TURBULENCE STRUCTURE IN THE WAKE REGION OF A

METEOROLOGICAL TOWER

CHRISTIAN BARTHLOTT
and FRANZ FIEDLER

Institute of Meteorology and Climate Research, Forschungszentrum Karlsruhe/Karlsruhe
University, POB 3640, 76021 Karlsruhe, Germany

(Received in final form 29 August 2002)

Abstract. A meteorological tower significantly modifies the air flow, the mean wind speed and wind
direction as well as the turbulence structure of the air. Such changes can be noticed in particular in
the wake region of the tower. Measurements on the 200 m tower of Forschungszentrum Karlsruhe
were carried out using Solent sonic anemometers in the lee of the tower and cup anemometers on
both sides. In the wake region, spectral energy density is increased in the high-frequency range.
Superposition of this disturbance spectrum on the undisturbed spectrum yields a ‘knee’ in the res-
ulting spectrum. In the case of low turbulence intensity with stable stratification, a plateau with a
constant energy content is observed in front of the knee. This effect is caused by the new production
of turbulence energy from the mean flow as well as by an energy transfer from larger to smaller
vortices. Power spectra in strongly stable conditions show a more rapid decrease of intensity in the
region where the inertial subrange is expected. The relevant scales of wake turbulence are derived
from the maximum of the disturbance spectrum. Locations of the high-frequency peak do not depend
on atmospheric stability, but are controlled mainly by mean wind speed. Apart from the reduction
of the mean wind speed, the spectra and cospectra exhibit a strong anisotropy for such cases. The
results demonstrate the significant influence of a tower on turbulence spectra in the wake region.

Keywords: Disturbance spectrum, Enhanced cascade, Lattice tower, Sonic anemometer, Turbulence
structure, Wake production.

1. Introduction

Rapid progress in the past few decades has made the ultrasonic anemometer
a standard instrument for measuring turbulent flows in the atmospheric bound-
ary layer. In the layer close to the ground, continuous measurements are almost
exclusively carried out on meteorological towers. Apart from probe-induced meas-
urement errors (Grelle and Lindroth, 1994; Wieser et al., 2001), the tower and its
arms disturb air flow, as a result of which measurements are modified significantly
depending on the wind direction. These errors may be reduced in many ways, as
described by, e.g., Lenschow (1986). Effects of the disturbance of the wind field on
the mean wind speed have already been studied by a number of authors. Moses and
Daubeck (1961), Camp and Kaufman (1970) and Wucknitz (1980) investigated the
characteristics of flow in the wake region. Measurements conducted in the wake

E-mail: christian.barthlott@imk.fzk.de

Boundary-Layer Meteorology 108: 175–190, 2003.

© 2003 Kluwer Academic Publishers. Printed in the Netherlands.
176 CHRISTIAN BARTHLOTT AND FRANZ FIEDLER

region of a tower are usually discarded in boundary-layer research, because of flow

distortion and disturbance of the wind field. However, spectral investigations of
data from downwind of the tower reveal some interesting effects and knowledge
of the contamination by the tower wake is important, e.g., when only disturbed
data are available for some particular meteorological event. For these reasons, the
present paper focuses on wake effects on spectra at the tower of Forschungszentrum
Karlsruhe (FZK).

2. Wake Effects Caused by the FZK Tower

2.1. I NSTRUMENTATION AND DATA PROCESSING

The 200-m tower is located in the south-western corner of the premises of

Forschungszentrum Karlsruhe, about 10 km north of Karlsruhe. It is an open lattice
tower of square cross section with a side length of 1.6 m. For measurement of the
fluctuating wind components, four SOLENT 1012R2 (20.83 Hz) ultrasonic anem-
ometers (Gill Instruments, Lymington, U.K.) are used at altitudes of 40, 100, 160
and 200 m. Cup anemometers (Rosenhagen A M116H, distance factor 6.7 m) for
measuring the mean wind speed have been installed on the tower arms extending
towards the east and west, the wind speed being measured always by the windward
anemometer. Due to its location in the Rhine valley, the main flow direction is from
south-west (Kalthoff and Vogel, 1992). For this reason, the ultrasonic anemometers
have been installed on the arms directed to the west.
Before calculating the spectra, data were corrected for possible non-
stationarities by linear detrending and were windowed using a Tukey window to
avoid abrupt cutoff at the signal ends. A coordinate transformation was applied to
make v = w = 0. The thermal stratification was characterised by the Obukhov
u3
length L∗ = − κ g w∗  θ  , with the friction velocity u∗ , the potential temperature θ,
θ0
vertical velocity w, g the gravity acceleration, and the Karman constant κ.

2.2. S PECTRAL DISTRIBUTION OF ENERGY IN THE WAKE REGION

In the case of easterly wind directions, spectral densities in the high-frequency

range exhibit a behaviour that differs significantly from that at other wind dir-
ections (Figure 1). The spectra presented are plotted against the non-dimensional
frequency n = f z/U , where f denotes the natural frequency and U the mean wind
speed over the sampling time. No normalisation of the spectra was performed, in
order to compare the individual energy content of each velocity component. After
the peak at low frequencies, the spectra slope continuously downwards towards
higher frequencies, where they show a minimum before rising to another peak, at
higher frequencies. During periods of high turbulence intensity, it is not easy to no-
tice (Figure 1a), but in cases with lower energy content and stable stratification, the
 TURBULENCE STRUCTURE IN THE WAKE REGION OF A METEOROLOGICAL TOWER 177

15 May 2000, 1200–1300 CET.

Figure 1a. Power spectra of the velocity components u, v and w at a height of 160 m.

increase is evident. This increase in the high-frequency range and the subsequent
drop are shaped like a ‘knee’ or ‘shoulder’ and shall hereinafter be referred to as a
knee. In cases with stable stratification, the knee can be noticed clearly (Figure 1b).
A plateau with a constant energy content develops over a relatively wide frequency
range in strongly stable conditions, separating the two peaks (Figure 1c).
Since ultrasonic anemometers are not located on both sides of the tower, no
undisturbed case at the same height is available. However, in stable conditions
with strong wind direction shear, spectral differences can be seen by comparing
all measurement heights (Figure 2). Some meteorological variables are listed in
Table I. For the wind direction at 40 m, no influence of the tower can be seen in
the spectra. At greater heights, the wind direction changes towards east and wake
effects occur in the data. Even though the measuring heights are 60 and 40 m
apart, it is unlikely that the knee-form of the spectra results from other effects, than
from wake production. The mean wind velocities are not too weak and the value
of L∗ = 328 m lies in the stable range, not in the strongly stable one. As can be
seen in Section 2.7, there is no influence of gravity waves, which could lead to a
similar pattern of spectral densities. Spectra in the presence of such gravity waves
usually contain low-energy fluctuations of large magnitude and high-frequency
fluctuations with considerable less energy, separated by a gap (see Caughey, 1977
178 CHRISTIAN BARTHLOTT AND FRANZ FIEDLER

13 May 2000, 0600–0700 CET.

Figure 1b.

TABLE I
Meteorological variables for Figure 2.

Height Wind direction Wind velocity Wind velocity σu2

(m) (deg) Sonic (m s−1 ) Cup (m s−1 ) (m2 s−2 )

200 106 4.94 7.02 0.65

160 100 5.02 6.34 0.90
100 79 3.46 5.32 0.20
40 62 2.63 2.81 0.40

or Leyi and Panofsky, 1983), but the calculated phase angles in Section 2.7 show
that gravity waves are not the reason for the knee-form of the spectra.
A further observation of Table I is the reduction of mean wind speed in the wake
of the tower, which has already been described by a number of authors, e.g., Moses
and Daubeck (1961), Dabberdt (1968a), Camp and Kaufman (1970) and Izumi and
Barad (1970). This reduction does not appear at a height of 40 m, where the wind
direction does not place the anemometer in the tower wake and no contamination
of the spectra occurs.
 TURBULENCE STRUCTURE IN THE WAKE REGION OF A METEOROLOGICAL TOWER 179

15 May 2000, 0100–0200 CET.

Figure 1c.

Figure 2. Power spectra of the u components at all heights on 14 May 2000, 0200–0300 CET.
180 CHRISTIAN BARTHLOTT AND FRANZ FIEDLER

High energy content.

Figure 3a. Model for the spectra in the wake region.

2.3. M ODEL FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE KNEE IN THE SPECTRA

With easterly wind directions prevailing, the ultrasonic anemometers are located
in the lee of the tower, i.e., in the wake region generated by the lattice structure
of the tower. Disturbance of flow can be noticed at high frequencies, where a new
disturbance spectrum is generated with a maximum in the inertial subrange of the
undisturbed spectrum (Figure 3).
In this new range, the vortices start to decompose immediately. By the super-
position of both spectra, a knee-form of the spectra is generated. With prevalent
stable stratification and low energy content, a plateau may be observed between
the two peaks, on which the energy density remains constant. The frequency width
of the plateau depends on the turbulence intensity of the undisturbed flow. Dur-
ing wake production, new vortices are formed and larger vortices are divided into
smaller ones. The model of a superposition of two spectra was previously proposed
by Kaimal and Finnigan (1994) for flows over an area covered by trees and by
Mazzoni (1996) for ground roughness variations.
A further observation of Figure 1c is the faster decrease of the spectra in the
region where the inertial subrange is expected. Wake production is capable of
removing energy from larger vortices and turning them into vortices of shorter
wavelengths, a fact observed in turbulence spectra within forests (Amiro, 1990)
or behind ground roughness variations (Mazzoni, 1996). Energy transfer to smal-
ler wavelengths is reflected by the faster decrease of the spectra than the −5/3
slope, immediately after the region of vortices that are richest in energy. Energy is
cascading to smaller eddies more quickly than predicted by Kolmogorov’s theory
 TURBULENCE STRUCTURE IN THE WAKE REGION OF A METEOROLOGICAL TOWER 181

Low energy content.

Figure 3b.

(1941) and large vortices are divided into several smaller vortices by the lattice
structure of the tower. However, the energy gain in the high-frequency range of
the spectra is mainly the result of conversion of mean kinetic energy to turbulent
kinetic energy (confirmed by the reduction of mean wind speed). The enhanced
cascade from lower frequencies, observable by the faster decrease of the spectral
density is only noticeable in stable conditions, where the spectra may be influenced
by other effects as well. Because upwind spectra are not available, it is difficult to
separate these two effects. The breakup of eddies caused by passing through the
lattice structure will be proportionately stronger for smaller eddies than for larger
ones. Therefore, this effect will play a minor role compared to the conversion in
conditions with high turbulence intensity. On the other hand this breakup may
have a larger effect on the formation of the knee in stable conditions, where the
interlocking between the large eddies and small-scale turbulence is weak due to
low turbulence intensity.
In the case of a knee, the u component possesses more energy in the inertial sub-
range than the v or the w components, such that no local isotropy is present. Local
isotropy only starts at the maximum of the disturbance spectrum, at which spectral
densities drop according to f −5/3 . This will be described in detail in Section 2.7.
Lack of isotropy may be explained by the fact that the removal of turbulence energy
and transfer to higher frequencies are stronger in the transverse direction than for
the longitudinal component, which possesses a higher persistence in the range of
large vortices. As the length scales of the vortices vary in the production range, it
is understood that smaller transverse components are more affected by the lattice
182 CHRISTIAN BARTHLOTT AND FRANZ FIEDLER

Figure 4. Variation of peak frequency for wake production with wind velocity and stability.

structure. This is in good agreement with findings from Seginer et al. (1976) in
wind tunnel studies of canopy turbulence. Humps in the spectra are more readily
observed on the v and w spectra, which contain less total power than the u spectra.

2.4. S CALES OF WAKE TURBULENCE

In order to investigate the relevant scales of wake turbulence, the locations of the
prominant peaks at high frequencies, fwake , were determined from the frequency-
weighted power spectral densities, f S(f ). The length scales, λwake of the dominant
eddies are calculated using the mean velocity. Natural frequency values are then
plotted versus wind velocity (normalised by measuring height, h) and frequency
values, nwake = fwake z/U versus stability as shown in Figure 4 for the 160 m
height. Despite the great scatter in the data, the scales of wake turbulence are
controlled only by the mean wind speed. Stratification seems to have little effect
on the dominant scales in the high-frequency range for wake production. Table II
shows the mean values of these quantities, computed from 44 half-hr periods with
easterly wind directions. The knee corresponds to a wavelength in a scale 0.73–1.05
times the tower edge length, where the u component possesses a larger mean value
than the v and w components. The different scales for transverse and longitudinal
components may be due to the mechanical origin of the increase of turbulence, so
that the longitudinal component reacts first (Panofsky et al., 1982).
 TURBULENCE STRUCTURE IN THE WAKE REGION OF A METEOROLOGICAL TOWER 183
TABLE II
Mean peak frequencies for wake
production and according length
scales at 160 m.

fwake (Hz) λwake (m)

u 2.23 1.68
v 3.19 1.18
w 3.24 1.17

TABLE III
Wind directions associated with wake effects.

Height Calculated wind Observed wind

(m) directions (deg) directions (deg)

200 80–139 79–132

160, 100, 40 72–113 70–115

2.5. W IND DIRECTIONS

The wind directions causing wake effects in the data differ with height, as the arm
lengths and positioning of the equipment on them vary. They can be estimated
from the dimensions shown in Figure 5 by using the corner points of the tower.
Addition of ± 10 deg to the calculated angles yields the values listed in Table III.
The observed wind directions on the tower, where contamination of the spectra
is detectable, are in good agreement with the calculated values. Other authors
assume a similar region for wake effects to occur. Kaimal and Finnigan (1994)
propose to leave out an area of ± 30 deg around the tower to ensure that turbulence
measurements are unaffected. In Section 2.6, the influence of the wind direction is
illustrated by time series of the w component and by the reduction of mean wind
speed.
The undisturbed mean wind speed is measured by the windward cup anemo-
meter and the reduction in the lee of the tower can be measured by the ultrasonic
anemometer. The wind direction ranges where the knee occurs are accompanied
by a significant reduction of wind speed downwind of the tower. The ratio between
wind speeds measured by the cup anemometer and the ultrasonic anemometer at
a height of 160 m is shown in Figure 6. Reduction in the wake region is evident
in the range from 70 to 110 deg. Maximum reduction amounts to 36% and mean
reduction is 19%. Values of the same order may be found in literature. Wucknitz
(1980) calculated a reduction by up to 50%, Dabberdt (1968a, b) obtained reduc-
184 CHRISTIAN BARTHLOTT AND FRANZ FIEDLER

Figure 5. Arm configuration.

tions of 35 to 40% at short arm lengths and of 10% at an arm length of 8 times
the tower diameter. In cases of low wind speed, the percentage reduction is highest
(Moses and Daubek, 1961).

2.6. K NEE DEVELOPMENT

Wake production is supposed to be reflected also by the time series of the velocity
components. For this purpose, time series over a period of 12 hrs are presented
in Figure 7. In addition, horizontal wind direction, mean wind speed, standard
deviations of the horizontal wind velocity, four spectra and the wind direction
sectors calculated in Section 2.5 are plotted. The time series first reflect normal
turbulence during daytime, which is due to mechanical and thermal production.
Decreasing wind speed is then accompanied by an increasing stabilization that con-
siderably weakens turbulence intensity (1900–2145). Then, a turbulent outbreak
takes place, which differs considerably from normal turbulence during daytime as
far as the composition of the fluctuations is concerned. A sudden drop of turbulence
intensity follows, followed by another shorter outbreak. The wind directions cor-
responding to the start and end points of these turbulent outbreaks are highlighted.
They correspond to periods with knees in the spectra. Significant tower-induced
 TURBULENCE STRUCTURE IN THE WAKE REGION OF A METEOROLOGICAL TOWER 185

Figure 6. Ratio between the wind speeds measured by a cup anemometer and an ultrasonic
anemometer at a height of 160 m as a function of wind direction (600 half-hr means).

wind speed reduction occur in both outbreaks, with corresponding wind directions.
Overspeeding of the cup anemometers as a result of a tilted wind field and the non-
cosine response of cup anemometers (Kaimal and Finnigan, 1994), is not a factor.
The mean vertical velocities before the coordinate rotation are about ± 0.2 m s−1 .
Vertical orientation is controlled by inclinometers and the computed tilting angle
of the wind field is up to ± 5 deg, so deviations from a cosine response are small in
this angular range. The standard deviation of the cup anemometer is less, because
of the missing high-frequency fluctuations (distance constant 6.7 m). Only with
weak turbulence activity, the two curves are almost alike.
186 CHRISTIAN BARTHLOTT AND FRANZ FIEDLER

Figure 7. Time series of 14/15 May 2000 at a height of 160 m.

2.7. C ROSS - SPECTRAL ANALYSIS

A further insight is provided by cross-spectral analysis of data from the wake re-
gion. Local isotropy for stationary and homogeneous turbulence requires a f −5/3
behavior of the spectra of the velocity components in the inertial subrange and
that the lateral and vertical components exceed the longitudinal by a factor of 4/3.
Furthermore, the cospectrum has to vanish. In Figure 8, the spectra, cospectra,
phase angles and spectrum ratios for a disturbed and an undisturbed case are com-
pared. As can be seen from the phase angles, no linear gravity waves are present,
which would require phase relations of wT = 90◦ , uT = 180◦ and wu = 90◦
(Caughey and Readings, 1975). Only the phase angles uT in the low-frequency
part are in the range for possible waves. These requirements have been checked for
all available data with wake production.
The above mentioned conditions for local isotropy are fulfilled by the undis-
turbed time series starting from a frequency of 0.06 Hz. In the disturbed flow,
 TURBULENCE STRUCTURE IN THE WAKE REGION OF A METEOROLOGICAL TOWER 187

Figure 8. Comparison of a disturbed (grey curves) with an undisturbed (black curves) time series.

the plateau in the transition range of the spectra is clearly visible. In the range
of the plateau, the cospectrum disappears, indicating that no contribution to the
momentum transfer comes from this frequency range. Moreover, the isotropy con-
dition is not fulfilled and the inertial energy cascade is modified because of the
reasons mentioned in Section 2.3. The departure from classical isotropy is not
surprising, given that wake production and low turbulence intensity modify the flow
significantly behind an obstacle. The mean spectrum ratios for separated frequency
ranges are listed in Table IV. The high energy content of the u component, which
has already been mentioned in Section 2.3, is reflected by values smaller than unity
in the range from 0.2–3 Hz. Spectrum ratios approach the recommended value 4/3
only in the high-frequency region, where spectra begin to decrease again.
Table 5 gives the turbulent fluxes for different parts of the spectra, which were
separated by filtering. The major part of momentum transfer for the disturbed case
takes place at low frequencies (below 0.02 Hz). Furthermore, the integrated flux
over the entire frequency range is very small (0.104 m2 s−2 ) and directed upwards.
The negative contributions in the cospectrum hardly contribute to total transfer, as
they are encountered at very small scales, i.e., high frequencies.
188 CHRISTIAN BARTHLOTT AND FRANZ FIEDLER

TABLE IV
Mean spectrum ratios for all cases
with wake production (44 hrs).

0.2–3 Hz Above 3 Hz

Sw /Su 0.48 1.11

Sv /Su 0.48 1.24

TABLE V
Turbulent fluxes.

u w (m2 s−2 ) Unfiltered Below 0.02 Hz 0.02–2 Hz Above 2 Hz

Knee 0.104 0.103 0.000 0.001

Undisturbed −0.411 −0.386 −0.028 0.003

3. Conclusions

It is demonstrated, mainly by spectral studies, that strong modifications of flow

occur in the lee of a meteorological tower. Disturbance of flow is reflected by a
small knee in the spectra at high energy content. The reason is a new disturbance
spectrum having its maximum in the inertial subrange of the undisturbed spec-
trum. Superposition of both spectra yields the behaviors of the spectra mentioned
above, depending on the energy content. Wake intensity strongly depends on the
turbulence state of the atmosphere (Kaimal and Finnigan, 1974). In the case of
well-developed turbulence, the knee can hardly or no longer be seen in the spectra.
However, this only holds, if variance is sufficiently large that the level of the second
maximum is below the undisturbed spectrum. In the case of stable stratification
with smaller turbulence intensity, a plateau is generated in front of the secondary
maximum, which separates the two production ranges. Apart from the formation
of new vortices, larger vortices are decomposed, which is confirmed by the more
rapid decrease of spectral densities than the −5/3 slope in front of the plateau.
However, only in strongly stable stratification and an observable faster decrease of
the spectra, will energy transfer play a major role for the formation of the high-
frequency peak. Otherwise the conversion from mean kinetic energy into turbulent
kinetic energy will be the dominating effect. The conversion is confirmed by the
reduction of mean wind speed in the lee of the tower.
The development with time illustrates the influence of wind direction on the
time series. Reduction of the mean wind speed is confirmed by the installation
of cup anemometers on both sides of the tower. Here, mean reductions of 19%
 TURBULENCE STRUCTURE IN THE WAKE REGION OF A METEOROLOGICAL TOWER 189

occur in the wake. Comparison of the cospectra with an undisturbed case illus-
trates the tower-induced turbulence. Local isotropy is not fulfilled in the spectral
range between the two production ranges. The vortex structures generated by wake
production contribute almost nothing to momentum transfer, a fact confirmed by
separating the spectral ranges by filtering.
Turbulence data from the wake region of a tower are usually discarded in
boundary-layer research. Still, the results shown here provide another insight into
the behavior of turbulent flows, and knowledge of the influence of the tower wake
is of interest, when only disturbed data are available for a special meteorological
event. The features of the disturbed spectra have also been observed within artificial
(Seginer et al., 1976) and natural canopies (Baldocchi and Hutchison, 1988), where
the formation of a knee is attributed to form drag of elements. Flow around houses
represents a similar phenomenon. Also in this case, smaller vortices are detached
from house edges and, thus, energy is removed from the basic flow. Differences
between spectra in the roughness sublayer of an urban or forest canopy, where
buildings and trees have a direct influence on the flow, and spectra in homogen-
eous conditions with smooth underground are still parts of turbulence research and
provide similar features to the wake production presented in this paper.

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