symbols carved on “magical” powers. Many work for the good of
weapons and houses, ensuring a sense of the community but others also practise black
continuity within the society. magic and invoke fear among their followers.
In some cultures around the world the All such practitioners are generally respected,
influence of the spirits remains strong however, as people throughout the world still
regardless of official religious beliefs. Spirits feel the need for intermediaries with the
are believed to inhabit the mountains, trees, deities; they deal with the spiritual aspects of
waters, rocks, and fields and must be appeased the community, allowing ordinary people to
with small offerings to maintain harmony; even get on with their daily lives.
EJPNK@Q?PEKJ
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EGYPTIAN DEITIES
Egyptian gods developed from the
merging of two earlier cultures, one
of which worshipped gods in
human form while the other had
animal-shaped gods. Gradually, a
religion emerged that focused on
the cult of the dead and was highly
orientated towards symbolism. The
Egyptian gods nearly always carry
or wear symbols of power, such as
a crown or a crook and flail. Some
also carry the ankh, symbol of
eternal life. These religious symbols
are not the same as those found in
Osiris
Egyptian hieroglyphs (writing). A symbol of rebirth and fertility, Osiris’s role relates to the underworld.
His body was cast into the Nile, then dismembered and stamped into
the earth by his jealous brother, Seth, but it reformed. This rebirth
was seen as a symbol of the burial, germination, and growth of wheat
from the fertile soil of the Nile valley. As judge of the dead, Osiris
holds a crook and flail as a sign of
IUPDO"NAHECEKJO
ACULPE=J@AEPEAO
A goddess of war and terror Bastet was a Moon goddess The throne-shaped crown of Isis The Moon god Thoth, gave One of several creator gods, Re
but also protection and healing, and is depicted here with a cat’s indicates that she originally people the art of writing and is is depicted as the solar falcon
Sekhmet’s lion head is symbolic head. She carries a small shield personified the throne of the associated with wisdom and with the Sun disc on his head.
of her fierceness. Her caring as a sign of her fierceness and pharaohs. Isis rescued Osiris magic. Often symbolized, as He carries an ankh as well as
nature is signified by the reed symbolic of her close affinity and restored him to life, an act here, with the head of an ibis, several symbols of power – a
scalpels in her hands. with the goddess Sekhmet. symbolic of resurrection. or depicted as a baboon. crook, flail, and “was” sceptre.
Ma’at
Symbolic of divine
protection when
depicted with wings,
Ma’at may wear a SEE ALSO
feather in her headband, Birds pp.58–61
which is symbolic of truth. When people died, their Amulets pp.194–95
hearts were weighed against the feather – only those The head pp.106–09
that were lighter could enter the underworld. Picture writing pp.300–03
GREEK &
G
ROMAN DEITI
The Ancient Greek civilization is associated with
powerful gods who squabbled, felt hatred, and lo
very like the humans living below. Later the Rom
adopted these gods, giving them Roman names,
such as Jupiter instead of Zeus, and sometimes
also combining their attributes with those of oth
deities. Cronus, for example, in becoming Saturn
swapped his scythe for a sickle. Today we still kn
the major deities because their various strengths
qualities are symbolized in Classical painting an
architecture throughout the western world.
Zeus
King of t
the skie
conques
of neigh
absorpt
Among
his pow
IUPDO"NAHECEKJO
Hades/Pluto Nike/Victoria
As god of death and ruler of the To the Greeks Nike was a
underworld, Hades is often symbol of superiority and
depicted wearing a crown and victory in battle. She has wings, Aphrodite/Venus Eros/Cupid
I
carrying a sceptre with two when depicted on her own, Aphrodite, personification of the Spring, was the The god of love, Eros, carries a quiver, bow, and
prongs that symbolize life and which signify the fleeting nature goddess of beauty, sexual love, and fertility. She is arrows with which he pierces his victims. His
often depicted naked, causing havoc among her golden arrows signify true love and the leaden
-0, death.
t He is accompanied by
the three-headed
th dog Cerebus
of victory. A stylized version of
one of her wings is now a well- fellow gods. Her symbols or attributes include a ones signify passion. He is sometimes blindfolded
who guards
uaar
ard the gates of Hades. known sportswear logo. swan, a scallop shell, dolphins, and a flaming heart. as a symbol of the blindness of love.
Ares/Mars
Ares is the god of war and
fittingly his attributes are his
helmet and spear. In
the Trojan war
he was
defeated by
the goddess She-wolf with
Athena, Mars’ s sons,
symbolizing Romulus and
the victory of Remus
wisdom over
violence. Sometimes
he is accompanied by a
wolf, probably because
Dionysus/Bacchus Hera/Juno
his twin sons were
The god of vine-growing and A powerful goddess, Hera’s
raised by wolves.
wine-making, and to the Greeks symbols include the peacock
also a god of fertility, Dionysus (shown here), which she
is often shown wearing a crown supposedly created, and the
of grapes or ivy, symbolic of lotus, which is linked to her role
everlasting life. as the goddess of marriage.
Poseidon/Neptune
The god Poseidon symbolizes
the power and uncontrollability
of the sea. He is portrayed as
an old, bearded man, and
among his attributes are a
trident, the symbol of lightning,
and a dolphin, the sign of
a calm sea and saviour of
the shipwrecked.
Hermes/
Mercury
Messenger of the
gods, Hermes wears Cronus/Saturn
a winged cap and has Cronus is a corn god and the sickle that he carries to harvest crops
winged heels, which has become his symbol. However, this was altered to a scythe for
signify his swiftness. He also Saturn, symbolic of the death and destruction preceding rebirth.
carries a winged staff, called a
CNAAG"NKI=J@AEPEAO
caduceus, which is symbolic of
balance and harmony.
Pan
The god of shepherds and
hunters, Pan’s horns, hooves,
and tail are a sign of his anima
sexual nature. Sometimes
depicted playing bewitching
music on his pipes, he
could also instill an
uncontrollable fear in
Apollo people, from which the
The god of light and of the arts, term “panic” is derived.
Athena/Minerva
Apollo, is the embodiment of Originally a goddess of wisdom
male beauty. His attributes are and learning, Athena adopted
a lyre, bow and arrows, and warlike attributes in Mycenaean
sometimes a snake or a wolf. times. Often depicted in a Snakes pp.66–67
They signify his pastoral origins warrior’s helmet and holding a Aquatic creatures pp.68–71
and power over the predators of shield and/or spear, she was Creation stories pp.156–57
sheep. He was the lord of the Professional signs pp.314–15
the patron of Athens and her
Delphic oracle. symbol is an owl.
CELTIC &
NORDIC DEITIES
The pre-Roman gods of Celtic and Nordic people were
creator and mother goddesses, or gods of nature who
signified fertility, war, and/or love. Symbolic of a power
greater than that of humans, the gods were assigned
responsibility for anything that people did not
understand, such as thunderbolts that were thought to
originate from Thor’s magic hammer, Mjollnir. Celtic
deities were immortal, but Nordic gods were not; they
maintained their youth by eating special apples grown
by Idun, the goddess of youth.
Thor
Riding his goat-drawn chariot
across the heavens, Thor is the
god of war and ruler of the skies.
Associated with the swastika,
which may have derived from
Silver wheel his hammer, his emblem is the
hazel tree a symbol of fertility,
divination, and wisdom.
Arianrhod
A Welsh chthonic goddess
and a star and Moon deity,
Arianrhod is called “Silver
Wheel” because she carried
souls to the afterlife on her
silver wheel, which is symbolic
of birth and rebirth.
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Cernunnos
The “Horned One”, Cernunnos
is a chthonic god, having powers
over the underworld. He is often
depicted in a yogic posture
holding a torque, or twisted
necklace, and a serpent, female
and male symbols respectively.
The serpent is also a symbol of
resurrection. Cernunnos signifies
the sacrificial stag, itself a
Brigid Morrigan Rhiannon Cocidius
symbol of sexuality, whose
I
As a Celtic solar goddess and A Celtic goddess of war, fertility, A Celtic goddess of horses and A British warrior and hunting
blood must be spilled if
patroness of smiths, Brigid’s and vegetation, Morrigan is the underworld, Rhiannon rides god, Cocidius is depicted here
harmony is to be maintained.
attributes include fire with linked with horse symbolism. a white mare, symbolizing the with a shield in one hand and a
-0. which she is depicted here. She She is also associated with the powers of nature. Linked with spear in the other. The small
is also linked with the healing crow as she assumed its form the earth, she is associated horns on his head are symbolic
properties of sacred springs. to foretell the outcome of battles. with fertility and regeneration. of virility and fertility.
ODIN
God of the sky, war, and victory in battle, Odin
summoned
u the fallen to Valhalla, Hall of the Slain
at Asgard. He is known in Nordic, Icelandic, and
Germanic myth, and is associated with wolves
and ravens, which, as scavengers, symbolize
death.Prisoners of war were sacr
sacrificed to Odin in
imitation of his own self-immolation at the world rld
tree, Yggdrasil. Odin was also the god of weawealth.
Odin’s horse Odin’s horn
Odin rode a magical eight-legged horse, calleded The stylized triple drinking horn is a symbol of
Sleipnir, which was supposedly the swiftest of Odin and in itself signifies strength and potency.
all horses. His many legs signifiedd that he could
coul It represents the three drafts of magical mead
mea
gallop on land, water, and through
throu the air. procured by Odin after a long quest.
Freya Frigg
A goddess of love, fertility, This Viking fertility and mother
vegetation, war, and death, goddess watches over children.
Freya’s chariot is pulled by Her attributes include the stork, a
cats. She sometimes takes symbolic bearer of babies, and the
the form of a she-goat, spinning wheel with which she spins
symbolic of fertility. the clouds.
Tyr
The Nordic god of war, justice, and
self sacrifice, Tyr, is here depicted
with one hand. He sacrificed his right
hand to Fenrir, a wolf symbolic of evil,
as a distraction in order to give the
other gods time to restrain it.
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Frey
Twin of Freya, Frey is the Nordic
god of fertility, prosperity, and
peace. As a fertility god
he is often depicted
with a powerful wild
boar, and carrying a
magic sword so
powerful that it
could fight and
kill man-eating
giants by itself.
I=U=J@AEPEAO
The great Mayan civilization flourished in Central America between 2000
and 900BCE. Mayans developed a writing system using symbols, as well as Maize symbol
complex astrological charts and calendars. Cities, such as Teotihuacan, were
built as microcosms of the universe with pyramids that signified the Sun
and the Moon. Mayan deities included gods of the elements, crops, birth,
and death, who can be recognized by their various attributes.
Black spot
because taking one’s own life are made of bones and he holds
was perceived by the Mayans the symbol for maize to represent
as a route to Paradise. regeneration and rebirth.
Kukulcan
Known as “the plumed
serpent” because he was
half-rattlesnake and half-
quetzal bird, Kukulcan
is a creator god who
restored the world
after its destruction.
Spider Woman The snake symbolizes
A Mayan goddess of the underworld, Spider Woman has an elaborate the Earth and the
headdress, and sometimes wears a nose plate covering her nose and bird the sky and divinity.
mouth, symbolizing her transformation into an arachnid. The water Kukulcan was called
dripping from her hands signifies an association with water. Quezalcoatl by the Aztecs.
=VPA?@AEPEAO EJ?= @AEPEAO
The Aztecs gradually took over power in Meso-America after the demise The Incas of Peru were prominent between 1100 0
of the Maya. Their empire was hierarchical and dominated by the warrior and the Spanish conquest of the 1530s. They
class. The gods of war, death, and fire were prominent among their deities. were a warlike people and as such had cruel
These gods, like the Mayan gods before them, had physical attributes or gods, including Inti, who demanded many
adornments that were highly symbolic of their role. symbolic animal and human sacrifices. The Inca
ruler was supposedly a reincarnation of the Sun
god. Their deities were used as a means to terrify
and control the people
they conquered, but
they also adopted
gods of the
vanquished, such
as Pachacamac.
nti
god of the Sun,
is represented
Huehueteotl mbolically as a
Also called “the Old ning disc with a
One”, the fire god, an face surrounded
Heuhueteotl, is usually ight rays. He was
depicted as an old, bea for his great power.
man supporting an ince lipses were thought
brazier on his head to olize his anger and
symbolize the sacrificia nified his sweat.
fire ceremonies he
presided over.
IAOK)"OKQPD=IANE?=J@AEPEAO
cha
Sun, creator, and
Viracocha is thought
nca representation of
He is usually depicted
Huitzilopochtli man with an aureole Pachacamac
The god of the Sun and head, symbolic of the A pre-Inca god of earthquakes
Huitzilopochtli is depic arrying thunderbolts in and fire, here carved in wood, his
warrior. He has a head which are symbolic link with agriculture is signified
hummingbird feathers, as a storm god. by the corn cobs on his robes.
of fallen warriors, and
shield of eagle feather
hand, symbolizing the
Spirit and light, and a s
like staff in the other, which The Aztec god of death, Mictlantecuhtli, is usually depicted as a Fabulous beasts pp.74–77
skeleton with staring eyes and protruding teeth. As ruler of the Picture writing pp.300–05
signifies the fertility of the
Earth. His temple was painted underworld, he is also painted white to signify the colour of the
red, symbolizing war. dying Sun and the night.
ANCESTORS
ts of the world people make offerings to their
revered and even ancestors and add their image
ey are thought to to ritual items, such as masks,
ver and guide their to imbue them with protective
dents, for whom they strength. In some countries
a sense of identity ancestors are mummified, while in
nity. For this reason others their names are passed from
one generation to the next. They
mummy
mains are a powerful symbol of kinship. are usually symbolic of power; for
u people of Peru kept mummified remains
ancestors in sacred rooms, and brought example, the Egyptian pharoahs
ut during feasts and ceremonies.
claimed descent from the gods.
Tjemen
DKJKQNEJC
PDA=J?AOPKNO C ONFUCIUS
U
For many peoples, respect for one’s ancestors
is part of accepting their society’s traditions and Confucius, who lived in the 6th century BCE,
structure. They are symbolic of the antiquity and remains for many Chinese a symbol of classical
past events of a particular group of people, and Chinese values. A great teacher, he propounded
by honouring them their descendents affirm n loyalty and
their place in society and their belief in its an, and state.
values, which are upheld by the ancestors. y to one’s
IUPDO"NAHECEKJO
ius
Bjis poles the
mask The Asmat of New of the
of Zaire, grass-skirted Guinea erect bjis
poles that are carved ready popular
pu
s this one are symbolic
ns of their spirit with ancestral s image is
i
ys were formerly figures. The side any household
their ancestors during projection, called a
tjemen, which means in some
es. By crawling
the legs of the dancers, “penis”, signified gious temples,
fertility. These poles
ates were linked as hat of the clan
with their tribal origins. have powerful
protective symbolism ancestors.
and are used in
rituals associated
with headhunting and
the fertility of crops.
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Some groups of people believe they come from animal, or part-animal,
ancestry. For this reason such peoples feel a bond with the animal world.
The qualities of the ancestor creature are important symbolically, so a bird
may signify closeness to the gods or keenness of vision, and animals may
represent courage, strength, or stealth.
Bear
The Micmac of
North America
claim descent from
a bear, an animal
that symbolizes
stength, courage,
and renewal. One
myth tells of a girl
marrying a young
man and finding
Menolo
that his village is a
Some Solomon Islanders revere
bear village. She
the shark-god, Menolo, from
gives birth to bear Dhakhan Turtle whom they claim descent. He
twins that can The Kabi Australian Aboriginal The Elema people believe they symbolizes the sea, which they
change shape. people claim descent from are descended from a giant depend on, and represents
Dhakhan, a giant serpent turtle, having arrived in southern speed, ferocity, and beauty.
symbolic of creation. Dhakhan Papua by sea many years ago. Because Menolo is an ancestor,
is often depicted as a rainbow, This ceremonial mask, called a the islanders do not hunt sharks.
a form he assumes when semese, depicts a sea monster
travelling between his lairs. spirit that signifies this journey.
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Dynasties often linked their names to that of a deity and some claimed direct
descent from the gods to reinforce their legitimacy as rulers. Because divine
descent signifies a godlike status, it acts as a deterrent to most pretenders.
Descent from a deity is also symbolic of the status of the ruler as an
intermediary between Heaven and Earth, or between gods and humans.
It was the ruler and his priests that interpreted the will of the gods.
Osir =J?AOPKNO
The Egyp
both symbolized rebirth and renewal, this claim reinforced the pharaohs’
belief that they would rule for ever. Isis is also the symbolic mother of
Amaterasu the pharaoh. Here she is wearing a solar disc, symbolic of the Sun.
The Japanese emperors trace
their descent to Amaterasu,
goddess of the Sun. From her Moai
they received the light-giving Facing inland to keep watch over their people, the moai are the giant SEE AL
symbolism of the Sun. To this stone figures of Easter Island. They are symbolic representations of The Sun pp.16–17 Egyptian deities pp.138–39
day the emperor is treated with ancestral chiefs who were thought to be direct descendants of the Mammals pp.52–55 The Dreaming pp.152–53
the reverence usually accorded gods. There are about 900 moai on the island; a few of them have a Reptiles & amphibians
to a deity. red stone on their heads, which may represent a headdress. pp.64–65
Head trophies pp.110–11
NATURE
A SPIRITS
In almost all countries nature spirits have masks during ceremonial dances, while
been venerated at some time. They symbolize in the Americas symbolic dolls or pottery
the essence of rivers, the sea, mountains, figures are made. For many revering nature
trees, and animals, and are called upon for spirits is in the distant past, but for others it
protection and good fortune. Their anger is is still very much alive: wayside shrines are
appeased by the paying of respect. In Africa seen in many places, and nature spirits are a
ng central part of Japanese Shinto, for example.
Kachina
Like apus, kachinas are nature spirits who live in high
mountain areas. They are called upon by Hopi American
Indians to bring the rains, without which their crops
would die. This doll represents Cloud Man. The black
and white half circular shapes on his headdress signify
rain. Often such dolls have black, roughly T-shaped
symbols on their cloaks that signify clouds.
Water spirit
This hippopotamus mask is from
the Degema region of Nigeria.
It symbolizes the spirit of the
water and is believed to signify
righteousness. The mask is
used in ritual dances at annual
festivals, to bring fertility to
the people.
Buffalo spirit
Among the Nuna people of Burkino Faso, When used in sacred dance, masks personify and
the buffalo symbolizes power and strength. activate a spirit. Although there have been no
The protective spirit and blessings of the animal elephants in Nigeria for some time, highly stylized
are called down and enter the person wearing masks, like this one, that capture the sacred
the mask during sacred ritual dances. powers of the elephant spirit are still made for Undines
ritual purposes. The mask shown above is being Undines are European water
used as a symbol of ugliness. spirits, similar to mermaids
but in human form. Extremely
beautiful creatures who flow
with the current, they are a
symbolic reminder of the
creative forces of water.
J=PQNAOLENEPO
Gnomes Elves
The word “gnome” probably The elves were nature spirits popular in Germanic SEE AL
derives from the Greek genomos, and Nordic legend. Living in wells, springs, and The weather pp.34–35
meaning “earth dweller”. Gnomes forests, they were variously described. In Nordic Tribal totems, heroes & tricksters pp.150–51
were said to guard treasure deep mythology, for example, elves are light and angelic Taoism & Shinto pp.170–71
in the Earth, so are symbolic of or dark skinned like dwarves. The elf cross symbol Amulets pp.194–95
fertility, protection, and good luck. is worn to protect one against mischievious elves. Masks pp.270–71
TRIBAL TOTEMS, HEROES
& TRICKSTERS
Every culture has figu
in its mythology who
regarded as having aff
that culture in some w
either by being an anc
figure, rescuing the co
from danger, or giving
Sometimes the figure
more of these roles an
that culture’s origin. T
these figures allow peo
the world and their cu
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Animal ancestors are the most
of totem, but some plants are
sacred. Found in hunting soci
are symbolic of a particular co
regarded with awe or ritual res
members. In many cultures an
are carved into totem poles, w
community’s origins and essen
animal is taboo because the an
the people and therefore regar
Bear
The bear, symbolic of
strength, protection, and
the sweetness of truth,
is a sacred animal in
many countries. In
North America it is the
Guardian of the West,
and several American
Indian peoples, such as
the Ouataouaks, have a be
totem.
-1,
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=J@ PNE?GOPANO
Culture heroes are mythical figures, sometimes
animal, who helped to create humans or gave
them skills, such as making fire or growing
crops. They stand in the public consciousness
as a symbol of that society and its worth, and
signify the ultimate example of doing good for
the community. A trickster is a mischievous,
cunning, often amusing figure, who subverts
the natural order, either to help humans or out
of spite. Tricksters are super-human but they White Buffalo Woman Chi Wara
also reflect human nature in that they are amoral The buffalo was an important animal in American Indian culture, a The antelope Chi Wara gave
symbol of power and strength, providing food and skins. A white agriculture to the Bambara
and break the rules of gods or nature. They can buffalo was considered sacred, signifying answered prayers. White people of Mali. The thunder of
be funny or foolish but ultimately their actions Buffalo Woman, a culture hero of the Lakota people, brought them the his hooves denotes the coming
help humans and so usually signify some sacred ritual pipe, an important symbol of their culture. rain and so symbolizes fertility.
PNE>=HPKPAIO(DANKAO"PNE?GOPANO
Raven Anansi
A well-known American Indian This West African sign is
trickster that is symbolic of symbolic of a spider’s web
beginnings. The raven found and represents the spider hero
humans inside a clam and used and trickster, Anansi, who Coyote The Mimi Loki
trickery to help them find food. helped to create humans. An important trickster in the Living in caves and crevices in Loki, or Sly One, is an Icelandic
Americas, Coyote is a sign that Arnhem Land in Australia, the trickster symbolic of cunning.
something is about to happen. Mimi are trickster spirits. They Known as “the contriver of all
Brer Rabbit For the Hopi he created the are cultural symbols personified fraud”, he was close to the god
In West Africa the rabbit is an Milky Way by leaving the lid off as thin, matchstick figures. The Odin, but through his trickery
artful trickster who, like the coyote, a sealed pot and allowing the Mimi taught people how to hunt brought about the death of his
stole fire to give to humans; he stars to escape. He also gave and gather, as well as correct son, Baldr, embodiment of
outmanoeuvres the deceitful hyena humans fire, flood, and night. ritual and social behaviour. innocence, peace, and beauty.
but he also breaks friendships and
symbolizes fear. As Brer Rabbit he
migrated to Jamaica and the United
States with the slave ships. Nanabush
A culture hero and trickster of
the Ojibway people of the Great
Lakes region in North America,
and symbolic of their culture,
Nanabush recreated the world
after a flood. His attributes
include long rabbit-like ears.
Man’s Dreaming
Although abstract to the uninitiated, Australian Aboriginal paintings are full of
symbolism.
y Here wavy lines signify running water; footprints indicate the artist’s journey
through
o The Dreaming; and concentric circles represent still water or campsites.
THE DREAMING
Australian Aboriginals share a unique relationship with
Bark painting
Wandjini spirits symbolize the land and are linked to it naturally, morally, and spiritually
rainfall and storms. Their
haloes are symbolic of
by the symbolism of what they refer to as The Dreaming.
clouds and lightening.
PDA@NA=IEJC
and fear, and is a constant concentric circles for a campsite or waterhole.
reminder of his or her origins. For thousands of years such art has been an outward
The symbolic heart of this manifestation of the artist’s connection to his or her individual
mythological landscape is Dreaming and the land, symbolizing the Australian Aboriginal’s
Uluru (Ayers Rock). strong link to his or her ancestral past.
Body painting
Integral to Australian Aboriginal ceremony, SEE ALSO
body painting often contains symbolism that Tribal totems, heroes & tricksters pp.150–51
relates to a specific ancestral being. It might Shapes pp.284–89
also be used to signify a person’s status – -1/
his position in a particular community or
his origins, for example.
SHAMANISM
A shaman is a traditional priest or spiritual are extremely powerful bridges between the
leader who can control spiri he spiritual world. The
body” journeys, and effect cu ited and shamans usually
magic. Shamans can divine t clothing. Although
through sacrifice or other m f Arcti
that involve the use of symb ar inte
Within the community, sham every
AOOAJPE=H Rat
=PPNE>QPAO
Once a child, usually a boy, is
acknowledged as a possible shaman,
he is consecrated and begins his shaman
training. The process lasts for ritual focus of
munities, the shaman is
several years, during which time he rec the link between his people
ritual and symbolic items, such as a dr and their gods. The drum
rattle, bones, and teeth. All of these att is symbolic of the rhythm of
the universe and has powers of Antlers are a symbol of defence
give him the added powers associated enchantment, as spirits dwell and here one has been combined
metal used for the instrument or the bi in between the drum beats. with bells and feathers for added
animals whose bones and teeth he wea symbolism and power. Metal
objects, thought to be cosmic
energy in solidified form, signify
the power of the Earth. Feathers
nimal bones symbolize spiritual flight and
ring animal figures or links with the heavens.
s in his costume
mbolically empowers
the shaman with the
strength of those Runes
animals. They also
IUPDO"NAHECEKJO
J=PQN=HSKNH@
Shamans are symbolic of the spiritual life of their SWEAT LODGE
ODGE
community. They have a deep understanding
of the natural world and utilize its plants and Among American Indian Plains tribes, the h
animals in a variety of ways. Some shamans sweat lodge ceremony is ann important and
induce out-of-body experiences through the use symbolic ritual of purification and rebirth. A
of hallucinogenic drugs, such as cohoba powder, sweat lodge is a small, enclosed space, made
which both signify and enable journeys to the from wood of deciduous trees, which signify
spirit world. Others dress in animal skins to death and rebirth. It contains the elements fire,
make these symbolic journeys or carry ornate air, water, and earth, for inside the dark lodge
magical staffs as tangible signs of their power. hot rocks
k are sprinkled with water to create a
Carrying a staff steamy atmosphere similar, it is thought, to
The carved staff or wand conditions within the womb and from which
carried by a shaman not only
symbolizes his power, it also people are symbolically reborn.
signifies the boundary between
the natural and spirit worlds.
Batak shamans of Sumatra,
known as datus, have staffs
that contain a powerful magical
substance called pukpuk.
Shaman tree
The Beginning
This 12th-century
illumination shows
God creating the
world over six days.
First he made Earth,
then water, land and
plants, stars and the
Sun, fish and birds,
and finally animals
and people.
o
CREATION STORIES
Every culture has stories that attempt to explain the act of creaton.
For many they are not a literal account of events, but may be perceived
as symbolic of a deeper truth.
Although the origins of most creation stories by Tiamat, the bloated mother of gods and
have been lost in time, there are a number of monsters, who was symbolic of the waters
common themes. Often if a creation story exists, beneath the earth. She was slain by the god
there is also a tale about a great flood that Marduk, who made the sky from her upper
swept away all that existed before, signifying body and the Earth from her lower half.
a new beginning. Other stories involve the Tiamat’s tears represented the waters of the
action of gods, semi-gods, or animals, each Tigris and Euphrates rivers.
with its own symbolic overtones. Among the many Hindu creation myths
is one in which Vishnu reclines on the snake
QJEKJO=J@PDAACC Ananta, symbolic of eternity, while floating
The concept of “birth” features in various on a vast ocean. Vishnu gives rise to Brahma,
creation stories – often involving symbolic who creates the universe from the primordial
mother and father figures. In Greek mythology, waters. At intervals the ocean is restored, when
for example, the union of the Earth goddess, Rudra, a destructive aspect of Vishnu, appears
Gaia, with the sky god, Uranus, signified one Gaia and devours everything. Afterwards Vishnu
universe. They produced many children who The Greek goddess, Gaia, symbolized the creator, called Vishnu Anantasayana,
“Mother Earth” and many portrayals of her
created, among other things, plants and animals. show her in semi-nudity, surrounded by awakens and the cycle is repeated.
Another theme involves the hatching of nature, or even emerging from the earth.
a cosmic egg, symbolic of the universe. The ?NA=PEKJ>U=CK@
Chinese creator, P’an Ku, was incubated in such an egg and Often the mainstay of a religious belief is the idea that an all-
organized matter into Yin and Yang, Sun and Moon, and water powerful being created the world from nothing. In the Old
and land. When the egg hatched, he died of his labours. A Fijian Testament, God’s creation of
myth recounts how Turukawa, the hawk, laid two eggs from the world in just six days is
which a boy and girl hatched. The serpent Degei taught them symbolic of His command
?NA=PEKJOPKNEAO
to talk, make fire, and cook, and created food for them. over all. Jews observe the
Sabbath as a symbol of God’s
KN@ANBNKI?D=KO seventh day, when He rested
Various creation stories from his labours. Sikh,
describe harmony being Muslim, and Mayan creation
wrought by a mighty force stories are also based on Tiamat
from a state of chaos. In one or more supreme beings This scene from the Assyrian Tablets of
Creation shows Marduk fighting Tiamat. It
Babylonian mythology creating the universe, before symbolizes the victory of order over chaos
such chaos was signified which nothing else existed. that led to the creation of Earth and sky.
ODER=
The destroyer, Shiva, is also associated with creativity and
fertility and is often worshipped in the form of a phallic
pillar, or linga. He appears in many guises, such as a
wandering ascetic, teacher, or dancer. Shiva’s attributes
include a trident, which is symbolic of his three roles of
destroyer, creator, and preserver.
here as a loving couple, waited on by attendants and riding Shiva’s white
bull, Nandi, “the happy one”, a symbol of fertility. Shiva’s lower left
Tilak mark Noose hand is in gift-bestowing mudra, the lower right hand is dispelling fear.
Trident
Shiva
IUPDO"NAHECEKJO
Vamana
In a dwarf incarnation
arnat
Vishnu confounded
conf the
all-powerful King Bali by Vi
Vishnu
h Anantasayana
A
claiming, and winning, all When resting on the serpent Ananta, as shown here, Vishnu is called
the land he could cover in Vishnu Anantasayana. Drifting on the Milky Ocean at the dawn of
three steps.
ps Vishnu’s
Vishn ’s steps time, the god Brahma, seated on a lotus, emerges from Vishnu’s navel
covered the entire globe, and creates the world anew, once every kalpaa (4,320 million years).
affirming his dominance
n
over the world.
>N=DI=
Although he is the creator god, Brahma is less
Rama widely worshipped than either Vishnu or Shiva.
Usually depicted with blue skin and with a bow, Rama overcomes His four heads face the four directions and
evil in the form
f of the demon king, Ravanna, and his army. Rama
is widely revered, and in its Hindi form the name “Ram” has symbolize the four vedas, or holy books; his fifth
become synonymous with the word for God. head was struck off by Bhairava,
a form of the god Shiiva.
Brahma
Unlike other gods, Brahma hass
no weapons. Instead he holds
a sacred text, a water pot
representing the waters of
Krishna life, a rosary symbolic of the
For many Hindus, Krishna eternal cycle of time, and a
DEJ@QEOI
is the most revered deity. spoon for ritual purification in
Usually depicted with blue sacrifice. Brahma’s mount is
skin, he may appear as a a goose or swan.
Narasimha
Narasimh Kurma the tortoise
t i child, a cow-herd,
cow h or as a
As a man-lion Vishnu As a tortoise,
ortoise Vishnu supported pastoral deity. He is also
defeated a prophecy by Mount Mandara when the gods a great
reat sage, who in the
defending a devotee from and demons churned the Milky Bhagavad Gitaa imparts
his arrogant
nt father,
father King Ocean
ean to obtain amritsa,, the wisdom on the nature of
love and duty. Fabulous beasts pp.74–77 Buddhism pp.164–67
elixir of life.
Fertility & childbirth pp.120–23
Love & marriage pp.126–27
Creation Stories pp.156–57
CK@O=J@CK@@AOOAO
Besides the deities Vishnu, Shiva, and Brahma, there are many other Hindu
gods and goddesses who can be called upon at different times for different
reasons. Ganesha, for example, is the remover of obstacles. The gods each
have a different appearance by which they can be recognized. Each is also
associated with specific attributes, which symbolize their powers. The
goddess Lakshmi, for example, is depicted with lotus flowers and coins,
while the warrior god, Hanuman, holds weapons.
Mace Noose
SSweetmeats
Broken tusk
Ganesha Kartikeyya Hanuman
The elephant-headed god Ganesha often holds his The god of war, here shown in his six-headed form, A symbol of loyalty and heroism, Hanuman is revered throughout the
own broken tusk, which he writes with, and a bowl is a boy god known variously as Kartikeyya, Skanda, Indian subcontinent. He wears red and saffron clothing, the colours of
of sweetmeats in his lower hands. In his upper Kumara, and Subrahmanya. He rides a peacock, which are symbolic of strength and sacrifice. The monkey warrior is
hands he holds a noose, symbolizing worldly which is symbolic of his royal rank and immortality, depicted using many weapons. Here he is carrying his favourite, the
desire, and a mace, or an elephant goad with and carries weapons, including a hatchet, spear, gada, or mace, a divine weapon used to destroy evil. He may also
which he propels humans along the path of life. and sword, to fight the powers of evil. carry a bow, a club, a rock, or a staff.
IUPDO"NAHECEKJO
DEJ@QEOI
2
4
1
7
6 3
5
3. Human skulls
Kali’s necklace is made of human skulls. It symbolizes
the certainty of death and, consequently, rebirth.
8. Harmonious pattern
The picture appears gruesome, but it is arranged in a
harmonious pattern. This symbolizes awareness of life
and death as part of the same pattern.
-2/
BUDDHISM
U
In northern India in the mid 6th
century BCE Prince Siddhartha
renounced his worldly life in search
of an existence free of suffering and
of samsara, the endless round of
birth and rebirth. When he achieved
this goal, through meditation and
asceticism, he became the Buddha
or Enlightened One. Buddhist art
has many scenes and postures which
symbolize his teachings and which Reclining Buddha
At the age of 80, the Buddha died after a lifetime of teaching, never
encapsulate visually different aspects to be reborn. This is symbolized by the parinirvana posture in which
the Buddha is shown reclining on his right side.
of the complex doctrine of Buddhism.
sha
=O=J=O
The Buddha appears in four different poses –
seated, standing, walking, or reclining – which Lo
ea
are known as asanas. Each pose signifies a different
event of his life, the seated Buddha being the neck
most common as he was sitting at the moment of
his Enlightenment and sat to meditate. Everything
about the Buddha is symbolic, from his physical
appearance to his smile and hand gestures.
Arms like an
elephant’s trunk
Seated Bud
IUPDO"NAHECEKJO
Meditating und
Tree, the seate
pointing to Eart
right hand, sym
summoning of t
Goddess during
with Mara, the
alking Buddha
n here with a full, feminine
perhaps signifying his
al qualities, the walking
a has a flame-shaped
Standing Buddha shaa (bump) on his head,
Depicted here with his right lic of his spiritual
hand raised as a gesture of edge, a smile to signify
reassurance, the standing ntle nature, and rings on
-20 Buddha also displays the ck to symbolize his holy
elongated earlobes that His left hand is raised in
signify his Enlightenment. sture of teaching.
HAND GESTURES Dhyana mudra
A meditating hand gesture in
which the right hand is placed
la
The Buddha is always depicted using hand on the left, both with palms
gestures, called mudras. Some, such as the upwards. The Buddha is often
bhumisparsa mudra, are used only by the Buddha, depicted in this mudra,
d which
may also include a begging bowl.
while others are more widely used: the dhyana
mudra, for example, during meditation. Mudras
are reminders of the Buddha’s teaching.
AECDP=QOLE?EKQO
OUI>KHO
Deriving from Indian iconography, the eight
auspicuous symbols of Buddhism are very old.
Each symbol signifies some aspect of Buddhist
teaching, but their meaning may differ from
one country to the next. They are particularly
popular in Tibet, Nepal, and China where they Golden Fish Parasol Conch
are often depicted in paintings, ceramics, and Symbolic of an enlightened A symbol of spiritual power, the A white conch (shell) signifies
person’s ability to move freely parasol is carried over images power and authority, the power
lacquerware. They also feature in ritual, either and without fear, the golden fish of gods and important people of teaching, and sounds out the
singly, in pairs, or in groups, where they are also signify India’s two sacred during rituals and processions. truth of the dharma.
symbolic of protection and goodwill. rivers, the Ganges and Yamuna.
yer wheel
ting in Tibetan tradition, prayer wheels
ze people’s prayers. Sacred verses, called
s, are inscribed on them and on leaves
>Q@@DEOI
e placed inside the cylinder. Each rotation
prayer wheel represents one recitation
mantra.
4
EXISTENCE CONSCIOUSNESS
2
GRASPING NAME AND FORM
1
FEELING CONTACT
-25
TAOISM & SHINTO
T
Taoism and Shinto are Chinese and Japanese harmony is symbolic of both religions, and
religions that emphasize living in harmony followers strive to maintain it. Taoist gods
with nature. The landscape around us, the can control the forces of nature and other
oceans, mountains, lakes, and flowers are all aspects of life; Shinto spirits are everywhere
part of a well-ordered balance of life. This and inhabit places such as caves and springs.
P=KEOI
Philosophical Taoism is an ancient system of
thought that began with the teachings of Lao
Tzu, who is said to have written the Tao Te Ching
between the 6th and 4th centuries BCE. He wrote
that everything in nature was symbolic of the
natural order of things, from mountains and
rocks to trees and the veining in their leaves.
Taoism speaks of non-action (wu-wei), meaning
taking no action that is contrary to nature. Yin Yin and Yang
and Yang are the terms used to signify opposite The natural world is seen in
terms of the complementary but
but balanced “forces”, such as male and female. differing forces of Yin and Yang.
Shown here in symbolic form,
they represent the two halves
of the Tao. Yin is female, dark,
yielding, low, and night, while
Yang is male, light, strong, high,
and day. Yin would be signified
by valleys, for example, whereas
mountains signify Yang.
Trigram
Taoist painting
The uncarved block Veins of nature The elements of earth, wood, fire, metal, and water are used in art in
Lao Tzu speaks of the uncarved Of great significance in Taoism a symbolic form to represent the essence of an object. Clay signifies
block, the continual ceaseless is an understanding of the lines the earth, fire is symbolically used by painting with soot, and water
is mixed with painting materials.
IUPDO"NAHECEKJO
mass of change. In art this mass and veins that run through
is often symbolized by a natural objects, such as trees Yin and Yang
Fan Aura
misshapen rock with forms that and leaves, and the “dragon”
never repeat themselves. Such veins of metal that run through
stones are often collected and the Earth. All are symbolic of
placed in gardens as symbols of the oneness of life and the Lao Tzu
the universe in miniature. natural balance of Yin and Yang. Lao Tzu’s teachings are
fundamental to Taoism but little
is known about him. Supposedly
Jade born old, he had a grey beard The I Ching
In Taoism jade is the essence and long earlobes that signified The Book of Changes, also
of Heaven, and is said to be wisdom. He is shown here called I Ching, is a classic work.
formed from a dragon’s semen. holding a fan, symbolic of how Its trigrams and hexagrams
Jade symbolizes nobility, Taoism can be disseminated signify Yin and Yang properties
perfection, and immortality. and salvation sought. It may that are still used for divination
also symbolize completion of purposes, signifying when to
the universe. He is deified by act and when not to in order to
-3, Taoists and the aura around his follow the path of nature. Eight
head signifies his holiness. trigrams make up one hexagram.
ODEJPK
The origins of Shinto are ancient and intimately connected with Japanese SHINTO SPIRIT
mythology. The religion is centred on its many spirits (kami), which signify
the different elements and forces of the natural world. Any imbalance, Inn Shinto sacred beings that signify
sign anything
caused, for example, by felling a tree or killing an animal, is restored extraordinary or awe-inspring are referred to
symbolically through ritual and purification. as kami. Amaterasu is the most important of
them. However, the name is given to all spiri
spirits
The Shinto shrine regardless of whether they are good, as is
The focus of worship in Shinto Inari, or bad, as is Kagu-Zuchi
Zuchi when he allows
is the shrine. The torii, or sacred
gateway through which everyone houses to burn.
passes to enter a shrine, is an
instantly recognizable symbol,
marking the passage into the
sacred realm. This gateway
links water with sky and land,
signifying the balance of nature.
Inari Amaterasu
th are Responsible for good The brightness of the Sun
Magatama ls of harvests and prosperity,
osperi goddess, Amaterasu, is
bead of undance. Inari
nari holds a wish-fulfilling
wish fulfilling often signified by sun-rays
compassion ikoku is jewel
ew and has two white emanating from her head.
Sword of sack of foxes, symbolic of power, She was believed to be an
strength t that is as his messengers. ancestor of the emperors.
s or to
Mirror
of truth
P=KEOI"ODEJPK
that was found by the god depicted as a tall young
o
Susa-No-O and later owned by man, often bare chested,
the first Japanese emperor. but always accompanied by
flames over which
w he has
sole control. As fire is a
real threat to wooden
houses,
ous the god is regularly
Garden or flower
placated with ritual.
arrangement
The Shinto ideals of harmony
with nature underlie traditional
customs, such as garden design
and flower arranging, which SEE ALSO
symbolize on a small scale the The Sun pp.16–17
harmony of the universe. Fire pp.30–31
Ancestors pp.146–47
-3-
Divination pp.196–99
Gardens pp.244–47
J
JUDAISM
Judaism is an ancient religion founded in the Caanan
region of western Asia some 3,500 years ago. Jews
believe they are the chosen people that were led by
God (Yahweh) from slavery in Egypt to the Promised
Land. Today Jews are scattered across the globe and so
the symbols of their religion are an important unifying
factor. All aspects of Jewish life – from foods eaten at
festivals and garments worn for prayer to ritual objects
used in the synagogue – are imbued with a significance
reflecting a rich past and a deep love of God.
J=PEKJ=J@H=S
Jewish identity is bound up with the concept of nationhood. To a people
that were without a home for thousands of years, the longing for a country
of their own assumed great significance. Hence the bitter struggle over the
state of Israel, which for most Jews is the symbol of Judaism. The Law,
now called halakah, is believed to have been given by God to Moses and Star of David
embodies the moral structure of the Jewish nation. Instantly recognizable throughout the world as a popular symbol of
Judaism, the Star of David is a powerful sign of Jewish identity and
unity. Used on Jewish tombstones in the late 17th century and adopted
by Zionists in the 1890s, it now features on the nation flag of Israel.
IUPDO"NAHECEKJO
Torah mantle
Ark of the Covenant The Law of God and central to The Torah is protected by a
Originally signifying God’s the Jewish faith, the Torah is a mantle of cloth, traditionally
presence, this wooden chest is handwritten scroll comprising embroidered with symbols
thought to have housed the Ten the first five books of the of Judaism. Here a crown,
Commandments. Today every ”Hebrew Bible”. The staves, symbolic of the regal status
-3. synagogue has a symbolic ark – called Azei Hayyim, on which
the scrolls are wound signify
of the Torah, is flanked by two
lions, a common symbol with
it is the sacred chest in which
the Torah scrolls are kept. the Trees of Life. links to the Tribe of Judah.
BAOPER=HO=J@LN=UAN Silver prayer book kkoth
Prayer is fundamental to the Jewish faith, with eral items are associated the festival
h praying, including the koth, which
devout Jews praying three times a day. Saturday yer book, which both bers God’s care
– the Sabbath – is of particular significance, but bolizes and contains God’s people as they
there are also a number of festivals during which d. The ornately decorated t the Promised
ers signify the sacredness festive huts,
Jews celebrate both their history and traditions he text inside. Prayer books lic of the tents
and affirm their faith in God. Because prayer is commonly given to boys at d in the desert,
such a central part of Judaism, there are various r Bar Mitzvah, a ceremony uilt, and leaves
celebrates their coming of lm, willow, and
symbolic objects and rituals associated with it. at 13. le are woven
ether to make
Tefillin
vs (shown here).
ey are waved in
Sabbath Mezuzah
directions in
The Jewish Sabbath (Shabbat in mall container, called a mezuzah, is often attached
e synagogue
Hebrew) begins on Friday evening and he front doorpost of Jewish houses as a symbol
signify God’s
ends at nightfall the following day. he occupier’s faith. It is traditional to kiss one’s
stery of the
Orthodox male Jews wear two tefillins, ers and touch the mezuzah on entering the home
verse and to
small leather boxes symbol of one’s devotion to God. Each mezuzah
for rain in the
containing passages tains a small scroll with biblical text written on it.
ming year.
from the Torah, a
kippah (skull cap),
symbolic of God’s presence,
and a prayer shawl, or tallit,
with 613 tassels, symbolic of
the Ten Commandments.
Tefillin attached to the Prayer shawl Mezuzah scroll
arms with a leather strap or tallit
PASSOVER
PASSOVE
Passover celebrates the Jews’ liberation from
Egypt. The rituals associated with this festival
are heavy with symbolism, not least the
Passover
assover meal, or sederer, which comprises
compris a
number of different elements (shown below),w
each
ch with its own symbolism for the event. Unleavened matzah bread
symbolizes the speed withwi
which the
he Jews
Jew left Egypt
A bitter herb, such as horseradish or – not having time to wait
or their bread to rise.
se
b shank represents
ep ese Shofar Menorah
mbs sacrificed at the The ram’s horn symbolizes God’s A seven-branched candelabrum
h temples during pleasure in Abraham’s loyalty is one of the oldest symbols of
val and represents the ram that God Judaism. The menorah may
allowed him to sacrifice in place have its origins in the ancient
of his son.The Shofar is also symbol of the Tree of Life.
symbolic of Rosh Hashanah, Its light symbolizes the eternal
FQ@=EOI
PDAG=>>=H=D K@
Kabbalists have a dualistic concept of God: God the
who is not addressed in prayer; and God manifest, an active God with
whom the faithful develop a relationship. A significant element of Kabbalah
is the use of meditation, during which a Kabbalist might focus on or 72 names of God
visualize one of the many symbols or diagrams used to represent God. Among the various symbols used for Kabbalah meditation are
the 72 names of God, said to have enabled prophets to
CROWN (KETER) perform miracles, such as Moses’s parting of the Red Sea.
The 72 names derive from three verses in Exodus, each of
WORLD OF EMANATIONS (ATZILUTH) which contains 72 Hebrew letters. By taking a letter from
INTELLIGENCE WISDOM
each verse, working from left to right with the first verse,
(BINAH) (CHOCHMAH)
right to left with the second verse, and left to right again with
the last verse, the 72 three-letter names of God are formed.
IUPDO"NAHECEKJO
COMPASSION (TIFERET)
Ein Sof
MAJESTY ENDURANCE WORLD OF FORMATION (YETSIRAH) This symbol represents
(HOD) (NETZACH) “Ein Sof”, the infinite
FOUNDATION (YESOD)
aspect of God
considered by
WORLD OF ACTION (ASSIAH) Kabbalists to have
existed before creation
KINGDOM (MALCHUT)
– an unknowable
The Sefirot Four worlds nothingness – which
The above diagram is a symbolic representation of the Tree of Life, One way in which the Sefirot then manifested as the
which in Kabbalah is often inverted and so rooted in Heaven. This can be interpreted is through God of creation and
tree portrays the Sefirot, which are central to Kabbalistic thought and grouping the ten emanations worship, via the ten
signify God in his progression from the infinite, unknowable God to the of God into “four worlds”, as sefirot (see far left).
t Ein
--30
30 active God that created the universe. Each of the ten stages, or Sefirah, shown above. Each world Sof is often symbolic of
is symbolic of a different aspect of a person’s relationship with God signifies a separate stage in God’s Light.
and is connected to others by channels so forming groups. the creation process.
CAI=PNE= Tetraktys
Gematria is a Hebrew form of numerology, used The Kabbalistic tetraktys is a symbol of the
cosmos, based on the original by the Ancient
in Kabbalah to find hidden meanings in words, Greek philosopher Pythagoras, which arranges
and the relationship between the ten Sefirot and ten points in descending order and symbolizes the
the Hebrew alphabet. It is an extremely complex process of creation from the one to the many. This
version uses the letters of the Hebrew alphabet
art, applied in a number of different ways. Each that spell out the tetragrammaton (the four-
letter of the alphabet is deeply symbolic, both in lettered name of God) YHWH, and forms the basis
the sound it makes and in its position in a word. for the Kabbalistic Tree of Life – the Sefirot.
The glyphs also have a numerical significance and
one can reinterpret words by adding the numerical
values of the letters. Words have a special link to
other words that share the same total; the second
word bringing new meaning to the first.
DALED 4 Crown
HE 5 Father Mother
WAW
WA 6
ZAYI
A N 7
HETH 8
TETH 9
YODTH 10
KAPH 20
RESH 200
Red String Bracelet
Kabbalists maintain that energy entersters the body through the left-
G=>>=H=D
SHIN 300
hand side and exits via the right. By wearing a braceletet on the left
TAW
TA 400 wrist,
ist, therefore, the entry of evil is barred.
barre
KAPH 500
OUI>KHOKBB=EPD
Representational art has always been a part of Christianity and many
symbols of the religion are a part of Christian consiousness. As well as
the cross, the halo, or nimbus, which encircles the head of Christ and the
saints, frequently appears as a symbol of sanctity. Other symbols include
the fish, which appeared during the Roman period when Christians were
being persecuted for their beliefs and is still in use today, and the dove,
which now has a more universal appeal and is a sign of peace.
The standing lamb The lying lamb
he sacrificial lamb is a symbol When lying on a cross and
Christ. Standing with a the Book of Seven Seals, the
anner, the lamb signifies recumbent lamb symbolizes the
hrist’s triumph in rising from triumph of the Christian faith at
e dead after being crucified. the Last Judgement.
Nativity scene
This scene depicts Christ’s birth
in a stable. The visit of the
shepherds and the three wise
men, or magi, symbolizes the
acceptance of Christianity by
people of all backgrounds and
IUPDO"NAHECEKJO
all nationalities.
Virgin and child The Virgin Mary
As a baby, Christ is often Mary is depicted here in a
depicted naked and sitting on traditional red tunic over which
a white cloth to symbolize his is worn a blue robe symbolic of Jesus Christ
innocence, purity, and holiness. Heaven and her position as its Believed by Christians to be the
The presence of the Virgin Mary queen. Over her heart she has son of God, Jesus Christ was born
signifies her motherly nature her hands clasped in prayer, a of the Virgin Mary. In this Russian
and the human aspect of Christ. sign of sincerity and humility. icon, the haloed Christ is depicted
with his right hand raised to bless
the faithful. The three fingers that
touch are a sign of the Holy Trinity
Fish (see above right),
t while the two
The first letters of the words free fingers symbolize Christ’s
Jesus Christ, Son of God, and humanity and his coming to Earth
Saviour, spell Ichthus, or “fish” in human form. In his left hand he
in Greek. It was used by early holds the sacred book.
-32 Christians as a secret sign. One
person drew one arc of the fish
and a second completed it.
Dove
Symbolic of the Holy Spirit,
the third member of the
Trinity, the dove is also a
symbol of peace, having
Fleur de lis returned to Noah’s ark Three nails
To Christians, the fleur de lis is carrying an olive branch. Placed on Christ’s head to Used in the crucifixion of Christ
symbolic of the Holy Trinity (the signify his humiliation, the to secure his hands and feet to
Father, Son, and Holy Spirit), the crown of thorns is seen by the cross, three nails, like the
purity of the Virgin Mary, and Christians as a sign of Christ’s crown of thorns, are symbolic of
the Angel Gabriel. suffering to save humanity. Christ’s supreme sacrifice.
CHRISTIAN SAINTS
Humans who lived particularly devout lives and have been canonized by
the Church after death are called saints. Many saints are symbolic of a
particular characteristic, such as devotion, as well as being recognized by
their
eir attributes. Some emblems signify the manner in which the saints were
killed, others such as the crossed keys of St. Peter the apostle are so well
k th t th b dt b li St P t hi lf
PDA=?PKBSKNODEL Communion
Practising Christians go to church to worship sacred rite of communion,
en by confirmed Christians,
and attend various services, including baptisms an at the Last Supper, when
and funerals. Catholics may pray using rosaries, st ate his final meal with
?DNEOPE=JEPU
and for confirmed followers of the faith, attending disciples. He said that the
ad and wine he shared with
mass and receiving holy communion is central to m were his body and his
their beliefs, symbolizing their union with God. od. Many Christians take this
terally, while others believe
it to be a symbolic truth.
sary Church
g its name from the white Churches are symbolic at many
se, symbol of the purity levels. In cross-shaped churches
of the Virgin Mary, the western arm is called the SEE AL
he rosary marks out nave, from the Latin for “ship”, Angels pp.188–89
The Holy Grail pp.208–09
epetitions of the prayer after early descriptions of the
Religious architecture pp.228–31
l Mary”. church as an ark.
Symbolic gestures pp.334–37
PDA?NKOO
Although the cross has had many associations in
the past, it is perhaps most widely recognized as
a symbol of the Christian faith, where it signifies
Christ’s sacrifice in dying on the cross to save
humanity. Even making the sign of the cross is
symbolic – of the Holy Trinity – and is given as
a blessing by priests during religious services.
The sign is made in the air, the vertical part
being drawn first followed by the horizontal.
Over time many visual variations of the cross
have evolved. Each has a particular symbolism,
which has led to the adoption of specific crosses
by different organizations and Christian orders.
The Maltese Cross, for example, is symbolic of
protection and is the emblem of US firefighters.
I
the first two letters of the name the Egyptian ankh, was used by the cross element is surrounded of equal length. It is instantly the four arms widen out into
“Christ” in Greek, this cross was early Egyptian Christians after by a circle, said by some to be a recognizable, and was in swallowtail shapes. The
adopted by the Roman Emperor the introduction of Christianity symbol of unity and God’s common use as a Christian resulting eight corners symbolize
-34 Constantine. Of ancient origin, by St. Mark. A variation of eternal love, and by others to symbol from the 4th century. rebirth. An emblem of honour and
it was previously the symbol of the form was later used as a signify a halo. The Celtic Cross It symbolizes the spread of the protection, it is symbolic of
Chronos, the Greek god of time. symbol by Ethiopian Christians. predates Christianity in Ireland. gospel to all parts of the world. various Christian organizations.
ROSS OR CRUCIFIX
e cross is symbolic of Christianity as a
ole, but different branches of the religion
e different types of cross. Protestants, for
ample, have adopted
pt a plain cross, symbolic
Christ having risen from the dead. Catholics
ve adopted the crucifix – a cross with the
cified Christ – as symbolic of Christ’s
rifice. His presence on the cross is also Plain cross
mbolic of God’s work as ongoing rather than This modern Methodist church This 14th–15th century
in Singapore displays a large crucifix from a Catholic
ding with his death and resurrection. Some plain steel cross like that seen church in Croatia shows
holic crosses have a skull at the base, in most other Protestant Christ on the cross with
mbolic of Golgotha, the “place of the skull” churches. God looking down on him m
from above.
mmonly called Calvary), where Christis wass
en to be crucified.
Baptismal Cross
his eight-armed cross is made
?DNEOPE=JEPU
om an X superimposed on to a
reek Cross. It is often used for
aptisms because the number
ght symbolizes rebirth. It also
gnifies the eight-day period
etween Christ’s entry into
erusalem and his resurrection.
of France, this cross has three St. Clement s Cross, since St. Christianity in Ireland, as St. S
elements: the cross, the anchor, Clement was supposedly tied to Brighid may have evolved from Head trophies pp.110–11 Shapes pp.284–89
and the heart, symbolizing an anchor and thrown into the a Celtic goddess. This type of Greek & Roman deities pp.140–41 Picture writing pp.300–05
Faith, Hope, and Charity (or sea. It symbolizes the anchor cross is usually woven of straw Celtic & Nordic deities pp.142–43 Heraldic emblems pp.318–323 -35
love). The anchor also serves as that holds Christians steady for Candlemas, and is symbolic Satan & demons pp.190–91 Flags pp.324–29
a symbol of the local fishermen. through the storms of life. of prosperity and protection. Amulets pp.194–95
ISLAM
IIS
SL
Followers of the Islamic faith, Muslims, believe in one
and that Muhammad is his prophet. Islam is a religion
avoids human representation in art; however, a variety
of objects, such as the star and crescent and the hand
of Fatimah, have become symbolic of the faith.
The colour green, a symbol of Spring, is particularly
important: the Koran states that the inhabitants
of Paradise will wear garments of green silk.
IKOMQAO=J@IA??=
Muslim places of worship, called mosques, are
where the faithful gather to pray at least once a
week. Although mosques do not have to be of a
particular design, many have a dome and/or tall
minarets that, because of their prominance in
city skylines, have themselves become symbols
of the Islamic faith. Some mosques incorporate
five pillars, representing the Five Pillars of the Star and crescent
faith (see Hand of Fatimah), and contain a niche In the 14th century the cresce
Moon was adopted as a symb
that indicates the direction of Mecca. As the of Islam, followed by the star, the Hand of Fatimah, daughter of Muhammad, also has other meanings.
symbolic heart of Islam, Mecca is a place that all which signifies sovereignity and Each finger symbolizes one of the Five Pillars of Islam – Shahada
Muslims try to visit at least once in their lifetime. dignity. They are also a reminder (affirmation of the faith), Salat (set prayers), Zakat (giving of alms),
of the lunar calender by which Sawm (fasting through Ramadan), and Hajj (pilgrimage to Mecca).
The Hajj (pilgrimage) is one of the Five Pillars. Islamic religious life is ordered.
IUPDO"NAHECEKJO
Ceramic tile
The sacred text of Islam, the Koran, or Qur’an, sets out God’s word Islamic decoration is epitomized
as revealed to the prophet Muhammad. It is thought to symbolize the by the use of ornamental tiles.
“leader”, is added fo prophethood of Muhammad and the truth of the religion. Written in In the above example of Islamic
can only be found in Paradise. Muslims int Arabic, the language in which its words were revealed to the prophet, craftsmanship, the star shape
chanting “Allah” with the hundredth bead. the text is often enclosed by beautiful borders and scrollwork. symbolizes the divinity and
supremacy of Islam.
Ramadan
Ramadan occurs during the
ninth month of the year and
those who are able fast during
the daylight hours. Signs that
Ramadan has started include
the use of attar, a pungent
perfume, and the preparation of
traditional sweet dishes using
simahii (vermicelli), which are
consumed after sunset. In Egypt
the festival is associated with
the lighting of coloured lanterns,
called fanoos, which symbolizes
people’s gratitude to God.
EOH=I
=
Shapes pp.284–89
Sacred places pp.232–33
Calligraphy
Symbolic of beauty, power, and unity, Islamic calligraphy is an --4--
exquisite art form. Words from the Koran and the name of God
decorate all kinds of objects, including the tiled walls of mosques.
EOH=IE??=NLAP
There is a rich tradition of symbolic geometric
patterns in Islamic art, many of which are
incorporated in traditonal crafts. In Islamic
carpets the range of compositions and colours is
enormous. Owners of rugs are often able to trace
the origins of their carpets back to a particular
tribe, area, or town.
1 3
2. Borders
There are often several borders in the design of an Islamic carpet
and their number is symbolic. Three, five, seven, and nine are sacred
numbers, which are used to determine how many borders a carpet
will have. The three borders shown here symbolize earth, sky, water,
holiness, productivity, and fertility.
3. & 4. Shapes
Stars are hugely symbolic, and the number of points of a star
determines its meaning. An eight-pointed star symbolizes the line
of life from birth to death. The dot in the centre of the carpet
symbolizes one God and the role of Mecca as the centre of Islam
towards which all Muslims face to pray.
5. Colours
Each of the colours in an Islamic carpet has a different meaning.
For example, yellow symbolizes an abundant and wealthy life while
blue shows an unattainable depth and mythical infinity of sky and
sea. Green represents spring and paradise.
-4/
SIKHISM
Sikhism is a monotheistic faith founded
in northern India in the 15th century by
the Guru Nanak and built on by nine
successive gurus or teachers. Sikhs
respect the equality of all people,
regardless of their faith, and emphasize
service to others, humility, and daily Guru Nanak
The first of the ten
prayer. They do not place statues of God gurus, Guru Nanak
embodies the wisdom
or the gurus in their temples, but instead of Sikhism. He is always
depicted with prayer
a number of objects and practices beads, which, with the
halo around his head,
have important religious symbolism. are a symbol of his holy
status. His half-closed
Depictions of the gurus are always eyes are a sign of
spiritual ecstasy and his
very symbolic, as is the appearance of long, white beard is
symbolic of wisdom.
practising Sikhs who adopt the five Ks.
PDABERAGO
These are the five items of dress and physical
appearance beginning with the letter K that were
set down by Guru Gobind Singh, the tenth and
last guru in 1699, to act as overt markers of
followers of his rules of discipline. They are the
kirpan, kangha, kara, kachhera, and kesh. Today, Kangha Kara Kachhera
by adopting the five Ks, Sikhs signal a belief and The wooden comb, known as The steel bracelet, or kara, Cotton shorts, not unlike boxer
a kangha, symbolizes moral and signifies strength and integrity shorts, kachheraa are worn as
pride in their reli spiritual control and cleanliness. and is always worn on the an undergarment at all times
Sikhs wear the comb in their right wrist. Its circular shape by Sikh men. Although they
IUPDO"NAHECEKJO
hair and use it twice daily. symbolizes perfection and unity allow free movement, kachhera
By combing their hair, they with God and is a continual are nevertheless a symbol of
distinguish themselves from reminder of the vow taken by all self control and sexual restraint,
Shi
Hindu ascetics, with their Sikhs to do nothing that might and are a reminder of the
unkept, matted locks. bring shame on their religion. prohibition of adultery.
Kirpan Kesh
The ceremonial weapon Uncut hair, called kesh, is a symbol
kirpan, is a symbol of cou of saintliness. All Sikh men wear
and rectitude, and a sign their hair long, as they believe that
every Sikh’s readiness to by keeping hair in its natural state
defend the weak and they live in harmony with God.
oppressed. It is worn clo They cover their hair with a
to the skin as a reminde distinctive turban, which is a
of human mortality, and recognizable sign of Sikhism.
-40 represents justice, order
and morality.
PDACQN@S=N= AI>HAIO=J@J=IAO
In Sikhism God is not thought to have a physical form and he is worshipped The power of the one God and equality are
without use of the symbols of other religions, such as incense or candles. central tenets of the Sikh religion. The khanda
There are no priests and anyone can lead a service. However, each gurdwara emblem is made up of three elements that
(temple) has one person, a granthi, appointed to read and take care of the symbolize these principles. One way in which
book of scriptures, called the Guru Granth Sahib. The gurdwara is the focal Sikhs signify their equality is by adopting the
point of religious life for Sikhs and a symbol of worship. name “Singh” for men and “Kaur” for women.
Gurdwara entrance
Some Sikh gurdwarass have four
doors. These are the Door of
Livelihood, the Door of Learning,
the Door of Grace, and the Door
of Peace. They symbolize the Gurdwara duties
fact that people are welcome Community service, such as
from all directions. A light is cooking (shown here), is an
always visible in the temple important part of the Sikh faith,
for the same reason. a symbolic reminder of the The khanda Ek Onkar
virtues of humility and service. The emblem of the Sikh faith, Meaning “God is one”, these
the khandaa is made up of a two- first two words in the Guru
edged sword, symbolic of truth Granth Sahib are the ones most
The Golden Temple and justice, and two outer repeated by Sikhs. They are one
Founded by Guru Ram Das, the swords that represent the of the cornerstones of Sikhism,
fourth guru, and extended by Guru power of God. The circle and in their written form make
Arjan Dev, the fifth guru, the represents a weapon, the up one of the most famous
Golden Temple at Amritsar is chakra, and symbolizes eternity. symbols of the Sikh religion.
constructed on a sacred lake, the
waters of which symbolize creation
and abundance. It was built to
house the holy book.
guru, Gobind Singh, first adopted the name “Singh” and others followed.
This uniformity symbolizes the Sikhs’ emphasis on equality and rejection
of the caste system, which could be identified from last names.
SEE ALSO
The head pp.106–09
Tools & weapons pp.224–25
Sacred places pp.232–33
-41
Headwear pp.250–51
IUPDO"NAHECEKJO
om the West forms the focus of the ceremony. In return for food, which
s “spirit”. The is symbolically represented through a gift of animal
duri , the loa provides worshippers with good
and une, health, and protection from evil spirits.
umb
hs. KK@KKNEPQ=H
alive mbolic rituals are held in gratitude for recent
istia ck or to ask for help at a time of misfortune.
nam worshippers signify their desire to connect to
tain irit world by dancing to a chant and drumbeat,
fic to a particular loa, until one or more of
has m is possessed by the spirit. Entering a trance-
like state signifies the worshippers’ devotion
and for other believers signals the apearance
and associations with of the spirit. The loa then communicates his/
with an animal’s head, this
voodoo doll signifies the evil spirits and the her will through the possessed.
bounty of the natural world living dead abound.
and counters infertility. A
doll is made to effect a
RKK@KKI=CE?
change in a person; what is PDAHK= There are two groups of loa: the “rada”, or sweet
The concept of the “spirit” is
done to the doll supposedly spirits, are thought to be of African origin, whereas
also happens to the person.
essential to voodoo culture the “petro”, or the bitter spirits, may be of Caribbean
and manifests itself in a origin and are more vengeful. Practitioners of rada
number of different ways. Beneath the supreme are thought to practise white magic in the form
divine being, the Gran Met (Great Master), are a of beneficial charms, or “wanga”, including the
multitude of “loas” (literally “mysteries”), each one is making of love potions or the use of healing herbs.
an ancestral spirit of some magnitude; for example, A more sinister form of voodoo centres on the
a king, a high priest, or a hero in past life. Each of petro spirits and is more closely associated with
these loas signifies a different aspect of the natural black magic or sorcery.
world – health, death, love, forests, streams – and
has the power to influence whatever they Vevers
RKK@KK
symbolize for better or worse. Loas are, therefore, ade from cornmeal at the start of voodoo rituals, vevers are unique
the loa they symbolize. The vevers shown here signify Papa Legba (top),
the focus of voodoo worship. Believers in voodoo amballah La Flambeau, AAyizan, Brigitte, and Ogoun (bottom). A number of
invoke loas at the beginning of a ceremony by as may be called upon in any one ritual.
drawing a ritual symbol, known as a “vever”, on
the ground. Each loa has a different symbol made up of a SEE ALSO
unique combination of motifs signifying different aspects of Satan & demons pp.190–91
Witches & wicca pp.192–193
their personality and powers. There is a reciprocal element to
the relationship between believers and their loas, and this
ANGELS
The embodiment of heavenly purity and
benevolence, angels feature in both the Old
and New Testaments, and the Koran. They are
regarded by Jews, Christians, and Muslims as
messengers of God, and are most commonly
perceived as spiritual, superhuman beings that
mediate between God and humans, reflecting
God’s will on Earth. In the Bible angels are
always described as being youthful and beautiful
– a symbol of their high status – and dressed in
white – a sign of their spirituality and purity.
=JCAH=PPNE>QPAO
All angels – excluding those who have fallen from grace – are holy
and without sin. There are various descriptions of them in the Bible
and, over the centuries, common themes have developed in the
way that angels have been portrayed in the arts, for example, with
wings or haloes. There is great symbolism in an angel’s appearance, Archangel Gabriel
in many cases their physical attributes representing spiritual ones. Known to Christians for announcing Jesus’ impending birth to Mary,
and in Islam for revealing the Koran to Muhammad, Gabriel (Jibra’il) is
often depicted with a trumpet, symbolic of his role as herald.
IUPDO"NAHECEKJO
Harp Censer
Numerous angels surround God Used for burning incense, the
in Heaven and are referred to as fragrance from censers is said
the “heavenly host”. They are to carry people’s prayers to
often depicted with musical Heaven. An angel might be
instruments – specifically the depicted wafting the incense in
harp – as a sign of the harmony the direction of a holy figure as
Wings they create in praising God. a symbol of veneration.
An angel’s wings are symbolic
of its spirituality and of its
closeness to God. They also Halo
signify an angel’s ability to fly The halo is symbolic of light and divinity. Accounts of angels in the
Bible often mention them as bright beings or surrounded by an aura
-44 from Heaven to Earth to carry
of some kind, and in many images of angels (and other holy figures)
out God’s bidding.
this is represented as a halo around their heads.
?AHAOPE=HDEAN=N?DU
The “heavenly host” includes various ranks of
angels, each with different duties and imbued
with its own symbolism. A 5th-century Greek
scholar, Dionysus the Areopagite, describes the
angels as belonging to three “choirs”: the First
Choir (comprising the Seraphim, Cherubim, and
Thrones); the Second Choir (Dominations,
Virtues, and Powers); and the Third Choir
(Principalities, Archangels, and Angels).
O=P=J=J@O=P=JEOI
In the biblical sense, Satan is God’s rival. As the
angel Lucifer, he was cast from Heaven for
challenging God’s authority. As such, Satan is
symbolic of pure evil, a master of deception, and Seth Ahriman
the embodiment of temptation. During medieval For the Ancient Egyptians the Zoroastrianism, the religion of
god Seth symbolized evil: he the ancient Persians, was one
times the Devil came to signify those who was god of chaos, storms, and of the first to acknowledge
revolted against Christianity. Many of the popular war. The term Satanism probably Good and Evil as opposing
images of Satan that exist today originate from derives from “Seitanism”, used forces. Ahriman, who was
to describe worship of Seth. symbolic of Evil, also influenced
this time, and each has its own symbolism. the concept of Satan in Judaism
and Christianity.
Trident
In medieval
times, the
Christians
“demonized”
attributes
IUPDO"NAHECEKJO
associated with
pagan gods to
discredit them. The The Sigil of Baphomet Cerunnos Black mass
trident, which in The three downward points of a Medieval Christians not only Traditional Satanists perform
Ancient Greek and Baphomet signify the (rejected) associated Satan with the the “black mass” in which much
Hindu religions was a Christian Trinity; the two upward trident (see left),
t they may have of the Christian symbolism is
weapon against evil, points are the horns of the goat given him the horns of the Celtic reversed: the cross hangs upside
instead became a face, which symbolizes carnality. god, Cerunnos. By making horns down and blood not wine is
symbol of the Devil, symbolic of the Devil, they drunk from the cup. There
and a tool of evil. discredited the pagan god. may be sexual overtones,
or a sacrifice, to signify the Satan as a serpent
dominance of our carnal nature. Adept at changing his form
in order to deceive, Satan is
assumed to be the serpent that
The Grimoire of Honorius tempted Adam and Eve to eat
Books of black magic were not uncommon during medieval times. This the forbidden fruit in the Garden
book of spells, symbols, and formulae was published in the 17th
-5, century and sets out instructions for saying mass to conjure demons.
of Eden. God’s cursing of the
snake made it a potent symbol
Because it parodies the Christian mass, it symbolizes profanity. of the fall from grace.
@AIKJO =J@@AREHO
Demons have featured in the beliefs of many civilizations over time, and are
often regarded as a manifestation of bad luck and mischief. They are also
perceived as signifying the darker side of an individual and have been used
to explain mental illness. In many cases, demons are inextricably linked
to religious superstition and to people’s need to understand why bad
things happen in a world in which God, who is inherently good,
is supposedly omnipotent. Much of the symbolism associated Galla Medieval
diev
ev demon
with demons and devils is, therefore, related to the battle In Mesopotamian mythology, In medieval times, Christian
there were seven demons legends – like that of St. Anthony
between Good and Evil. called Galla, who were symbolic the Great, who was relentlessly
of death and gloom. They roamed pursued by demons – symbolized
at night looking for victims to the power of faith in God over
drag down to the underworld. temptation by the Devil.
Mara’s daughters
In Buddhism the demon Mara
symbolized temptation. It was
he who tried to distract the
Buddha from his meditation.
He even sent his beautiful
daughters to try and distract
him. The Buddha went on to
attain Enlightenment and to
formulate his doctrine.
Tokoloshi
In South Africa demons are
Hawaiian god Ku
In many cultures gods, such as
Babylonian demon
In Babylon it was commonly
EXORCISM
symbolized in the form of Ku, have a demonic appearance held that a person with mental
tokoloshis. Fear of these to create fear and awe among or physical illness, or who had
The Devil is thought to have the power to
t enter
demons is widespread and their worshippers. This makes suffered a deep loss of some a person’s body against his or her will. In
people are known to raise their it difficult for “outsiders” to kind, had upset the gods. Their Christian symbolic ritual, an exorcism to remove
beds on bricks to avoid an attack distinguish between the godly misfortune was symbolic of this
from these evil spirits at night. and the demonic. and proof of demons at work.
an evil spirit makes use of the objects below.
vil.
The bell
signifies
fies
the presence
of God.
O=P=J"@AIKJ
Candles
are symbolic
The Holy Bible of the divine
vine
" @AIKJ
represents the light of
Word oof God. Christ.
SEP?DAO
Magic is the mainstay of witchcraft and, over
the centuries, symbolic images of witches hav
developed based on the various tools, signs, a
familiars (animals) associated with their ritua
casting spells and spiritual healing. Although
ugly old woman dressed head to foot in black
is a stereotype, there is much symbolism in the
IUPDO"NAHECEKJO
g y
Cauldron
Central to certain rituals, the
cauldron is highly symbolic. It Frequently used when making Spell-making can be beneficial
signifies the womb, fertility, predictions, the chalice signifies or harmful. Even the ingredients
-5.
-5. and rebirth. When in use, it a witch’s psychic powers, are symbolic: use of a toad, for
also signifies the four elements ntuition, and emotions. example, would signify ill-doing.
earth, water, fire, and air.
DETECTING WITCHES
WITCHE
The image of the witch as a devil worshipper was encouraged in the 15th to
17th centuries, and witchh hunts were commonplace. Thousands of witches
(and sometimes their pets) were executed. A manual, the Malleus
Maleficarum, set out rules on how to detect witches, with signs of Satan
(usually a birthmark) and fear of the persecutor among them. Sometimes
victims
tims were tied up and left in the water to see if they drowned. Survival
of this ordeal was a sign that confirmed they were witches
witches.
Ra
A symbol of power, the witch’s Common in witchcraft, the Connected to the underworld
spell book probably derives from g raven symbolizes healing and and symbolic of death,
the magic books, or grimoires, omens. It is also associated darkness, and poison, the toad
that existed in medieval times with shapeshifting. is a common witch’s familiar.
SE??=
Wicca is one form of witchcraft practised today.
Taking inspiration from the Celtic tradition of
witchcraft, it has many symbols. Some, such as
the triple circle, are used during rituals, others
signify gods and a few have uncertain origins.
Pentacle
A pentagram within a circle, the
pentacle has five points: four of
them symbolize air, fire, earth,
and water, and the fifth is ether, Cerunnos Mother Goddess Triple Circle
which signifies the spirit. The This sign represents Cerunnos, The female power of wicca is This symbol, used in ritual to
circle is symbolic of unity, the ancient Celtic horned god sometimes represented as a call upon the triple goddess
SEP?DAO"SE??=
and the symbol as a whole of the forests and forest animals. symbol based on the Egyptian (mother, maiden, and crone),
embodies the integration of The sign symbolizes the male Mother Goddess. Cerunnos, signifies the mind, the body,
body and spirit. power of wicca. the horned god, is her consort. and the spirit.
Witch’s sign
The exact meaning of this sign
is unknown. One idea is that the
square signifies Earth, and the
triangles signify mind, body,
spirit, man, woman, and child.
Metal amulet
Metal
amulet
Assyrian kings
wore necklaces Knight’s amulet Pazuzu Red and white string
with metal amulets, Medieval knights often wore During childbirth Assyrian According to tradition, Bulgarians
bearing the protective amulets in battle. This example women wore amulets bearing tie a piece of red and white
comes from the belt of a Polish an image of Pazuzu. According string around their wrists as a
-50 symbols of the gods.
Metal was a sign of the knight and symbolizes abundant to legend, the ancient demon charm to speed up the arrival of
Earth’s strength. health, wealth, and power. prevented miscarriage and Spring. Together, the colours red
infant death. and white are symbolic of joy.
EGYPTIAN AMULE
AMUL E T S
Symbolism
mbolism was a significant part of life in Ancient
A
Egypt, and featured
fe particularly in the use of
amulets Made from ceramics,
amulets. ceramics gems,
ge and metals,
amulets signifiedd attributes
attribut of specific gods or
animals. They were worn ass symbols
sym of praise,
protection, and fortune, and were entombed with
mummies for the journey into the afterlife.
Chicken-watching
Roman seers consulted sacred
chickens, often before battles.
The way the birds ate their food
and scratched the ground was
symbolic. Eating was a good
IUPDO"NAHECEKJO
CRYSTAL BALL
ation bowl
Often used in divination, a crystal ball concentrates ba people
ria fill a bowl
the rays of the Sun or some other light and in doing nd and then
so is symbolic of divine light and celestial power. with a stick.
The diviner then empties his/her mind and gazes nificance
sulting sand
into the depths of the crystal from which he/she s interpreted
may receive flashes of insight signifying
f scenes iviner.
from the past or future events
nts yet to happen.
I CHING
Also known as the Book of Changes, the I Ching
is the foundation of Chinese philosophy. It is also
used for divination, based on the interpretation of
hexagrams, which are made up of eight trigrams
(shown here). Consisting of three broken (Yin) and Trigram of Earth (Kun) Trigram of the Trigram of
solid (Yang) lines, randomly generated by tossing A symbol of receptiveness, Kun Mountain (Ken) Water (Kan)
comprises three Yin lines and More Yin than Yang, this symbol Kann symbolizes hard work,
coins or dice, each trigram signifies different so is feminine, representing the of beginnings and endings warning against stagnation.
aspects of the universe – a different element, “mother”. It is associated with signifies the “youngest son”. It It signifies the “middle son”,
direction, relationship, figure, and body part. the earth element, the West, is linked with the earthh element, and is linked with the Moon,
n
and the reproductive organs. the West, and the hands. water, the East, andd the ear.
?=OPEJCIAPDK@O Dice
Many cultures use the casting of lots, stones, Possibly the most recognized symbols of chance are dice. There are
various ways of throwing them for divination purposes. One involves
sticks, or similar objects for divination. The throwing three dice. Each is taken in turn and thrown; the number
I Chingg is probably the best-known method, but showing when it comes to rest is interpreted accordingly.
there are many more, including runes, dice, and
even coconut shells. The method may involve African bone reading
using just one stick, as in Kau Cim, or casting up Once commonly used,
bone reading is less popular
to 24 runes. The essence of casting is that the nowadays. This method of
result is random and the symbolism divination involves throwing
interpreted afresh each time. sets of bones, usually
between four and fourteen,
and interpreting the pattern
in which they fall and the
direction they point in. Each
Kau Cim
bone is symbolic of something
different – a bird’s wing bone,
@EREJ=PEKJ
umber of
for example, signifies travel,
tune stick
while the breast bone
held in a tube
In some parts of Africa four shaken until o
pieces of coconut are cast and sometimes m
questions answered depending Rune stones
falls out. Each he casting of runes dates
on whether the pieces fall flesh- a specific sym SEE ALSO
side up or vice versa. There are ack to medieval times. The 24
meaning, wh Precious stones pp.42–43
only five outcomes, which range tones are arranged in any of a
then interpret Shamanism pp.154–55
on a sliding scale from positive umber of formations, and the Taoism & Shinto pp.170–71
to negative. Coins can be used
the context o
question that
eading given according to the Voodoo pp.186–87 -53
in the same way. ymbol each rune carries and its
being asked. osition in the arrangement.
Ma
L=HIEOPNU lin Oil in the hand
Another ancient form of fortune-telling is In Arab countries a traditional
method of fortune-telling is by
palmistry. All aspects of the hand are considered: reading the formation of a pool
the general shape of the palm and fingers, the of oil in the palm of the hand.
dominant lines and the mounds at the base of The way in which the oil runs
the fingers and thumb; even relative finger Lin
Me
length and the length and depth of the lines are
sig
significant. Each element signifies some aspect he lity
of a person’s life. For example, the fingers relate
Tr
to confidence, discipline, creativity, and
communication, while the mounds relate to
pride, imagination, love, and sadness. This,
Lin
together with the shape and colour of the hand sig
and how it is held, enables a palm reader to
discover not just the present, but also the future.
PDA P=NKP
Card reading, or cartomancy, has been known
since at least the 15th century. A Tarot deck
comprises 22 picture cards, called the Major
Arcana (shown here), and the Minor Arcana,
which is organized in four suits (cups, coins,
swords, and rods). The Major Arcana is most
often used in fortune-telling. The cards are
shuffled by the person whose fortune is being
told, and can then be arranged by the teller in
a number of different ways, depending on the
nature of the question asked. The result of the e oo o Jeste The Magician The High Priestess
reading is complex: each card is symbolic of a Depicted with his possessions Symbolizing willpower and the Often depicted sitting on a
on his back, the Fool signifies ability to achieve, the Magician throne in contemplation, the
stage in the person’s life, but the card’s position innocence and a carefree nature, is depicted with a table and the High Priestess symbolizes
in the spread, the cards around it, and whether and often represents the fortune various cups, coins, rods, and wisdom and sound judgement.
it is the right way up or inverted, may modify seeker and/or a new journey. swords of the Minor Arcana. Inverted, the card can mean
Inverted, the card represents Inverted, the card signifies an lack of vision and an inability
that symbolism. naivety and foolishness. abuse of such skills. to make good judgement.
IUPDO"NAHECEKJO
Death Temperance
Often depicted as a skeletal This card shows an angel Depicted with two people in The falling tower represents Signifying hope and fulfilment
figure, Death represents a pouring fluid from one cup shackles, the Devil represents a radical change – a move to of wishes, the stars shine above
transformation and getting to another. It symbolizes subordination or a lack of somewhere new or a change in a naked woman pouring water
rid of the old to make way for moderation and self-control. success. It can also signify faith, for example. Inverted, the from an urn. Inverted, the Stars
the new. Inverted, the card Inverted, the card signifies a destruction. Inverted, the Devil Tower suggests a resistance to card symbolizes self-doubt and
symbolizes lethargy and an lack of self-control or some card is symbolic of release change and being stuck in a rut. unfulfilled dreams.
inability to move on. kind of conflict of interest. from something binding.
The World
This card shows a woman
standing in an oval wreath
surrounded by an angel, an
eagle, a bull, and a lion –
symbols of the apocalypse.
The World card symbolizes
great accomplishment. Inverted,
it signifies a failure to achieve. @EREJ=PEKJ
OQJ OECJO
Central to western astrology is the zodiac, which comprises the 12 major
star constellations in the ecliptic belt around the Earth – that is, the path of
the Sun as it moves through the sky. Referred to by astrologists as “Sun”
signs, the zodiac starts with Aries and ends with Pisces, each signifying an
approximate four-week period, as it takes the Earth one year to complete its
orbit of the Sun. Each sign is represented by a symbol, such as the scales Aries Taurus
for Libra, and is used to determine a person’s fortune. By compiling (21 March – 20 April) (21 April – 21 May)
A fire sign with Mars as its An earth sign, with ruling planet
a horoscope – a chart of the positions of the Sun, Moon, and other planets ruling planet, Aries is symbolized Venus, Taurus has the bull as
when a person is born – the major influences in his or her life can be by the ram. Typical traits include its symbol. Typical character
determined, based on the relationships of the celestial bodies to each other. courage, leadership, impetuosity, traits include loyalty, creativity,
and enthusiasm. and stubbornness.
include good communication home. Cancerians are typically disposition, generosity, and a naturally inquisitive, practical, Librans are charming, just,
and acting on impulse. secretive and private. powerful personality. and fastidious. diplomatic, and fair-minded.
LH=JAP=NUNQHANO
Astrologists can determine more about a person
and his or her fortune by looking at the positions
of the planets at the moment of birth. Each Sun
sign has only one planetary ruler, though the
same planet may rule more than one Sun sign. Sun
Venus, for example, rules both Taurus and A symbol of masculinity,
the Sun represents rulers and
Libra. Each planet has its own symbolism, and fatherhood, power, authority,
intensifies a person’s major characteristics. and self expression.
SAOPANJ=OPNKHKCU
Moon Mars Venus Mercury Jupiter
A symbol of femininity, the A symbol of force and energy, A symbol of love and beauty, A symbol of communication, Signifying expansion,
Moon signifies motherhood, Mars is associated with the Venus is linked to the kidneys Mercury is linked with the exploration, and a search
inner feelings, and links with head and signifies ambition, and signifies relationships, nervous system and signifies for knowledge, Jupiter
the past. drive, and aggression. harmony, and cooperation. thought, logic, and education. governs the liver.
SEE ALSO
The Sun pp.16–17
The Moon pp.18–19
The night sky pp.20–23
Sa Uranus Neptune Pluto Chinese horoscope pp.204–05
Order, responsibility, limitation, A symbol of rebellion and A symbol of mysticism, Neptune A symbol of transformation,
and a search for knowledge are change, Uranus represents is linked to dreams and fantasy. Pluto is associated with
linked with Saturn, as is the innovation, idealism, and It represents spirituality and regeneration, and represents
.,-
skin and the skeleton. individual freedom. psychic ability. life, death, and renewal.
=OPNKHKCE?=H?D=NP
The word “astrology” is a Greek term meaning “science of the stars”.
The Greek zodiac, the basis of our modern standard zodiac, was adapted
from an earlier Babylonian system. Ancient astronomers identified animals
and mythical characters among the star constellations, some of which later
became the 12 signs of the zodiac. Originally a device for measuring time,
the zodiac was later employed to make predictions. The first known
horoscope using the zodiac “Sun signs” dates from about 410BCE. This
16th-century chart is part of a portolan (a set of navigation charts) and
combines celestial, calendrical, and astrological information, reflecting
the links believed to exist between them.
2
1
4. The planets
The planets are also important in determining a person’s
horoscope but at the time this chart was compiled – in the 16th
century – the Universe was not well known. Only a few ot the
planets are indicated here and their association with the zodiac
signs is not clear.
.,/
CHINESE HOROSCOPE
The ancient Chinese system of astrology is through the sky. In its simplest terms any
closely linked to Chinese thought regarding one event, or a person’s personality and their
natural science and philosophy. Some 5,000 destiny, is interpreted depending on an
years old, it is a form of divination based on element aspect – wood, earth, fire, air, or
the path of the celestial bodies, such as the water – an animal aspect, and whether these
Sun, the Moon, the planets, and comets, are symbolic of Yin or Yang.
=JEI=HOECJO
Referred to as the 12 “earthly branches”, the animal signs are the most
widely recognized symbols of the Chinese horoscope. They relate, not
to months, as in Western astrology, but to years, which recur five times
in a cycle of 60 years, and are linked to the orbit of Jupiter, which takes 12
years to complete. Each cycle starts at the Chinese New Year in February,
which also marks the beginning of the lunar calendar. Starting with the Rat
Rat and ending with the Boar, each of the 12 animal signs is symbolic of 1960, 1972, 1984, 1996 1961, 1973, 1985, 1997
Ambitious and hard working, the Dependable, methodical, and
a different type of personality, specifically those character traits that make Rat, which is a Yang sign, is patient, but also stubborn, the
up the outward manifestation of a person. Each is also influenced by also shy and reserved. Rats are Ox is a Yin sign. Slow to arouse,
an element, and by Yin (feminine) or Yang (masculine) qualities. likely to accumulate money. feelings nevertheless run deep.
generous and affectionate, the and lucky, the Rabbit is a Yin can also be arrogant and over- responsible, the Snake is a Yin physically and mentally agile,
Tiger is a Yang sign. Tigers take sign. A typical Rabbit often bearing. A Yang sign, typical sign. Snakes may be secretive, the Horse is a Yang sign. Typical
risks, but are usually lucky. pursues a comfortable lifestyle. Dragons are usually successful. self-doubting, and distrustful. Horses can be fickle and gullible.
od Fire
this zodiac wheel. Around the Signifying the planet Jupiter, Representing Mars, the south,
outside are the 12 animal signs, the east, and the colour green, and the colour red, Fire is linked
which are also identified by Wood is linked with the gall with the heart and circulatory
their Chinese characters. The bladder and liver. Typical system. Typical characteristics
four-coloured ring in between characteristics include a warm include a competitive and
signifies the fixed element for and generous disposition. energetic nature.
that animal sign. For example,
Fire is associated with the
colour red and rules the Snake,
the Horse, and the Sheep.
Earth Metal Water
Representing the planet Saturn, Symbolic of the planet Venus, Symbolic of the planet Mercury,
the centre, and the colour yellow, the west, and the colour white, the north, and the colour black,
Earth is linked to both the Metal is associated with the Water is associated with the
?DEJAOADKNKO?KLA
stomach and the spleen. Typical lungs. Typical characteristics digestive system. Typical
characteristics include ambition, include a determined and self- characteristics include
tenacity, and reliability. reliant nature. compassion, intellect,
and creativity.
=@@EJC@ECEPOPKCAPDAN DAI=CE?OMQ=NA
One of the most widely used forms of numerology today is Magic squares have held a symbolic significance for a number
that of adding digits together to arrive at one single significant of civilizations, the most recognizable of which originated in
number. The simplest method is to add together the digits that Ancient Chinese mythology and is called Lo Shu. Here a
make up a person’s date of birth. For example, 2 December square to the order of three – that is with three rows and three
1984 is calculated as follows: 0+2+1+2+1+9+8+4 = 27. columns – contains the digits 1 to 9 arranged in such a way
These two numbers are then added together to give a single that the sum of each row, column, and diagonal comes to 15
digit as follows, 2 + 7 = 9. Similarly, summing 17 July 1941 (referred to as the “magic constant”). Other nations have been
yields a significant figure of 3. The Ancient Greek philosopher, known to apply the same principle using different numbers or
Pythagoras, applied the same principle to the letters of the larger squares, resulting in different magic constants.
alphabet, where A = 1, B = 2, and so on. Again, when the letters
05.
reach double figures, as for Z (26), they are added together
giving, in this case, an 8 (see full alphabet/numbers below).
Following this system it is possible to assess any important set
of numbers or words in a person’s life, to give greater meaning
to the events and circumstances that influence it.
IUPDO"NAHECEKJO
A
1
B
2
C
3
D
4
E
5
F
6
G
7
H
8 9
I
/13
J
1
K
2
L
3
M
4
N
5
O
6
P
7
Q
8
R
9 4-2
Lo Shu
The numerical value of the Lo Shu was derived from I Ching, there being a symbolic link
S T U V W X Y Z between the three lines of a trigram and the rows of figures in the square. The colours
are also symbolic. From left to right green represents intellect, reasoning, and judgement;
purple emotions, feelings, and intuitions; and orange life, finance, and business.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
-.
SD=PPDAJQI>ANOIA=J
Based on date of birth and/or the letters of a name, a person may discover
that he or she has a series of significant numbers in his or her life, each
with its own symbolism. The numbers reveal information about a person’s
character as well as his or her talents, aims, and motivations. Some numbers
may recur, in which case their significance is intensified. There are no good
or bad numbers, but each number has both positive and negative qualities
in equal measure, which can be expressed as a person’s strengths and
weaknesses respectively.
Once numbers have been identified as potentially having a negative
influence on a person, their effects can be tempered or blocked by his or
her subsequent actions. For example, he or she can work to control certain Creativity Cooperation and Balance
character tendencies and has a choice in how his or her various abilities are and Confidence This number represents an
The number 1 represents a ability to adapt and to work
used. In some cases, the symbolism of a given number may already be creative spirit, a strong sense with others – the 2 is a symbol
evident in a person’s life, or be something that will manifest itself later on. of individuality, and courage or of partnership – as well as
determination. If blocked, the being a skilled mediator. If
same number can symbolize blocked, the same number
addictive behaviour, aggression, can represent a shy and self-
or a dominating force. conscious nature.
/0123
Expression
and Sensitivity
The number 3 represents self-
expression, either verbally or
creatively, and an inspiration
to others. If blocked, great
optimism and a fun-loving
nature give way to harsh
Stability and Progress
This number represents the
building of a solid foundation
on which to move forward, good
organizational skills, and an
ability to manage. If blocked,
the same number can symbolize
inflexibility and an inability in a
Freedom and Discipline
The number 5 represents a
versatile and expansive nature
with a tendency to act quickly in
any given situation. If blocked,
the number can symbolize an
impatient and restless nature.
Vision and Acceptance
This number represents beauty,
purity, high ideals, and a well-
balanced, unselfish disposition.
If blocked, the number 6 can
symbolize an obstinate,
domineering nature and a
tendency to be judgemental.
Trust and Openness
The number 7 represents
uniqueness, a desire to learn, a
scientific mind, and a tendency
towards perfection. If blocked,
a person’s natural charm may
give way to aloofness, and a
sarcastic and derisory nature.
45
criticism and moodiness. person to progress.
JQIANKHKCU
PDADKHUCN=EH
of less importance than although rejected by serious
what the Grail signifies – historians, is testimony to
in essence, the quest for our lasting fascination
a higher truth. with the Holy Grail.
=H?DAIE?OUI>KHEOI
Alchemists used planetary signs, such as Sun and Moon, to represent some
alchemic symbols, but during medieval times, fearful of persecution, they MATERIAL WORLD
R
invented their own complex vocabulary of signs to record and pass on their
knowledge. Because of this secrecy, alchemy became associated with fraud
and extortion, which detracted from some of the scientific discoveries made.
Philosopher’s Stone
Heavenly symbols Distinct division between
This complex symbol represents the philosopher’s stone and embodies
surrounded by faces of angels Heaven and Earth
a number of key principles relating to alchemy, among them a triangle
signifying the three heavenly substances (salt, sulphur, and mercury)
and a square representing the four elements. The circle symbolizes
the philosophical concept that “all is one”.
Seal of Solomon
The seal of Solomon is a six-
pointed star that features in
various faiths, most notably
Judaism. In combining the
symbols for fire and water, it
signifies the union of opposites
IUPDO"NAHECEKJO
Fire symbol
Last of the four elements of Phoenix Uroborus
alchemy, fire signifies the hot By laying its egg in the ashes Forming a circle, the uroborus
and dry stages of the process. before dying in the flames, the is a serpent eating its own tail.
It is associated with the metal phoenix symbolizes the last As such, it symbolizes continuity
lead and symbolizes the final stage of the alchemical process and immortality, as well as the
transformation. – the change into gold and alchemical principle that “one
philosophical perfection. is all”.
Sulphur symbol
Sulphur is one of the three
heavenly substances that make
up base matter. Its dry, fiery
force reacts with the fluidity
of mercury and is symbolic of
the desire to achieve a higher
spirituality. Sulphur was
sometimes linked with masculine
qualities, as opposed to the
feminine qualities of mercury.
Caduceus Green lion
Signifying a union of opposites Representing green vitriol, a
as symbolized by mercury highly corrosive liquid used
and sulphur, the rod of the in many alchemical processes,
caduceus represents the power the lion in green form is shown
of transformation, while the here swallowing the Sun. It is
wings symbolize the balance symbolic of the end product of
that results from the process. the alchemical process – gold.
Eagle
Symbolizing the transmutation
of base metal into gold, and
therefore the death of the
impure and the birth of the
pure, the eagle with its wings
=H?DAIU
outstretched represents the air
and mercury to the lion’s earth
and sulphur.
Mercury symbol
Along with salt and sulphur, Alchemic illustrations SEE ALSO
mercury is one of the three This watercolour taken from the alchemic text Splendor Solis, Gold pp.44–45
heavenly substances. Its fluidity published in 1598, includes the colours black, white, red, and gold, Precious matter pp.46–47
represents the transition from which have symbolic implications. Black, for example, represents the Eagles pp.62–63
base metal into gold and is first stage of the process, which then moves through various processes, Fabulous beasts pp.74–77 .--
symbolic of the union between represented by white, then red until it reaches the end product, gold. Shapes pp.284–89
the spiritual and the material.
S
ymbols lie at the very heart of our common culture and national symbols. These
social and cultural identity. They icons might take the form of animals or birds,
may be drawn from nature or man- such as the New Zealand kiwi, flags, postage
made, be animate or inanimate, stamps, or even dates that celebrate historic
and may take many different forms, events, such as Britain’s Guy Fawkes Night.
ranging from images to rituals and storytelling. From earliest times, the aspirations of every
Symbols serve a vital function because they culture and society have been expressed
help to bind us together, creating a common through its architecture. From ancient Classical
codified system that reflects status, nationality, buildings celebrating the might of the empire
cultural activities, and much more. to the heavenly symbolism represented by the
In some ancient civilizations rulers were spires and domes of churches and mosques,
identified with the gods – and in some architects have created buildings that make a
countries this reverence remains, as in Japan universal visual statement. Ordinary buildings
and Thailand. Royalty and its ceremonial pomp may seem purely functional by comparison but
and regalia are steeped in a symbolism that they, too, are associated with deeply held
serves to elevate and enhance, setting the ruler beliefs about home and hearth. Womb-like and
apart from his or her subjects. feminine, the home stands for sanctuary and
Nationality is an obvious security, its walls keeping the outside world
means of grouping people firmly at bay. Stairs are linked with the ascent
together and this is to spiritual enlightenment, while windows are
enhanced by the use of the “eye of the soul”, letting in the light of truth.
OK?EAPU"?QHPQNA
.-0
Such symbolism is have their roots in ancient times, while fairy
THE NEED TO commonly associated tales, handed down through the generations,
BELONG IS with religious are variously associated with religion,
FUNDAMENTAL buildings. Every psychology, or the cosmos.
TO ALL HUMAN culture also has Clothing and costume reflect various aspects
SOCIETIES AND symbolically sacred of our society and culture, including nationality,
ENHANCES places, which may job, religion, personality, aspirations, and status.
OUR SENSE be man-made, Western dress is heavily influenced by fashion,
OF CULTURAL such as Britain’s but people worldwide still wear traditional
IDENTITY Stonehenge, or styles that are imbued with symbolism, such
natural, such as as the Indian sari.
India’s River Ganges. Jewellery has always been a sign of status as
In common with homes, gardens are well as the identifying mark of a tribe, while
regarded as havens but they also represent body adornment is traditionally associated with
myriad other ideals, from signs of status to a tribal, military, or religious communities. The
Paradise on Earth where the gardener is the need to belong is fundamental to all human
creator figure. Other seemingly random societies and enhances our sense of cultural
items, such as tools and weapons, assume identity. Whether it is by birth, group affiliation,
significance symbolically when linked to or religion, “membership” is symbolized by
politics, religion, or folklore. Cultural clothing, rituals, celebrations, and cultural
activities, such as music, dance, and theatre, icons – all ties that bind people together.
EJPNK@Q?PEKJ
.-1
ROYALTY
Ruling elites of ancient civilizations were revered
as gods living on Earth. In Egypt only gods, kings
and queens were allowed to carry the powerful an
symbol, or “sign of life”, which bestowed on them
the right to give or take away life. Even today
certain royalty are still revered – King Bhumibol
Adulyadej of Thailand, the longest serving monarch
ever, is revered as the country’s “guiding light”.
Rituals and symbols of statehood continue there,
as they do in the world’s 30 other monarchies.
King
Monarchs were once seen
as earthly counterparts of God.
The ceremony ascribed to kings
still holds power
in many countries, and
the regalia of crowns, orbs,
sceptres, and thrones keep the
symbolism alive. Coinage and
medals also perpetuate the cult
of kings, as with this bronze
King and queen Pharaoh
medallion of French “Sun King”
The queen is a compelling The combined rule of a king and Tutankhamen was worshipped
Louis XIV (above), who claimed
symbol of power and femininity. queen, as with King William III as a god and intermediary
to rule by “Divine Right”. The
Queen Elizabeth I was adept and Queen Mary II shown here, between Earth and Heaven. His
Oba (“king”) of Benin (right)
t OBA KING OF BENIN
at cultivating her public image. symbolizes balance and mask is gold because the flesh
was considered a divine being
Her numerous portraits harmony. This commemorative of the gods was thought to be
descended from a god. Like the
combined assured majesty plate of 1689 (with symbolic golden. The blue-striped gold
OK?EAPU"?QHPQNA
Knight in battle
This plaque from a tomb ornament depicts the classic knight
in shining armour on horseback – a clear
cle symbol of power,
NKU=HPU
authority,
uthority, and courage.
courag
SEE ALSO
The Fool The Sun pp.16–17
Under the guise of entertainer, the fool or jester could joke at his Trappings of royalty pp.218–19
king’s expense – and get away with it. The fool was kept at court Tools & weapons pp.224–25
for luck and to ward off the evil eye. The multicoloured and patched
.-3
costume – motley – symbolized the fool’s eccentricity.
TRAPPINGS OF ROYALT
L Y
To affirm their exalted status, rulers have finery and jewels as they sit on ornate
always surrounded themselves with grand thrones. These and other trappings of royalty
accoutrements of office. The symbolic enforce the symbolism of the ruler as a being
ceremonies of coronations, as well as state above ordinary people and
functions with processions, banquets, in some cases divine or
and royal guards, see monarchs draped in semi-divine.
AC=HE=
e emblems and insignia of royalty, known
egalia, are symbolic “props” that lend an
herworldliness” to a monarch’s earthly
wers. The crown – be it jewel-encrusted
rnment or vibrant plumed headdress –
he quintessential physical and figurative
al symbol.
Sceptre
The ornamental rod or staff ca
by rulers on ceremonial occasi
is an emblem of authority and
sovereign power. It may have
volved from a lance without t
etal point to evoke continued
preme power in peace time.
ewelled sceptre was presen
the French to the 18th-centu
nese Emperor Qianlong.
OK?EAPU"?QHPQNA
LIBATION VESSEL
fly whisks were
ce believed to be held by
ities. Tutankhamen had
gold-covered fly whisk with
Crown trich feathers.
As lords over the “double” land
of Upper and Lower Egypt,
Egyptian pharaohs were often Orb
depicted wearing a double presenting the cosmos to
crown (above). The Holy Roman ncient Romans, the cross was
ded in medieval times to Thai Royal Regalia
Emperor’s crown (top) was Under the Great White Umbrella of State, which symbolizes the king
heavy with Christian symbolism, mbolize a world under
himself, Bhumibol Adulyadej was crowned King of Thailand on 9 June
.-
.-4 such
c as the arches representing hristian rule. It represents a
1946. Regal utensils, including a gold libation vessel, symbol of both
the vaults of Heaven.
n minine motif balancing the
eptre’s male symbolism. royalty and divinity, were placed by his throne during the ceremony.
Helm
NKU=H=NIO=J@OA=HO
Coats of arms, also called armorial bearings,
identified a particular ruler or knight in medieval
times. Whether depicted on shields, armour,
surcoats, or flags, the various emblems all added
up to a status symbol, and the royal arms were
the ultimate power signal. Seals and signets
bearing the royal arms were embossed in hot
wax on documents and letters to authenticate
ownership and ensure privacy. Royal seals may Royal Arms Seal of King Edward III
also bear a depiction of the monarch. In the This coat of arms symbolically represents England, Scotland, Wales, Royal seals often depict the
and Ireland with animals, mythical creatures, plants, instruments, and monarch enthroned, but Edward
days when the majority of people could not t the
inscriptions. With the helm displayed beneath the crown (left), III’s (1327–1377) shows him on
read or write, such seals provided an easily Royal Arms represent the monarch herself. Without the helm (right),t horseback to reflect his military
understood sign of a king’s approval. they represent the United Kingdom in courtrooms and embassies. successes against the French.
PN=LLEJCOKBNKU=HPU
construction – timber, marble, or stone – palaces of the Buddhist and Hindu
reflect the grandest architecture and materials of cosmos. Palaces, temples,
and homes all face south, the
their time and location, and thereby reflect the direction of smiling fortune.
grand designs of the patron. The interiors, Some 100,000 symbols of
usually stuffed with royal gifts and purchases, imperial power adorn the
walled enclave to ensure
say “look at my unrivalled wealth and taste”. Heaven’s blessing.
However, some of the many rooms of a palace
may hold treasures representing spiritual truths.
SEE ALSO
The Palace of Versailles The Sun pp.16–17
One of the grandest European palaces was built by Louis XIV, the Coronations pp.220–21
“Sun King”, in the 17th century, at a time of political turmoil. Vastly Heraldic emblems pp.318–23
expensive both to build and maintain, Versailles became the seat of
.-5
his court and also a symbol of regal opulence.
OK?EAPU"?QHPQNA
Coronation dress
To symbolize her role as Queen of the Commonwealth, Norman Hartnell’s the maple leaf of Canada, the New Zealand fern, South Africa’s protea,
design for Elizabeth II’s coronation dress incorporated the emblems of its lotus flowers for India and Ceylon (Sri Lanka), and wheat, cotton, and jute
member countries, including the Tudor rose of England, the Scottish thistle, for Pakistan. The motifs were embroidered in silks, pearls, diamonds,
the Welsh leek, and the shamrock of Ireland, along with the wattle of Australia, amethysts, and crystals.
CORONATIONS
In magnificent and solemn coronations, ritual objects, from carriages
to crown jewels, become codified signals that symbolically announce
the ruler’s powers in the land and indeed to a divine power.
The most symbolic ceremony to recognize trophies symbolizing the victories of Great
a new king, queen, or emperor – and so Britain in the Seven Years War (1756–1763).
set the seal on the state – is a coronation. Taking place in Westminster Abbey, the
They are grand occasions full of pomp coronation is a symbol of the sovereign’s
and circumstance. Massive symbolism is earthly and spiritual responsibility, and
carried not only in the ritual itself, but suggests God’s blessing on a reign, an
clearly in the objects worn, carried, echo of the ancient belief in the divine
displayed, or sat upon to legitimize the right of kings.
new rule. These objects may be used to In an act symbolic of the merging of
anoint or baptize the king, such as sacred religious and temporal authority, Elizabeth
shells or horns, or ampullas, or carried, was then presented by the Archbishop of
as with the crown, sceptre, and orb of Gold state coach Canterbury, primate of all England, to
Byzantine and western worlds. The throne Queen Elizabeth II rides to her coronation in the gold the congregation as the legitimate heir
state coach, used by British monarchs since 1762. On
remains the essential coronation symbol in the roof of the carriage cherubs representing England, to the throne. Having taken the oath of
almost all civilizations. European rituals Scotland, and Ireland support the royal crown. allegiance, the sovereign was dressed in
and objects developed between the 9th a simple white
and 15th centuries kept the sacred kingship symbolism going, linen robe, symbolic of purity, and
especially through the coronation ceremonies of The Holy anointed with holy oil poured into
Roman Empire and the Papacy. an anointing spoon from an eagle-
shaped ampulla, the eagle
MQAAJAHEV=>APDEE symbolizing royalty. Following
Queen Elizabeth II’s world-televised coronation on 2 June the anointing, the monarch was
1953 continued many of the symbols and codes of sacred presented with three swords,
legitimation of kings and retained the ritual of previous symbols of mercy, power, and
coronations. The Queen was taken from Buckingham Palace justice, with which she was charged
to Westminster Abbey in a gold state coach with palm trees at to “distribute justice equally and to
the corners, each rising from a lion’s head and loaded with protect the Holy Church of God”.
?KNKJ=PEKJO
As well as monarch, Elizabeth was Royal symbols
Crown jewels also invested as “Defender of the Elizabeth II dressed in coronation
The British Crown Jewels robes and wearing the Imperial
Faith” and handed the orb, a symbol State Crown. The orb and sceptre
are royal ornaments only
used in the actual of the world under Christ. Each symbolize the Church’s authority
ceremony of coronation item of royal regalia reinforced the and the sovereign’s duty as
as symbols of sacred and Defender of the Faith.
sacred nature of her new role.
temporal authority. Britain
is the only European
monarchy still using SEE ALSO
its regalia for the Eagles pp.62–63
consecration ceremony Royalty pp.216–17
of crowning the sovereign. Trappings of royalty pp.218–19
NATIONALITY
Through origin, birth, or naturalization we heroes, we readily latch on to them for their
belong to a specific nation or people. Our symbolic significance. Fifty years ago there
national identity is derived from a common were 82 independent countries, but by the
culture, language, and history, and outwardly start of the 21st century there were 194.
reflected by familiar icons. Whether these Nationality is important to us and shared
icons are statues, dance forms, or folk symbols reinforce our sense of belonging.
National hero
Nationality is often embodied
in its heroes and heroines, real
or imagined. Robin Hood “who
stole from the rich to give to the
British bulldog poor” became an English icon
The bulldog became symbolically of freedom for the oppressed,
linked with British “doggedness” through medieval poetry and
after Winston Churchill and the minstrel songs, as well as
nation withstood Nazi invasion dramatizations in modern-day
in World War II. plays, TV shows, and films.
Thanksgiving Day
The idea of turkey and cranberry
sauce as the centrepiece of
the Thanksgiving dinner is today
deeply entrenched in the
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American way of life. The meal
is symbolically linked to the
founding pilgrims’ desire to
celebrate a good harvest in
1621 with a feast, having
landed at Plymouth Rock.
Coat of Arms of the Bahamas
The colourful Bahamian coat
co of arms The Russian bear is a
has a conch above a shield co
containing metaphor as welll as an
a flamingo, the national bird,
ird and a anthropomorphic symbol ol of SEE ALSO
marlin, symbolizing the island’s the nation. It has been
en used Mammals pp.52–55
abundant sealife. The Santa Maria, as a caricature since Clothing & costume pp.248–49
Group affiliation pp.258–59
the flagship
agship of
o Christopher Columbus,
appears on the shield.
sh
Napoleonic times es to
t depict
Russia’s size and strength.
Heraldic emblems pp.318–23 ../
Flags pp.324–29
TOOLS & WEAPONS
Designed to make or mend, or to kill o
weapons have been the ultimate purpo
since the Stone Age. Yet although they
practical objects, both have always had
symbolic significance when linked to r
folklore, and politics. Weapons and to
to identify the gods, in whose hands th
power, protection, or destruction. Som
sickle, represent both death and life.
Spear
ause the spear was
arded as the king of
apons, snapping an
Scythe Bow and arrow my’s spear was a
The most recognizable symbol Both practical and symbolic The bow and arrow together represent hunting and war. The arrow mbolic act of humiliation,
of mortality is the Grim Reaper as a protector, the shield has also has a certain phallic quality, and the bow provides sexual tension monstrating superiority.
with his scythe, ready to feminine overtones of chastity in its crescent (feminine) shape. The bow has further symbolism in well as having obvious
“harvest” the souls of the dead. as well as power, as with the representing spiritual energy and discipline, while the arrow can llic connotations, spears
The hourglass held in the other Greek goddess Athena. A represent lightning, rain, and power. For Christians, piercing arrows e religious ties, as with
hand symbolizes Father Time decorated shield can also be are a symbol of St. Sebastian, who is commonly depicted tied to a Spear of Destiny, the
cut short. an advertisement of status. post and shot through with arrows. ce that pierced Jesus.
Dagger
Used by ancient
civilizations for SWORDS
ritual human
and animal With its long blade, the sword’s shape
s lends
sacrifice, the itself to associations with masculinity. For
agger is a
ent symbol of
Crusaders, because it was like the Cross with
letting, imminent its straight hilt, a sword justified bloodletting
tting in
and appeasement the name of God. Many Christian saints ints carry a
gods. The kris
type of dagger
Gun sword as their emblem. Swords are symbols of
The gun has potent phallic and male aggression symbolism. royal power, military might,, and honour. In
Southeast Asia,
Its projectile power represents virility and impregnation. The
n decorated with Buddhist and Taoist thought
houg swords symbolize
identification of guns with macho males has been frequently
nscribed from
an to represent
reinforced by gangster movies. discernment cutting through
throug ignorance.
te truth.
Islamic sword
The Saudi Arabian flagg features
a sword as a symbol of “strength
streng
rooted in faith”
h – the words in the
Scales sacred Islamic text written above it.
p g p set of scales is easily recognizable as a symbol of justice and
penetration and fertilization fairness. Justice is often personified as a blindfolded woman carrying
of the Earth (the female furrow). scales. The notion of “balanced judgement” goes back to Ancient
Ploughing also symbolizes the Egypt, when the heart of a deceased person was weighed against
act of creation, as primal matter the feather of truth before Osiris, god of the underworld.
is broken down into different
life forms.
Asante sword
This late 19th-
century Ghanaian
ceremonial sword
Knighting has gilded
In the centuries old tradition of wooden beads
b on
knighting,
g a ruler touches the the handle that
th
shoulders of a subject with the flat of symbolize
ze wealth
a sword as a symbolic raising of rank. and fertility.
PKKHO"SA=LKJO
Net
For Christians the net represents harvesting of the faithful: Christ
instructed his disciples to become “fishers of men”. In older cultures
the net is related to the ensnaring powers of the female. To the Samurai sword
Chinese the stars at night are the “net of Heaven”. For the samurai the “sword” represented as much a spiritual
training as a military one, where Bushido,
Bush the “Way of the
Rope Warrior”, combined ZenZ with martial arts. The samurai
Symbolically, rope is both sword is renowned for its beauty and sharpness.
sha
restricting and connecting. The
Aztecs used rope as a noose but
it had trading value, too. As a
ladder or bridge, it has symbolic SEE ALSO
links to Heaven. For Hindus rope
Fertility & childbirth pp.120–23
represents purity because the Death & mourning pp.128–31
Hindu god Shiva wore a sacred Celtic & Nordic deities pp.142–43
cord. In Christianity it is a Christianity pp.176–79 ..1
symbol of betrayal, as Christ Professional signs pp.314–15
was bound by his captors.
its grip and captivity.
ARCHITECTURE
Throughout history, every culture and have shaped their creations to make a
society has expressed its aspirations through universal visual language. Differently shaped
architecture. From Ancient Greek and buildings represent differing symbolic ideals:
Roman buildings representing the power of skyscrapers can represent status and
empire to the celestial symbolism conveyed achievement, while environmentally aware
in the vaulted arches and spires of buildings show our closeness both to nature
magnificent Gothic cathedrals, architects and natural forms.
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BRIDGES KBJ PQNA
Many people make homes from natural materials,
Symbolically, bridges can represent from adobe huts in Africa to ice-block igloos in the
communication between an earthly and divine Arctic. In modern societies, too, the urge to “get
realm or the transition from
m one state oof being back to nature” is increasingly expressed through
to another. However, depending upon its environmentally aware architecture.
particular setting, a bridge can attain an iconic
quality and become a landmark that defines
a place – sometimes a whole country – in
our imagination.
Icon of a city
Flamboyant yet functional, London’s Tower Bridge was a feat
of steam-driven Victorian engineering and is now symbolic as THE TOWER
a tourist icon of the United Kingdom’s capital city. OF BABEL
A bibilical tower but with real antecedents,
the Tower of Babel was an Ancient Babylonian
stepped pyramid. The Babylonians were
determined to build a tower that would reach
the heavens, but according to the Bible, God
caused the builders to speak in so many Pride of Man
Focus of national pride The mythical story of this tower
different tongues they could not understand
n is told in the Book of Genesis,
Completed in 1932, Sydney Harbour Bridge is an iconic
image of Sydney and of Australia itself, representing
each other, and the tower was never compl
completed. and is a symbolic reminder that
a modern nation of freedom and opportunity. It is thus a symbol of man’s arrogance. “pride comes before a fall” when
men rebel against God. d.
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Certain shapes used in the design of buildings, whether in their plan
or elevation, or the decorations attached to them, immediately signal
something to us by association. So low-rise buildings “envelop” and are
feminine in form, whereas high-rise structures “rise” in masculine form.
Feminine buildings that use curved shapes also symbolize the safety and
security of the womb.
Castle
Castles, like Bodiam Castle
in East Sussex, once provided
safety for nobles and their serfs
in times of war. Surrounded by Amphitheatre
a moat, the feminine symbolism One of the greatest works of Roman architecture, the Colosseum
of protection and nurturing is in Rome is a compelling symbol of empire and power and is today
very strong; however, the castle an important landmark in Italy’s “Eternal City”. Its elliptical shape
remains a symbol of strength has a feminine, protective symbolism, as well as suggesting a womb-
and power. like envelopment.
I=O?QHEJA @Q=HOUI>KHEOI
=N?DEPA?PQNA Many buildings send out both masculine and
The tower symbolizes power, and in its feminine signals. Tibet’s Portala Palace is
phallic connotation male supremacy. dedicated to the bodhisattva Avalokiteshvara,
From medieval spires to the modern who has both male and female forms. A dome
skyscraper, humans (and nations) have can be both masculine and feminine as with
striven to express their supremacy London’s all-embracing 02 Arena, which suggests
through sheer, thrusting height. By a nurturing of knowledge and the arts.
association, the most symbolic example
of affecting a nation’s feeling of Palace
invincibility was the catastrophic The Portala Palace in Lhasa
(1645–1695) is a symbol of
terrorist attack on New York’s World Tibet and also of Tibetan
Trade Center on 11 September 2001. Buddhism (being once the home
of Tibet’s spiritual leaders, the
Dalai Llamas). Rising from a
Skyscraper high ridge, the magnificent red,
From 1931 New York’s white, and gold palace makes
Empire State Building for an imposing sight.
was the world’s tallest
building for over 40
years. Today this Art
Deco landmark remains
a proud masculine
symbol of the United
States’ unfettered
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ambition and
self-belief.
Dome
Lighthouse As with domes in antiquity, London’s O2 Arena represents a cosmic
Representing a beacon canopy. Domes were incorporated from Renaissance times in
of truth and a symbol
of male fertility, the
lighthouse also Tower in Taipei
symbolizes Christ’s One of the world’s tallest structures, Taipei Fertility & childbirth pp.120–23
teaching, as it provides 101’s design echoes the Chinese pagoda Religious architecture pp.228–31
light to guide ships to and a stem of bamboo. The tower thus Sacred places pp.232–33
safety just as the soul reflects Taiwan’s cultural history, as well
is drawn to faith. as its ambition in the 21st century.
RELIGIOUS
ARCHITECTURE
Temples, mosques, churches, and shrines and highly symbolic. Spires, towers,
are places of worship and as such are filled minarets, and domes beckon believers
with reminders of the central belief of the (summoned by bells or drawn by the
worshippers and their relationship with the muezzin’s call to prayer) from afar and
deity. Religious architecture is both complex point to a celestial, spiritual world.
@A?KN=PEKJ
Religious sites are recognizable by their
decorative symbols of faith – such as the cross,
star, or crescent Moon – as well as statues of
gods, saints, and other sacred shapes and forms
carved into the stone, wood, or glass. Symbolism
ranges from medieval cathedral gargoyles
representing Hell fire and damnation, to beautiful
calligraphic representations of the Koran.
Thee jewel
je (“enlightenment”),
Sun (“wisdom”), and Moon
(“heart” ).
Eye of Nepalese stupa
Stupas were originally burial The parasol represents
mounds and are a symbol of the compassion.
pa
Buddha’s entry into Nirvana.
In this case, the eyes of the The chest has seven elements
Buddha on the Harmika of the of enlightenment, including
diligence and joy.
NAHECEKQO=N?DEPA?PQNA
Swayambhu stupa in Nepal
are a reminder to all of the
possibility of enlightenment.
The hall has steps
symbolizing the three
refuges of the Buddha,
dharma, and sangha.
dha
5
3
1. Base (Kamadhatu)
The reliefs at the base of Borobudur represent Kamadhatu
(the realm of desire) and symbolize humans still bound by lust.
5. Mandala form
When seen from the top Borobudur resembles a mandala, a visual
metaphor for the cosmos. Its essential feature is a circle enclosed by
a square with four “doors” in the middle of each side, facing the four
cardinal points (four main Buddhist elements). Mandalas are used as
meditational aids. Although there is no contemporary record of
Borobudur being used in this way, it is very likely that it was.
./-
SACRED PLACES
In every culture there are places and spaces that
are imbued with a sacredness acquired through
hundreds or thousands of years of worship.
These may be made by humans, such as temples
and pyramids, or natural, as in rivers, rocks, and
trees. Whether imbued with religious or folkloric
importance, the world is dotted with sacred places
that have entered the public consciousness and
become, in their own way, symbols of their culture.
Ka’ba
The cubical structure at the Great Mosque in Mecca is called the Ka’ba
and is central to Islam. Muslims make the hajjj (“pilgrimage”) there once
in their lifetime if they are able. Pilgrims circle the Ka’ba seven times,
an act symbolizing Muhammad’s seven ascents to Heaven. Mount Tai Delphi
Not merely a mountain home of Home of the mysterious oracle of the Ancient Mediterranean world,
the gods (like Mount Olympus), Delphi is soaked in legend. Here lay the sacred place of the Earth
Mount Tai was considered a goddess, Gaia, and the sanctuary of the Greek god Apollo. Nearby,
deity itself – the son of the Mount Parnassus is sacred to the Muses in Greek legend.
Emperor of Heaven. Chinese
emperors have venerated it as
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Varanasi Lascaux
Situated by the Ganges, Varanasi is a major pilgrimage site in India The prehistoric
and is the most sacred place for Hindus to die and be cremated. The rock paintings of
River Ganges symbolizes divine consciousness and thus immortality. the Lascaux cave
O=?NA@LH=?AO
complex in France
date back to
15000–13000BCE.
They depict animals,
human representations, and signs. The caves were probably
proba
used bothh for hunting rituals and magical rites.
Church of the
Holy Sepulchre
One of the most sacred
spaces on Earth is on the site
of the supposed tomb of Jesus. Mountains pp.28–29
A tiny chapel in the Church of Death & mourning pp.128–31
Teotihuacan Architecture pp.226–27
the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem
is believed to mark this most
The Aztec city-complex of Teotihuacan in Mexico houses the Pyramid Religious architecture pp.228–29 .//
of the Sun (above). It is carved with many symbols, including images
sacred of sites to Christians. of the god of rain and Quetzalcoatl, the plumed serpent god.
BUILDINGS
For most people the elements that make interior and exterior is directly linked to a
up a house are purely practical – although person’s spiritual well-being. The Ancient
architects design buildings with the aim Chinese practice of Feng Shui, also used in
of making them both functional and many modern western buildings, optimizes
aesthetically pleasing. In the East the the placement of rooms and objects within
harmony and orientation of a building’s rooms to ward off evil spirits and bad luck.
Window Chimney
Just as the eye is likened to the “window of the soul”, so symbolically Smoke escaping from the
the window has long been considered as the “eye of the soul”. hearth through a chimney
Windows let in the light of truth. Stained glass examples do it with represents release from an
overt symbolism, and illuminate the darkness of ignorance. enclosed space, and from
an earthbound state to the
heavens. Originally, Father
Christmas coming down the
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Façade
The public face of a building
represents how one wishes to
Balcony Pillar appear to the world. An open
Both outside and part of the A pillar represents the joining façade with many windows
building, a balcony represents of Heaven and Earth and is suggests openness and honesty,
ambivalence and mystery, often decorated to highlight whereas a windowless façade with
since it partially conceals and this link. The Islamic faith enclosed courtyards suggests
./0 partially reveals. Historically, has “Five Pillars” representing concealment and secrecy.
balconies symbolized “support” the five duties incumbent on Ornamental flourishes announce
and a privileged lifestyle. every Muslim. status and power.
Attic Basement Arch Wall
Tucked in beneath the roof, the Symbolically the basement, cellar, or crypt – often with a vaulted An archway symbolizes the Symbolic of strength, privacy,
attic is often the storage place ceiling – represents the underworld. Tombs lie there beneath the passage from one state of being and containment, the wall
of the home, full of old toys and world of people and the heavens. In some cultures houses are raised to another. In initiation rites, encloses and protects the
memorabilia. Symbolically it on stilts, and the space beneath (where domestic animals are kept) one who passes through an interior of a building or garden.
represents half-remembered or represents the lower realms. arch is symbolically reborn. In some cases, as in the Gaza
forgotten truths, waiting to be The St. Louis Gateway Arch Strip barrier or the Great Wall
revealed to the seeker. represents the gateway to the of China, it represents division,
historical American West. isolation, and separation.
Floor
The earthly realm between
Heaven (the roof) and Hell (the
basement or under-floor area) is Dome Roof
represented by the floor. Floors Since antiquity and through diverse cultures and religions, the dome Representing the feminine, sheltering principle, the roof keeps a
are sometimes decorated with has represented the arc of Heaven and the realm of the gods. That is building safe from evil forces. It is also a sacred space, symbolizing –
symbols and patterns. why many church and temple dome interiors are painted with stars and in holy buildings often showing – the heavens, with deities,
and other celestial objects. angels, and gargoyles often added to increase its protective power.
DOORWAY
The entrance to a house or sacred space
symbolically marks the divide between the sacred
and the profane, the transition from one stage
of life to another, the passage from life to death.
To ensure an entrance is more secure from evil
influences, people carve motifs into the surrounding
supports, or add symbolic “totems” to the door
itself, such as a horseshoe or door knocker. Hall >QEH@EJCO
Door knocker
cke Both practically and metaphorically, a hall is a place of transition –
Although a door knocker leading to other doors and passageways. In this way it symbolizes
Pilasters a moment of choice in life when several “doors” are open to new
The lintel and pilasters can symbolize hospitality,
as with a pineapple motif, possibilities, spiritual or otherwise.
surrounding temple or
church entrances are often or good luck, as with a
carved with protective horse shoe or four-leaf SEE ALSO
guardian deities. They bear clover, the sound of the
Islam pp.180–83
symbols conferring good knocker at the door can Architecture pp.226–27
fortune on those who enter. be interpreted ass a sign Religious architecture pp.228–31
In eastern countries the of inexorable fate or Sacred places pp.232–33 ./1
lotus
us is a popular motif. approaching death.h Steps to Heaven pp.236–37
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Jacob’s Ladder
Possibly the best-known ladder in western symbolism is Jacob’s Ladder. In the Old Testament Jacob,
fleeing his brother’s anger, lays down to sleep with a stone for a pillow. He dreams of a ladder to the
heavens with angels ascending. At the top God gives blessings and promises to protect Jacob on his
journey. The ladder thus became a symbol of the comings and goings between Heaven and Earth.
STEPS TO HEAVEN
A ladder or staircase can represent access to the transcendent – each
rung or step representing a spiritual stage or new level of awareness on
the ascent – or the steep decline to a fiery netherworld.
Like the Tree of Life, ladders and stairs are associated with the OPALOKJPDAL=PD
knowledge of good and evil. The different levels represent the In many cultures the number of steps on a ladder equates
passage between the earthly and heavenly realms. to the number of tests one must pass to attain self-knowledge
or enlightenment. Most commonly
PDAH=@@AN there are seven steps. In Buddhism,
The ladder is a well-known mythological for instance, the seven steps correspond
motif most often interpreted as a symbol to the seven heavens and seven stages
of achieving personal wholeness. With its of awareness. From Sumerian cosmology
two uprights, it is often associated with to modern day Freemasonry, the ladder
the two trees of Paradise: the Tree of the is also depicted with seven steps.
Knowledge of Good and Evil and the Tree In a church the altar, approached by the
of Life, the two being joined by the rungs priest, is raised several steps above the
of spiritual knowledge. In Egyptian congregation as a symbol of its sanctity.
myth it was linked to Osiris, god of A throne, too, is raised on steps above
resurrection and the underworld, and The steps of the Buddha floor level, signalling temporal and often
since it was usually depicted as being lit This stucco relief from the Wat Mahathat temple in spiritual authority.
Thailand depicts the Buddha descending the steps of a
by the Sun’s rays, it was linked to the Sun ladder from the Trayastrimsha Heaven, with Brahma and
god, Re. In Buddhism the Buddha is Indra in attendance on ladders on either side. OP=ENO
shown descending a ladder that connects With a staircase,
the heavenly sphere with the earthly one, symbolizing the the different floors represent the
closeness of the enlightened ones to the heavens. The Bible different levels of the cosmos, and
relates the story of Jacob’s dream in which angels descend and of attainment in the quest for
ascend a ladder, a symbol of communication between the enlightenment. A spiral staircase
spiritual and physical worlds, or between the conscious and indicates a journey perhaps fraught with
the unconscious self – such symbolism also occurs in Islam, doubts: its twists are symbolic of the
OPALOPKDA=RAJ
when Muhammad dreamed of a ladder by which the faithful twists of fortune on the spiritual
could climb to God. journey. It must be remembered that Spiral staircase
ladders and stairs do not simply lead The spiral staircase
symbolizes a gradual
Altar steps upward. The board game Snakes and elevation to a new kind of
Altars are often raised Ladders is symbolic of the steps upward consciousness. The end is
on steps, like these at not in sight as one climbs
St. John’s Co-Cathedral in in one’s spiritual life, followed by the
round and round, physically
Valletta, Malta. The steps many sudden descents of temptation and symbolically, ascending
up to the altar can be seen (as symbolized by the snake). towards the summit.
as a ritual ascent. The
raised platform upon which
the altar rests suggests
being closer to divinity.
Sacred trees pp.96–97
Stone altars also signify
the indestructibility of Egyptian deities pp.138–39
./3
the divinity. Buddhism pp.164–69
Freemasonry pp.260–61
THE HOME
Womb-like and feminine, the home represents
both a sanctuary and security from the outside
world. Many familiar everyday objects that
we take for granted around the home, such as
bowls, clocks, brooms, and mirrors, have long
had profound symbolic associations with
cosmology and religion. There is often more
to the mundane than we realize.
Hearth
The home was, until
recently, symbolically
centred around the
hearth, the fireplace
where the family
gathered for warmth.
The hearth embodies Mirror
the idea of feminine A highly complex symbol, the mirror has many meanings. It represents
warmth and nurturing. truth, clarity, and self-examination, and reflects the soul. To Taoists it is
In Ancient Greek times symbolic of the inner calm of the sage. As it reflects light, the mirror is
the hearth was associated with both the Sun and the Moon. To Hindus it symbolizes the
dedicated to the illusory nature of reality. When a mirror breaks it symbolizes the loss of
goddess Hestia, who beauty or innocence, or is a presage of bad luck.
tended the sacred fire
on Mount Olympus.
Thread
his is a symbol of human
fe spun by the gods. Gree
mythology relates how The y
scaped from the labyrinth nts the Last sweeping away evil in the home
eing given a ball of thread olizes both the that might harm a child. The
ollow. In Hinduism males f and equality, broom became a tool against
he higher castes wear a th of the table”. curses and people hung a broom
tranded thread symbolizin mple is the on their front door to protect
eality, passion, and stillne f King Arthur. their home from evil spirits.
k
Like the Chinese
brush, the pen is
a sign of learning.
t marks our
destiny on a sheet
of paper. The pen
Chest s masculine in
Filled with water, a bowl is a Secrets can be shape and dips
symbol of the feminine principle hidden in a chest nto the feminine-
and of fertility. The alms bowl The Hebrew Tabl shaped inkwell
carried by a Buddhist monk were kept in a ch to draw upon
symbolizes the renunciation mysteries only revealed to the initiated. To the Romans its creativity.
of worldly things. the chest was a symbol of mysticism.
Screen Knife
Symbolic of mystery he form ough knives are
a screen half reveals a candle, bolic of death and
and half conceals. In lizes ifice – the Aztecs
a Christian church th d stone and obsidian
ood screen separat nd the es to cut out a
he nave of the nt like m’s heart – they
hurch, where the truth, also represent
ongregation sits, d the erance, cutting free.
om the chancel, en. In uddhism a knife cuts
rea where the a candle ugh the bonds of
and which to rance. It is also
s the divin light emblem of some
ing into stian martyrs, such Timepiece
t. Bartholemew. Like sundials and clocks, the
hourglass measures time and is
therefore a symbol of mortality.
Our lives ebb away like the
sand in an hourglass.
Filled es access to
represen key is a sy
of wealth. edge, and
Matthew, wh o give a pe
apostle who bet o symbolize
stianity two
he emblem
Loom d the keys t
An attribute of m en.
and lunar godde box represents the feminine.
the loom was a When closed it symbolizes the
of female power unconscious, and when opened
protection. Athe it can unleash all kinds of evil,
Greek goddess o ora’s Box did, according
endeavour, was the reek mythology.
patroness of crafts and
“a weaver of worlds”.
k
n book is a symbol of
ng and wisdom. A closed
ignifies an ending, a
ment, or death, as did a
rn, d candle or the tolling of
es he phrase, “bell, book,
d candle”, refers to the
PDADKIA
ed ects used ceremonially
excommunicate
ce. ward Catholics).
8
6
7 1
3 5
1. The dress
The colour of the bride’s dress – green – is a
strong symbol of fertility. Although she is not
pregnant, her pose emphasizes her fertility and
the possibility of future pregancies.
2. The candle
The single candle in the chandelier symbolizes
the presence of God. Its position next to the bed
emphasizes the hoped-for fertility of the wife.
.0-
Jan van Eyck, The Arnolfini Marriage, c1421
SHIPS & BOATS
The ship is a powerful symbol of security, of happiness were also borne by ship. To
the womb, or a cradling vessel on the cosmic Christians, a ship is a symbol of the Church
ocean. It also represents exploration of new and also of Noah’s ark. A boat can symbolize
realms. In Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia it safety but also death, as it crosses a river to
was a ship that carried the Sun and the Moon reach the underworld or carries the body of
across the heavens. The seven Japanese gods a warrior or nobleman on his final voyage.
Submarine Anchor
Primarily associated with warfare, a submarine has mixed symbolism. The anchor symbolizes stability,
It has the phallic shape of masculine power and its torpedoes suggest strength, and hope, as an
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virility, but it also has protective, womblike properties and travels anchor holds a boat fast in
through the creative cosmos of liquid. stormy seas. Early Christians
used the anchor as a hidden
symbol of the cross, and it is
often seen on seals, stained
glass windows, and tattoos. Ship’s cloth
Some cultures speak of ancestors who came across the sea in ships.
The people of Lampang, Sumatra, have ships’ cloths that they use in
rituals. These depict ships that symbolize their past and their destiny.
NAUTICAL SYMBOLS
SYM
ignalling with flags is centuries old, but the
rst code of flag signals dates
es back to the 17th
entury in England. Pennants
ants and flags
fl carry
pecial meanings and there is now a standard
ternational code of signals
signa by which ships
signal too each other.
ODELO">K=PO
off treasure.
t
Number
Numberss
Numerical
erical flags were introduced by the British Navy in the
18th century. The three flags on the left above, from the top,
represent the numbers one to three, and
a those on the right
the numbers six to eight.
eig
Egyptian
Egyptian burial boat Birds pp.58–61
These Ancient
i t Egyptian hieroglyphs depict a group of rowers with the Death & Mourning pp.128–31
barque for ferrying a pharoah’s body across the Nile. Similar pictures Greek & Roman Deities pp.140–41
show the barque ready to transport the pharoah in the afterlife.
afterli Christianity pp.176–79 .0/
Body Adornment pp.256–57
Flags pp.324–29
GARDENS
Havens, places of inspiration or spiritual the gardener is the creator, the garden
nourishment, pleasure grounds, or signs of symbolizes tamed and ordered nature.
status – gardens can be all these things. They From the tranquillity of a Zen garden
offer sanctuary from everyday life and balm to the restraint of a formal garden, or the
for the spirit; some gardens serve as a living exuberance of a wild garden, each has its
memorial. As a Paradise on Earth in which own symbolic plants, structures, and designs.
Zen garden
Originally created by Buddhist
monks, Zen gardens symbolize the
grandeur of nature in miniature.
Raked gravel represents water
(Yin), while large rocks symbolize
mountains (Yang). Together they
create an atmosphere of harmony,
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Garden of Eden
As Heaven on Earth, the Garden
of Eden represents a state of
“divine innocence” in which
humans, God, and nature co-
existed in perfect harmony, before
Adam and Eve ate the forbidden
fruit and were forever banished.
It is often depicted in western art
and literature. The garden also Tomb garden
.00 symbolizes a yearning for lost
beauty and innocence.
Some eastern cultures constructed tomb gardens for emperors,
such as this one for the Emperor Minh Mang, in Vietnam. These
were symbolic earthly Paradises that reflected the deceased’s status.
Secret garden
Likened to a lost Paradise of love and happiness, the secret garden
requires the key of privileged knowledge to unlock its secrets and
allow physical and spiritual flowering. This symbolic theme permeates
Frances Hodgson Burnett’s book of the same name.
Walled garden
In Persia, walled gardens were traditionally tranquil, inspirational Grotto
retreats from everyday life. This theme of spiritual refuge continued Originating from the Greek
in medieval Europe; it is also a feminine, protective symbol associated word kruptoss (meaning “hidden”),
with the Virgin Mary. grottoes are associated with the
underworld, Mother Earth, and
the womb; the presence of water
represents life, while the grotto
itself symbolizes a meeting place
between humans and the divine.
In ancient times grottoes were
often used as shrines.
Maze
The twists and turns of a maze represent life’s pathway. Entering it
is equated with death, while emerging is rebirth. Set within a square,
the maze represents the four cardinal points and the cosmos.
Fountain
As sparkling jets of water, a fountain represents the feminine
C=N@AJO
principle and the flow of life. The fountain of life is associated
with immortality; in Paradise, it spouts from the base of the
Bower Tree of Life and forms the Four Rivers.
The shaded bower, traditionally
constructed from twisted vines
or climbing flowers, symbolizes SEE ALSO
shelter and also the feminine Water pp.32–33
principle; in Christianity it is the Flowers pp.82–85
Knot garden Trees pp.94–95
The formal knot garden, or parterre, illustrates human mastery Virgin Mary. In literature it is
sometimes associated with
Sacred trees pp.96–97 .01
of nature. The square enclosure represents stability and the Earth; Satan & demons pp.190–91
the pattern and chosen plants may symbolize love or religion. sensuality and seduction.
Patterns pp.290–93
PNEQILDKB
RENPQAKRANRE?A
This painting by Mantegna shows an enclosed garden
with a pond in which the Vices, personified as deformed
grotesque beings, thrive. Preceded by a group of cupids,
Pallas Athene, the goddess of wisdom and war, strides
forward to banish the Vices with the help of two
goddesses. By expelling the Vices she seeks to bring
about a return to a garden of virtue.
2
6
5
3
1. The Vices
The Vices depicted include Sloth, Avarice, Ingratitude, Hate, and
Ignorance. Sloth, shown as a nightmarish, armless figure being
dragged by Minerva, signifies immortal hate, fraud, and malice.The
viewer is being warned by Sloth to replace idleness with vigorous
intellectual thought on entering the garden. Ignorance (far right)t is
being carried off by Ingratitude and Avarice.
6. Distant landscape
Beyond in the distance, a pleasant landscape seen through the tree-lined
archways reveals Vices fleeing and new growth rising from old roots.
This is a symbol of rebirth and innocence – when the Vices have gone,
beauty returns.
.03
Andrea Mantegna, Triumph of Virtue Over Vice, c1504
CLOTHING & COSTUME
What people wear is determined by climate, origins, and what we may do for a living.
culture, gender, the materials available, and Western styles of dress, particularly for
the latest trends. Our clothes send out visual women, are influenced by constantly
messages about who we are, where we come changing fashions. Many people in other
from, and what our aspirations are. Anyone parts of the world dress in traditional styles
looking at us can decipher much about our that reflect their cultural values and are a
personality and social standing, our ethnic symbol of their nationality.
Corset
From the 16th
century to the 195
affluent western
women wore rigid
constraining corse
Victorian corsets i
particular created
hourglass figure th
cinched at the wa Tie
and emphasized th First designed in the US for Ties often show group affiliati
breasts and hips. miners in the Californian 1950s English Teddy Boys wore of rank and gentility. Handling
Symbolically, such goldfields, jeans became pencil-slim ties, whereas 1970s someone “with kid gloves” is
corsets reflected t ubiquitous as work clothes. dandies favoured wide “kipper” to treat them gently, and to
submissive role of Today they are worn ties. Black ties are worn at “throw down the gauntlet”
women in society. everywhere and symbolize funerals, while “white tie and (a 17th-century man’s glove)
social and gender equality. tails” symbolize high society. was a challenge to a duel
Indian sari
A symbol of India’s rich culture and the dignity of its women, the
sari is an elaborate garment that can be tied in many different way
depending on region and the status of the wearer. Occupation,
caste, and religion are all expressed in this graceful apparel.
FOOTWEAR
AR
From Roman sandals to luxuryxury high heels,
he
footwear has often been indicative not just of
climate, but also of social status and fashion. Kilt
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Until the early 20th century it was common in In Scotland the kilt, part of the
national costume, is symbolic
China to bind girls’ feet to keep them small, as both of kinship and masculinity.
tiny feet were a symbol of feminine Members of different clans can
delicacy and submissiveness. be identified by the colour and
pattern of the tartan from
which their kilts are made, and
they parade them with pride at
national sporting and other
cultural events.
Kimono Longyi
Trainers Platform shoes The traditional T-shaped This traditional Burmese SEE ALSO
Originally designed as Platform shoes have been embroidered kimono is a costume comprises a piece Nationality pp.222–23
sports shoes, trainers in and out of fashion for universal symbol of Japan. The of cloth that is worn round Headwear pp.250–51
quickly evolved into centuries. They embody the colours and decorative motifs the lower body. Both men and Uniforms pp.252–53
fashion items. They are
ar human desire to “walk tall” chosen – often drawn from the women wear the longyi. Men Jewellery pp.254–55
now worn by men and and attract attention. For natural world – have strong sometimes tuck up the longyi Masks pp.270–71
symbolic connotations and between their legs for ease
woman alike as everyday
casual shoes.
casua
some they symbolize
glamour and sexiness.. reveal much to the informed of movement. The garment is .05
observer about the wearer’s usually made of cotton, but silk
age, status, wealth, and taste. is worn on special occasions.
HEADWEA
Hats and headdresses are redolent wi
can signal, at a glance, whole cultures
may identify occupation, status, gend
Headwear can represent authority and
symbolic “pinnacle” of that power is
worn by a monarch. Metaphorically, w
different hats” to suggest a change of
Removing a hat in certain social situa
indicate humility (in church, for insta
be a sign of good manners.
BASEBALL CAP
MEDIEVAL NUN’S VEIL, WORN BY THE WIFE OF MARTIN LUTHER
WIGS
False heads of hair w
worn in Ancient Egy
Ancient Greece, and
by the Romans. They
became part of
fashionable men’s
attire in 17th-century
France and later
England. In the 18th
EGYPTIAN WIG
century wigs were
adopted by both sexes as
VEILED MOROCCAN WOMEN HEAD CHEF a symbol of affluenc
high status. Wigs w
worn by lawyers du
the reign of Charles
have become a wor
symbol of the Britis
legal system and al
provide an element
of anonymity in DA=@SA=N
the courtroom.
LAWYER’S WIG
Military uniform
Members of China’s elite Honour Guard marching in line during a welcome ceremony at
the Great Hall of the People in Beijing, China, for the prime minister of the Republic of
Korea. The ceremonial nature of the synchronized military marching reinforces the
symbolism
m of the uniforms – a uniformity of purpose and pride as the nation’s defenders.
UNIFORMS
For centuries people have worn uniforms to symbolize occupation,
status, or affiliation. Different uniforms create different impressions:
of authority, or being part of a group or a caring community.
Egyp
coin ne
Jewelle
wealth,
Egyptian
real coin
ceremo
worn to
of the b
Sumba earrings and oth
On the Indonesian island This elaborate pre Columbian golden eagle head was worn as a such as
of Sumba the distinctive lip plug, which was inserted into a slit in the lower lip. It would are also
ornaments known as mamuli probably have been worn by a warrior and may have represented with be
are given as wedding gifts and a protective beast to ward off evil spirits.
worn as earrings or pendants.
They symbolize fertility and may
bear mythical motifs.
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o e g
Love rings were fashionable in the 19th century. Made of
interconnecting hoops, with hands clasped around a heart, the
rings symbolized the inseparability of the lovers who wore them.
Leg ornament
A sign of power, the signet ring In parts of Africa and Asia leg
was used by royalty and nobles ornaments were worn by women in
to literally imprint their some cultures to signify wealth. They
authority. They would press could be very heavy, some weighing as
the ring into wax to seal and much as 15kg (33lb), and were prized
identify letters, contracts, and for their bulk and their craftsmanship. Jewellery found in Inca tombs, including bracelets, necklaces, and
other documents. Usually worn Leg ornaments made of silver show earrings, shows great silver- and gold-smithing skills. In Inca society,
.10 on the little finger, the ring Islamic influences – to Muslims silver jewellery symbolized status and power. This necklace, which encircles
today often carries a coat signifies purity. smaller ornaments, is made with turquoise, shell, and gold.
of arms or family crest.
Th
be
po
sp
are
ela
co
cu
pa
co
me
Diamond s
This 12-pointed
star brooch from
signifies the rad
wearer. A 12-po
Neck rings may be used to
Among the Padaung of the the 12 Tribes of
eastern Burmese hills, women 12 Apostles, or
traditionally wear neck rings as of Christmas.
a sign of beauty. Added one at a
time, over several years, to the
Padaung, they are a symbol of
their homeland and are thought
to give the women the elegance
of wild geese, and to have
magical, protective qualities.
FRUIT JEWELLERY
R
Fruit is linked symbolically with fertility and female sexuality. It als
signifies good luck, abundant harvests, and evidence of God’s
God s boun rwork jewellery
Such positive symbolism makes fruit a natural and popular motif in This woman from the Leigong
Shan area of China is wearing
jewellery. A fruit can have more than one meaning. For example, an apple intricately embroidered
can signify temptation (“forbidden fruit”) and downfall, but also represent traditional festival costume
a woman’s breasts and sexuality. and a silverwork necklace,
headpiece, and breastplate.
This extensive silver jewellery
Pomegranate is worn as a sign of one’s tribe
This Ancient Gree and marriageable status.
dated from about
was probably wor
a bride in a wedd
ceremony. It
represents the
many-seeded
pomegranate, a
popular symbol of FASAHHANU
fertility.
Vine leaves
pes and vine leaves represent
SEE ALSO
ant life, healthy growth, and
Precious stones pp.42–43
d fortune. This Victorian gold
Eagle pp.62–63
cabochon garnet vine brooch
br Fruits of the Earth pp.98–99
may have been given ass a Love & marriage pp.126–27 .11
symbolic wedding gift.
ift. Taoism & Shinto pp.170–71
Shapes pp.284–89
BODY ADORNMENT
In modern western societies body adornment is about
self-expression or even shock value. However, it has
evolved from deeply rooted rituals to symbolically
identifying its wearer as a member of a tribal, military,
or sacred community. Body art has been practised for
millennia. The 5,300-year-old mummy known as Ötzi
the Iceman, found in the Alps, has 59 tattoos.
LDUOE?=H=NP Kohl
Since Stone Age times, people have used the In Ancient Egypt kohl eyeliner
was worn not only to look
body as a canvas on which to express cultural fashionable but to help cut the
identity, signify power or status, honour sacred glare of the Sun and to preven
or ancestral connections, or mark rites of eye infections. Women coloure
the upper eyelid black and the
passage. In many societies people have adorned lower one green, a colour
their bodies not just with symbolic clothing and symbolizing youth and rebirth.
jewellery but also with make-up, paint, tattoos, Kohl was derived from malachit
which symbolized joyfulness.
body piercings, and even with patterns cut into
the skin. The symbolism varies from culture
to culture, but often signifies the passage to
adulthood, protection from the evil eye, or the ugs
desire to frighten foes in warfare. al Amazonian and
groups lip plugs (or
are worn for beauty
atus. This engraving
a 19th-century
ican Indian; young
eceived the piercings
o symbolize their
entrance into
manhood.
Stretched earlobes
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>K@U=@KNJIAJP
a ring inserted to
symbolize her married
m
status. Placing it in
the left nostril
nos was
believed to make
childbirth easier.
OLKNP
Most sports carry highly visible identifiers,
emblems, and “coats of arms” (sport effectively
being a substitute for war). Supporters wear the
“strip” and other emblems of their team to show
their support. One of the world’s most iconic
symbols is the five linked rings of the Olympics,
representing five continents joined in the ideal of
competitive sports, while the Olympic ceremony Barcelona FC
evokes the spirit of sport since antiquity. The badges of football teams
convey symbolism beyond that
of sport. The club badge of FC
Three Lions Barcelona incorporates the flags
The emblem of England’s cricket of Catalonia and St. George All Blacks
and football teams is three (patron saint of Catalonia), The national New Zealand rugby union team are the All Blacks. Their
lions, adapted from the royal combining the sporting and name is said to derive from a newspaper misprint describing them as
coat of arms introduced in political history of a nation “all backs” (that is, no forwards). Their team colours are black, with a
Norman times to symbolize and its capital city. native silver fern to symbolize their nationality. They perform a Maori
royal power. The three lions war dance before matches to invoke the spirits of good fortune.
appeared on the first England
football shirt in 1872 and their
symbolism is now reinforced
with a song of the same name.
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?HQ>O=J@C=JCO
People are often drawn to join a society
for their own age group and gender,
whether it is Girl Guides or Gay Pride.
This is sometimes done to gain a
stronger social voice to advance a cause
but is often simply a desire to socialize Hells Angels Women’s Institute Punk
with one’s own kind. There will frequently be The motorcycle groups known The largest voluntary The punk movement in music,
collectively as Hells Angels organization for women in fashion, literature, and graphics
costumes, rituals, and activities to symbolize that were first seen in the USA England and Wales, the snowballed in the mid-1970s.
belonging, or a shared taste perhaps in fashion after World War II, their name Women’s Institute was The movement represented a
and music, such as punk or country and western. and insignia inspired by an originally associated with reaction against the glamour of
Air Force squadron. At first they homemade jam and cakes. progressive rock and the older
Teenagers in particular join “tribes” as a rejection
T symbolized merely rebellion and Since the advent of feminism, generation. Punk ethics
.14 of adult codes of behaviour, using slang that is a rejection of the mainstream the WI has become a powerful emphasized personal choice
deliberately
lyy incomprehensible to outsiders. norms, but today the name is voice on local community and and freedom, symbolized by
often associated with crime. women’s issues. outrageous dress and hairstyles.
SKNODEL=J@ Carnival
?AHA>N=PEKJ The origins of carnival (from the
Latin carne vale, meaning “farewell
The urge to share sacred rites and rituals, to to flesh”) date back to the Ancient
wear symbolic talismans, and to communally Greek Spring festival. The
demonstrate one’s faith goes back to antiquity. celebrations were adapted by the
Christian religions to precede the
Today regular worship at a religious centre is beginning of Lent – traditionally a
traditional in most cultures, and for believers it time of abstinence from all
symbolizes the practice of their faith. Christians pleasures. Rio de Janeiro’s famous
carnival in February has come to
travelling away from home are likely in most symbolize Brazil and its unique
places to find a church where they can attend samba music and dance.
Sunday service. Similarly, no matter where they
are, Muslims will use a prayer mat to kneel and
face east to Mecca, their action symbolically
stating their spiritual submission to God.
LKHEPE?O
Symbolism is rife in politics, particularly in its
signs of affiliation. Every party has its logo and
insignia of power, from Gandhi’s spinning wheel,
symbolizing non-violent opposition, to the US
CNKQL=BBEHE=PEKJ
Democrats’ donkey, which represents strength
and courage. Supporters wear these logos or
carry them on banners and flags to show their Chairman Mao
commitment to a cause. Such symbols can The Thoughts of Chairman Mao,
or the “Little Red Book”, was
galvanize a crowd, as with the sea of swastikas the most visible icon in China of
at Hitler’s Nuremburg rallies in the 1930s. the Cultural Revolution of the
1960s. In propaganda pictures
Red Guards were always seen
Mau Mau Che Guevara with a copy.
In the 1950s a militant African Born in Argentina, Che Guevara
nationalist movement called the joined Fidel Castro to fight
Mau Mau began violent for the Cuban revolution in SEE ALSO
resistance to British colonial the 1950s. He was seen as a Christianity pp.176–79
rule in Kenya. The movement romantic revolutionary hero and Islam pp.180–81
Shapes pp.284–89
was especially noted for its
ritual oaths, used to symbolize
his image became a symbol of
resistance for left-wing
Brands & logos pp.316–17 .15
Heraldic emblems pp.318–23
unity and independence. students in the 1960s.
FREEMASONRY
Probably the world’s oldest association for medieval Europe. Some claim that it goes
men, Freemasonry is a fraternity with millions back to the building of the Temple of
of members. Its workings are secret and it Solomon, but documented meetings only
makes extensive use of signs and allegories. date from the 17th century. Freemasonry is
It developed out of groups, or lodges, of certainly the largest “enclosed society” and
stonemasons who built the cathedrals of exists in various forms across the world.
OUI>KHOKB
BNAAI=OKJNU INITIATION
ON
Since Freemasonry emerged from the craftsmen’s
guilds, many of its symbols were linked to building First Degree
OF THE NOVICE
and stonemasonry. The level and square are clear Tracing Board Freemasonry teaches lessons of morality
New members are initiated
examples. As cathedral building declined, the lodges into the secret language of through ritual. Members working through the
accepted non-masons to boost membership and Freemasons through the use rituals are taught by “degrees”. Each degree
they developed signs more associated with of a tracing board on which
is a “step”
e in the process. As with many
the many symbols of the
religious orders and crusading brotherhoods. organization are displayed. societies, Freemasonry has its own ceremony
that welcomes the candidate into its mysteries.
myst
The three pillars are, from left to right, Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian
The uncarved block of stone, the in style. They represent the “rule of three”: the strength, wisdom, and
ashlar, represents the unformed, beauty once displayed in the building of the Temple of Solomon.
whereas the carved block (opposite
it) represents the perfected.
The black and white chequered floor symbolizes the forces of dark
and light and good and evil, and the struggle between the two.
The four compass points appear on the border of the Tracing Board
and denote orientation and earthly strength.
I=OKJOÑPKKHO CNELO=J@D=J@OD=GAO
While there may well be stone-workers who are Freemasonry is often associated with secret
Masons, Freemasonry does not set out to teach knuckle-to-knuckle handshakes, grips, and
the skills of stonework. Instead, it uses the work passwords. There are different, quite involved,
of medieval masons as an allegory for moral symbolic handshakes by which Freemasons
development. So the symbols of Freemasonry recognize each other. Being secret, the
are the common tools used by medieval Square significance is not readily available to the non-
stonemasons, such as the apron (originally An emblem of the Lodge initiated. Suffice to say there is a hierarchy of
Master, the square “sets”
of lamb skin), gavel, ladder, level, and so on. members on the correct path greetings (and welcoming into the community)
to civic duty and represents a according to the Mason’s degree of initiation.
l code. The square is also
strument that gathers
arate elements into order. Handshakes
Among the esoteric grips and
handshakes, the “Boaz” (top)
is recognized as the “Grip of
the Entered Apprentice”. It
is claimed that each Mason
presses the thumb against the
Level Trowel top of the first knuckle-joint of
The level symbolizes equality The hammer, or gavel, is The Masonic trowel literally their fellow Mason. The
and justice. The level and plumb a formative, masculine force and metaphorically “cements” “Tubulcain” (middle) represents
are nearly always united in and is symbolic of justice and brotherhood and spreads the “Pass Grip of the Master
ritual. Masons are said to meet authority. Traditionally, the brotherly love. It remains Mason”, while the “Lion’s Paw”
“on the level”, meaning that all Freemason’s gavel is made an important symbol of (bottom) signifies the “Real Grip
Masons are brothers, regardless of beech, which indicates both Freemasonry’s unity and of a Master Mason”.
of occupation
ation or income. prosperity and endurance.
endurance brotherhood among men.
I=OKJO¿ÑI=NGO
All Masons have their own identifying mark, following the stonemasons
of medieval Europe, who marked stones in buildings and other public
BNAAI=OKJNU
structures with symbols or letters. The swastika shape is an ancient and
universal symbol of the Sun and the cycle of birth and rebirth. It was
especially popular in India (long before the Nazis usurped
surped it). All seeing eye
Pyramid
Pyram
Shapes pp.284–89
STAR
T SWASTIKA CIRC
CIR CLE
ART
Artists have always incorporated symbols artist’s thinking. An understanding of the
into their works. Many paintings deploy a pictorial language of symbolism can also
symbolic language so that objects and figures reveal both the beliefs and emotions of
represent not just themselves but also ideas the artist’s imaginative world.
and concepts. By looking at the symbolism
present in works of art, we can examine the
beliefs and ideologies that determined an
J=PQNA
The systematic use of symbols from the natural world has often been used
by artists to express allegorical meaning, as in the formalized paintings
of China’s Ming dynasty (see right). Whereas Brueghel’s innovative visual
language (see below) is used to represent a country landscape and the
activities of its people in the grip of a cold winter. Gauguin (see bottom)
uses an individualistic and elemental language to expresses his unique
vision of nature and people’s place within it.
Peter Brueghel,
Hunters in the Snow
This is one of a cycle of six
paintings from 1565 in which
Brueghel portrayed the seasons
and the country activities
associated with them. This
scene depicts man (in the Yin Hong, Birds and Flowers of Early Spring
foreground) against the This Ming dynasty hanging scroll, dating from c1500, is a fine example
vastness of nature as we look of the birds and flowers genre of painting of China’s Ming dynasty.
down through the bare trees to The works were hung in imperial halls and served as metaphors for the
the physical world of the snow- Emperor and his court by using nature to convey symbolic meaning.
covered village, frozen lakes, Here the subject of the painting is an allusion to imperial allegiance:
the pheasants symbolize bravery and steadfastness, while the
OK?EAPU"?QHPQNA
Umberto Boccioni, Street Noises Invade the House Alexander Deineka, We Are Mechanize Donbas
Boccioni’s 1911 work is his attempt to symbolically create a As a Socialist Realist artist, Deineka was interested in creating a
representation of time and movement. Boccioni not only creates true depiction of the life and work of the Soviet people. This poster
the forms of the street, but also incorporates the rhythm and sound from 1930 also successfully attempts to symbolize the revolutionary
of the chaotic street scene into the painting. spirit of Communism in Stalin’s Soviet Union.
OKQH
The Emperor Jahangir, who commissioned the portrait of the dying courtier
Inayat Khan, was especially interested in recording the phenomenon of
death, as in the almost objective miniature below. In contrast, in
Expressionist art the emphasis is on subjective feeling and painting that
symbolizes the state of mind of the artist. Non-naturalistic colours and
distorted forms are used to symbolize inner turmoil. Munch’s iconic The
Scream (right) deals in particular with the question of existential angst and
how in a godless universe we are left with uncertainty and anxiety.
Anonymous,
Inayat Khan Dying
This example of Mughal Indian
miniature art from 1618 depicts
a dying courtier at the court of
Emperor Jahangir. The Emperor
was a great patron of the arts, and
under Jahangir painting was an
aristocratic pursuit depicting the
life of the court. The subject here
is diminished by alcohol and opium
Edvard Munch, The Scream
addiction and his blindness is
Munch’s The Scream m is an icon of modern art. This famous
unsparingly depicted. Because of
Expressionist image, painted in 1893, depicts an agonized figure who
the work’s intimacy we feel like
cries against a blood red skyline. For many it has come to symbolize
intruders on the scene.
modern man in an attack of existential anguish.
@NA=I
Sleep and dream were common subjects for
Henry Fuseli, one of the most important figures
in the Romantic movement. Indeed, Fuseli was
an artist who was ahead of his time in exploring
the human psyche through his art. By the 1920s
(nearly a century after Fuseli’s death) the
Surrealists – greatly influenced by Sigmund
Freud’s theories of the unconscious and dreams
– began to explore similar themes. Surrealist
artists, such as René Magritte, Paul Delvaux,
and Salvador Dalí, all used the concept of the
unconscious mind to create individualistic and
fantastical symbolic imagery.
4
1
2
3. Loaf of bread
The problems experienced between father and son were frequently linked
by Dalí to the legend of William Tell, the Swiss archer who was compelled
to shoot an apple placed on his son’s head. For Dalí this myth symbolized
the fear of castration of a son by his father. The apple is replaced here
by a loaf of bread.
4. The shadow
The dark shadow hanging over the scene comes from an unknown source
and may symbolize the threat Dalí felt from his father. More generally it
represents a feeling of sadness and death.
5. The cloud
A black cloud emerges from the loaf of bread. Within this cloud there is
an inscription in French: Consigne: gâcher l’ardoise totale?? which can be
translated as “Note of Advice: should one spoil the whole bill?”, adding
to the enigmatic quality of the picture.
.22
Salvador Dalí, Birth of Liquid Desires, 1931
.23
DANCE & THEATRE
From war stomps to waltzes, and from break marking nature’s cycles, as well as an initiation,
dancing to belly dancing, the movement betrothal, or battle. The theatre, which often
inspired by dance is totally expressive as a incorporates dance, provides a symbolic
sign of pleasure, athleticism, exuberance, or representation of the world we live in through
solemnity. In antiquity dance evoked the acting, sets,
the sacred spirits or celebrated rituals and theme.
me
Thai dancers
The stylized hand movements
of Thai dancers enhance their
representation as heavenly
creatures. Some dances involve
the dexterous holding of The precise movements and gestures of a trained Classical ballet
dancer can convincingly suggest emotions or tell a story. In early
.24 candles or the wearing of long
brass fingernails, and these forms of ballet the dancers styled their movements to imitate the
carry their own symbolism. deportment and behaviour of their patrons, the aristocracy.
Whirling dervishes Classical Indian Shadow theatre
The original whirling dervishes dance gestures of Indonesia
were the Mawlawiyah, a 13th- In India hand gestures in One form of Indonesian shadow
century Muslim fraternity. traditional dance convey moods, theatre, Wayang Kulit,
t involves
They were so-named by actions, objects, or creatures. flat leather puppets held behind
Europeans because they Every hand movement has a a white screen so that their Chinese opera
performed prayers spinning symbolic and precise meaning. shadows are visible to the Both the singing and acting in Classic Chinese opera are highly
on their right foot. Their dance The body becomes effectively audience on the other side. The stylized to symbolize universal concepts, such as love, bidding
symbolizes a spiritual journey a life-size puppet, as only a shadow figures symbolize the farewell, or vengeance. Percussive instruments, including gongs,
towards perfection. restricted set of gestures is used. deeper truths of good and evil. cymbals, and clappers, control the rhythmic elements of the drama.
Ibsen’s
symbolic plays
Plays can convey
symbolism in
the story, set, or
dialogue. The 19th-
century Norwegian
playwright, Henrik
Ibsen, created a
series of “symbolic
plays”. In The
Master Builderr the
protagonist creates
towers – “castles
in the air” – that
symbolize his
ambition “to get
to the top”.
@=J?A"PDA=PNA
Sophoclean
tragedy
In Oedipus the King
Sophocles uses
blindness and sight
as symbols of
ignorance and
knowledge. Oedipus
is ignorant of the
truth of his life and Shakespeare’s dram
the fact that he In Shakespeare’s Macbeth
cannot escape his SEE ALSO
blood comes to symbolize the
destiny. When Hands & feet pp.116–119
protagonists’ guilt. Through
enlightened, he Masks pp.270–71
words and gestures they show Musical instruments pp.274–75
blinds himself,
choosing to go on
that their crimes have stained Sign languages & signals pp.330–31 .25
their consciences in a way that Symbolic gestures pp.334–37
living in darkness. cannot be washed clean.
M
MASKS
As well as representing concealment and ritual dances and ceremonies of many
identification with or transformation into cultures to represent deities or ancestral
another being, masks can symbolize animals. In drama, masks can represent
emotions or aspects of character. Since comedy or tragedy; and in western art,
ancient times, masks have been used in the a mask can be a symbol of deceit and vice.
Venetia
mask
Masked ba
or masquer evil spirits. Husk faces were regarded as spirits who acted as healers
first becam of illness in the home. The Iroquois had a “False Face Society”, made
public even up of a group of medicine men who were thought to possess special
in the 15th powers when they put on their masks.
wealthy Ve
provided an
everyday fo The Igbo of West Africa have
an entry int a ritualistic “beautiful maiden”
mystery, de mask to represent the feminine
sexual free spirits. The mask is designed to Cameroon mask
enchant onlookers and appease This Bamileke mask from Cameroon
the spirits. The face is often is made up of hundreds of colourful
white, not black, as the spirit beads, and represents the elephant
world is believed to be the and the leopard – royal symbols
opposite of the living world. of the king’s power and wealth.
According to Bamileke legend,
the king can transform himself into
either one of these animals at will.
German mask
Harking back to medieval
regional folk celebrations and
customs, hand-carved wooden
masks are worn at certain
carnivals in southern Germany
and Switzerland. Festival
masks can represent “good”
and “idealized beauty”, or be
grotesque versions symbolizing
“ugliness” or “beastliness”.
Polynesian mask
Mardi Gras mask Aztec mosaic mask The traditional ceremonial masks of
Masks are worn during the The mask shown here, dating the Pacific islands were used to symbolize
festival of Mardi Gras, a period from the 15th or 16th century, spiritual powers that were either good or evil.
I=OGO
Fairy tales are folk stories that depict traditions. One interpretation of Snow
symbolically the death of innocence and White, for instance, is that this tale
the birth of childhood. They also emphasize represents the overtaking of the old
societies’ ideals and teach us to face our fears. order (the cult of the pre-Christian
Indeed, the psychologists Sigmund Freud Mother goddess) by a new order (the
and Carl Jung interpreted elements of fairy Catholic Church). Snow White, a pure
stories as signalling our deepest anxieties and maiden at ease with the forest animals
universal fears and desires. and forest people (the seven dwarfs) who
care for her when she is cast out by her
PDA>A=OP jealous stepmother, is a metaphor for
In the tale of Little Red Riding Hood we see the the old matriarchal nature religions. Her
familiar theme of overcoming the beast. The wicked stepmother, who replaces her
innocent child is eaten whole by the wolf but real mother, Mother Nature, represents
the beast’s belly is ripped open, revealing the the Church that destroyed the ancient
child (and her grandmother) alive inside. faith. Snow White’s
Innocence has died but new life has emerged. Little Red Riding Hood father represents the
In Beauty and the Beast, Beauty sacrifices In Little Red Riding Hoodd the evil wolf preys ordinary man who
upon the innocent child. However, evil is
herself up to the Beast in order to save her vanquished and good prevails. wavered between the
father. When she falls in love with the Beast, two faiths.
finding good in him, Beauty releases him
from his enchantment and he is restored to his state as a N=COPKNE?DAO
handsome prince; thus his bestial nature is overcome and Some stories have heroes on a quest.
good is triumphant. Sometimes they are heroic figures
bringing a happy ending to the
?QHPQNA?H=OD heroine’s plight. In other stories,
Fairy tales can be interpreted in different ways. Some people though, the hero may not be noble or
see a religious or cosmological even particularly worthy. In both Ali Snow White
significance in them, whereas others Baba, from The Thousand and One The poisoned apple that the
“stepmother queen” (disguised
see a psychological explanation. Nights, and Jack and the Beanstalk, as a kindly old woman) gives to
Alternatively, it is possible to read wealth and wisdom are gained after Snow White symbolizes Eve’s
some stories in terms of a clash of many tribulations. The lesson is that fall from grace, and with it that
of “the Mother Nature cult”,
cultures, since so much history all good things, material and spiritual, which the church condemned.
involves the merging of cultural need to be earned.
ANTHROPOMORPHIC HARP
himes of bells
harmony between
Heaven, wisdom, and
g off of evil spirits.
e to mark the hours
signal important
d call people
Trumpet Drum “For whom the bell Lyre
The trumpet was blown as a Associated with thunder, the nifies everyone’s Orpheus played a lyre that
call to arms in Roman times and drum symbolizes the heart of nger bells and wind symbolized the harmony of the
is often linked with battle. Both the universe: Shiva beats out represent the sounds Universe and he could control
the Bible and the Koran say that its rhythm in his cosmic dance. aven. In some men and beasts with his music.
the trumpet shall sound on the A drum beat calls people to tures bells denote Apollo also played the lyre, and
last day, when the dead shall prayer and was often used to virginity and in others it is the emblem of Terpsichore,
be raised. accompany soldiers into battle. ank and dignity. the muse of dance and song.
ng
ep sound of the gong
ved to have magical
otective qualities.
dhist temples it marks
ges of the service and
off evil spirits. It is
and often elaborately
ted. In Indonesia
an orchestras, including
and other percussion In Ancient China the zither, or ch’in, was the symbol of music and
ments, are used to an instrument of worship. When a scholar or sage played the zither,
pany nearly all rituals it had the power to reveal to him the essential truth.
remonies.
Organ
The sounds of the organ
have been associated with the
i Christian faith and Church since
ngle note “drone” the 10th century. Most older
, the didjeridu churches and cathedrals have
been used an organ, the main purpose
Australian of which is to accompany the
originals to hymns sung in God’s praise,
ompany the and to encourage a spiritual
ce for thousands experience and celestial
years. Its deep, contemplation.
ming tones
ke a powerful
itual sound that
become a
bol of Australian
riginal culture.
es with the flute
he oldest known
d instrument.
Cymbals Lute
The cymbals represent the The lute was very popular
two hemispheres. They are in Renaissance and Baroque
an attribute of the Neolithic Europe and was an attribute
Mother Goddess, Cybele, and of the personifications of
were associated with the wild Music and Hearing. In China Mu yuu means wooden fish in Chinese and these small percussion
IQOE?=HEJOPNQIAJPO
dances of Bacchus, the Roman it represented harmony, both instruments are traditionally fish-shaped. They are used as ritual slit
god of wine Tibetan Buddhists in marriage and government drums in Buddhist and Daoist devotions In Korea and Japan they are
A
symbol system is made up of own but most only have meaning when used
a group of symbols that are with others. Numerals are more independent
interrelated. Such groups range and can be used alone at their simplest level –
from formally defined systems, that is, as symbols of the numbers they
like alphabets and numerals, to represent. But the wider symbolism of most
less formal groups, such as shapes and colours. numbers relies on their mathematical
Some symbol systems evolved over thousands relationship with the first five numbers; for
of years and vary between cultures, while example, seven symbolizes wholeness because
others sprang into being relatively quickly and it is the sum of divinity (three) and the
are widespread or even universal. In an ever- material earth (four). With less formal systems,
shrinking modern world of instant mass such as shape and colour, although the
communication, affordable international symbolism of each system member can stand
travel, multinational corporations, and global alone, it often tells only one side of the story –
sports, new universal symbol systems are for instance, the gloomy, evil symbolism of
constantly emerging that increasingly black is far less potent without the contrasting
transcend language barriers. purity and holiness associated with white.
The purest example of a symbol system is an The symbolism of shape and colour evolved
alphabet, in that each character over such a long time that it almost seems
is relatively meaningless in genetically programmed within each culture.
isolation. Some letters make The symbolism of heraldry and flags, however,
sense when used on their sprang into being much more quickly, and
.34
both were created use of tricolours by other nations born of
THE PUREST consciously and revolution, while Ethiopia’s colours inspired
EXAMPLE OF A controlled as the flags of so many newly independent
SYMBOL SYSTEM recognizable systems. African countries that red, green, and yellow
IS AN ALPHABET, Heraldry constitutes are known as the “pan-African colours”.
IN WHICH EACH one of the most Examples of international signs include
CHARACTER IS complex and richly universal symbol systems, such as musical and
RELATIVELY resonant symbol mathematical notation, currency symbols, and
MEANINGLESS systems, and to weather symbols. The shape and colour of
IN ISOLATION those involved its signs is also highly significant, indicating
symbolism is specific, whether they convey prohibition, warning,
clear, and unambiguous. The symbolism of instructions, or information.
national flags is similarly unambiguous. Equally important for international travellers
Relatively recent phenomenona, many flags are professional symbols that enable tourists to
contain universal symbols, such as crosses find a chemist or barber, and brand logos that
for Christian nations, crescents for Islamic ensure they can always find their favourite
nations, and literal representations of animals training shoes, soft drinks, or hamburgers. But
or celestial bodies. The inter-relationship of what about the most important sign of all for
national flags within the system can be seen international communication? It is, of course,
in the way that some flags inspire others, for the universal use of a male or female figure to
instance, the French tricolour inspired the denote lavatories.
EJPNK@Q?PEKJ
.35
COLOURS
People in every culture respond emotionally (blue, indigo, and violet) soothe and relax.
to colours, often without realizing it. For Although interpretations may vary from
example, psychologists have established culture to culture, colour symbolism is
that “warm” colours (red, yellow, and universal, making it one of the most
orange) stimulate, while “cold” colours important human symbol systems.
NA@
The warmest of the warm colours, red is
the most stimulating but also the most
ambiguous colour. It is the colour of
love and passion, but also of aggression
and war; of good luck but also of
danger; of fertility but also of Hell fire.
Red is a warning not to proceed but
also a spur to action, both politically
(red being the colour of revolution) Fire War
and emotionally (“seeing red”). In both the East and the West, red is the colour of fire, Red is the colour of war. Mars, the red planet, is named
and in many cultures is associated with the flames of after the Roman god of war, but has borne the name of
Hell. Red also represents spirited behaviour, masculine other martial deities in other cultures. The Babylonians
energy, and anger. called it Nergal, and the Ancient Greeks “star of Ares”.
“scarlet woman”). In the East, red symbolizes pure the myth of the phoenix, a bird that destroys itself in fire Christian Church red represents Christ’s sacrifice on the
love and is worn by brides in India, China, and Japan. but rises again from its ashes. cross and the blood shed by martyrs.
KN=JCA Permanence
As a combination of red and yellow, orange shares some Roman brides sometimes
wore orange as a symbol
of the symbolism of these colours. It can represent the point of the permanence
of balance between the passion of red and the spirituality of of marriage.
yellow, or tend towards either extreme. Orange might
symbolize luxury and splendour but it can also mean the
renunciation of worldly pleasures (as in the orange robes of Renunciation
.4, some Buddhist monks). Brides in Ancient Rome wore orange. Buddhist monks wear
orange to affirm their
The reddish-orange gemstone jacinth symbolizes fidelity. adoption of a simple life.
UAHHKS CNAAJ
Yellow is associated with gold, Green is the colour of spring and
brightness, enlightenment, and the Sun. therefore of youth, hope, and joy – but
As many spring flowers are yellow, it is it is also the colour of decay, and often
also associated with new life. In many symbolizes jealousy. Green is sacred to
countries yellow symbolizes cowardice; Sun Muslims. Some say this is because the Ecological
in other countries it represents envy. Yellow symbolizes the prophet Muhammad’s cloak was green, movement
Sun (and the Sun God As the colour of nature,
A yellow flag was once used to Apollo) and therefore life others say it is because green is the green symbolizes the
symbolize disease and quarantine. and warmth. In eastern colour of new life. ecological movement and
thought yellow is the people’s concern with
colour of the solar chakra, preserving the Earth’s
which is associated with resources. It is the name
the element of fire. of most environmentalist
political parties.
>HQA
As the colour of the sky, blue
symbolizes emptiness, the infinite, and
the divine. The deepest colour, and the
purest apart from white, blue also
symbolizes calmness, reflection, and
the intellect. In the West, blue has
various colloquial connotations, such Naïvety
as depression (the blues), sexual In Scandinavia to refer to a person as “blue-eyed” means
they are naïve or gullible. Similarly, in Japan “blue”
explicitness (blue movies), and class indicates naïvety or inexperience in the same way as
(blue-collar, blue-blooded). “green” does in the West.
Purity
?KHKQNO
In artistic convention, angels’ blue robes symbolize divine
wisdom, while the Virgin Mary’s blue robe symbolizes
purity. In Roman Catholic art, blue represents humility,
and in
SEE ALSO
Divinity Calmness Egyptian deities pp.138–39
Blue often symbolizes divinity. The Ancient Egyptian god A cold colour, associated with water, blue induces calm Greek & Roman deities pp.140–41
Buddhism pp.164–69
.4-
Amun was often depicted in blue, as are the Hindu gods and reflection. For Buddhists, blue is the colour of Aksobya,
Christianity pp.176–79
Rama, Shiva, and Krishna. the directional Buddha of steadfastness and strength.
LQNLHA=J@ LEJG
REKHAP In western culture pink traditionally
Due to the cost of the original dye, symbolizes femininity (hence the pink
purple vestments were the preserve ribbon, below right) and sensuality. Baby
of the rich. Therefore, since antiquity, girls in the West are traditionally
purple has symbolized luxury, wealth, dressed in pink. The association of pink
and power in many cultures. Balanced with the gay movement originated
between the passion of red and the during World War II when the Nazis
reason of blue, purple also symbolizes Priestly power forced gays to wear pink triangles, but
temperance and considered action. In the Roman Catholic Church, violet is used during pink is now worn as a symbolic badge
Advent and Lent for priests’ robes and church drapery,
symbolizing Christ’s death and resurrection. In Europe of Gay Pride. The “pink pound” refers
violet was once the colour of “half mourning”. to gays as a consumer group.
Imperial power
Tyrian purple dye, also
known as “imperial”
purple, was far more
expensive than gold, and
came to symbolize the
rank of a Roman emperor.
In medieval Europe blue
dyes were expensive, and
the bluer shade of “royal
purple” acquired
Modesty Gay Pride Pink ribbon
equivalent symbolism.
The symbolism of the violet flower has changed from Men at a Gay Pride Pink has become the
excess (it was worn in Dionysian orgies) to modesty (as rally wear pink in colour officially identified
in “shrinking violet”). White violets symbolize innocence, a flamboyant display with the Breast Cancer
and blue violets fidelity. of solidarity. Awareness campaign.
>H=?G=J@CNAU
As an absence of colour or light, black
is sometimes considered neutral but
more often symbolizes evil (the powers
of “darkness”) and secrecy. It also
represents the underworld, with its
associations of sorrow, misfortune, and
death. Grey often symbolizes gloom,
anonymity, or uncertainty but, as a
balance between black and white, it
is also a colour of mediation.
OUI>KHOUOPAIO
?KHKQN?K@AO
Colour coding is one of the ways
in which colour symbolism enters
everyday life. Universally, green is
used to indicate safety or “go”, while
red indicates danger or “stop”. Yellow
or amber indicate potential hazards.
Colour coding is also used for industrial
Fire extinguisher codes (in Europe, red = water, yellow = foam,
applications and in sport. black = carbon dioxide, blue = powder)
?KHKQNO
?EN?HAO
=J@OLDANAO
The circle and the sphere share much
of their symbolism, as two- and three-
dimensional representations of the same
ideas. The circle is a common symbol
for God. Most religions equate it with
the heavenly sphere and the movements
of the stars and planets. To Hindus and Circle Shou
Buddhists the circle represents birth, Having no beginning and no end, the circle is a universal Shou, the Taoist character for longevity, is often depicted
symbol of completeness, eternity, and perfection. It as a circular symbol, as here. In China it is sometimes
death, and rebirth; to Buddhists it also represents male and female principles, and can denote paired with other symbols of long life, and when coupled
represents the Wheel of Law. God, the waters encircling the Earth, or the cycles of life. with the peach it symbolizes a long and happy marriage.
OLEN=HO
=J@DAHE?AO
The spiral is closely linked to and often
confused with the helix, both in shape
and symbolism. These shapes have
complicated meanings. They are, most
importantly, associated with powerful
forces such as the rotation of the Earth,
whirlwinds, and whirlpools. In most Spiral Spiral dances
cultures the spiral is regarded as a This is an ancient symbol of energy (which was thought In their gyratory dances, the Whirling Dervishes
to flow in spirals) and of life’s rhythm. For the Mayans it symbolically enact a circular ascending journey towards
feminine shape. was the symbol of the winter solstice and a new annual realization of the Divine. Spiral dances such as these
cycle, and for Polynesians it symbolizes immortality. also reflect the movement of the planets.
OMQ=NAO
=J@?Q>AO
Like the circle in relation to the sphere,
the square and the cube share much of
their symbolism as two- and three-
dimensional representations of the same Square Square haloes Cube Hidden cross
ideas. In contrast to the motion implied In the cosmology of many Some Christian imagery The cube symbolizes The cube is also a covert
cultures, the square shows figures with the material universe, Christian symbol, in that
by the circle and the dynamism of the represents Earth and the square haloes. This representing wisdom, it unfolds into the form of
triangle, the square and the cube four directions. In Islamic symbolizes the fact that truth, and moral stability. a Latin cross, or crucifix.
symbolize pause or cessation. This is thought the square the person was alive and As a symbol of Islam, A cross of six equal
represents the heart, earthbound – the square the Ka’ba, the cube squares forms the ground
not always a negative quality; it can open to four influences: meaning Earth – when represents the unity of plan of many Christian
imply stability and lasting perfection. divine, angelic, human, the image was painted. the Muslim people and churches.
and diabolic. the oneness of God.
Architectural cube
In Islamic architecture the marriage of the cube,
symbolizing the material world, and the sphere,
symbolizing the spiritual, can be seen in the quadrilateral
base and domed roofs of mosques and the tombs of
OD=LAO
Muslim saints.
Cloistered courtyard
Since medieval times, the square as a symbol of permanence and Christianity pp.176–79
Islam pp.180–83
.43
stability has been expressed architecturally in the plan of religious
Alchemy pp.210–11
buildings, towns, public squares, and cloistered courtyards.
Freemasonry pp.260–61
OP=NO
Stars in general are symbolic of wisdom
and spiritual guidance, starlight being
a metaphor for the light of wisdom
shining through the darkness of
ignorance or the light of morality
shining through the darkness of sin.
In many cultures stars are strongly
linked with destiny. In addition, there
are numerous individual star shapes
with specific associated symbolism.
include Humbert and Peter of Alcantara. were pioneered by the Michelin Guides from 1900. to worship the newborn Christ.
Pentagram: 5-pointed star Hexagram: 6-pointed star Heptagram: 7-pointed star Star of Lakshmi
With the single point upwards, the A hexagram comprises two interlocking The seven-pointed star shares much of In Hinduism an eight-pointed star
pentagram symbolizes the universal equilateral triangles. As such, in its symbolism with the number seven. symbolizes ashtalakshmi,i a group of
human, its points representing the head, Hinduism it represents the joining of For pagans this star is a magic symbol. To eight goddesses who together represent
.44 two arms, and two legs. When inverted, male and female, and in alchemy the Christians it symbolizes the seven days of the eight forms of Lakshmi, the goddess
it symbolizes the Devil, the two upper conjunction of the four elements. As the creation, and to Buddhists it represents of abundance (in terms of health,
points representing horns. Star of David it is the symbol of Judaism. the seven steps to enlightenment. knowledge, strength, and prosperity).
?NKOOAO
Though best known in the modern
world as a Christian symbol, the cross
long predates Christianity. A cross in a
circle represented the Sun to neolithic
peoples, and later the cross was sacred
to the Aztecs and the Ancient Egyptians. Basic, or Greek, cross Hot cross bun
In general, crosses share much In western thought a cross with equal arms symbolized The cross is said to symbolize the crucifix. Traditionally
the four elements; in the East it symbolized the four eaten by Christians on Good Friday, buns marked with a
symbolism with the square or cube, winds and four cardinal points. A similar shape, the visra cross were also eaten by pagan Saxons in honour of the
as well as with the number four. vajra, symbolizes the power of the Buddha’s teachings. goddess Eostre, who gave her name to Easter.
Maltese cross Solar cross Ankh Tau cross Latin cross Swastika
Many medals are in the Also known as the wheel An Ancient Egyptian Named after the Greek The Latin cross has come Also known as the fylfot
shape of a Maltese cross. cross, this ancient symbol hieroglyph (possibly letter T, it is a symbol of to symbolize Christianity. and the gammadion, this
These include the Victoria appears in prehistoric art combining the tauu cross salvation. It marked out However, it has been has symbolized the Sun,
Cross (above), Britain’s worldwide. It symbolizes of Osiris and the oval of Israelites who were to be found on artefacts that the cardinal points, the
highest military honour. the return of the Sun and Isis) symbolizing life. The spared from slaughter. It long predate the Christian four winds, the four
The Maltese cross has the cycle of the seasons. ankh was later adopted was also the symbol of era and Christians did not elements, lightning,
been a symbol of bravery Over time, the “wheel” by Coptic Christians as the Roman god Mithras, widely adopt the Latin Thor’s hammer, the
and Christian virtues lost its rim to become the crux ansatee (“cross the Greek god Attis, and cross until the Buddha and, notoriously,
since the Crusades. a basic cross. with a handle”). St. Anthony of Egypt. 3rd century CE. Hitler’s Nazi party.
?NAO?AJPO=J@
LKHUCKJO
Just as the cross is not an exclusively
Christian symbol, so the crescent is not
an exclusively Islamic one – it also
symbolizes the Roman goddess Diana, Crescent Triple Goddess Interlaced crescents
the female in general and, paradoxically, As a symbol of power, the crescent Many ancient mythologies describe Another
A th symbol b l sometimes
ti usedd
dates back to Babylonian and Triple Goddesses or a goddess with to represent the Triple Goddess
both chastity and birth. In astronomy Sumerian times. It was used in three aspects. Symbols for such (see left)) is made up of interlaced
and astrology the crescent is a literal Persia and the Ottoman Empire, and Triple Goddesses include the one crescents. This symbol also formed
symbol of the Moon, and in alchemy it adopted by Muslim countries. Later above: a waxing crescent, a full the emblem of 16th-century French
it was identified with Islam itself. Moon, and a waning crescent. courtesan, Diane of Poitiers.
symbolizes silver, the metal associated
with
h the Moon.
OD=LAO
SEE
Hexago
exagon Octago
Octagon Mandorla The night sky
In Christianity the hexagon symbolizes In the Christian symbolism of St. Ambrose This almond-shaped symbol sometimes Egyptian deities pp.138–39
Hinduism pp.158–63
death. In Islam it symbolizes Heaven and the octagon is the counterpart of the appears in Christian art as a halo
Buddhism pp.164–69
also the six positions of matter (over, hexagon (left),) representing resurrection. surrounding Christ and, rarely, the Virgin
under, in front, behind, left, and right) and Baptismal fonts often have eight pillars, Mary. The mandorla symbolizes the
Judaism pp.172–73
Christianity pp.176–79
.45
the six directions of movement (up, symbolizing eternal life, and a hexagonal interraction of the spiritual and Alchemy pp.210–11
down, forward, backward, left, and right). basin symbolizing the death of sin. material worlds.
PATTERNS
Many patterns are regarded as universal mandalas, for example, represent the search
symbols. Such patterns, which may be found for inner peace. In medieval times labyrinths
on anything from coins to buildings, often and mazes symbolized the search for a true
symbolize the inner human condition, rather path to God, with obstacles to be overcome
than external phenomena. Yantras and and moral choices to be resolved on the way.
H=>UNEJPDO=J@ I=VAO
Technically, a maze contains many pathways, only one of
which leads to the centre (multicursal), while a labyrinth has
only a single path that always leads to the centre (unicursal).
Ancient labyrinths and mazes were devised as symbolic traps
for malevolent spirits, while medieval ones represented
symbolic pilgrimages.
Medieval labyrinth
Labyrinths are considered to have A silver coin of the 3rd century BCE shows
reached the height of perfection during the labyrinth at Knossos in Crete, which,
the medieval period. The pattern of such according to myth, imprisoned the
labyrinths is based on concentric circles. Minotaur, who was half-man, half-bull.
OUI>KHOUOPAIO
=J@I=J@=H=O
A yantra is a Hindu or Buddhist
diagram used for meditation,
symbolizing the universe and its divine
powers. A mandala can most simply be
described as a circular yantra, again
representing the universe. At the centre
of a mandala, a square symbolizing a
sacred space is often enclosed. Western
artefacts loosely regarded as mandalas
include the traditional American Indian
woven circles known as dreamcatchers.
Tibetan mandala
At the centre of this mandala, Buddhist deities reside
in a palace. Tibetan monks sometimes create healing
mandalas made from coloured sand.
1. The inner circle The circles from the inside out are made up
The inner area of the mandala is the starting point of lotus petals, symbolizing rebirth; eight
for many mandalas. It is the focus of the energy of graveyards, which represent awe-inspiring
the cosmos and the centre towards which the places where ascetics meditate; a diamond or
viewer’s meditation is drawn. Here the deities vajraa circle symbolizing illumination; and an
Hevajra and Nairatma embrace. Together in outer circle of flame, which represents the
blissful harmony, they symbolize the state of process of transformation ordinary humans
enlightenment when the two halves are completely have to undergo to enter the territory within.
merged. They are personifications of the Buddhist
belief that all beings are without ego. They 4. The figures outside the circle
are immediately surrounded by eight female The figures on the outside of the circle serve
figures known as dakinis, each representing as protectors.
a cardinal point.
5. Colours
2. The square The colours used represent different attributes
Surrounding the circle is a square with four of the Buddha: white represents his purity, blue,
gateways that symbolize boundless thoughts – the vastness of his teaching and the truth of what
loving kindness, compassion, sympathy, he taught, and red represents his warmth
and equanimity. and compassion.
3. Concentric circles
The continuing pattern of concentric circles
represents cosmic aspects of the Universe,
such as energy fields and atmospheric zones. .5/
NUMBERS
Ancient cultures did not believe in chance, well as expressing quantities they assumed
so the existence of a given number of objects individual qualities and were even imbued
or phenomena took on great significance. with cosmic powers. The study of those
Thus numbers, which originated as a way of powers is known as numerology, which Plato
counting, acquired powerful symbolism. As called “the highest level of knowledge”.
SEE ALSO
Egyptian deities pp.138–39
Greek & Roman deities pp.140–41
Hinduism pp.158–63
.51
TEN YEARS REPRESENTS A COMPLETED CYCLE IN CLASSICAL MYTH:
Taoism & Shinto pp.170–71
HERE ODYSSEUS RETURNS HOME AFTER TEN YEARS ROAMING
Numerology pp.206–07
,VANK
Zero – from the Arabic sifr, meaning
“empty” – is a relatively recent
invention. For thousands of years
mathematicians left a space if there
was no number in a given column;
then, c876CE in India, the symbol 0 was
used to denote the space. Its status as a
number was disputed because adding
or subtracting it leaves other numbers
unchanged, yet placing it after a
number increases the number tenfold.
Zero symbolizes a person who has no
power of their own. In Mayan culture
it symbolized the moment between the
TWENTY SYMBOLIZES THE WHOLE MAN: 20 FINGERS AND TOES
sacrifice and rebirth of the maize god –
Babylonian Egyptian Greek Roman Ancient Chinese Mayan Hindu Arabic Modern Arabic
I
II
III
IV
V
VI
VII
VIII
IX
X
0 1 2 0 1 2
3 4 5 3 4 5
JQI>ANO
6 7 8 6 7 8
Judaism pp.172–73
.53
9 10 101 9
Christianity pp.176–79
.54
PDAOARAJ@A=@HUOEJO
The 15th and 16th centuries were overshadowed by political
upheaval, and the painter Hieronymus Bosch (c1450–1516)
produced extraordinary art that echoed the anxiety of his times.
In this work he depicts the seven deadly sins, arranged around
a wheel with Christ the redeemer at its centre.
8
5 6
4
6
7
9
3
1
2
1. Superbia (Pride/Vanity)
Pride is shown by a wealthy woman staring into a mirror (a symbol
of self knowledge). She does not see a devil holding her mirror.
2. Ira (Anger/Wrath)
Ira is depicted by a street fight between two drunk peasants.
3. Invidia (Jealousy/Envy)
In this scene a husband and wife are compared with the dogs below,
who ignore the bones within their reach in favour of other bones.
4. Avaritia (Greed/Avarice)
Avaritia is a rich man taking money from a poor man, while at the
same time bribing a judge.
5. Gula (Gluttony)
Gluttony is shown by people eating a feast. The food is given by a
nun. As they fill themselves, a child defecates in his clothes.
6. Acedia (Sloth/Laziness)
Acedia is shown in a scene in which a woman dressed for church is
trying to wake a man deep in slumber, possibly a lazy priest.
7. Luxuria (Lust)
This panel shows two sets of lovers talking, with musical instruments
lying on the ground, a symbol of passion.
9. The circle
At the centre of the large circle, which is said to represent the eye
of God, is the “pupil” in which Christ can be seen emerging from his
tomb. Below is the Latin inscription that translates as “Beware,
Beware, God is Watching”, implying that no sin goes unnoticed. .55
Hieronymus Bosch, The Seven Deadly Sins, 1485
PICTURE WRITING
Most written languages originated in picture evolved into logograms, which are symbolic,
writing, which differs from drawing in that rather than pictorial, representations of
it uses a standard set of symbols known as words for objects and ideas. Next came
pictograms or pictographs. From literal syllabaries – symbol systems representing
representations of objects, pictograms individual syllables – and, finally, alphabets.
?QJAEBKNI
/1,,Ì21,^_a
Along with Egyptian hieroglyphs,
cuneiform is one of the oldest forms SUN MOUNTAIN
TO SCATTER
WATER
WOMAN
HORSE WINE
LE?PQNASNEPEJC
SPIRIT
MUSIC JADE
KY
CAMP FIRE
CAN SLEEP IN BARN GENTLEMAN WEALTHY NO ALCOHOL IN TOWN TOWN ALLOWS ALCOHOL GOOD WATER
GO THIS WAY GET OUT FAST DON’T GO THIS WAY WORK AVAILABLE TELL HARD LUCK STORY FAKE ILLNESS HERE
HERE
HELP IF SICK DOCTOR TELEPHONE MAN WITH GUN DOG BAD DOG
OFFICER POLICE OFFICER LIVES HERE JUDGE NOTHING DOING HERE OWNER HOME OWNER OUT
LE?PQNASNEPEJC
NO ONE HOME SOMEONE HOME BE READY TO DEFEND HOLD YOUR TONGUE SAFE CAMP
YOURSELF
SEE ALSO
Mammals pp.52–55
Birds pp.58–61
Aquatic creatures pp.68–71
/,/
Tribal totems, heroes & tricksters pp.150–51
/,0
DEANKCHULDO
This band of hieroglyphs decorated the side
of an Egyptian jewellery chest that was found
in the tomb of Yuya and Tuya, who lived in
the 18th Dynasty (1539–1295BCE). They were
the parents of Queen Tiye, who was married
to Pharoah Amenhotep III. The hieroglyphs
on the chest express a wish for good fortune
for the couple in the afterlife.
4 1
1. Duck
The duck, along with the other birds and animals, faces left,
indicating that the hieroglyphs read from left to right.
2. Ankh
“Life” is represented by the ankh, which against the blue
background gains a further meaning of “waters”, suggesting
the cosmic waters from which all life emerges and to which it
eventually returns.
4. Cartouche
The symbols enclosed in the lozenge shape, known as a
“cartouche”, show the name of the king. Cartouches were
only used to display the name of a ruling monarch, in this case,
Amenhotep III.
/,1
ALPHABETS
The first alphabet appeared when pictograms the way for the Phoenician alphabet – the
evolved into symbols that represented first major script based on speech sounds.
individual sounds. All alphabets derive from This led to the development of a Hebrew
the North Semitic, which developed in the alphabet, European alphabets (via Greek),
Mediterranean c1700BCE. This system paved and Asian alphabets (via Aramaic).
MODERN ROMAN NORTH SEMITIC PHOENICIAN EARLY HEBREW ARAMAIC LATE HEBREW
H he he he he heh
P pe pe pe pe peh
APNQO?=J
This alphabet evolved c700–600BCE in
Etruria (now Tuscany and Umbria) from
A B C D E W Z H TH I K L
a version of the Greek alphabet taken to
Italy by emigrants from the Aegean
island of Euboea.
M N O P M Q R S T Y PH KH
NKI=J
The Roman alphabet evolved c600BCE
from the Etruscan. It continued
A B C D E F G H I J K L M
developing until the mid-19th century,
when V and J were finally accepted as
letters in their own right rather than as
variants of I and U. It is now used by
N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z
some 2 billion people worldwide.
AH@ANBQNPD=NG
Elder Futhark, or Old Futhark, is the
oldest of the runic alphabets, which
F U TH A R K G WV H N I JY
developed in northern Europe, possibly
from the Etruscan alphabet. Runic
alphabets were known as futhark from
their first six letters.
E P Z S T B E M L NG O DW
?UNEHHE?
Now used in Russia and eastern Europe,
this alphabet is thought to have been A B V G D E YO ZH Z I Y
developed from the Greek c900CE by
St. Cyril and St. Methodius. Originally
known as the Glagolitic alphabet, it was K L M N O P R S T U F
=HLD=>APO
later renamed after St. Cyril.
KH TS CH SH SHCH -
SEE ALSO
Picture writing pp.300–03
Sign languages & signals pp.330–31
/,3
=N=>E?
Evolved from the Nabataean Aramaic
alphabet during the 4th century BCE,
A B T TH J H KH D DH R Z S SH S
largely by adding dots to existing letters
to accommodate the greater number of
consonants used in Arabic. Today it is
the world’s third most widely used
D T TH ‘ GH F Q K L M N H W Y
alphabet, after Roman and Chinese.
>N=DIE
Evolved in India during the 6th
century BCE from an Aramaic or Semitic
A Ã BA BHA GA GHA DA DHA DA DHA HA V
VA
alphabet. It is the antecedent of many
Asian alphabets (mainly Indian),
including Devanagari, Bengali,
Khmer, Tibetan, and Burmese.
U U O GA GHA GHA THA THA TA YA KA
LA LA MA -M NA NA NA SA,SA SA SA AI I
@AR=J=C=NE
A modern Indian alphabet that was
developed from Brahmi during the
KA KHA GA GHA NA CA CHA CHA CHA NA NA NA
11th century to write the sacred
language Sanskrit. It has since been
adapted for Hindi, Sindhi, Marathi, and
other languages, and is India’s most
DA DHA NA THA THA DA DHA NA PA PHA BA BHA
prevalent script (and the world’s fourth
most prevalent), with 260 million users.
MWA YA RA LA VA SA SA SA HA LA
OUI>KHOUOPAIO
GDIAN
The Khmer (Cambodian) alphabet
evolved from the Brahmi during the
KA KHA KO KHO NGO CA CO CHA CHO NO DA THA
7th century CE. It is the world’s longest
alphabet, being a syllabic system in
which each consonant has two
forms (the top form alone and the
DO THO NA TA THA TO THO NO BA PHA PO PHO MA
combination of both forms). There are
also a number of vowels that are not
illustrated here.
YO RO LO WO SA HA QA
?DEJAOAD=J
Chinese script is the oldest writing
system still in use today, dating from
c1500BCE. It is not an alphabet but BEAUTY CLARITY COURAGE DESTINY FLOWER FORGIVENESS FRIEND GRACE HAPPINESS HARMONY
a logography – a combination of
pictograms and logograms (abstract
symbols representing whole words),
HONOUR LOVE MOON PEACE SPIRIT STAR
T SUNRISE TRANQUILLITY
T TRUTH WISDOM
some of which are illustrated here.
IKNOA
During the 1830s and 40s US artist
and inventor Samuel Morse developed
his famous Morse alphabet of dots and A B C D E F G
O P Q R S T U
V W X Y Z
>N=EHHA
Developed in 1821 by French
educationalist Louis Braille, who was
blind from the age of three. Braille was A B C D E F G
based on a system originally devised by
Charles Barbier in an attempt to enable
Napoleon’s army to communicate
silently in the dark. Louis Braille H I J K L M N
improved it by creating the characteristic
cells with six raised dots, which remain
the standard form of written
communication for the blind.
O P Q R S T U
=HLD=>APO
V W X Y Z
SEE ALSO
Numbers pp.294–97
Picture writing pp.300–03
/,5
INTERNATIONAL SIGNS
Pictures cross language barriers in a way it communicates an instruction clearly and
that words cannot. For instance, a cigarette without words. More complex ideas can
with a red line through it is universally be communicated non-verbally using
recognizable as a “No Smoking” sign. Like internationally recognized symbol systems
all traffic and other public information signs, such as musical and mathematical notation.
LQ>HE?EJBKNI=PEKJOECJO D=V?DAIS=NJEJCOECJO
Designed for maximum visual impact, traffic and public HAZCHEM is an acronym for HAZardous CHEMicals.
information signs use simple, unambiguous images and All road and rail vehicles transporting such substances must
an almost subliminal system of shape and colour to convey carry a warning sign identifying the chemical and providing
warnings, instructions, and directions. information for emergency services dealing with any incident.
1
EXPLOSIVE FLAMMABLE
Warning: diamond with yellow Warning: triangle with red edge (here,
background (here, road narrows) pedestrian crossing)
7 6
RADIOACTIVE TOXIC
2X
1737 6
CONTINUOUS HEAVY RAIN LIGHT RAIN SHOWER MODERATE RAIN SHOWER HEAVY RAIN SHOWER SNOW DRIZZLE
STATIONARY FRONT
L=?GEJC
EJPANJ=PEKJ=HOECJO
The packaging
of easily damaged
goods and freight
SUNNY SUNNY INTERVALS LIGHT RAIN is labelled with
symbols that can
be recognized
worldwide.
Shapes pp.284–89
FRAGILE
I=PDAI=PE?=HOUI>KHO ?QNNAJ?UOUI>KHO
Mathematical symbols have evolved over centuries. The signs These symbols often comprise the initial letter of the
“+” and “-” first appeared in a 15th-century book by German currency name, crossed to differentiate it from a standard
mathematician Johannes Widman; “=” and “” appeared in letter. Exceptions include “£” (from “L”, denoting the Latin
the 16th century, and “x” and “÷” in the 17th. libra) and “$” (possibly from a Spanish coat of arms).
PLUS MINUS MULTIPLY Euro (Europe) Pound sterling (UK Dollar (USA; also other
and dependencies; Egypt; countries, preceded by
Lebanon; Syria) abbreviation of name)
DIVIDE EQUALS DOES NOT EQUAL Yen (Japan) Yuan Renminbi (China) Rupee (India, Mauritius,
Nepal, Sri Lanka)
IS APPROXIMATELY GREATER THAN GREATER THAN OR Pesos (South America) Rial (Middle East) Naira (Nigeria)
EQUAL TO EQUAL TO
LESS THAN LESS THAN OR EQUAL TO SQUARE ROOT uble (Russia, Belarus) Kroner (Denmark) Baht (Thailand)
OLKNPOOUI>KHO
ONE SQUARED
1 ²
PARALLEL PERCENTAGE
As with traffic signs, a clear, simple image says it all in a
way that crosses all language barriers. Here are just nine
of the many sports played by the iconic figure in black.
1°
OUI>KHOUOPAIO
INFINITY
/-.
PI CYCLING GYMNASTICS RUNNING
IQOE?=HJKP=PEKJ
Pitch is shown by position on the five-line stave (with higher TREBLE CLEF WITH SCALE
OF 8 NOTES ON A STAVE
notes on the treble clef and lower on the bass clef). Duration
is shown by the appearance of the note or rest. Flats and
sharps modify pitch; other symbols indicate volume.
BASS CLEF WITH SCALE BREVE BREVE REST SEMIBREVE SEMIBREVE REST
OF 8 NOTES ON A STAVE
BEAMED NOTES DOTTED NOTE FLAT SHARP DOUBLE FLAT DOUBLE SHARP
NATURAL FORTE (PLAY LOUDLY) PIANO (PLAY SOFTLY) FORTISSIMO (VERY LOUD) CRESCENDO (gradually DIMINUENDO (gradually
become louder) become softer)
AIKPE?KJO
An emoticon (“emotion” + “icon”) is used to convey feeling in OR
a written message. The first symbols were proposed by Scott
SMILING BLACK EYE
Fahlman of Carnegie Mellon University in 1982.
EJPANJ=PEKJ=HOECJO
OR R
SEE ALS
Picture writing pp.300–03
OR OR
/-/
WINKI W
.
PROFESSIONAL SYMBOLS
Professional and trade symbols fall into three Quality-control symbols indicate that goods
main categories. There are those, ranging meet specified degrees of purity or ethical
from the literal to the lateral, that represent standards, while marks of compliance
given professions – such as the pretzel for indicate that goods meet the safety standards
bakers and the caduceus for medicine. set by the regulating body.
PDALNKBAOOEKJ=HO
There is no rhyme or reason why some trades
and professions are represented by universally
recognized symbols and others are not. Here is
a selection of some of the symbols that do signify
a particular occupation, and the meanings, Red Cross Pharmacy
Ph
b h i b hi d h A reversal of the Swiss flag, this A symbol for pharmacists is
adopted in honour of the the stylized R, the instruction
ss founder of the Red Cross doctors write on a prescription.
ymbolize protection for those It is an abbreviation of the
engaged in humanitarian work Laatin recipe.
Bakery
OUI>K
On the caduceus – the mythical wand with which the The use of a pretzel as a literal
Greek god Hermes (Mercury to the Romans) bestowed symbol of a bakery originated in
sleep – the twin snakes coiled round the rod symbolize Austria and Germany, and has
healing and poison, as well as illness and health. since spread throughout Europe
and the US.
Pawnbroker
One of several theories about this symbol is that pawnbrokers
adopted three golden globes because the chances were two to
one that pawned items would be redeemed.
MQ=HEPU?KJPNKH
Stamping symbols on precious metals
as proof of their purity began in the Platinum: At least 95%
14th century. In Britain the symbols
became known as hallmarks, because
the testing was done at Goldsmiths’
Hall. Since then the use of symbols to
indicate quality has spread to products
as varied as leather and eggs. Mark issued by the Londdon
assay office
925
Sterling silver: at least 92.5%, Silver: French, marked Platinum: stamped at Dublin
stamped in Lisbon in year 1797 assay office
925
Sterling silver: at least 92.5%, Silver: stamped at Dublin Silver: Britannia standaard, at
made in Finland assay office least 95.8%
Pure cotton Goodds produced by organic British egg information
farming service logo
Silver: at least 83%, made in Silver: 90%, stamped in Italy Gold: stamped at Dublin
Sweden assay office
LNKBAOOEKJ=HOUI>KHO
OP=J@=N@O
D
?KILHE=J?A
Many countries have standards
associations that set and measure
standards of quality, safety, security,
environmental impact, and other factors Australian Standards British Standards Institution Council of the European
p Dansk Elmaterial Kontrol
Association Union (Denmark)
relating to goods and services. Products
and services meeting those standards
have the right to display the symbol
of the appropriate association.
SEE ALSO
Snakes pp.66–67
Human body pp.112–15
Canadian Standards China Compulsory
p y Shapes pp.284–89
Association Certification Scheme
BRANDS & LOGOS
The origins of brand logos date back the practice. In the 19th century, trademarks
thousands of years. The Ancient Egyptians, began to be seen not merely as marks of
Greeks, Romans, and Chinese all stamped origin but as badges or signatures. This gave
goods such as pottery or bricks with symbols rise to the modern conception that brands
to indicate who had made them; and in reflect the “personality” of products and
Europe the medieval trade guilds extended services or their producers.
Amnesty Intern
Founder Peter Benen
inspired by an old Ch
proverb: “It is better
a candle than to curs
darkness”. The cand
symbolizes hope,
support, and the
light of the world’s
Oxfam International WWF CND scrutiny, while the
The name is a contraction of The World Wildlife Fund was The Campaign for Nuclear barbed wire stands
Oxford Committee for Famine launched in the UK in 1961, Disarmament logo made its for oppression.
Relief, which was founded in when London Zoo’s giant panda, debut in 1958, on the first
1942 to provide relief for Nazi- Chi Chi, was world famous. Co- Aldermaston peace march. The
occupied Greece. The logo founder Sir Peter Scott designed circle symbolizes life, while the
comprises the letters “O” and the original logo, which lines represent the arm position
“X”, stylized to represent a capitalizes on the panda’s for signalling “ND” (nuclear
head and shoulders. cuddly appeal. disarmament) in semaphore.
Organization in
English
and French.
Olympic rings
The rings symbolize the union
in sport of Africa, America, Asia,
Europe, and Oceania. The colours
(including the white field) symbolize competing
nations, being the colours appearing on their national
flags in 1913 when the rings were conceived.
United Nations World Health FedEx
The UN logo symbolizes the Organization The positive-reverse arrow embedded between the “E” and the “X”
world united in peace. Rendered The WHO logo comprises that symbolizes the speed and precision of Federal Express. Remarkable
in the official UN colours, the of the UN overlaid with the for the designer’s restraint in concealing the arrow, the FedEx symbol
polar projection of the globe staff of Asclepius, the Greek was ranked as one of the top eight logos in recent design history.
shows much of the world’s god of medicine and healing.
landmass. The globe is enclosed Asclepius was often depicted
by olive branches, a universal holding his physician’s staff
symbol of peace. with a snake entwined round it.
Guinness
The harp was an important part
of Celtic culture, and the harp of
High King Brian Boru has been a
symbol of Ireland since the 13th
century. Guinness adopted it in
1862. The orientation of the
image is the reverse of that on
Microsoft Windows BMW the national coat of arms.
ows is so-called because it This logo commemorates
s graphic “environments” BMW’s origins as an
s), which users navigate using aeronautical engine
a revolutionary concept manufacturer. The chequered
launched in the 1980s. The roundel is taken from the flag of
teral, the logo being a stylized Bavaria (home of BMW), and
r coloured panes. represents a white aircraft
propeller against a blue sky.
>N=J@O"HKCKO
Mercedes Benz Peugeot Citroën
The three-pointed star The lion, from the coat of arms As with Peugeot, Citroën’s logo
symbolizes inventor Gottlieb of Franche-Comté, was first dates back to earlier business.
Daimler’s dream of building used in 1847 to mark saw In 1913, André Citroën began
motor vehicles for land, air, blades made by the Peugeot manufacturing gearwheels.
and sea. Daimler cars were family’s ironmongery business.It He pioneered a double-helical
marketed as Mercedes – the symbolized strength, flexibility, design, symbolized by the
name of a board member’s and speed of cut. double chevron.
daughter. The star was retained
after the Daimler company
merged with Benz in 1926.
Ferrari SEE AL
The black stallion was chosen in honour of Italian WWI flying ace Mammals
Francesco Baracca, who used it on his plane, and as a good luck
symbol intended to guide Ferrari drivers to victory. Yellow is the colour
The home
Musical instruments pp.274–75
/-3
of Modena, where Ferraris are built. Shapes pp.284–89
HERALDIC EMBLEMS
One of the most complex and richly resonant or shield, which is decorated with various
uses of symbols is in coats of arms, which colours, shapes (“ordinaries”), and emblems
originated with those worn by medieval (“charges”). Because creation of coats of
knights for identification in battle. The main arms was regulated by the king’s heralds,
element of a coat of arms is the escutcheon, the art became known as heraldry.
?KHKQNO=J@KN@EJ=NEAO ?KIIKJ?D=NCAO
The escutcheon (shield) may be divided by “ordinaries”. These
are often in symbolic colours such as sable (black: prudence;
grief), argent (white/silver: innocence; peace), azure (blue:
fidelity), gules (red: fortitude), vert (green: love; hope; joy),
or (gold/yellow: faith; glory), and purple (royalty; justice).
Antelope Leopard Pelican
The antelope, or agacella, In heraldry “leopard” and Often shown tearing her
symbolizes a person who “lion” can mean the same breast to feed her young
is slow to anger but fierce animal. Both symbolize on her blood, the pelican
when provoked. It also courage, and are common symbolizes charity and
represents sacrifice and on royal coats of arms. self-sacrifice.
guardianship.
Bend Chevron
Often said to represent a baldric (soldier’s Symbolizes protection. Variations include
shoulder sash) or a scaling ladder. When chevron couped (not touching the sides
reversed it is known as a bend sinister. of the escutcheon) and chevron in chief
(touching the top).
Greyhound Stag
Dogs symbolize faithfulness and loyalty. This symbolizes peace and harmony. In
The greyhound specifically is an emblem the case of the Hertford coat of arms, the
of swiftness and nobility. presence of a hart is a visual pun (known
in heraldry as “canting”).
and adopted during the it simply reflects the martial strength and This symbol of Ulster is used by barons. A Christian emblem of hope, the anchor
Crusades, it is one of the physical structure of fortitude. It comes from a myth about a king who also symbolizes steadfastness and
oldest ordinaries. early shields. seized Ulster with his severed hand. security. It often appears in the coats
of arms of maritime institutions.
?=@AJ?UI=NGO
DAN=H@E?AI>HAIO
To differentiate between two or more
sons entitled to bear the family arms,
the system of cadency marks evolved,
with different symbols for each son.
Sons of sons added a mark to a mark:
for example, the fifth son of a third son FIRST SON: LABEL OF THREE SECOND SON: CRESCENT THIRD SON: MULLET FOURTH SON: MARTLET
POINTS
would add an annulet to a mullet.
SEE ALSO
Mammals pp.52–55
Birds pp.58–61
Eagles pp.62–63
Aquatic creatures
pp.68–71 /-5
Christianity pp.176–79
FIFTH SON: ANNULET SIXTH SON: FLEUR DE LYS SEVENTH SON: ROSE EIGHTH SON: CROSS NINTH SON: OCTOFOIL
MOLINE
?K=POKB=NIO embroidered on the surcoats knights wore to protect their
A full coat of arms comprises an escutcheon (decorated armour from dirt and the heat of the Sun. The heraldic system,
shield) together with a helmet, crest, mantling (drapery), and dating from the 12th century, is no longer restricted to the
supporters (figures on either side of the shield). Often, but not aristocracy, and is now used to create coats of arms for
always, there is a motto. Originally, heraldic emblems were institutions, cities, and nations.
Helmet Crest White rose Crest granted by
of Yorkshire Elizabeth I. The lion
wears a crown and
holds a Tudor rose
Miner’s lamp
Supporterr
Mantling
Escutcheon
Muzzled bears of
he Forbes family,
presenting strength
The main escutcheon is the original Sitwell coat of arms, The arms represent various co-princes of Andorra: a The red and blue quarters of the escutcheon reflect the
while the smaller one is the Forbes coat of arms. Having mitre (for the Bishop of Urgell); three pales (for the Count national flag. The cross at the centre symbolizes the
no brothers, Lady Sitwell (née Forbes) is entitled to use it of Foix); four pallets (for the Crown of Aragon); and two national religion. A Bible lies open at John 8:32: “And
and Sir Reresby (her husband) incorporated it in his own. cows (for the House of Foix-Béarn). the truth shall set you free.”
CANOPY
Un
The open book, symbolizing knowledge, also represents
Oxford university, while the royal lion represents
Cambridge. The four stars stand for the Southern Cross,
a constellation of the southern hemisphere.
Heidelberg University
As with the Sorbonne, the seal reflects the university’s
medieval architecture and ecclesiastic origins. Originally
known as Ruprecht Karls University, Heidelberg is
DAN=H@E?AI>HAIO
Germany’s oldest educational institution. FLOWERING TREE: CREST OF AN EMPRESS
Cambridge Harvard
University The escutcheon – in
Granted in 1573, the the university’s crimson
arms include a cross colour – shows three SEE ALSO
(Christianity), four lions open books symbolizing Mammals pp.52–55
passant gardant (resolve knowledge, their pages Flowers pp.82–85
Birds pp.58–61
/.-
and prudence), and a spelling out the Latin
Plants pp.80–81
book (knowledge). veritass (truth). Christianity pp.176–79
/..
PDALNEJ?AKBS=HAOÑO?K=PKB=NIO
The design of the Prince of Wales’s coat of arms dates from the reign of Queen
Victoria, but the various elements represent centuries of history. The Prince’s
sons, Princes William and Harry, were given their own coats of arms on their
18th birthdays. In both of these, the main elements derive from the Royal Arms;
additionally, the arms carry emblems of the Sp
princes’ mother, the late Diana, Princess of W
cadency marks to distinguish the two sons.
2
1 3
4 5
8
. Escutcheon
he shield’s quarters depict the royal emblems of the United
ingdom: the gold lions represent the sovereigns of England;
he red lion belongs to Scotland; and the harp is for Ireland.
. Prince’s badge
he three ostrich feathers are the badge of the Heir Apparent.
hey are encircled by a jewelled coronet, below which is the
rince of Wales’s motto, Ich dienn (“I serve”).
Welsh dragon
pposite the Prince’s feathers is the badge of the red
ragon, a symbol of Wales.
Royal helm
mmediately above the shield is the Royal helm. The Royal
mily’s gold and ermine mantling is draped on either side.
Royal crest
urmounting the coat of arms is a gold lion. It stands on a
rge coronet, while around its neck it wears the coronet of
e Prince of Wales and, again, a white label.
Duchy of Cornwall
he Prince of Wales is also the Duke of Cornwall, and the The cadency mark is a label of five points, which is used by
maller shield depicts 15 bezants (gold coins), the arms of the all grandchildren of a sovereign except the eldest male heir.
uchy of Cornwall. The coins represent the ransom money raised Prince Harry’s arms bear three escallops from the Spencers.
free a Duke of Cornwall imprisoned during the Crusades.
/./
F
FLAGS
Flags are powerful emblems of identification, signifies. Originally used to identify military
and can be symbols either of allegiance or units on the battlefield, flags are now most
oppression. A flag may be both a rallying commonly used as symbols of state. The
point for supporters of a nation or cause, flags of all 194 internationally recognized
and a target for those who oppose what it nation states appear on the next six pages.
=BNE?=
Ethiopia
Green, yellow, and red have been Ethiopia’s colours since
the repulsion of Italian colonists in 1896. Interpretations
of the symbolism vary, but generally red is held to
represent the blood that was shed in the struggle for
BURUNDI CENTRAL AFRICAN DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC NIGER independence, yellow is held to symbolize peace, and
REPUBLIC OF CONGO green the fertility of the land. These “pan-African colours”
have also been adopted by other African nations
emulating Ethiopa’s independence. The pentagram,
derived from the Seal of Solomon, symbolizes hope for
the future, while the rays emanating from it symbolize
peace and unity for Ethiopia’s various ethnic groups.
OUI>KHOUOPAIO
THE GAMBIA
G CAPE VERDE GUINEA-BISSAU GUINEA Red for bloodshed Yellow for peace
/.
/.0
.0
OKQPD=IANE?=
Shapes pp.284–89
MALAWI ZIMBABWE SWAZILAND SOUTH AFRICA
JKNPD=J@?AJPN=H =IANE?= A
United States
The first US flag (raised in 1776) had 13 stripes,
representing the union of 13 rebel colonies, with the
British flag in the top corner. The first Stars and Stripes
was introduced the following year, when the British flag
was replaced by a circle of 13 white stars on a blue PANAMA JAMAICA FINLAND ESTONIA
background. Since then there have been 26 variations,
the first being in 1794 when two more stars and two
more stripes were included after the admission of
Vermont and Kentucky to the Union. In 1818 it was
decided that the number of stripes would revert to
13 (symbolizing the original states) and that stars would
be added only for new states.
50 stars representing the 13 stripes symbolizing the CUBA THE BAHAMAS LATVIA LITHUANIA
current 50 states original 13 states
ST. KITTS AND NEVIS ANTIGUA AND BARBUDA DOMINICA ST. LUCIA BELGIUM IRELAND
/.2 ST. VINCENT AND THE BARBADOS GRENADA TRINIDAD AND TOBAGO FRANCE LUXEMBOURG
GRENADINES
The Netherlands
Officially adopted in 1572, during the Eighty Years’ War
against Spanish rule, the Dutch flag is the world’s oldest
tricolour. It was based on the colours of the then ruling
Prince of Orange, whose flag was an orange, white, and
blue tricolour known as the “Prince’s Flag”. For some
reason lost to history – perhaps for greater clarity, or
because orange dye faded to red – this later mutated into
the current red, white, and blue tricolour. In 1972 the
MONACO ANDORRA PORTUGAL SPAIN Dutch commemorated the 400th anniversary of the new
flag with a special postage stamp. Dutch settlers ensured
that the original Prince’s Flag survived until 1994 in the
flag of South Africa, known as the “Prinsenvlag”.
United Kingdom
Popularly called the Union Jack, the flag of the
officially known as the Union Flag. It symbolizes the
union of the crowns of England, Scotland, and Ireland. In
1603 King James VI of Scotland became King James I of
England, and three years later the English and Scottish SERBIA ALBANIA MACEDONIA BULGARIA
flags were merged into a new British flag combining the
red cross of St. George on a white field (England) and the
white saltire of St. Andrew on a blue field (Scotland). On
1 January 1801, after the Act of Union with Ireland, the
red saltire of St. Patrick was added to complete the
current flag. The Union Flag is a component of the flags
of Australia, New Zealand, Fiji, and Tuvalu.
SEE A
Colours pp.280–83
Shapes pp.284–89
UKRAINE RUSSIAN FEDERATION
Nepal
Nepal has the only national flag that is neither square nor
rectangular. The double triangle combines two pennants
from rival Nepalese rulers. The blue border symbolizes
MICRONESIA MARSHALL ISLANDS UNITED ARAB EMIRATES QATAR peace and harmony, while the crimson field represents
bravery. The crescent Moon represents the Royal House,
while the Sun is the symbol of the Rana family of Nepal.
Interpretations of these symbols vary, but include the
hope that Nepal lasts as long as they remain in the sky.
KPDANBH=CO
BRUNEI PHILIPPINES
situations this is in motor racing to (red), air (green), and earth (yellow). They embody prayers
recognized as a sign of indicate that the leader carried on the wind to bring luck and promote peace.
danger and/or as a signal has completed the course,
to stop. The Red Flag is this flag is now used in SEE
a symbol of socialism. other fields to indicate The Sun pp.16–17
successful completion The Moon pp.18–19
JAPAN of a task. Colours pp.280–83
Shapes pp.284–89
SIGN LANGUAGES
& SIGNALS
Sign languages are distinct from symbolic ideas manually rather than verbally. Sign
gestures, although there is some overlap. languages for the deaf have been evolving
A gesture can convey a single idea but sign since the 16th century, and there are many
language is a system of gestures and signs other situations where non-verbal
that enables users to communicate complex communication is desirable or essential.
=IANE?=JOECJH=JCQ=CA
I=JQ=H=HLD=>AP
Manual alphabets are a useful starting point for learning a sign
language. However, most signing conveys entire words, rather
than letter-by-letter spelling – the alphabet is used mainly for
proper nouns and specialized or technical terminology. A B C
D E F G H I
J K L M N O
OUI>KHOUOPAIO
P Q R S T U
//, V W X Y Z
OAI=LDKNA =ENLKNP
Frenchman Claude Chappe invented a I=NOD=HHEJC
semaphore system in 1793, which was OECJ=HO
later adapted for use with hand flags, as The instructions conveyed by these
seen here. It was the first system (apart signals are very simple, but vital for
from smoke signals) to enable people organizing pilots and ground crew
to “speak” beyond the range of sound. “REST” OR “SPACE” “NUMBERS”
in an extremely noisy environment.
Signallers wear gloves or hold
illuminated beacons.
“ERROR” “CANCEL” A OR 1 B OR 2
PROCEED THIS WA
WAY
C 0R 3 D OR 4 E OR 5 F OR 6
G OR 7 H OR 8 I OR 9 J OR “LETTERS”
STOP STA
T RT ENGINES
N
OECJH=JCQ=CAO"OECJ=HO
K OR ZERO L M
S T U V
CUT ENGINES
SEE ALSO
Alphabets pp.306–09
W X Y Z
Symbolic gestures pp.334–37
//-
O?Q>=@EREJC
It is necessary for divers to be able to
communicate with their dive buddies
underwater. A standard set of signals
has evolved to convey vital messages,
OK/ARE
K YOU OK? SOMETHING IS WRONG UP/LET’S GO UP DOWN/LET’S GO DOWN
such as “going up”, “going down”, or
“I’ve no air left in my tank”.
1500 PSI LEFT IN TANK 750 PSI LEFT IN TANK I AM OUT OF AIR STOP SLOW DOWN STAY/MOVE TOGETHER
?NE?GAPQILENAÑOOECJ=HO
//.
=IANE?=JBKKP>=HH =OOK?E=PEKJBKKP>=HH
OECJH=JCQ=CAO"OECJ=HO
OFFSIDE HOLDING ILLEGAL MOTION
SEE ALSO
Hands & feet pp.116–19
Symbolic gestures
pp.334–37
?KJO?EKQO
CAOPQNAO
Head and hand signals are
useful for reinforcing or
replacing the spoken word.
But beware – even the most
innocent of signals may
mean different things to Wink Raised eyes Raised eyebrow
different people. What may A wink can mean any number of things, Eyes raised upwards, often accompanied Raising one eyebrow is a sign of
from an innocent greeting to a sexual by an audible “tut”, is a common sign scepticism or disbelief. In this gesture
seem perfectly friendly to suggestion, or from a hint or warning to expressing condescension, boredom, conflicting thoughts are signalled by the
one person may cause deep a signal of collusion between two people. or exasperation. two sides of the face being at odds.
offence to another.
Cocking a snook
A jocular or playful
gesture of mockery, on
a par with sticking out
one’s tongue.
Tee
T th flick Thinking Crossed fingers Thumbs up V for victory
This is a common gesture of insult in Often adopted when a person is deep in This widespread gesture, A sign of approval in the This gesture was
Mediterranean countries. It precipitates a thought, this gesture is a modified form indicating that a person West, it derives from a popularized in World
fight in Shakespeare’s Romeo and Juliet,t of “praying hands”, with the fingers is wishing for good luck, gesture used to express War II by Winston
OUI>KHE?CAOPQNAO
in which one of the Capulet servants touching the lips or chin. symbolizes the sign of audience opinion at Churchill as a sign for
“bites his thumb” at a Montague servant. the Christian cross. Roman gladiatorial victory. During the 1960s
games. In the Middle hippies adopted it as a
East, West Africa, South gesture of peace.
America, and Russia it
is used as an insult.
Orientation Standing up with hands on hips Standing up, arms folded, and slouching
Legs crossed away from a person (as the woman is doing Hands on hips indicate openness and confidence. Shoulders slouched, arms folded or hugging the body,
here) or body turned away indicates defensiveness or Keeping one’s head upright, rather than tilted to one head tilted, and eyes looking down all indicate
lack of interest, and vice versa. Gestures with the palms side, gives an air of confidence and authority. nervousness or defensiveness.
up or outward, as the man is doing, are open and friendly.
OUI>KHE?CAOPQNAO
Closed leg postures
Generally speaking, sitting or standing with the limbs
open implies openness, and having them folded or closed
implies defensiveness. However, in the case of short
skirts the closed posture is simply a question of decency.
Standing with arms close to body Sitting with ankle resting on opposite knee
Standing with the arms held close to the sides or behind Sitting with one ankle resting on the opposite knee
the back indicates that a person is quietly confident and is known as the “figure four”. This is often seen as a
ready to take what comes. defensive posture, though here, with the relaxed attitude
and open arms, it is probably more about comfort.
Sign language & signals pp.330–33
//3
GLOSSARY
= Avatar
This Sanskrit word, meaning “descent”,
refers to an earthly incarnation of a
Hindu deity.
Brahma
A Hindu creator god, Brahma was
a member of the triad, known as the
Trimurti, that also included the gods
Vishnu and Shiva.
Caduceus
In Greek mythology this was a winged
rod entwined with two snakes carried
by the god, Hermes; it was later used
as a physicians’ symbol.
Allah
The Arabic word for God.
Amulet
This small talisman symbolizes
beneficent power; it is traditionally
worn for protection and strength.
>
Babylonia
The ancient kingdom of Babylonia
Braille
A system of writing and printing for the
blind or visually impaired, it comprises
raised dots representing letters and
numerals that are identified by touch.
Buddha
An enlightened, omniscient being,
Carnality
A word describing physical, especially
sexual, desires.
Chakra
According to yoga philosophy, the
body has seven “chakras”, or centres
of spiritual energy, relating to our
Ankh was in Mesopotamia, set between the Buddha may refer to either the physical, mental, and emotional states.
A cross that is shaped like a “T” with Tigris and Euphrates rivers, now Iraq. historical, mortal Buddha, Gautama
a loop at the top, this Ancient Egyptian Sakyamuni, or abstract manifestations Charge
symbol, meaning “eternal life”, is often Bar/Bat Mitzvah of the supreme Buddha nature. This is a heraldic image, such as an
worn around the neck. At 13, a Jewish boy is considered an animal, object, or shape on a shield.
adult, responsible for his moral and Byzantine world
Apostle religious duties and is called a Bar A reference to the Byzantine Empire Christ’s Passion
A missionary or disciple of the early Mitzvah, as is the ceremony that and its distinctive architecture, art, and The Passion of Christ represents the
Christian Church. initiates and recognizes him as such. culture, which gradually emerged from suffering of Jesus at the Crucifixion.
Bat Mitzvah is the female equivalent. the Roman Empire after 330CE when
Asana the capital of the empire was moved Chthonic god
The four poses in which the Buddha Black magic from Rome to Byzantium, now Istanbul. This is a god who is of, or relates to,
appears – seated, standing, walking, or This is practised for evil purposes, often the underworld.
?
reclining – are referred to as asanas. in league with evil spirits.
Comet
Ascetic Blaze A celestial body traditionally seen as
This religious devotee renounces This refers to the description of a coat inauspicious, a comet symbolizes the
material comforts in favour of austere of arms in heraldic terms. coming of war or some other calamity.
self-discipline.
Bodhi tree Cornucopia
Assyria In Buddhism this is a fig tree under A cone-shaped receptacle overflowing
An ancient nation and empire, which the Buddha sat when he Cadency mark with fruit, flowers, and grain, a
Assyria covered the northern half of attained Enlightenment. A heraldic system evolved to cornucopia symbolizes prosperity. It
Mesopotamia, now part of Iraq. differentiate between sons who were is associated with Greek mythology.
Bodhisattva also entitled to bear the family arms;
Auspicious symbol A bodhisattva is one destined to attain each one had his own mark, and sons Cosmic ocean
In Buddhism there are eight auspicious Buddhahood, who serves as a guide to of sons added their own mark. This represents the primordial waters
symbols that each signify some aspect others on the path to enlightenment. from which all life emerged.
of the Buddha’s teaching.
CHKOO=NU
A
Culture hero Five Pillars of Islam scythe, and wearing a black gown,
A superhuman, human, or animal figure These represent the five duties robe, or hooded cape.
that is admired or revered, a culture incumbent on every Muslim: the
hero is one who has benefited an profession of faith in one God and in Gunpowder Plot
entire culture through a heroic or Mohammad as his Prophet, praying five This foiled attempt by English Catholics
compassionate deed; some are times a day, fasting during the month in 1605 to blow up the Houses of
traditionally called upon for protection of Ramadan, giving alms, and making Parliament, is commemorated annually
or guidance. Emoticon hajjj or pilgrimage to Mecca. on 5 November.
This symbol uses punctuation marks to
@
convey feelings in a written message. Four elements Gurdwara
In alchemy the four elements (fire, A Sikh temple, the gurdwara is the
Enlightenment earth, air, and water) are represented focal point of religious life for Sikhs
In Buddhism and Hinduism by equilateral triangles. and a symbol of worship.
enlightenment is a blessed state in
which an individual rises above desire Fraternity Guru
and suffering and attains Nirvana. A fraternity represents a group of men A term meaning “spiritual teacher”,
who have come together for a common used in Sikhism, Tibetan Buddhism,
Danse macabre Ermine purpose or interest, as in Freemasonry. and Hinduism.
In this medieval “dance of death”, Associated with royalty, white ermine
D
a skeleton symbolizing death leads fur is used to trim royal robes; the Freudian
a procession to the grave. animals’ black tail-tips are incorporated This describes specific attitudes,
at regular intervals, accenting the white. beliefs, or behaviour that relate or
Darshan subscribe to the psychoanalytic
This is a Hindu term meaning Evil eye theories of Sigmund Freud.
“a viewing”, especially of a sacred Some cultures believe that certain
image or holy person. people can curse victims by looking at Futurism
them. People often wear amulets to Originating in Italy in the early 20th Hazchem
Dharma Wheel avert the effects of the evil eye. century, this art movement set out to This is an acronym for “Hazardous
An important symbol of the Buddha’s express the dynamism of contemporary Chemicals”.
teachings that is also known as the Expressionism life, especially in its mechanization.
Wheel of Law. This early 20th-century art movement Henna
C
set out to portray the artist’s often A reddish-brown dye obtained from the
Dharmachakra mudra intense inner emotions; reality is leaves of Lawsonia inermis, it is used
This Buddhist hand gesture signifies distorted, colour is typically intense, as a body adornment and hair dye and
the Wheel of Law being set in motion, and brushwork is loose, as in the work symbolizes good luck on festive
as the Buddha gave his first sermon of Edvard Munch. occasions such as weddings.
after attaining Enlightenment.
B
Heptagram
Diwali A seven-pointed star believed to have
The Hindu festival of lights, Diwali Granthi magical properties, this has various
marks the beginning of winter. This literally translates as “the keeper associations, ranging from Kabbalah to
and the reader of the Sikh scripture”. a symbol for warding off evil.
Druid
An Ancient Celtic priest, diviner, Grimoire of Honorius Heretical
magician, and/or teacher. A manual for black magic, this can be This describes beliefs or behaviour
Feng Shui used for invoking demons and spirits. that go against established doctrine.
Dynasty This Ancient Chinese practice of
This represents a succession of rulers positioning objects or orientating Grim Reaper Hexagram
from the same family or line. buildings, is based on a belief that a This mythological figure is a The geometric symmetry of this six-
good flow of “chi”, or energy, promotes personification of death, and is pointed star made it a popular spiritual
harmony, prosperity, and health. portrayed as a skeleton carrying a or magical symbol in many cultures.
CHKOO=NU
I
Hieroglyph Inuit mete out punishment. Kachina dolls,
A character in any of a number of An indigenous word meaning “the called tithu, are given to girls and
pictorial writing systems; the best people”, Inuit is the collective name for brides on dance days to teach them
known system and one of the oldest a widely scattered group of people about the different Hopi Kachinas.
is that of Ancient Egypt. living in the Canadian Arctic and
Greenland. Kami
Hobo These are nature spirits that are
F
A drifter or migrant worker who moves worshipped in Shintoism. Magic Square
aimlessly from place to place, a hobo This is a square containing numbers
has no permanent home or job. that are arranged in equal rows and
H
columns, such that the sum of each
Homonym row, column, and sometimes diagonal
A homonym is a word that sounds is the same. Found in many cultures,
or looks like a word with another engraved on metal or stone, or worn
meaning; for example, the word for as talismans, they are believed to
four in China and Japan also sounds have divinatory and astrological
like their word for “death”, so it is qualities associated with longevity
considered to be unlucky. Jungian and good health.
A devotee of the psychological Labyrinth
E
doctrines of Swiss psychologist and A complicated arrangement or Mandala
psychiatrist, C.G. Jung, Jungian theory structure of interconnecting paths, A symbolic design representing
stresses the contribution of cultural passageways, or tunnels, also known the Universe, the mandala is used in
and racial inheritance to an individual’s as a maze, in which it is easy to Buddhism and Hinduism as a
psychology, and maintains that there become confused and lost. meditation tool.
are two basic types of people,
introverts and extroverts. Libation vessel Mandorla
This is a drinking vessel that is This almond-shaped halo surrounds
G
I Ching traditionally horn or cup shaped. the entire body and signifies holiness
An Ancient Chinese system of or the Holy Spirit. In art it often
divination based on a book of Taoist Linga surrounds the image of Christ or
philosophy, I Chingg is expressed in Also called lingam, a linga is a stylized the Virgin Mary.
hexagrams chosen at random and phallus worshipped by Hindus as a
then interpreted to answer specific symbol of the god Shiva. Mantra
questions and offer guidance. There Traditionally, a mantra is a sacred
are 64 hexagrams in total, each Logo word or phrase repeated in prayer,
composed of two groups of three lines Ka’ba This is a symbol, name, or trademark meditation, or incantation associated
that may be broken or solid. Islam’s most sacred shrine, the Ka’ba, designed for easy and immediate with Hinduism and Buddhism.
is in the Holy Mosque in Mecca. recognition.
Iconography Martyr
This is the art or representation by Kabuki Lutheran A martyr is an individual who dies for
pictures or images of a chosen subject; A highly stylized, traditional Japanese Of or relating to the Protestant his or her religious principles.
Christian iconography ranges from drama, kabukii evolved from Noh movement based on the principles of
representations of angels to saints. theatre, in which elaborately costumed the German reformer Martin Luther Medieval times
male performers play both the male (1483–1546). Lutheran theology was Also known as the Middle Ages, this
Incarnation and female roles. founded in Germany at the start of the period of European history is often
This term refers to the bodily Reformation in the 16th century and dated from 479 to 1453CE.
manifestation of a divine being, an Kachina had as its original goal the reformation
idea common in religions, such as The Native American Hopi believe in of the western Catholic church. Meditation
Buddhism and Hinduism. supernatural beings called Kachinas – This is the practice of focusing on
rain-bringers and spiritual messengers something specific, such as an object,
that also intercede in village life and sound, or visualization, to heighten
CHKOO=NU
awareness of the moment, reduce
stress, and enhance spiritual growth. It
features in many eastern religions.
Meso-America
This describes the geographical and
cultural area of Central America that
spreads from Mexico to El Salvador.
Mughal Empire
Flourished in India from 1526 to 1857,
the Mughal Empire spawned a
characteristic Indo-Islamic-Persian
style of art and architecture.
Mummification
This is the process of preserving a dead
K
Omen
This is a phenomenon or prophetic
Petroglyph
This is an image carved into rock, and
is associated with prehistoric art.
Pictogram
A form of visual language, pictograms
use symbols or images to convey
information, such as the hieroglyphs on
body and wrapping it according to sign believed to herald good or evil. an Ancient Egyptian tomb, or male and
Mesopotamia Ancient Egyptian practices. The viscera female figures on a door to represent a
This region between the Tigris and and brain were removed and preserved Ordinary public lavatory.
Euphrates rivers is now known as Iraq. in special funerary jars; the body was In heraldry an ordinary is a basic shape
then dried out with sodium carbonate on a shield design, such as a bar. Pictograph
Milky Way before being wrapped in bandages. This is an image drawn or painted on
Illuminating the night sky, this galaxy Original Sin to a rock face.
includes the Sun and the Solar system. Mysticism In Christian doctrine Original Sin is
This philosophy is based on the belief the condition of sin into which every Portent
Ming Dynasty that absolute knowledge of God or human is born, as a result of Adam and Another word for an omen, this is a
This Chinese imperial dynasty lasted the spiritual truth can be reached Eve eating the forbidden fruit. sign or happening that is interpreted as
from 1368 to 1644CE. through spiritual intuition that is symbolic of a significant event to come.
believed to transcend ordinary sensory Orthodox Church
Mon experiences or understanding. A community of Christian Churches Primordial waters/ocean
This traditional Japanese system of that has its roots in the Byzantine The primordial waters are the waters
symbolic emblems is similar to the Myth Empire and acknowledges the honorary from which all life emerged, and refer
western system of heraldry. A traditional story, a myth usually primacy of the Patriarch of to the time before creation, when the
involves gods and heroes and typically Constantinople, rather than the Pope. cosmos was a place of chaos.
Monarchy sets out to explain the origins of a
L
This term refers to a state ruled or cultural practice or natural phenomena. Psychic powers
headed by a monarch (a king or queen). This refers to the ability to use extra-
J
sensory perception to see things that
Monotheistic faith are hidden from the senses (including
Based on the belief in one god, such the past and future); such powers were
faiths include Christianity and Islam. traditionally used by witches and seers.
Morse Psychopomp
This is a telegraph code in which Pagan god A psychopomp is a guide of souls to the
numbers and letters are represented Any god who is not associated with underworld, such as Charon or Hermes.
by strings of dots and dashes. Nirvana Christianity, Judaism, or Islam, is
The ultimate state of Buddhist bliss viewed by followers of these religions Ptolemaic universe
Mother Goddess and freedom from the cycle of birth, as a pagan god. The model for the Universe according
Found in many cultures, the idea of the rebirth, and union with the universal, it to the Ancient Greek astronomer,
Mother Goddess goes back to earliest is only attainable after all attachment Passover Ptolemy, in which the Earth took
times in which a nurturing female and desire has been extinguished. This Jewish festival commemorates centre-stage and the Sun, the Moon,
deity represented the Earth, and was the deliverance of the Jews from Egypt. planets, and stars revolved around it.
associated with creation and fertility. Noble Eightfold Path
According to Buddhist belief, this Pentagram Pythagoras
Mudra pathway to enlightenment involves A five-pointed star, the pentagram A Greek philosopher considered to
In Buddhism a mudra is any one of a eight factors, such as right thought, has magical associations and was be the first true mathematician,
series of ritualistic hand gestures, each right action, and right livelihood. symbolically important in Ancient Pythagoras (c580–500BCE) theorized
with its own specific meaning. Mudras Greece and Babylonia. In Christianity that numbers contained the essence
are also used in Hindu iconography. it represents the five wounds of Christ. of all natural things.
CHKOO=NU
N
canonization, as being entitled to each hand; it employs an alphabetic stupas became places of pilgrimage,
public worship, and capable of code based on the position of the around which worshippers walk in a
intervening for people on Earth. signaller’s arms. clockwise direction.
P
a river in Hades across which the dead A term describing a stone coffin, a In mythology or fiction, a shapeshifter
were ferried to the underworld. sarcophagus is located above ground is someone or something that can
and is often elaborately decorated. change from one form into another; a
Rudra/Shiva well-known example is that of a human
Meaning “howler”, Rudra is the Satyr changing into a werewolf.
malignant Vedic god of storms and In Greek mythology a satyr is a
winds. As Hindu beliefs developed, woodland deity with the head and Shou
Rudra’s name changed to Shiva. trunk of a man, and the pointed ears, The Taoist character for longevity, Shou
horns, and hind legs of a goat. Satyrs is often depicted as a circular symbol. Tabla
Rune have a tendency for lechery and revelry. In China it is sometimes paired with This small hand drum originated in
Used in divination, runes are an ancient other symbols of long life. northern India.
set of symbols with their origins in the Seal of Solomon
alphabets of Ancient Germanic tribes. Depending on context, the Seal of Socialist Realism T’ai Chi circle
Solomon is either a six-pointed star, or A style of art, literature, and music, This double spiral is a symbol of life
O
hexagram, believed to possess magical established in the Soviet Union in the and represents the relationship between
powers; a Jewish symbol called the 1930s, Socialist Realism sought to Yin and Yang, the interdependent
“Star of David”; or any one of 25 promote the development of Socialism, elements of Taoist philosophy that
species of flowering plants from the and typically portrayed workers and combine to create a balanced whole.
genus Polygonatum. other members of a Communist society
in a heroic or idealized manner. Tarot
Sefirotic tree A means of divination using Tarot cards,
In Kabbalah, the Sefirotic Tree of Life Spirit helper these comprise a set of 78 playing
Sadhu comprises ten primal numbers and 22 A spirit acting as an ally or servant of a cards, including 22 cards portraying
In Hinduism a sadhu is a wandering paths representing the forces behind shaman, a spirit helper is subservient vices, virtues, and elemental forces.
holy man who has renounced the creation. These numbers are shown as to, rather than the protector or teacher
material comforts and earthly circles called Sefirot, which make up a of, the person it assists. Tefillin
pleasures of the world. tree form. The Sefirotic Tree is also One of the two small leather cases
associated with Tarot cards. Stupa containing texts from the Hebrew
Saint Originally an ancient burial mound, a Scriptures that are traditionally worn
In Christianity a saint is someone who Semaphore stupa is a dome-shaped monument. by Jewish men during morning prayer.
has been officially recognized by the This is a visual system for signalling After the Buddha’s death stupas were
Church, especially through information using two flags, one in erected to house his relics. Important
CHKOO=NU
The Dreaming Trinity Varna Yuga
In Australian Aboriginal tradition, The In Christianity the Holy Trinity In Hinduism it is any of the four classes A yuga is one of the four ages of the
Dreaming refers to either the time of symbolizes the Father, the Son, and that make up the caste system in India. Hindu world cycle.
creation, or to an individual or group’s the Holy Spirit.
V
set of beliefs or spirituality. Veda
Q
A Veda is any of the most ancient and
The Great Departure authoritative Hindu sacred texts
In Buddhism this is the journey made gathered into four collections.
by Prince Siddartha, the future Buddha,
when he renounced his princely life in Vedic
the palace for the life of a wandering This refers to anything belonging to or
ascetic. Buddhist boys entering the relating to the Veda or Vedas (see
monkhood re-enact this scene. above), the type of Sanskrit in which Zen
Udjat they are composed, or the Hindu A school of Mahayana Buddhism that
Totem Depicted as a forward-facing human culture from which they came. originated in China, Zen Buddhism
An animal, plant, or natural object – or right eye and eyebrow, the udjat was maintains that enlightenment can be
a representation of one – a totem is an worn as an amulet. It is also known as Vever attained only through meditation and
emblem of a tribe, clan, or family; it is the wadjet or the Eye of Horus. In voodoo each vever is a symbolic the development of mental and
sometimes worshipped as an ancestor, design of a specific spirit. It is made spiritual discipline, rather than through
guardian, or creator figure. Ushnisha on the ground by sprinkling powder, worship. It is practised mainly in China,
A sign of the Buddhahood, the ushnisha such as cornmeal, prior to or during a Japan, Korea, and Vietnam.
Tree of Knowledge is usually a knot of hair, a flame-like ceremony. It serves as a focal point for
This is the biblical Tree of Knowledge element, or a bump on the top of the invocation and as an altar for offerings. Zohar
of good and evil in the Garden of Eden; Buddha’s head. This Jewish Kabbalistic book is
traditionally attributed to Rabbi Simon
R U
its forbidden fruit was eaten by Adam
and Eve, resulting in their Fall from ben Yochi in the first century CE.
Grace and exile from Eden.
Zoroastrian
Tree of Life A member of a religion founded in
The mythical Tree of Life grew in Persia by Zoroaster around the early
Paradise and its fruit, if consumed, second millennium BCE; modern-day
bestowed immortality. devotees include the Parsees of India.
Yang
Tricolour Vahana According to Ancient Chinese
A tricolour is a flag comprising three Many Hindu gods are portrayed philosophy, Yang is one part of two
parallel stripes in different colours; mounted on an animal or bird vahana, complementary forces or principles
these may be vertical, horizontal, which represents a specific function that underlie and control all nature.
diagonal, and of equal or unequal associated with the god; for example, It is masculine and positive.
width, and be either defaced (as in Shiva rides a bull, symbolizing strength
bearing an emblem or device) or plain. and potency. Yantra
Derived from a Sanskrit word meaning
Trigram Vanitas “to sustain”, a yantra is a geometric
A figure made up of three solid or A type of symbol-laden, sombre still- design traditionally used by Hindus to
broken parallel lines, a trigram is life painting, popular in Flanders and focus on as an aid to concentration
typically used in Chinese philosophy or the Netherlands in the 16th and 17th during meditation.
divination according to the I Ching. centuries, vanitas art serves as a
reminder of the brevity of life, the Yin
Trimurti futility of pleasure, and the inevitability In Ancient Chinese philosophy, Yin is
Hindus worship the Trimurti, or triad, of of death. Common vanitas symbols passive, moist, and feminine; it is the
the gods Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva. include hourglasses and rotten fruit. opposite of Yang.
CHKOO=NU
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Bacquart, J.B. (1998). The Tribal Arts of Africa. Caruana, W. (1987). Aboriginal Art.
Thames & Hudson: New York. Thames & Hudson: London. Findlay-Brown, I. (1998). Visions from
Vietnam. Contemporary Vietnamese Art from
Barbier, J.-P. & Newton, D. (1988). Islands Chetwynd, T. (1982). Dictionary of Symbols.
British Private Collections. Asia House: London.
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Chevalier, J. & Gheerbrant, A. (1996).
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The Myth of the Goddess. Evolution of an Image. Penguin: London. Fontana, D. (1993). The Secret Language
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Christie, A. (1968). Chinese Mythology.
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Cooper, J.C. (1978). An Illustrated Gombrich, E.H. (1960). Art and Illusion.
Black, J. & Green, A. (1992). Gods, Encyclopaedia of Traditional Symbols. A Study in the Psychology of Pictorial
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/01
INDEX
Aquarius 200 piercing 257 bull: horn 122
=
Abriman 190
aquatic creatures 68–69
Arabian dress 249
Arabic alphabet 308
Aramaic alphabet 306
arch 235
>
Babylonia 34, 338
body language 334, 337
bones 114
oracle 197
reading 197
book 239
bulldog 223
bullfrog 65
burials 129, 243
Burma: symbol 223
buttercup 84
acacia 95 Bacchus 41, 57, 99, 141
archangels 189 Book of Changes (I Ching) 170, butterfly 72, 131
acanthus 81 bagpipes 274
architecture 226–31 197, 340 bwa flying spirit 149
acorn 121 Bahamas: coat of arms 223
buildings: elements 234–35 Book of Splendour 174 Byzantine empire 338
Adam 190 bakery 314
dual-symbolism 227 Boreas 35, 41 crown 46
adolescence: rituals 125 balcony 234
feminine 227 Borobudur, Java 230–31
Adoration of the Golden Calf 44 Baldr 143
masculine 227 Bosch, Hieronymus:
agate 42 Bali: cremation 129
?
religious 228–29 Death and the Miserr 263
age 282 ballet 268
sacred places 232–33 Seven Deadly Sins 298–99
Agni 30 bamboo 80
Ares 141 bow and arrow 224
Agrippa of Nettesheim 113 bang bang 336
Arianrhod 142 bow (gesture) 334
air 15, 211 banyan 95 cadency marks 319, 338
Aries 200 bower 245
airport marshalling signals 331 baobab 95 Cadmus 109
Ark of the Covenant 95, 172 bowl 9, 238
albatross 58, 242 Baphomet 190 caduceus 67, 211, 314, 338
armorial bearings 219 box 239
alchemy 45, 47, 210–11, 287 baptism 125 calendars: Mayan 18
arms 115 bracelets 194
Ali Baba 273 Bar/Bat Mitvah 125, 338 calligraphy 181
Arnolfini Marriage Portrait 240–41 Brahma 87, 106, 157–59 163, 338
All Blacks 258 bark cloth 248 calmness 281
art 262–65 Brahman 158
Allah 338 Barong dance-drama 270 Cambridge University:
Australian aboriginal 152–53 Brahmi alphabet 308
alligator 64 basement 235 coat of arms 321
Buddhist 164–65 braille 297, 309
almond 99 basil 88 camel 54
cats in 57 Braille, Louis 309
almond tree 95 basilisk 74 Cameroon mask 271
Ethiopian 107 brands 316–17
alms bowl 167, 238 Bastet 19, 57, 139 Canadian Mountie 253
Islamic 180, 181 bread 100
alphabets 175, 278, 300, 306–09 bat 53 Cancer 200
rock 233, 302 Brer Rabbit 151
altar steps 237 Batik patterns 248 candle 129
symbolism 9–10 bridal bouquet 127
Amaterasu 147, 171 beads 255 cane toad 65
Taoist 170 bridges 226
Amazon: flooding 39 bear 52, 147, 150, 223 cannabis 81
Vanitas paintings 132–33 Brigid (goddess) 142
amber 46, 47 bearskin 251, 253 Cao Dai temple 228
Artemis 19 Britain:
American football signals 333 Beauty and the Beast 273 cap 251
Arundel: coat of arms 320 stamps 222
American Indians 16, 23, 24, 29, beaver 53 Capricorn 200
asanas 164, 338 symbol 223
31, 34, 45, 52, 136 beckon 336 Capricornus 77
Asante sword 225 brooches: mourning 130
pictograms 302 bee 73 card games 216
ascetic 338 broom 192, 238
scalping 110 beech 94 card reading 198–99
ass: wild 55 brow: finger to 335
amethyst 43 beehive 73 Cardinal Virtues 247
association football signals 333 Brown, Dan 209
Amnesty International 316 Beelzebub 72 carnality 338
Assyria 338 Brueghel, Peter 262
amphibians 64–65 beetle 72 carnation 85
Astarte 120 Bryce Canyon, Utah 24
amphitheatre 227 Bellerophon 76 Carnival 259
astrology 15, 22, 136 Buddha 86, 87, 97, 136, 159, 167,
Amritsar: Golden Temple 185 bells 129, 154, 274 carp 68
chart 202–03 338
amulets 116, 180, 194–95, 338 beret 251 carpet: Islamic 182–83
Chinese 204–05 as amulet 195
Amun 138 Bes 108 cartomancy 198–99
Western 200–03 asanas (postures) 164
Anansi 151 betel nut 89 castle 227
astronomy 22 directional 166
Ananta 157 Bhairava 106, 159 Castleford: coat of arms 320
asuras 191 ears 106
ancestors 136–37, 146–47 Bhumibol Adulyadej 216, 218 cat 56–57, 193
Athena 141 eyes 229
anchor 242 bird of paradise 61 Catherine, St. 10, 177
attic 235 footprint 116, 118–19
Andorra: coat of arms 320 birds 50, 58–63 Catholics:
Aum 161 hair 108
anemone 85 battling serpent 8 priests 137, 282
auspicious symbol 165, 338 jade 255
angels 128, 188–89 in flight 7 sacred places 233
Australian aboriginal 37, 147, 233 mudras (hand gestures) 164,
anger 299 national symbols 223 Cat’s Eye 43
Dreaming 10, 67, 136, 152–53, 165, 339, 341
Angkor Wat 229 birth symbols 123 cauldron 192, 209
342 steps of 237
animals 50 birthstones 15, 43 cave art 54
autumn 41 Buddhism 8, 14, 37, 164–69
in alchemy 211 bjis poles 146 caves 25
avatar 338 art 10, 164–65
as ancestors 147, 150 Black Death 129 Cellarius, Andreas 21
axe 224 chakras 115
attitudes 319 black magic 190, 338 Celts 63, 142–43, 209, 295
Azabache 194 Eight Auspicious Symbols 119,
bones 154 black mass 190 Cenotaph 131
Aztecs 63, 101 165, 338
heraldic 318–19 black sheep 55 censer 188
human sacrifice 115 enlightenment 45, 87, 107, 164,
horoscope signs 204 blackbird 61 Centaur 77
mosaic mask 271 166, 339
national symbols 223 blah blah 336 Cerberus 53, 81
mythology 19, 23, 24, 29, 30, festival 131
skins 155 blaze 338 Ceres 40
36, 39, 57, 145 Great Departure 342
ankh 195, 289, 305, 338 bloodlust 280 Cerne Abbas 122
rites 31 monkhood 167
Anne, St. 123 bloodstone 42 Cerunnos 142, 190, 193
EJ@AT
@
China: coffins 129 Diwali 161, 339 Elizabeth II: coronation 220, 221
art 91 cohoba powder 155 djed 114 elves 149
badges of honour 321 coins 129 dodo 61 emerald 42
dragons 36, 42, 78, 79 as necklace 254 dog 53, 204, 241 emoticons 313, 339
gods and goddesses 19, 30 Colosseum 227 Da Vinci Code 209 dollar bill 261 emperor 217
hand positions 117 colour codes 283 Daedalus 17 dolls: voodoo 187 Empire State Building 227
Honour Guard 252 colours 241, 278, 280–83 daffodil 82 dolphin 68 empress 217
jewellery 255 heraldic 338 dagger 225 dome 227, 235, 285 endless knot 115
mountains 29 columns 105 Dagr 143 Dome of the Rock 180 England: sports emblem 258
opera 269 comet 338 Daikoku 171 Dominican Republic: coat of arms enlightenment 45, 87, 107, 164,
pagodas 229 communion: rite of 177 daisy 84 320 166, 237, 339
script 301, 309 Communists 224 Dalí, Salvador 266–7 donkey 55 envy 299
temples 229 compass 181, 243, 294 Danaë 36 door knocker 235 Eos 16
winds 35 compasses 261 dances 268–9 doorway 235 Epic of Gilgamesh 39
Yin and Yang 115 conception 105 ballet 268 dove 61, 177 equilateral triangle 286
Chinese Han script 309 conch 69 of death 129 Dracula 109 equinoxes 232
Chinthe (Chin–thei) 76 condor 59 haka 108 dragon 8, 36, 42, 78–79, 204, 241 ermine 339
Chiron 77 confetti 127 Indian 269 dragonfly 72 Eros 136, 140
Chloris 70–71 Confucius 146 Japanese 41 dream: in art 265, 266–67 escutcheon 323
chocolate 101 Constantine, Emperor 233 maypole 268 dreamcatcher 291 eternal flame 31
Christ 111, 136, 176 constellations 15, 22 rain 36 Dreaming, The 10, 67, 136, Ethiopia:
Passion 338 copper 47 Spanish 222 152–53, 342 art 107
Christianity 14, 16, 22, 24, 31, coral 47 spiral 285 dreams: symbolism 10–11 flag 279, 324
176–79 corn dollies 41 sword 268 drinking horn: triple 143 Etruscan alphabet 307
acts of worship 177 cornelian 43 Thai 268 Druids 80, 339 European Union 316
angels 128, 188 cornucopia 121, 338 dandelion 85 drum 274 Eurus 35
art 9–10 coronations 220–21 danse macabre 129, 339 rune 154 Eve 66, 67, 190
baptism 125 corset 248 Dante Alighieri 284 duck 41, 58 everyday objects 238–39
churches 228 cosmic hierarchy 46 darshan 339 Durga 57, 160 evil 282
cross 176, 178–79 cosmic ocean 338 Darwin, Charles 95 durian 99 evil eye 107, 116, 175, 194, 339
enlightenment 45 Cosmic Tree 51, 97 date (fruit) 99 dynasty 339 exorcism 191
fertility symbols 120 cosmology 14 David, King 172 Dzunukwa 150 Expressionism 265, 339
Lutheran 340 costume see clothes dawn 16 eye 104, 107, 194
Original Sin 341 cotton mark 315 Day of the Dead 114, 130, 131 all-seeing 260, 261
A
Orthodox Church 259, 341 countries: De Occulta Philosophia 113 finger to 335
Sacred Heart 115 flags 115, 324–29 deadly nightshade 81 raised 334
sacred places 233 number of 222, 324 Deadly Sins 298–9 Eye of Providence 107
saints 177 symbols 222–3 deaf: sign languages for 330 Eye of Wisdom 107
snake in 67 courage 283 death 105, 128–31, 282 Ea Oannes 77 eyebrow: raised 334
symbols 81, 84, 176–77, 242 cow 54 personification 114 eagle 62–63, 211, 223
Trinity 285, 343 cowardice 283 deforestation 91 ear 106
B
water in 32 cowrie shell 69, 105, 121 Degei 157 stretched lobes 256
worship 259 Coyolxauhqui 19 Deineka, Alexander 264 ear-stelae 106
Christmas tree 94 coyote (animal) 52 deities 14 earrings 254
Christopher, St. 195 Coyote (trickster) 151 of childbirth 123 Earth 15, 24–25, 211
chrysanthemum 82 crab 68 chthonic 338 goddesses of 24 fabulous beasts 74–77
chthonic god 338 crane 59 descent from 147 link with Heaven 22 façade 234
Chu Jung 30 creation myths 14, 16, 50, 87, of Earth 24 earthquakes 25 Fairtrade 315
church 177 156–57 of fertility 120 Easter 40 fairy tales 7, 37, 90, 91, 272–73
Catholic 228 cremation 129 of fire 30, 31 Easter egg 121 falcon 59
Lutheran 228 crescent 279, 289 of Moon 19 Easter Island: moai figures 147 Fallingwater, Pennsylvania 226
orientation 229 star and 23 of mountains 29 eclipse: lunar 18 fan 239
Churchill, Winston 223 cricket: umpire’s signals 332 multiple-armed 115 Ecuador: coat of arms 320 Father Time 131
Cihuacoatl 24 crocodile 64 multiple-headed 106 Eden, Garden of 244 Fawkes, Guy 214, 223
cinnamon 89 crocus 82 pagan 341 eel 69 feather headdress 250
circle 7, 261, 284 Cronos 140, 141 of rain 36 egg 101 FedEx 317
concentric 284 crops 50–1, 100–1 of stars 23 Egypt: feet 116, 117
of Sun 17 amulets 195 female 104
EJ@AT
F
fountain 245 goose 58 headhunting 111 eyes 107, 195
Four Last Things 299 Gorgon 75, 108 headwear 250–51 hourglass 131
fox 52 gourd 99 heart 115 Huehueteotl 30, 145
foxglove 81 Granthi 339 pierced by arrow 126 Huitzilopochti 145
France: Seal 222 grape 99, 255 hearth 238 hula skirts 249
Francis of Assisi, St. 10, 177 grasshopper 72 Heaven: human body 104, 114–15 Jack and the Beanstalk 272, 273
fraternity 339 gravestones see tombstones link with Earth 22 universe and 112–13 jackal 52
Freemasonry 17, 73, 260–61, 286 Great Departure 342 staircase to 236–37 Humbaba 115 Jacob’s Ladder 236, 260
Freud, Sigmund 122, 265, 273, 339 Greeks: Hebrew alphabet 175, 306 hummingbird 60 jade 42, 170, 255
Frey 143 alphabet 307 Hebrew Triad 175 hunting: dogs and 53 jaguar 57
Freya 143 mythology 1, 17, 19, 24, 29, 32, Hecate 19, 24, 89, 106, 123 husk mask 271 Jahan, Shah 130
Frigg 123, 143 35, 36, 40, 41, 45, 53, 57, 58, hedgehog 53 hyacinth 82 Jahangir, Emperor 265
frilled lizard 64 69, 77, 85, 107, 120, 140–41 Heel Stone 16 Hyacinthus 82 Janus 34, 57, 67, 106
frog 65, 150 theatre mask 271 Hei Tiki 195 Hydra 75 Japan:
fruits 51, 98–99 Grenadier Guards 253 Heidelberg University: coat of arms hyena 52 art 91
as jewellery motif 255 griffin 74 321 Hymen 81, 98 badges of honour 321
Fuji, Mount 25 Grim Reaper 105, 128, 339 Helios 17, 85 Hypnos 85 earthquakes 25
Fujin 35 Grimm Brothers 90 helix 285 emblem 17
funerary rites 129 grimoire 339 Hell: emperors 147
E
fungi 81 Grimoire of Honorius 190 circles of 284 gods 34, 35
Fuseli, Henry 265 grotto 245 Mouth of 109 kimono 249
Futurism 264, 339 group affiliation 258–89 Hells Angels 258 Jasna Gora 233
guardian angels 189 helmet 251 Jason 45
Guevara, Che 259 hen 60 I Ching 170, 197, 340 Java: masks 270
C
Guinness 317 henna 256, 339 ibis 58 jay 60
guitar 122 marriage designs 127 Ibsen, Henrik 269 jealousy 299
gun 122, 225 heptagram 193, 288, 339 Icarus 17 jeans 248
Gundnestrup cauldron 209 Hera 141 ice 37 Jerome, St. 57
Ga tribe 129 Gunpowder Plot 223, 339 heraldry 116, 278–89, 318–23 ichthys 195 Jerusalem 172
Gabriel, Archangel 188 gurdwara 185, 339 coats of arms 320–21 iconography 340 Church of the Holy Sepulchre
Gaia 24, 157, 232 Guru Granth Sahib 185 herbs 88–89 Idun 142 233
Galla 191 Guru Nanak 136, 184 Hercules: Labours of 57 Igbo mask 271 jester 217
Ganesha 67, 160 gurus 184, 339 heresy 339 imperial power 282 jet 47
Ganga 33, 161 herm 122 Inari 171 jewellery 215, 254–55
Ganges, River 129, 161, 215 Hermes 141 incarnation 340 mourning 130
D
gangs: heroes 136 Incas: jewellery chest: Egyptian 304–05
group affiliations 258 culture 151, 338 deities 145 Jivaro clan 111
tattoos 257 heron 58, 93 jewellery 254 Judaism 172–75
garbha griha 229 incense 89 angels 188
EJ@AT
hexagon 289
Garden of Eden 244 Hades 88, 140 hexagram 22, 288, 339 India: burials 129
gardens 215, 244–45 hail 36 hieroglyphs 123, 300, 301, dance gestures 269 festivals 173
gargoyles 8 hair 108 304–05, 339 masks 270 Kabbalah 97, 174
garlic 89 ritual cutting 125 high five 335 sari 249 prayer 173
garnet 43 Haiti 187 Hinduism 136, 158–63 Indonesia: shadow theatre 269 symbols 22
Garuda 75, 159 haka 108 creation myths 87, 157 Indra 36 synagogue 228
Gauguin, Paul 262 hall 235 demons 17 initiation rites 105, 124–25, 260 wedding 127
gavel 261 hallucinogens 51 earthquakes 25 innocence 283 Jung, C.G. 340
Gawain, Sir 217 halo 188 enlightenment 107, 339 insects 72–73 Juno 141
Gay Pride 282 Hals, Franz 133 marriage 127 international signs 310–13 Jupiter (god) 140
gazelle 55 hammer and sickle 224 Interpol 316 Jupiter (planet) 21
in astrology 201 lapis lazuli 43 maize 100 Ming Dynasty 340 nats 148
Justina, St.: attribute 76 Lascaux caves 233 Makara 75 Minotaur 77 natural world 50–51
Last Supper 177, 209 male 104 mint 88 nature 281
laurel 94 Mama Wati 186 mirror 238, 241 in art 262
G
lavender 85 mammals 52–55 mist 35 nature spirits 148–49
laziness 299 Man: and the Universe 112–13 mistletoe 80, 126 nautical symbols 243
lead sulphide 47 mandalas 231, 291–93, 340 Mithra 24 Navajo 29, 37, 302
leather 315 mandorla 289, 340 mitre 250 neck rings 255
ka 123 Leda 58 mandrake 80 Mixcoatyl 23 necklace 254
Ka’ba 180, 232, 340 leek 101 mango 99 Mjolnir 142 Nefertem 87
Kabbalah 97, 174 legal profession 314 Mantegna, Andrea 246–47 moai figures 147 Nenet 155
Kabi Australian Aboriginal people legs 115 mantra 340 modesty 282 Nepal: flag 328
147 ornaments 254 manual languages 330–33 mokas 257 Neptune (god) 32, 141
Kabuki 268, 340 lemon 98 Mao, Chairman 259 mon 341 Neptune (planet) 21
kachhera 184 Leo 200 Maoris 23, 31, 37, 67, 108, 257 monarchy 216, 341 in astrology 201
kachina 148, 340 Leonardo da Vinci 209 maple leaf 126 monitor lizard 64 net 225
Kagu-Zuchi 171 Vitruvian Man 112–13 Mara 191 monkey 55, 133, 204 Netherlands: flag 327
Kahakura 37 leopards 57 Mardi Gras mask 271 monotheistic faith 341 New Guinea:
Kali 108, 109, 160, 162–63 level 260, 261 Marduk 34, 157 monsters 50 clubhouse 111
Kalki 159 Lewis, C.S. 10 Margaret, St. 241 Moon 14, 18–19, 210 mask 270
Kama 73 Lhasa: Potala Palace 227 Marian Star 23 in astrology 201 New Orleans: funerals 129
Kamadhatu 231 libation vessel 218, 340 marigold 85 cycles 18 New York: Empire
kami 340 Libra 200 marriage 105, 126, 127 eclipse 18 State Building 227
Kanaloa 69 lifeboat 242 Mars (god) 84, 141 gods and goddesses 19 New Zealand: emblems 59, 80, 223
kangaroo 53 light 239 Mars (planet) 21 influence 18 Newspaper Rock, Utah 233
kangha 184 lighthouse 227 in astrology 201 and star 126 night sky 22–3
kara 184 lightning 14, 34 martyr 340 symbols 57 nightingale 60
Kartikeyya 160 lily 82 Mary Magdalene 108, 209 triple 193 Nike 140
Kau Cim 197 limbs 115 Masai: costume 249 mooncakes 41 Nile: flooding 39
Kelimatu 233 linden 94 masks 16, 146, 147, 149, 270–71 moonstone 43 Ninurta 79
kesh 184 linga (lingam) 120, 122, 340 masons: marks and tools 261 Morpheus 85 Nirvana 341
key 239 lion 57, 131, 167 mast 243 Morrigan 142 Noah 37
Khan, Inayat 265 green 211 mathematical symbols 312 Morse 297, 309, 341 Ark 38, 39
Khepri 17, 72 Lion Throne 219 Mattsya 39, 159 mortar board 250 Noble Eightfold Path 341
Khmer alphabet 308 lip plugs 254, 256 Mau Mau 259 Moses 29 nod 334
Khnum 116 lips 109 Maui 31 mosques 180, 229 Noh theatre: mask 270
Kiddush cup 127 finger on 335 Maya 18, 19, 101, 129, 144, 301 moth 72 Nordic mythology 34, 77, 123,
kilt 249 literature: symbolism 10 maypole 105 Mother Earth 24 142–43, 224
kimono 127, 249 Little Red Riding Hood 273 dance 268 Mother Goddess 341 North Semitic alphabet 306
kingfisher 58 liver 115 maze 245, 290 mother-of-pearl 47 Northern Lights 23
kings 216 lizards 64 measurements: hand as unit 117 motley 217 Norway: coat of arms 222
kinnara 74 loa 187 Mecca 180, 181, 232 mountains 14, 28–29 nose 104, 107
kinnari 74 lobster 68 medical profession 67, 314 Mountains of the Immortals 29 nose rings 257
kippah 250 locket 130, 195 Medieval times (Middle Ages) 340 Mounties 253 Notus 35
kirpan 184 locust 72 meditation 340 mourning 105, 128, 130–31, 282 numbers 278, 294–97
Kirrtikukha 76 lodestone 47 Mehndi Day 127 mouse 53 systems 297
kiss 334 logograms 300, 309 melon 98 mouth 109 numerology 206–07, 294
kiwi 59, 223 logos 279, 316–17, 340 memento mori 189 Muhammad, Prophet 29, 136, 180, gematria 175
knife 239 Loki 151 memorials 130–31 232 Nun (god) 32
knighting 225 London: Menolo 147 mu–yu 275 nurse’s uniforms 253
knights 194, 217 O2 arena 227 menorah 173 mudras 164, 165, 339, 341 Nut (god) 139
Knights of the Round St Paul’s Cathedral 285 menstruation 125 Mughal empire 341 nutmeg 89
Table 208, 209 Tower Bridge 226 Menthe 88 art 265
knot garden 245 longyi 249 Mercedes Benz 317 mulberry 95
K
kohl 256 loom 239 Mercury (god) 141 mummification 129, 146, 341
Koran 180, 181, 183 lotus 86–87, 93, 115, 119 mercury (metal) 211 Munch, Edvard 265
koto 274 Louis XIV 17, 216, 219 Mercury (planet) 21 music: traditional 222
Koyo 257 love 280 in astrology 201 musical instruments 274–75
Krishna 92–3, 159 love knot 127 Meretseger 67 musical notation 279, 313 oak 94, 131
Krobo people 125 love ring 254 mermaid 77 myrrh 89 obelisk 105
Ku 191 love tokens 126 Meso-America 340 myrtle 81 Obon 131
Kuba 146 loving cup 127 Mesopotamia: fertility rites 120 mysticism 341 Oceania: flags 328
Kukulcan 144 Lucina 123 metals: precious 46–47 myth 341 octagon 289
Kurma 159 lunar cycle 203 Mexico: octopus 69
Kwakiutl mask 270 lungs 115 Day of the Dead 114, 130, 131 Odin 77, 143
J
ky–lin 76 lust 299 temples 29 OK 335
lute 275 mezuzah 173 olive 95
lyre 274 Michael, St., Archangel 128, 189 Olives, Mount of 29
I
Mictlantecuhtli 145 nail guards 117 Olympus, Mount 29
nails 177 omen 341
EJ@AT
Midas 45
labyrinth 290, 340 naivety 281 onion 101
Midsummer’s day 16
ladder 9, 236–7, 261 Naiveu, Matthys: onyx 43
Mihrab 229
ladybird 72 Ma’at 139 vanitas painting 132 opal 43
military uniforms 253
lady’s bedstraw 123 maenad 122 naming ceremonies 125 opera: Chinese 269
milk 101
Lajja Gauri 121 magic: Nanabush 151 oracle bones 196, 301
Milky Way 23, 151, 340
lakes 33 black 190, 338 Napoleon 63 oranges 98, 241
mime 268
Lakshmi 160–61 voodoo 187 Narasimha 159 orb 218, 221
Mimi 151
lamb 55, 176 witchcraft 192 Narcissus 33, 82 orchid 83
Min 120
lamp 131 magic square 206, 340 Narnia stories 10 Order of the British Empire 288
minaret 180
landscapes 25 magpie 60 nationality 214, 222–23 ordinary 318, 341
Minerva 141
Lao Tzu 170 Mahabharata 75 nativity scene 176 organ (musical) 275
organic farming 315 pine 94 shark 68
organs: of body 115
Original Sin 341
Orion 23
Orleans, Charles, Duke of 126
Orthodox Church 259, 341
pine cone 121
pineapple 98
Pinocchio 74, 107
Pisces 200
pith helmet 250
N
rabbit 53, 204
O
Sabbath 173
shaving 125
Sheela na Gig 121
sheep 55, 204
shell 69, 70–71
shield 224
foot 195 Sacred Heart 115
Osiris 23, 57, 107, 114, 138, 147 planets 15, 20–21 Shield of the Trinity 285
racoon 52 sacred places 215, 232–33
ostrich 59 in astrology 201, 203 Shinto 81, 170, 171
Radha 92–93 sacrifice 14, 137
owl 59, 128 plants 50–51, 80–81 ship burials 129, 243
Rahu 17, 191 human 115
ox 54, 204 platinum 315 ships 242–43
rain 36 sadhu 161, 342
Oxfam 316 Pliny 41 ship’s cloth 242
rituals 36 Safa, Mount 29
Oxford: coat of arms 320 plough 225 Shiro-maku kimono 127
rainbow 37, 295 saffron 89
plum 95 Shiva 34, 57, 67, 106, 108, 120,
rainforest 91 sage 88
plumb rule and line 261 158, 162–63, 342
ram 55 Sagittarius 200
L
Pluto (god) 21, 140 shofar 173
Rama 159 sago 100
Pluto (planet) 21 shooting stars 22
Ramadan 181 sails 242
in astrology 201 Shou 284, 342
ram’s horn 173 saints 177, 342
poisons 51 shrines 161
Pachacamac 145 Rangda 270 salamander 41, 64
polar bear 155 Hindu 229
packing symbols 311 Raphael, Archangel 189 salmon 69
Pole Star 23 Shinto 171
Paduang 255 Rastafarianism 81 salt 101
policeman’s helmet 251 wayside 148
pagan gods 341 rat 53, 204 saltire 178
politics: shrunken heads 111
pagodas 229 rattle 154 samsara 342
affiliation 259 Sicily: flag 115
painting see art Ravana 191 Samson and Delilah 108
in art 264 Siddhartha, Prince 87, 167,
palace 219, 227 raven 60, 128, 151, 193 Samurai 217, 342
polygons 289 263, 342
Pallas Athene 246–47 Re 45, 139 sword 225
Polynesian mask 271 sign languages 330–33
palm 95 rebirth 280 sapphire 42
pomander 194 signet ring 254
palmistry 198 Red Cross 314 sarcophagus 342
pomegranate 99, 121, 255 signs: definition 6
Pan 141 reed 80 sari 249
Pope: coronation 221 Sikhism 184–85
P’an Ku 157 regalia: of royalty 218 Satan 190–91
poppets 192 emblems 185
pansy 83 reincarnation 341 Satanism 190–91
poppy 85, 128 five Ks 184
Paradise: rivers of 33 religion 136 Saturn (god) 140, 141
portent 341 silver 47, 255
parrot 60 in art 263 Saturn (planet) 21
Poseidon 32, 69, 141 quality control 315
parsley 88 worship 259 in astrology 201
postage stamps 222 Simurgh 74
Parvati 106, 158, 163 religious uniforms 253 satyr 106, 342
Potala Palace 227 Sinai, Mount 29
passion 280 Remembrance Day 130 scalene triangle 286
potions 192 Sinus (star) 23
passion flower 83 Renaissance 341 scallop 69, 70–71
prayer beads 181, 241 Sioux 45, 63, 250
Passover 173, 341 Renard the fox 151 scalping 110
prayer book 173 sirens 77
patterns 290–93 renunciation 280 scarab beetle 72, 195
prayer flags 329 sitar 275
Paul, St. 177 reptiles 64–67 scarification 256
prayer mat 181 Sitwell: coat of arms 320
pawnbroker 314 Rhiannon (goddess) 142 sceptre 218, 221
prayer shawl 173 six-pointed star 22
Pazuzu 194 rhinoceros 55 school uniform 253
prayer wheel 167 skeleton 114
peace 283 ribs 114 Scorpio 123, 200
praying mantis 73 skull and crossbones 243
peach 98 rice 100 scorpion 73
precious matter 46–7 skulls 111
peach tree 95 at weddings 127 screen 239
precious stones 15, 42–43 necklace of 163
peacock 60, 121 ring 254, 284 scuba diving 332
Priapus 120, 122 in vanitas paintings 133
feathers 107 mourning 130 sculpture: religious 229
pride 299 sky-watching 23
pear 98 rivers 33 scythe 224
priests 137, 282 skyscraper 227
pearls 46 Robert de Boron 208 sea 32
primordial waters 341 sleep: in art 265
Pech Merle, France: cave art 54 robin 61 sea urchin 69
primrose 82 Sleipnir 77, 143
Pegasus 54, 76 Robin Hood 223 seahorse 68
princes 217 sloth 299
Pele 25 rock 24 seal (aquatic) 69
princesses 217 snail 73
pelican 58 rock art 233, 302 Seal of Solomon 22, 210, 342
professional symbols 314–15 snake 66–67, 204
pen and ink 238 rocket 122 seasons 14, 40–41, 104
Prometheus 31 Snakes and Ladders 67, 237
pendulum 196 Roman alphabet 306, 307 Sebastian, St. 177
psychic powers 341 snow 36, 37
pentacle 193 Roman mythology 24, 30, 32, 40, secret garden 245
psychopomp 341 Snow Queen 37
pentagram 22, 113, 287, 341 106, 140–41 Sedna 32
Ptah 108, 116 Snow White 273
peony 83 Rome: Sefirot 174
Ptolemy 21 snowdrop 83
peridot 43 Colosseum 227 Sefirotic Tree 97, 342
Ptolemaic universe 341 snowflakes 37
permanence 280 St. Peter’s 233 Sekhmet 30, 139
public information signs 310 Snyders, Frans 133
Persephone 24, 41 roof 235 Selene 19
pukpuk 155 Sobek 139
persimmon 99 rope 225 Semai 11
punk 258 Social Realism 264, 342
Peter, St. 177 rosary 177 Semana Santa 259
Purana 39 Solomon Island 147
petroglyph 302, 341 rose 84, 126 semaphore 331, 342
purity 281, 283 Solomon, King 22
Peugeot 317 rose window 84, 291 semese 147
purse 239 solstices 16, 232
Phaeton 17 rosemary 88 semi-god 342
pyramid 29, 130, 233, 261, 286 Sophocles 269
phallic symbols 67, 104, 120, 122 Round Table 284 semi-precious stones 42
Pyramid of the Sun 233 Sorbonne: coat of arms 321
phallus 105, 120, 122 royalty 214, 216–17, 281 Sengen-Samba 171
Pythagoras 341 South America: flags 325
pharaoh 216 coronations 220–21 Seraphim 189
sparrow 61
pharmacy 314 regalia 218 serpent 190
spear 224
trappings 218–19 double–headed 75
M
phi 148 spells 192
Philosopher’s Stone 210 ruby 42 rainbow 37
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T
jewellery 255 trigrams 343 Virgo 200
tea 51, 101
Star of Bethlehem 288 Trimurti 343 Virtues 247
tea leaves: reading 196
Star of David 22, 172 Trinity 285, 343 Vishnu 67, 75, 87, 115, 117, 157,
teeth 109
Star of Lakshmi 288 triratna 119 159, 163
teeth flicking 335 X–ray paintings 153
starfish 69 triskelion 115 Vishnu Anantasayana 157, 159
tefellin 173, 342
stars 14, 15, 22–3, 288 Triton 77 Vitruvian Man 112–13
telescope 21, 242
gods of 23 trowel 261 volcanoes 25
U
Tell, William 266
shooting 22 trumpet 274 voodoo 186–87
temples:
Statue of Liberty 222 tulip 82 Vulcan 30
Cao Dai 228
stelae 106 turban 250 Vulcan salute 336
Chinese 229
stimulants 51 turquoise (gemstone) 43 vulture 59, 128
Hindu 161, 229 Yaeyama dancers 41
Stoker, Bram 109 turtle 65, 147 vulva 121
Mexican 29 yakusa 257
stomach 115 turtle doves 126
in shape of mountains 29 yam 100
Stonehenge 16, 215, 232 Turukawa 157
Sikh 185 Yama 109
S
stork 58, 123 Tutankhamen 216
Ten Commandments 29, 172 Yang see Yin and Yang
storms 34 Two Brothers 90
tengu 74, 107 yantra 343
stupas 229, 342 Tyr 143
Teotihuacan 233 yardarm 243
Styx, River 33, 342
termite 73 Wailing Wall 172 Yaxchilan temple: hieroglyphs 301
submarine 242
terracotta soldiers 217 yew 94
Q
Sufism 342 Wales: emblems 79, 101
terrapin 65 walking the plank 242 Yggdrasil 96
Sukkoth 173
tetraktys 175 wall 235 Yin and Yang 27, 104, 157, 170,
sulphur 211
Texcatlipoca 57 walled garden 245 343
Sumerians: gods 23
Thailand: udjat 107, 343 wand 155, 192 landscape 26–27
Sumeru, Mount 28
dancers 268 undines 149 Wandjina spirit 153 Yang symbols 17, 29
summer 40
emblem 223 unicorn 76 war 280 Yip Hong 262
summer solstice 16
Thanksgiving Day 223 uniforms 252–53 war cries 108 youth 281
Sun 14, 16–17, 210
theatre 268–69 Union Jack 327 war paint 256 Yum Cimil 144
in astrology 201
thistle 81 United Nations 317 warning signs 279
cults 17
Thor 34, 142 United States of America: Hazchem 310, 339
gods 17
V
hammer 224 emblem 223 Wars of the Roses 84
sacrifice to 115
Thoth 139 flag 326 washing:
as national emblem 17
Thousand and One Nights 273 seal 63 of feet 117
symbols 57, 63, 85, 87, 147,
thread 238 University of Sydney: coat of arms of hands 116
281 Zambia coat of arms 320
throne 219 321 Washington, George 261
Sun King 17 Zen 244, 284, 343
empty 167 Uranus (god) 157 wasp 72
Sun mask 16 Zephyrus 35, 70–71
thumbs up 335 Uranus (planet) 21 Wat Phra Keo 232
Sun signs 200–1 zero 296
thunder 14, 34 in astrology 201 water 14, 15, 32–33, 104, 211
sunflower 85 Zeus 36, 58, 108, 140
thunderbird 74, 150 Urban VIII, Pope 73 in art 10
Surrealism 342 Zewditu, Empress of Ethiopia 217
thyme 88 uroborus 211 water spirit 149
surrender 283 zither 275
thyrsos 122 ushnisha 343 waterfalls 33
Surya 17, 87 zodiac 22, 200–01, 205
Tiamat 157 Utpanishtim 39 wave (gesture) 335
Susa-No-O 171 chart 202–03
tie 248 waves 32
swallow 61 Zohar 174
tiger 56, 204 weapons 215, 224–25
swan 58 Zoroastrianism 31
R
tooth 195 weather 34–39
swastika 7, 119, 142, 261, 289 Zu 79
tiles: Islamic 181, 228 symbols 311
sweat lodge 155 Zulu: houses 226
timepiece 239 wedding cake 127
sword dance 268
tjemen 146 whale 68, 150
swords 225
Tlaloc 36 vahana 343 wheat 100
Sydney Harbour Bridge 226
Tlaloc, Mount 29 Valentines 126 wheat sheaf 121
syllabaries 300
toad 65, 193 Valkyrie 35 Wheel of Law 165, 167, 169
symbols:
tobacco 81 valleys 25 Wheel of Life 168–69
EJ@AT
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