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PRODUCTION OF ANILINE
BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
IN
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING
Submitted By
2012-2013
1
DEPARTMENT OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING
NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
WARANGAL-506004
CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the project entitled “Production of ANILINE” carried out by Ms.
Tejaswi Pothuganti (9626), Ms. V. Blessystella (9632), Mr. Mallikarjun Reddy G (9647),
Mr. Mohith Nigam (9671) of final year B.Tech Chemical Engineering during the year 2012-
2013 is a bonafide work submitted to the National Institute of Technology, Warangal in
partial fulfilment of requirements for the award of degree of Bachelor of Technology.
2
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
We would like to express our deep sense of respect and gratitude toward our supervisor Mrs.
K. Srivani, Associate Professor, Department of Electronics and Communication
Engineering, National Institute of Technology, Warangal who not only guided the academic
project work but also stood as a teacher. Her presence and optimism have provided an
invaluable influence on my career and outlook for the future. We consider it as our good
fortune to have got an opportunity to work with such a wonderful person.
We would also like to take this opportunity to acknowledge our friends for their support and
encouragement. We are especially indebted to our parents for their love, sacrifice and
support.
V. Blessystella (09632)
3
INDEX
Chapter Page no
No Chapter name
1 Introduction 1
2 Market Analysis 2
3 Uses 6
6 Selection of Process 17
7 Process Description 18
8 Mass balance 22
9 Energy balance 35
11 Cost estimation 80
14 Bibliography 94
4
1. INTRODUCTION:
Aniline, phenylamine or aminobenzene is an organic compound with
the formula C6H5NH2. Consisting of a phenyl group attached to an amino group, aniline is the
prototypical aromatic amine. Being a precursor to many industrial chemicals, its main use is
in the manufacture of precursors topolyurethane. Like most volatile amines, it possesses the
somewhat unpleasant odour of rotten fish. It ignites readily, burning with a smoky flame
characteristic of aromatic compounds. Aniline is colourless, but it slowly oxidizes and
resinifies in air, giving a red-brown tint to aged samples.
Aniline is produced by the reduction of nitrobenzene, which is produced from the nitration of
benzene in a mixture of sulphuric and nitric acid.
5
2. MARKET ANALYSIS:
MDI (Methylene Diphenyl Diisocyanate) production accounts for over 75% of world aniline
consumption; other large applications include use as a chemical intermediate for rubber-
processing chemicals, dyes and pigments. Since most MDI producers are captive in aniline
and its precursor nitrobenzene, typically in integrated units, nearly all MDI expansions result
in increased production and consumption of nitrobenzene/aniline. MDI has been the driving
force behind world growth in aniline demand since 1982. Future demand for aniline will
continue to depend largely on MDI requirements.
MDI is consumed in polyurethane (PU) foam, both rigid and flexible. Most rigid PU foam is
used in construction and appliances while flexible PU foam is used primarily in furniture and
transportation. As a result, consumption of nitrobenzene/aniline/MDI largely follows the
patterns of the leading world economies and depends heavily on construction/remodelling
activity (residential and non-residential), automotive production and original equipment
manufacturer. MDI growth has been driven by "green" initiatives, sustainability and lowering
CO2 emissions.
World consumption of aniline grew at an average annual rate of 3% during 2006–2010, the
result of a growing global economy during 2001–2008, declines during the economic
recession in 2009 and the recovery in 2010, and growth due to increased MDI capacity.
Strong Asian demand for all applications of MDI boosted world demand during 2006–2010.
World consumption of aniline is forecast to grow at an average annual rate of 3.8% during
2010–2015. Continuing rapid demand growth in some regions, particularly in China, Other
6
Asia and Europe, mainly the result of continued expansion of integrated
nitrobenzene/aniline/MDI units, will balance out moderate growth in markets such as the
Americas.
The aniline industry is a concentrated one, with most producers integrated into MDI
production. BASF, Huntsman, Bayer and DuPont are the four dominant players, with about
17%, 12%, 12% and 10% of the world's capacity, respectively; only DuPont is not an MDI
producer. BASF, Huntsman and Bayer each have plants in several world regions.
2.1. Supply/demand:
Global capacity was 4.98m tonnes/year in 2006, with 1.62m tonnes/year in Western Europe,
1.38m tonnes/year in the US, 1.15m tonnes/year in Asia-Pacific (excluding Japan), 474,000
tonnes/year in Japan, 316,500 tonnes/year in Eastern Europe, 70,000 tonnes/year in Latin
America and 64,000 tonnes/year in Asia/Middle East.
Western Europe is the largest consumer, at about 1.32m tonnes/year, followed by the US at
1.19m tonnes/year and Asia-Pacific at 717,860 tonnes/year. Japan, Asia/Middle East and
Latin America consume 319,190 tonnes/year, 98,360 tonnes/year and 73,130 tonnes/year,
respectively. Global demand in 2006 was 3.95m tonnes/year.
2.2. Prices:
There is a small merchant market and prices typically track benzene. European prices in the
fourth quarter were €0.98-1.06/kg. November contracts in the US and Asia-Pacific were
$0.62-0.68/lb and $1.29-1.40/kg, respectively.
2.3. Technology
Most production is based on the catalytic hydrogenation of nitrobenzene, where benzene is
mixed with a solution of nitric acid, hydrogenated and then purified by distillation.
Another route, by SABIC/Sud-Chemie partnership Scientific Design, is the vapour phase
ammonolysis ofphenol using excess ammonia and a silica-alumina catalyst, but this is now
only used by Mitsui.
2.4. Outlook
Global demand growth is put at 6%/year to 2010. Annual consumption will rise by 10.5% in
Asia-Pacific, 6.5% in Asia/Middle East, 5.6% in Western Europe, 5.1% in the US, and 1.5%
in Japan, respectively. Other world regions will grow by 3-4%/year.
There is plenty of capacity until 2012. In China, Bayer will build a 247,000 tonne/year unit
for 2009 and Yantai Wanhua's hike to 95,000 tonnes/year was due by late 2007. South
7
Korea's Kumho Mitsui will double output to 90,000 tonnes/year in 2009. Japan's Tosoh will
expand to 300,000 tonnes/year by 2008. Karun Petrochemical plans a 30,000 tonne/year unit
in Iran, for 2009. India's Hindustan Organic Chemicals may restart a 60,000 tonne/year unit
by 2008 or later.
8
Wilton, UK 450
9
3. USES OF ANILINE:
Aniline, an organic base used to make dyes, drugs, explosives, plastics, and photographic and
rubber chemicals.
Aniline, a primary aromatic amine, is a weak base and forms salts with mineral acids. In
acidic solution, nitrous acid converts aniline into a diazonium salt that is an intermediate in
the preparation of a great number of dyes and other organic compounds of commercial
interest. When aniline is heated with organic acids, it gives amides, called ‘Anilides’, such as
acetanilide from aniline and acetic acid. Monomethylaniline and dimethylaniline can be
prepared from aniline and methyl alcohol. Catalytic reduction of aniline yields
cyclohexylamine. Various oxidizing agents convert aniline to quinone, azobenzene,
nitrosobenzene, p-aminophenol, and the phenazine dye aniline black.
The great commercial value of aniline was due to the readiness with which it yields, directly
or indirectly, dyestuffs. The discovery of mauve in 1856 by William Henry Perkin was the
first of a series of dyestuffs that are now to be numbered by hundreds. Reference should be
made to the articles dyeing, fuchsine, safranine, indulines, for more details on this subject.
At the present time, the largest market for aniline is preparation of methylene diphenyl
diisocyanate (MDI), some 85% of aniline serving this market. Other uses include rubber
processing chemicals (9%), herbicides (2%), and dyes and pigments (2%).
When polymerized, aniline can be used as a type of nanowire for use as a semiconducting
electrode bridge, most recently used for nano-scale devices such as biosensors. These
polyanilineg nanowires can be doped with a dopant accordingly in order to achieve certain
semiconducting properties.
In the late 19th century, aniline emerged as an analgesic drug, its cardiac-suppressive side
effects countered with caffeine.[11] In the 20th century's first decade, modifying synthetic
dyes to treatsleeping sickness, Paul Ehrlich—who had coined the term chemotherapy for
his magic bullet approach to medicine—failed and switched to modifying Béchamp's atoxyl,
10
the first organic arsenicaldrug, and serendipitously attained the syphilis treatment salvarsan,
the first successful chemotherapy. Salvarsan's targeted microorganism, not yet recognized as
bacteria, was still thought a parasite, however, and medical bacteriologists, believing bacteria
not susceptible to the chemotherapeutic approach, overlooked Alexander Fleming's 1929
report on the in vitro effect ofpenicillin.[12]
In 1932, Bayer sought medical applications of its dyes. Gerhard Domagk identified
as antibacterial a red azo dye, introduced in 1935 as the first antibacterial drug, prontosil,
rapidly found atPasteur Institute to be a prodrug degraded in vivo to sulfanilamide—a
colorless intermediate for many, highly colorfast azo dyes—already off patent, synthesized in
1908 in Vienna by Paul Gelmofor his doctoral thesis.[12] By the 1940s, over 500 related sulfa
drugs were produced.[12] In high demand via World War II (1939–45), these first miracle
drugs, chemotherapy of wide effectiveness, propelled the American pharmaceutics
industry.[13] In 1939, at Oxford University, seeking an alternative to sulfa drugs, Howard
Florey developed Fleming's penicillin into the first systemicantibiotic drug, penicillin G.
(Gramicidin, developed by René Dubos at Rockefeller Institute in 1939, was the first
antibiotic, yet its toxicity restricted it to topical use.) After WWII, Cornelius P.
Rhoads introduced the chemotherapeutic approach to cancer treatment.[14]
11
4. PHYSICAL& CHEMICAL PROPERTIES:
4.1. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES[1}:(Table-2)
PROPERTY VALUE
Molecular Formula C6H7N
Molecular Weight 93.129
Boiling point, 0C
101.3 K Pa 184.4
4.4 K Pa 92
1.2 K Pa 71
0
Freezing Point C -6.03
Density,liquid,g/mL 1.02173
Density,Vapor,(at bp,air=1) 3.30
Refractive Index 1.5863
Viscosity, mPa.s(=cP)
20 0C 4.35
60 1.62
Enthalpy of dissociation, kJ/mole 21.7
Heat of combustion, kJ/mole 3394
Ionisation potential, eV 7.70
0
Dielectric constant, at 25 C 6.89
Dipole moment at 250C,C.m 5.20*10-30
Specific heat at 250C,J/(g.K) 2.06
Heat of vaporization, J/g 478.5
Flash point,0C
Closed cup 70
Open cup 75.5
Ignition Temperature, 0C 615
Lower flammable limit, vol % 1.3
Odour Threshold,ppm 2.4
12
Odour: Aromatic. Amine like.
Taste: Burning.
Aromatic amines are usually weaker bases than aliphatic amines by the difference in P ka of
the conjugate acids of aniline. Pka of Aniline is 4.63 and Pka of cyclo hexyl amine is 10.66.
This is due to resonance effect. Aniline is stabilized by sharing its lone-pair electrons with the
aromatic ring.
Aromatic amines form addition compounds and complexes with many inorganic substances,
such as Zinc chloride,copper chloride, Uranium Tetrachloride, or Boron Trifloride.Various
metals react with amino group to form metal anilides; Hydrochloric, sulphuric, or Phosphoric
acid salts of aniline are important intermediates in the dye industry.
4.2.1 N-alkylation[1]:
A number of methods are available for preparation of N-alkyl and N,N-dialkyl derivatives of
aromatic amines. Passing a mixture of aniline and methanol over a copper-zinc oxide catalyst
at 2500C and 101 kPa reportedly gives N-methylaniline. Heating aniline with methanol under
pressure or with excess methanol produces N,N-dimethylaniline. In the presence of sulphuric
acid, aniline reacts with methanol to form N-methyl and N,N-dimethyl aniline. This is a two
step process as shown.
13
4.2.2. Ring Alkylation [1]:
The aromatic ring undergoes alkylation under certain conditions. For example,2-ethylaniline,
2-6-diethylaniline, or mixture of the two are obtained in high yield when aniline is heated
with ethylene in the presence of aluminium-anilide catalyst(formed by heating aluminium
and aniline) at 3300 C and 4-5 MPa.
Aromatic amines react with acids, acid chlorides, anhydrides, and esters to form amides.In
general,acid chlorides give the best yield of the pure product. The reaction with
acetic,propionic,butanoic, or benzoic acid can be catalysed with phosphorous oxychloride or
trichloride.
Depending on the reaction conditions, a variety of condensation products are obtained from
the reaction of aromatic amines with aldehydes, ketones, acetals, and orthoformates.
Primary aromatic amines react with aldehydes to form Schiff bases. Schiff bases formed from
the reaction of lower aliphatic aldehydes, such as formaldehyde and acetaldehyde, with
primary aromatic amines are often unstable and polymerize readily. Aniline reacts with
formaldehyde in aqueous acid solutions to yield mixtures of a crystalline trimer of the Schiff
base, methylenedianilines, and polymers.
14
4.2.5. Cyclization [1]:
Aniline, nitrobenzene, and glycerol react under acid catalysis (Skraup synthesis) to form
quinolone.
The Skraup synthesis is a chemical reaction used to synthesize quinolines. It is named after
the Czech chemist Zdenko Hans Skraup (1850-1910). In the archetypal Skraup, aniline is
heated with sulfuric acid, glycerol, and an oxidizing agent,likenitrobenzene to yield
quinoline.
In this example, nitrobenzene serves as both the solvent and the oxidizing agent. The
reaction, which otherwise has a reputation for being violent ("the Chemical Inquisition"), is
typically conducted in the presence of ferrous sulphate.Arsenic acid may be used instead of
nitrobenzene and the former is better since the reaction is less violent.
15
4.2.6. Halogenation [1]:
The presence of the amino group activates the ortho and para positions of the aromatic ring
and, as a result, aniline reacts readily with bromine or chlorine. Under mild conditions,
bromination yields 2,4,6- tribromoaniline.
4.2.7. Oxidation [1]: Aniline was selectively converted into the corresponding nitrosobenzene
and nitrobenzene by oxidation with 30% aqueous hydrogen peroxide. The reaction was
catalyzed by various heteropolyoxometalates, at room temperature, in dichloromethane under
two-phase conditions. Findings show that H3PW12O40 is the best catalyst in the oxidation of
aniline. Na3PW9Mo3O40 and K4SiW9Mo2O39 also displayed high reactivity in the oxygenation
system. Phase transfer agents and temperature increase also contribute to the efficiency of the
oxidation
4.2.8.ReactivityProfile[1]:
Aniline is a heat sensitive base. Combines with acids to form salts. Dissolves alkali metals
or alkaline earth metals with evolution of hydrogen. Incompatible with albumin, solutions of
iron, zinc and aluminum, and acids. Couples readily with phenols and aromatic amines.
Easily acylated and alkylated. Corrosive to copper and copper alloys. Can react vigorously
with oxidizing materials (including perchloric acid, fuming nitric acid, sodium peroxide and
ozone). Reacts violently with BCl3. Mixtures with toluene diisocyanate may ignite.
Undergoes explosive reactions with benzenediazonium-2-carboxylate, dibenzoyl peroxide,
fluorine nitrate, nitrosyl perchlorate, peroxodisulfuric acid and tetranitromethane. Violent
reactions may occur with peroxyformic acid, diisopropyl peroxydicarbonate, fluorine,
trichloronitromethane (293° F), acetic anhydride, chlorosulfonic acid, hexachloromelamine,
(HNO3 + N2O4 + H2SO4), (nitrobenzene + glycerin), oleum, (HCHO + HClO4),
perchromates, K2O2, beta-propiolactone, AgClO4, Na2O2, H2SO4, trichloromelamine,
acids, FO3Cl, diisopropyl peroxy-dicarbonate, n-haloimides and trichloronitromethane.
16
Ignites on contact with sodium peroxide + water. Forms heat or shock sensitive explosive
mixtures with anilinium chloride (detonates at 464° F/7.6 bar), nitromethane, hydrogen
peroxide, 1-chloro-2,3-epoxypropane and peroxomonosulfuric acid. It reacts with perchloryl
fluoride form explosive products. .
17
5. DIFFERENT WAYS OF PRODUCTION:
5.1. From Nitrobenzene:
Nitrobenzene is the classical feedstock for Aniline manufacture. Recently less Chlorobenzene
and Phenol are being used in aniline manufacturing processes in several countries.
The reduction of nitrobenzene with iron turnings and water in the presence of small amounts
of hydrochloric acid is the oldest form of industrial aniline manufacture. It would certainly
have been replaced much earlier by more economical reduction methods if it had not been
possible to obtain valuable iron oxide pigments from the resulting iron oxide sludge.
However, the increasing demand for aniline has far surpassed the market for the pigments, so
that not only catalytic hydrogenation processes (both liquid- and gas-phase) but also other
feed stocks have been used for aniline production.
The modern catalytic gas-phase hydrogenation processes for nitrobenzene can be carried out
using a fixed-bed or a fluidized-bed reactor:
Rayer and Allied work with nickel sulfide catalysts at 300-475 °C in a fixed bed. The
activation of the hydrogenation catalysts with Cu or Cr, and the use of different supports and
catalyst sulfidization methods with sulfate, H2S or CS2 all belong to the expertise of the
corresponding firms. The selectivity to aniline is more than 99%. The catalytic activity
slowly decreases due to carbon deposition. However, the catalyst can be regenerated with air
at 250-350°C and subsequent H2 treatment. Similar processes are operated by Lonza with Cu
on pumice, by ICI with Cu, Mn, or Fe catalysts with various modifications involving other
metals, and by Sumitomo with a Cu-Cr system.
18
is built into the fluidized bed. The selectivity to aniline is 99.5%; the nitrobenzene conversion
is quantitative. The catalyst must be regenerated with air periodically.
Aniline can be isolated with 91 % selectivity from the organic phase of the two-phasereaction
product.
5.3.From Phenol:
Dow stopped operation of a similar process for aniline in 1966. Phenol can also be subjected
to gas-phase ammonolysis with the Halcon/Scientific Design process at 200 bar and 425 °C:
Al2O3.SiO2 (possible as zeolites) and oxide mixtures of Mg, B, Al, and Ti are used as
catalysts; these can be combined with additional co catalysts such as Ce,V, or W. The catalyst
regeneration required previously is not necessary with the newly developed catalyst. With a
large excess of NH3, the selectivity to aniline is 87-90% at a phenol conversion of 98%. The
byproducts are diphenylamine and carbazole. This process has been operated since 1970 by
Mitsui Petrochemical in a plant which has since been expanded to 45 000 tonnes per year. A
second plant with a capacity of 90000 tonnes per year was started up by US Steel Corp. (now
Aristech) in 1982.
Du Pont has developed an interesting manufacturing process for aniline. Benzene and NH3
can be reacted over a NiO/Ni catalyst containing promoters including zirconium oxide at
19
350°C & 300 bar to give a 97% selectivity to aniline with benzene conversion of 13%
Since the hydrogen formed in the reaction reduces the NiO part of the catalyst, a catalyst
regeneration (partial oxidation) is necessary. Despite inexpensive feedstocks, industrial
implementation is still thwarted by the low benzene conversion and the necessary catalyst
re-oxidation.
20
6. CHOICE OF PROCESS:
The catalytic Hydrogenation of Nitrobenzene to Aniline gives selectivity more than 99%,
better than other manufacturing processes.
Nitrobenzene is the classical feedstock for Aniline manufacture.
The method process is simple, inexpensive catalysts, long life, from product quality,
After preheating the hydrogen and nitrobenzene, hydrogenation reaction occurs. Fixed bed
gas phase catalytic hydrogenation process has a matured technology, the reaction temperature
is lower, equipment has easy operation, low maintenance costs, less investment, without
separation of catalyst, good product quality; deficiency is, the reaction pressure is more prone
to occurrence of local side effects caused by overheating and catalyst deactivation, the
catalyst must be periodically replaced. Currently, most foreign manufacturers of fixed-bed
use gas phase aniline hydrogenation process.
21
7. PROCESS DESCRIPTION
Rayer and Allied work with nickel sulphide catalysts at 300-475 °C in a fixed bed. The
activation of the hydrogenation catalysts with Cu or Cr, and the use of different supports and
catalyst sulfidization methods with sulphate, H2S or CS2 all belong to the expertise of the
corresponding firms. The selectivity to aniline is more than 99%. The catalytic activity
slowly decreases due to carbon deposition. However, the catalyst can be regenerated with air
at 250-350°C and subsequent H2 treatment. Similar processes are operated by Lonza with Cu
on pumice, by ICI with Cu, Mn, or Fe catalysts with various modifications involving other
metals, and by Sumitomo with a Cu-Cr system.
22
23
Antoine equation:
Liquid–liquid Properties
If liquid–liquid extraction is to be performed, the liquid–liquid equilibrium behaviour must be
known.
The solubility of aniline dissolved in water from table 2.2 show that water is more
soluble in aniline than aniline is in water
Vapor–Liquid Properties :
If distillation separation is to be used to separate the mixture, the vapor–liquid behaviour
must be known, and because the aniline–water system does not behave ideally, the
activity coefficients are of interest. From Gmehling et al (2) the Margules, van Laar,
Wilson, NRTL and UNIQUAC model parameters are listed in table 2.3.
24
Table 5: Model Parameters and γi∞ for different models[2]
A12 A21
Margules 1.0041 3.1217 2.73 22.68
Van Laar 1.2006 8.3006 3.32 4026.37
Wilson 1608.4375 2513.9461 3.11 229.00
NRTL 6945.2299 - 3.68 104.01
2651.2199
UNIQUAC 1439.0048 -379.5945 3.49 554.62
In table 5 index 1 represents water and index 2 aniline.
All the methods show that , which is consistent with table 2.2, which shows that
aniline is less soluble in water than water is in aniline. The large γ2∞ found by the Van
Laar model is not a typing error, and therefore a strong confirmation of the low solubility
of aniline in water.
Figure 1: VLE diagrams for the binary aniline/water system at 1atm. The left diagram is
experimentally determined, and the right is estimated using the VLE UNIFAC model[2].
25
An estimated number of the distillation stages needed to perform the distillations in
figure 1 can be found using the Margules equations from Smith et al. (13).
The Margules equations represent a commonly used empirical model of solution behaviour
and are defined as
From the values of A12 and A21 given in table 2.3, the activity coefficients can be
determined, and in relation to the vapor pressures, the relative volatility can be
determined as done by King (4)
26
27
8. MASS BALANCE:
Basis: Production of Aniline (99.5% purity) is 218788.529 tons/year.
Assumptions:
=327.623 kmol/hr.
=326.632*123.1092,
=40211.40421 kg/hr.
=5925.82307 kg/hr.
Stream1A:
Stream1B:
28
Mass balance for the reactor:
Stream1B:
29
Stream2:
Stream3:
Stream4:
Stream5:
Stream6:
Product stream consists of Aniline, water and unreacted Hydrogen, all in vapor phase.
Table 6:
Flow IN OUT
Component Stream 1B(kg/hr) Stream 2(kg/hr) Stream 4(kg/hr) Stream 6(kg/hr)
Nitrobenzene 40211.40421 --- --- ---
Hydrogen --- 1975.27436 3950.54871 3950.54871
30
Mass Balance for the condenser:
Stream6:
Reactor Product stream consists of Aniline, water and unreacted Hydrogen, all in vapor
phase.
Stream3:
Stream7:
31
Table 7:
Stream7:
Stream 12:
Water=32698.53348 kg/hr
32
Aniline=7042.02739 kg/hr
Stream13:
Water=5117.73724 kg/hr
Aniline=1392.55056kg/hr
Stream9:
Water=44437.73942 kg/hr
Aniline=7102.20424kg/hr
Stream 10:
Water =5147.21291kg/hr
Aniline=31750.37067kg/hr
Table 7
33
Stream9:
Water=44437.73942 kg/hr
Aniline=7102.20424kg/hr
Stream 11:
Aniline=60.17685 kg/hr
Stream 12:
Aniline=7042.02739 kg/hr
34
Table 8:
Stream 10:
Aniline=31750.37067 kg/hr
Stream13:
Aniline=1392.55056kg/hr
35
Water=5117.73724 kg/hr
Stream14:
Aniline=30387.29578 kg/hr
Water=29.47567 kg/hr
Table 9:
36
37
9. DETAILED ENERGY BALANCE
Heat capacity data:
Heat in:
38
Nitrobenzene is at room temperature of 298 K.
So enthalpy in =0
Heat out:
+ m ∆Hv +∫
+40211.40421*33 +∫ kj/hr
=19631609.7 kj/hr
Heat supplied by the Vaporizer=enthalpy out-enthalpy in
=15690892.1+3940717.6
=19631609.7 kj/hr
Table 10:
Flow IN IN OUT
Heat supplied
Component Stream1A (kj/hr) (kj/hr) Stream1B (kj/hr)
Nitrobenzene 0 19631609.7 19631609.7
Hydrogen --- --- ---
Water --- --- 0
Aniline --- --- 0
Total (kg/hr) 0 19631609.7 19631609.7
39
Energy balance for the reactor:
Heat in:
Enthalpy in with Nitrobenzene=19631609.7kj/hr
=5925.82307*∫
=27939805.8 kj/hr
Total enthalpy in=19631609.7 +27939805.8 =47571415.5 kj/hr
Heat Generated :
40
Heat removed by Coolant :
The temperature in the reactor reaches an average peak temperature of 700 K due to
exothermic reaction.
= (42440+10-3 ∫ )*m
=14718691 kj/hr
=979.896*(40680+∫
+∫ )
=979.896*(40680+5692.6+11543.7) =979.896*57916.3
= 56751950.7 kj/hr
=3950.54871*∫
=26697609.23 kj/hr
=98168250.93 kj/hr
41
Table 11:
Flow IN OUT
Heat removed
Component Stream1B (kj/hr) Stream4 (kj/hr) Stream6 (kj/hr) Stream (kj/hr)
Nitrobenzene 19631609.7 --- --- ---
Hydrogen --- 27939805.8 26697609.23
Water --- --- 56751950.7
Aniline --- --- 14718691
TOTAL(kg/hr) 19631609.7 27939805.8 98168250.93 94101140.57
TOTAL(kg/hr) 47571415.5 98168250.93
Enthalpy in:
Heat with Aniline =14718691 kj/hr
=98168250.93 kj/hr
Enthalpy out:
As condenser removes the latent heat and sensible heat in gas phase, all streams are cooled to
bubble point of Aniline and Water mixture which is 371.69 K.
42
So, Enthalpy with aniline=326.632*10-3*∫
=107008.6 kj/hr
Enthalpy with water
=979.896 *(∫ )
=5469289.4 kj/hr
=3950.54871*∫
=4159912.7 kj/hr
Total enthalpy out=107008.6+5469289.4+4159912.7=9736210.7 kj/hr
Heat removed by condenser=387779355.3-98168250.93
=289611104.4 kj/hr.
Table 12:
Flow IN OUT OUT
Heat Removed
Component Stream6 (kj/hr) Stream (kj/hr) Stream7 (kj/hr)
Nitrobenzene --- --- ---
Hydrogen 14718691 --- 4159912.7
Water 56751950.7 --- 5469289.4
26697609.23
Aniline --- 107008.6
Total (kg/hr) 98168250.93 289611104.4 9736210.7
43
Enthalpy out:
= 6947.3 kj/hr
Enthalpy with water
= 979.896 *(∫ )
= 380604.8 kj/hr
Total enthalpy out = 6947.3 +380604.8 = 387552.1 kj/hr
Heat removed by the heat exchanger = 5576298-387552.1 = 5188745.9 kj/hr
=1562.56 kj/hr
Enthalpy with water
= *(∫
44
= 704990.6 kj/hr
Total enthalpy =1562.56+704990.6=706553.16 kj/hr
Stream13:
=308.92 kj/hr
Enthalpy with water
=(284.08) *(∫
=110340.49 kj/hr
= 1575.79 kj/hr
Enthalpy with water
=2466.68 * *(∫
=958091.68 kj/hr
45
=7044.96 kj/hr
Enthalpy with water
=285.72 * *(∫
=110977.49
Total enthalpy = 7044.96+110977.49 =118022.45 kj/hr
Table 13:
46
Enthalpy in:
Stream9:
=26474.61 kj/hr
Enthalpy with water
=2466.68 * *(∫
=14511181.32 kj/hr
Total enthalpy=26474.61 +14511181.32 =14537655.93 kj/hr
Enthalpy out:
Stream 11:
=216.6 kj/hr
Enthalpy with water
= 651.628 * *(∫
=3714415.04 kj/hr
Total enthalpy=216.6+3714415.04=3714631.64 kj/hr
Stream 12:
=26589.81 kj/hr
Enthalpy with water
47
=1815.052 * *(∫
=10802091.76 kj/hr
Total enthalpy =26589.81+10802091.76 = 10828681.57 kj/hr
Total enthalpy out=3714631.64+10828681.57=14543313.21 kj/hr
Table 14:
48
Enthalpy in:
Stream 10:
Aniline=31750.37067kg/hr=340.94 kmol/hr
=195845.11 kj/hr
Enthalpy with water
=285.72 * *(∫
=2627299.22 kj/hr
Total enthalpy=195845.11+2627299.22 =2823144.33 kj/hr
Enthalpy out:
Stream13:
=5317.53 kj/hr
Enthalpy with water
=284.079 * *(∫
=1707969.4 kj/hr
Total enthalpy=5317.53+1707969.4=1713286.93 kj/hr
Stream14:
49
Enthalpy with aniline= 326.302 *10-3*∫
= 259532.9 kj/hr
Enthalpy with water
=1.636 * *(∫
=9836.13 kj/hr
Total enthalpy = 259532.9 +9836.13 = 269369.03 kj/hr
Total enthalpy out from distillation column=1713286.93+269369.03 =1982655.96 kj/hr
Total heat removed by distillation column =1982655.96-2823144.33 =-840488.37 kj/hr
Table 15:
Flow IN OUT OUT
50
10. DESIGN OF EQUIPMENTS
B - baffle spacing, in
C- clearance, in
PT – tube pitch, in
Re – Reynolds number
51
10.1 DESIGN OF SHELL AND TUBE HEAT EXCHANGER
Qh= m Cp ∆T
= 40211.4021*1.4*(210-25)
=10414753.14 kg/hr
Qc= m Cp ∆T
m= Qc/(Cp ∆T)
= 10414753.14/(∆H)
=10414753.14/(2801.5-2643.7)
=65999.7 Kg
Calculation of ∆TLMTD:
∆TLMTD= 47.10oF
R= (T2-T1)/(t2-t1)
52
= 0.918
S = (t2-t1)/(T2-t1)
= 0.822
The values of R and S satisfy with Correction factor value for 4-8 shell and tube heat
exchanger.
This may be met by four 1-2 exchangers in series or two 2-4 exchangers in series.
∆tln= ∆TLMTD*FT
= 47.1*0.845 = 39.79ᴼF
Calculation of ud
From the literature the UD value of Nitrobenzene ranges from 60-90 W/m2K
Assume a value of UD
A= Q/ UD*∆t
= 9871279.951/(80*39.79)
= 3101.05 ft2
53
No. of tubes per shell, Nt= Heat transfer area/(No. of shell side passes* total surface area)
Nt= 3101.05/(2*16*0.1963)
= 493.67
= 494 tubes
For 4 passes, 3/4in.OD on 1-in. Square pitch (from the table),Nearest count(from 494 tubes):
480 tubes in a 29in.ID shell
=3015.16 ft2
UD= Q/(A*∆T)
=9871279.951/(3015.16*39.79)
=82.27
at = Nt * at/(144n)
=480* 0.302/(144*4)
= 0.252 ft2
Mass velocity:
Gt = w/ at
= 65999.7/(0454*0.252)
At Tavg= 180ᴼC
54
Ret = D*Gt / µ
= 0.62/12 =0.0517
Ret = 0.0517*576880.11/(0.0375)
=795325.37
At L/D = 16/0.0517
jH = 750
Cp = 0.47 btu/lb
hi = jH *(K/D)*(Cµ/K)1/3
= 750*(0.187/0.0517)*(0.47*0.0375/0.187)1/3
= 265.975 = 266
hio= hi * ID/OD
= 265.97 * 0.62/0.75
At Re = 7,95,325.37
F= 0.0001, S= 0.7
∆Pt= 0.0001*576880.112*16*4/(5.22*1010*0.0517*0.7)
=1.125 Psi
55
= 4*4*(0.037)/0.7 =0.84
= 1.125+ 0.84
=1.965 Psi
B= 12in
C = 0.25in
Mass velocity :
T avg= 117.5ᴼC
JH =80
K = 0.16 W/ m.K
ho = jH* K/ D*(Cµ/K)1/3
= 80*1.1088/0.792*(0.968*0.334/1.1088)1/3
f = 0.0018, S= 0.76
56
= 12*4*16/12 =64
∆Ps = f Gs2Ds(N+1)/(5.22*1010*0..079*0.76)
= 7.619 Psi
Uc = hio* ho/(hio+ho)
= 95.87 btu/hr.ft2.ᴼF
= 95.87-82.27/(95.87*82.27)
57
Specification sheet of heat exchanger
58
Symbols used in the Design of the Reactor design:
T1 , T2 = temperature of gas
V1 , V2 = volume of gas
TR =Residence time
V= volume of reactor
N= be no. of tubes,
Db = Bundle diameter
t =thickness of dome
B=baffle spacing
59
10.2 DESIGN OF FIXED BED REACTOR
P1V1/T1=P2V2/T2
1*22.414/273= 3* V2/593
V2=17.05 m3
P1V1/T1=P2V2/T2
1*22.414/273 =2*V2/600
V2=24.63 m3
Use 1.5” tubes of outside diameter (BWG 10no) and length =4m
60
T =volume of reactor/volumetric flow rate of gas through reactor,so volume of reactor is
V=Residence time * Volumetric flowrate= 0.4*16.875=6.75 m3.
N (3.0764*10-3) = 6.75
Pt=1.25do
=1.25 *38.1=47.625 mm
Bundle diameter:Db =do (Nt/K1)1/n1,Where K1, n1 are obtained from the table below based on
the type of tube arrangement.
=38.1(2194/0.319)1/2.142=2358 mm
By extrapolating the bundle diameter to 2.358 m,we have Shell ID –Bundle dia = 20 + (20-
10)*(5.41-1.2)/ (1.2-0.2) =31.58 mm
10.2.3. Shell
Material of Construction:
The preferred construction material for reactor is low alloy steel (IS: 3609)
61
Here t = P*Di/(200fJ-P) +CA
Since t< 12 mm, Use t =12 mm (including corrosion allowance) in order to withstand its own
weight.
Assume t=10 mm
ho= 668.8 mm
ho is least.
Therefore hE=ho=668.8 mm
hE/Do=668.8/2413.58 =0.277;
t/Do=10/2413.5 =4.14*10-3.
62
Heat removed per tube = (94101140.57*103)/(3600*2194)= 11913.95 W
We know that
Number of baffles = 4
Length: 4m
10.2.6. Shell:
63
Flow: 311.33 Tons/hr
Inlet temperature: 25 °C
Passes: 1
Baffles: 4
Orientation: Vertical
Height: 10 m
Class: I
Wall thickness: 12 mm
64
End thickness: 10 mm
Catalyst weight:
65
Symbols used in design of Cooler:
B - baffle spacing, in
C- clearance, in
PT – tube pitch, in
Re – Reynolds number
66
10.3 DESIGN OF COOLER
Calculation of ∆TLMTD:
= 17.79oF
R= (T1-T2)/(t2-t1)
= 2.28
S = (t2-t1)/(T2-t1)
= 0.4
67
Calculation of Correction Factor:
The values of R and S satisfy with Correction factor value for 2-4 shell and tube heat
exchanger.
∆tln = ∆TLMTD*FT
= 17.79*0.94 = 16.72ᴼF
Calculation of UD
From the literature the UD value of middle and heavy organics ranges from 60-90 W/m2K
Assume a value of UD
A= Q/ UD*∆t
= 51881745.9/(1.055*70*16.72)
= 4433.3 ft2
No. of tubes per shell, Nt= Heat transfer area/(No. of shell side passes* total
surface area)
Nt= 4433.3/(2*16*0.1963)
68
= 705.76
= 706 tubes
For 3/4in.OD on 1-in. Square pitch (from the table),Nearest count(from 706 tubes): 688 tubes
in a 33in.ID shell
=4321.74 ft2
UD = Q/(A*∆T)
=51881745.9/(1.055*4321.74*16.72)
=68.06
at = Nt * at /(144n)
=688* 0.302/(144*4)
= 0.36 ft2
Mass velocity:
Gt = w/ at
= 42186.67/(0.454*0.36)
At Tavg= 64.25ᴼC
Ret = D*Gt / µ
69
Tube inside diameter = D = 0.62in
= 0.62/12 =0.0517 ft
Ret = 0.0517*258117.2/(3.46)
= 3856.83
Cp = 0.65 Btu/lb
hi = jH *(K/D)*(Cµ/K)1/3
= 4.2*(0.17/0.0517)*(0.65*3.46/0.17)1/3
= 32.66
hio= hi * ID/OD
= 32.66 * 0.62/0.75
At Re = 3856.83
f= 0.00036, S= 0.7
∆Pt= 0.00036*258117.22*16*4/(5.22*1010*0.0517*0.7)
=0.81 Psi
70
Total pressure drop (∆PT) = ∆Pt +∆Pr =1.084 Psi
B= 12in
C = 0.25in
PT = C + Tube OD = 0.25+0.75 =1 in
Mass velocity :
T avg= 40ᴼC
De =0.95/12 = 0.0792 ft
Re = (0.0792*121975.61)/1.6933 =5705.11
jH =37
K = 0.609 W/ m.K
ho = jH* K/ D*(Cµ/K)1/3
= 37*0.352/0.0792*(1*1.6933/0.609)1/3
f = 0.0026, S= 0.72
= 12*16*2/12
= 32
71
Shell diameter Ds= 33/12
= 2.75 ft
∆Ps = f Gs2Ds(N+1)/(5.22*1010*0.079*0.72)
= 1.14 Psi
Uc = hi0* h0/(hi0+h0)
= 80.4 btu/hr.ft2.ᴼF
Dirt Factor Rd :
72
Specification sheet of Cooler
73
Symbols used in the design of the Distillation column:
R = reflux ratio
T =Boiling temperature
Q =vapour rate
q =Liquid rate
W=Weir length
T =Tower diameter
h1 =Weir crest
hw =weir height
µG =Viscosity of gas
hL =Hydraulic head:
t = tray spacing
75
10.4 DESIGN OF DISTILLATION COLUMN - 2
Aniline=31750.37067 kg/hr
Feed:
Distillate:
Bottom:
Aniline=30387.29578 kg/hr
Water=29.47567 kg/hr
Equilibrium data for Water and Aniline mixture at 743mm of HgTable 16:
So, q-line is passing through x=y=0.456 with slope zero i.e is horizontal.
Operating line for the enriching section pass through x=xD= y=0.95 and y=0.46 & x=0.02.
77
It intersects the Y-axis at y=0.45
R=1.5*1.11=1.665
And this operating line meets the q-line at x=0.165 and y=0.46
The operating line for stripping section is drawn from above point to x=y=xD= 0.005.
Average viscosity=0.282*0.46+1.5*.54=0.9397=18.66%
78
10.4.7. The height of the column using thumb rule of plate spacing and the number of
actual plates
Plate spacing=60 cm
With one extra plate spacing at feed tray and One each above the topmost and Below the
bottom-most tray.
Column height=13*60=7.8 m.
R= L/D so L=R*D;
V2=797.08-626.654=170.426 kmol/hr.
10.4.10. Boiling temperature, average molecular weight, density of the vapour and
density of the liquid at the top and the bottom of the column
Top:
T1=∑x*T=(184.4*0.05+100*.95)=95.92 C=369.07 K
M1= ∑x*M=(93.1262*0.05+18.0152*0.95)=21.77
Bottom:
T2=∑x*T=(184.4*0.995+100*.005)=183.978C=457.13K
M2=∑x*M=(93.1262*.995+18.0152*.005)=92.75
=0.995*1021.7+0.005*971.8=1021.45 kg/m3.
79
Density of the liquid=ρL1=ρL2=1021.45 kg/m3(assume density of the liquid does not change
much with temperature as that of vapor).
10.4.11. Vapour velocity & Cross sectional area of the column at the top and the bottom
Vapour velocity
Where Kv=0.05
Top:
Bottom:
ρL2=1021.45 kg/m3
80
Tentatively choose a weir length W=0.7T. Table 6.1[4]:the tray area used by one
downspout=8.8%
At=3.6/(1-0.088)=3.947 m2
For the design area taken by tray support + disengaging and distributing zones [4]=0.222m2.
T/W=1/0.7=1.429
Eq:6.34[4]:Weff/W=(1.4292-((1.4292-1)0.5+2*0.011*1.429)2)0.5=0.967
Eq.6.33 [4]:h1=0.666(6.26*10-3*0.967)2/3=0.0207m
T/W=1/0.7=1.429
Eq:6.34[4]:Weff/W=(1.4292-((1.4292-1)0.5+2*0.0092*1.429)2)0.5=0.972
Eq.6.33 [4]:h1=0.666(6.26*10-3*0.972)2/3=0.0206m.is ok
Eq.6.37 [4]c0=1.09*(d0/l)0.25=1.09*(0.0045/0.002)0.25=1.335
81
A0=0.0555*Aa=0.0555*3.0246=0.1679 m2.
V0=Q/A0=6.855/0.1679=40.83 m/s.
hD=0.1096
Va=Q/Aa=6.855/3.0246=2.266 m/s.
Z=(T+W)/2=(2.24+1.568)/2=1.904 m
Eq 6.38:hL=0.0209 m
Eq.6.35 [4]:hG=hD+hL+hR=0.1096+0.0209+0.00532=0.13582 m
82
Weeping velocity: for W/T=0.7, the weir is set 0.3296T=0.738 m from the centre of the
tower. Therefore Z=2*0.738=1.476 m.
All other quantities in Eq 6.46 have been evaluated and then the equation yields VOW=7.47
m/s.
The tray will not weep excessively until the gas velocity through the holes V0 is reduced ti
close to this value.
Entrainment:
ρL2=1021.45 kg/m3
Fig 6.17: E=0.07.The recycling of liquid resulting from such entrainment is too small to
influence the tray hydraulics appreciably.
Stripping Section:
M2=∑x*M=(93.1262*.995+18.0152*.005)=92.75
V2=797.08-626.654=170.426 kmol/hr.
Q=170.126/(3600*0.026)=1.82 m3/s
ρL2=1021.45 kg/m3
83
Net tower cross sectional area An=1.772m2
Tentatively choose a weir length W=0.7T. Table 6.1[4]:the tray area used by one
downspout=8.8%
At=1.772/(1-0.088)=1.943 m2
W=0.7*T=0.7*1.57=1.099 m
For the design area taken by tray support + disengaging and distributing zones=0.222m2.
T/W=1/0.7=1.429
Eq:6.34[4]:Weff/W=(1.4292-((1.4292-1)0.5+2*0.011*1.429)2)0.5=0.951
Eq.6.33 [4]:h1=0.666(7.55*10-3*0.951)2/3=0.0265m
T/W=1/0.7=1.429
Eq:6.34[4]:Weff/W=(1.4292-((1.4292-1)0.5+2*0.0169*1.429)2)0.5=0.948
Eq.6.33 [4]:h1=0.666(7.55*10-3*0.972)2/3=0.0266m.is ok
84
Dry pressure drop hD:
Eq.6.37 [4]c0=1.09*(d0/l)0.25=1.09*(0.0045/0.002)0.25=1.335
A0=0.0555*Aa=0.0555*1.3732=0.0762 m2.
V0=Q/A0=1.82/0.0762=23.88 m/s.
hD= 0.133 m
Va=Q/Aa=1.82/1.3732=1.333 m/s.
Z= (T+W)/2= (2.24+1.568)/2=1.3345 m
Eq.6.38:hL=0.0253 m
Eq.6.35 [4]:hG=hD+hL+hR=0.133+0.0253+0.00532=0.16362 m
85
Therefore the chosen t is satisfactory.
Weeping velocity: for W/T=0.7, the weir is set 0.3296T=0.517 m from the centre of the
tower. Therefore Z=2*0.517=1.034 m.
All other quantities in Eq.6.46 have been evaluated and then the equation yields VOW=2.901
m/s.
The tray will not weep excessively until the gas velocity through the holes V0 is reduced ti
close to this value.
Entrainment:
M2=∑xM=(93.1262*.995+18.0152*.005) =92.75
V2=797.08-626.654=170.426 kmol/hr.
ρL2=1021.45 kg/m3
Fig 6.17: E=0.042.The recycling of liquid resulting from such entrainment is too small to
influence the tray hydraulics appreciably.
The minimum column diameter for tray columns is typically 0.75 m; otherwise, packed
columns are used.
The maximum diameter of the column can be quite large – up to 5 m – although it may be
decided to operate 2 or more separate columns in place of an otherwise large diameter
single column.
86
As the column diameter decreases, the vapour velocity increases for a given vapour flow
rate.
The minimum column diameter is based upon the maximum vapour velocity that causes
excessive entrainment and flooding.
The maximum column diameter is based upon maintaining a high enough velocity to
prevent excess weeping.
The operating vapour velocity, and hence actual column diameter, is specified as a
fraction of the flooding vapour velocity – typically 0.65 to 0.90.
The final consideration is column cost – a larger diameter column is more expensive than
a smaller diameter column, although economies of scale enter
87
11. COST ESTIMATION AND ECONOMICS
An acceptable design must present a process that is capable of operating under conditions
which yields profit. Capital must be allocated for the direct plant expenses such as those for
raw materials, labour and equipment. Besides direct expenses many other indirect
expenses are also incurred e.g. administration, salaries, product distribution cost, cost for
interplant communications.
A capital investment is required for any industrial process and determination of necessary
investment for any process consists of fixed capital investment for physical equipment and
facilities in the plant plus working capital which must be available to pay the salaries keep
raw materials and products on the hand and handle other specified items required a direct
cash outlay.
Thus in analysis of cost in industrial processes, capital investment cost, manufacturing costs
and general expenses including income taxes must be taken into consideration. Here method
chosen is the annual cost method because of the following advantages:
1. Effects of seasonal variations are soothed out.
2. Plant on stream time or equipment operating factor is considered.
3. It permits more rapid calculation of operating cost at less than full capacity.
4. It provides a convenient way of considering infrequently occurring but large expenses such
as annual turn around cost.
88
DISTRIBUTION OF CAPITAL COST Table 17:
89
DIRECT PRODUCTION COST COST (In Crores) Table-19:
90
Total product cost = manufacturing cost + general expenses
= (30.1082 + 0.76875X) + 0.2375X
= 30.1082 + 1.00625X
X = 226.57 crores
Therefore general expenses = 53.4 crores
Therefore manufacturing cost = 204.2 crores or Direct production cost
BREAKEVEN ANALYSIS:
Breakeven point occurs when the total annual product cost equals the total annual sales. The
total annual product cost is the sum of the fixed cost (including fixed charges, Overhead and
general expenses) and direct production cost for ‘n’ units per year. The total annual sale is the
product of the number of units and the selling price per unit.
Cost price of aniline per kg = 226.57x107/1x107 = 226.57 or Rs. 227
Assuming a profit margin of 10% so selling price of the product = Rs. 250
Gross annual earnings = total annual sales – total annual product cost = Rs. 23 crores
Net annual earnings = gross annual earnings – income tax = 23 – 40% of 23 =Rs. 13.8 crores
Pay back period = Total capital investment / Net annual earnings
= 179.54/ 13.8 = 13 years (approx)
Rate of return = Net profit / FCC
= 13.8/143.6
= 9.6%
91
12. PLANT LOCATION AND LAYOUT
The location of the plant can have a crucial effect on the profitability of a project and the
scope for future expansion. Many factors must be considered must be considered when
selecting a suitable site. The factors to be considered are:
RAW MATERIALS:
The availability and price of suitable raw material often determine the site of location of the
plant.In this project nitrobenzene is the major raw material and produced in major quantities
by nitration of benzene Approximately 95% of nitrobenzene is consumed in the production
of aniline which is a precursor to rubber chemicals, pesticides, dyes,explosives,
and pharmaceuticals.Nitrobenzene is also used in shoe and floor polishes, leather dressings,
paint solvents, and other materials to mask unpleasant odours. Redistilled, as oil of mirbane,
nitrobenzene has been used as an inexpensive perfume for soaps. A significant merchant
market for nitrobenzene is its use in the production of the analgesic paracetamol
MARKETING AREA:
The location of market or intermediate distribution centres affects the cost of product
distribution and the time required for shipping. Proximity to the major markets is an
important consideration in the selection of plant site, because the buyer usually finds it it
92
advantage to purchase from nearby sources. The closer the market, The lesser will be the
transportation cost and the easier will be the access to the products by the buyers.
TRANSPORTATION FACILITIES :
The transport of material and product to and from the plant will be an overriding
consideration in the site selection .Here the site should be chosen so as to be closed to at least
two major forms of transport : road, rail, waterway (canal and river ) or a sea port. Road and
rail transport is being increasingly used, and is suitable for long distance transport of bulk
chemicals like aniline Air transport is convenient and efficient for the movement of personnel
and essential equipment and supplies and the proximity od the site airpot should be
considered.
AVAILABILITY OF LABOUR:
Labour will be needed for construction of the plant and its operation. Skilled construction
workers will be usually be brought in from outside the site area, but there should be an
adequate pool of unskilled labour available locally and labour suitable for the training to
operate the plant. Skilled tradesman will be needed for plant maintenance. Local trade union
customs and restrictive practices will have to be considered when assessing the availability
and suitability of the local labour for recruitment and training. Apart from this consideration
should be given to the pay rates, restrictions on the number of hours, raial problems and
variations in the skills and intelligence of the workers.
UTILITIES (SEVICES):
Chemical processes invariably require large quantities of water for cooling and general
process use and therefore, the plant must be located near a source of water of suitable
quantity. Process water may also be drawn from river, from wells, or purchased from a local
authorities. In some sites the cooling water required can be taken from a river or lake, or from
the sea: at other location cooling tower will be needed. Hence , the plant should be located
near a lake, or sea.
Apart from this electrical power is also needed in large quantities and hence, location of
plant near hydroelectric installations should be considered. A competitive priced fuel should
also be looked for near or on site for steam and power generation.
93
LAND (SITE SELECTION):
The plant location should be chosen such that sufficient suitable land is available for the
proposed plant and also for future expansions. The land should be ideally flat, well drained
and have suitable load bearing characteristics. A full site evaluation should be made be taken
into consideration in order to determine the need of piling or other special formations.
All industrial processes produce waste products and full consideration must give to the
difficulties and cost of their disposal. The disposal of toxic and harmful effluent should be
done following the local waste disposals regulation and also, the appropriate authorities must
be consulted during the initial site survey to determine the standards that must be met.
CLIMATE:
Adverse climate conditions at a site will increase cost. Abnormally low temperatures will
required the provision of additional insulation and special heating for equipment and pipes
runs. Stronger structure will be needed at locations which are subjected to high winds
(cyclone and hurricanes areas) or earthquake. Hence, the effect of humidity and temperatures
at the site must be taken into consideration because it affects the economics evaluations of the
projects.
Capital grants, tax concession and other inducement are often given by government to direct
renewed investment to preferred locations, such as areas of high unemployment. The
availability of such grants can be the overriding consideration in site selection.
Before choosing be examined. The regional history of natural events like floods and
hurricane damage should be examined. In case of major fire they should be provision for fire
assistance from outside the fire department.
94
Cultural facilities foe the communities are the important for the sound growth. The proposed
plant must fit in with and be acceptable to the local community. Full consideration must be
given to the safe location of the plant so that it does not impose a significant additional rest to
the community. On a new site , the local community must be able to provide adequate
facilities for the plant personnel; school, banks, housing and recreational and cultural
facilities.
Considering all the above factors the aniline plant should be located at a place where:
1
1
1
95
8
1
3 2
10 5
0
3 11
1. TANK FARM
2. PLANT AREA
3. EXPANSION
4. PLANT UTILITIES
5. STORES
6. FIRE STATION
7. CANTEEN
8. EMERGENCY WATER
9. LABORATORY
10. WORK SHOP
11. OFFICE
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13. POLLUTION CONTROL AND SAFETY
Aniline:
Aniline is a clear to slightly yellow liquid with a characteristic odour. It does not readily
evaporate at room temperature. Aniline is slightly soluble in water and mixes
readily with most organic solvents .Aniline is used to make a wide variety of products such as
polyurethane foam, agricultural chemicals, synthetic dyes, antioxidants, stabilizers for the
rubber industry, herbicides, varnishes and explosives.
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SAFETY DATA SHEET OF ANILINE:
This Product Safety Summary is intended to provide a general overview of the chemical
substance. The information on the Summary is basic information and is not intended to
provide emergency response information, medical information or treatment information.
Product Overview :
Pure aniline is a highly poisonous, oily, colorless liquid with a somewhat unpleasant odor of
rotten fish and also has a burning aromatic taste.
Aniline is of great importance in the dye industry, being used as the starting substance in the
manufacture of many dyes-e.g., indigo-and as an aid in the manufacture of others. It is also
used to make chemicals used in producing rubber, urethane foams, explosives, herbicides and
fungicides. Aniline is prepared commercially by the reduction of nitrobenzene, a product of
coal tar, or by heating chlorobenzene with ammonia in the presence of a copper catalyst.
May be fatal if swallowed, inhaled or absorbed through skin. Causes irritation to the skin,
eyes and respiratory tract. Combustible liquid and vapor. May cause methemoglobinemia.
Affects blood, cardiovascular system, central nervous system, liver and kidneys.
Airborne limits have been established for aniline in the work environment. The American
Conference of Governmental Hygienist (ACGIH) has a threshold limit value (TLV) of 5 ppm
for an eight hour time weighted average basis with a skin notation. The Occupational Health
and Safety Administration (OSHA) has established a permissible exposure limit (PEL) of 2
ppm for an eight hour time weighted average basis with a skin notation, also.
For further safety and health information, the current Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS)
should be used for this substance
Health Information :
Aniline is a potentially hazardous material. A through knowledge of potential dangers, with
strict adherence to recommended safety practices, is essential before aniline products are
handled, stored or used. Workers must be properly instructed and supervised in the handling
of aniline. Limits have been established for allowable concentrations in the work
environment. ACGIH has a threshold limit value (TLV) of 2 ppm for an eight hour time-
weighted average basis with a skin notation, while OSHA has set a permissible exposure
limit (PEL) of 5 ppm for an eight hour time-weighted average basis with a skin notation, also.
Effects on the Respiratory System:
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Exposures to mists or vapor at levels above the recommended exposure limits can produce
eye, nose or lung irritation. Symptoms may include bluish discoloration of lips and tongue,
severe headache, nausea, confusion, dizziness, shock, respiratory paralysis, death. Aniline
affects the ability of the blood to carry oxygen.
Effects on the Skin:
Aniline may be absorbed through the skin. Symptoms of skin absorption parallel those from
inhalation exposure. May cause skin irritation and local contact may cause dermatitis.
Effects on the Eyes:
Aniline vapor is an eye irritant. May cause tearing and blurred vision. Splashes may cause
corneal damage.
Effects of Ingestion:
Aniline is toxic. Lethal doses may be as little as one gram. Symptoms of ingestion parallel
those of inhalation exposure.
Chronic Hazards:
Aniline is a blood toxin, causing hemoglobin to convert to methemoglobin, resulting in
cyanosis. Lengthy or repeated exposures may result in decreased appetite, anemia, weight
loss, nervous system affects, and kidney, liver and bone marrow damage. Any exposure may
cause an allergic skin reaction.
Environmental Information :
When released into the soil, this material is expected to readily biodegrade. When released
into the soil, this material may leach into the groundwater but may evaporate to a moderate
extent. When released into the water, this material is expected to readily biodegrade and have
a half life between 10 and 30 days. Aniline has been experimentally-determined bio-
concentration factor (BCF) of less than 100. It is not expected to significantly bioaccumulate.
When released into the air, aniline is expected to readily degrade by reaction with photo
chemically produced hydroxyl radicals and expected to degrade by photolysis. The half life
of aniline in air is less than one day.
Aniline is expected to be very toxic to terrestrial and aquatic life. The LC50/96 hour values
for fish are between 10 and 100 mg/l. The EC50/48 hour values for daphnia are less than 1
mg/l. The inhibition of the degradation activity of activated sludge is not anticipated when
introduced to biological treatment plants in appropriate low concentrations.
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FIRE AND EXPLOSION DATA:
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14. BIBLIOGRAPHY
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