Target Group and Gender Orientation A. Theoretical Background

COMiT: Development Design - Target group and gender 142
6. Target group and gender orientation
A. Theoretical background
6.1 Poor people’s strategies for poverty-reduction
6.1.1 Context
To a large extent, the economic and ecological dimensions of development design

are conducted from the standpoint of the external technical intervenor, or planner (a
“top-down” view). This next stage in the approach demands that the intervenor “step
into the shoes” of the intended beneficiaries, the people. She/he thereby makes a
conscious effort to enter into a “bottom-up” perception of the intended intervention
measures, with respect to people’s strengths, weaknesses, resources, aspirations,
methods of organisation, and social structures and systems. The outcome should be
further definition of the measures which emerged from economic and ecological
analysis; the measures are thereby adjusted to suit the various target groups (direct
or indirect beneficiaries, or an implementary target group).
The starting point for this dimensions of development design is an understanding of

the general and peculiar situations in which poor people live, including their survival
and own development strategies in such situations.
6.1.2 Prevailing economic conditions among poor people
∗ Low levels of marketable/ employable and management skills

∗ Neither subsistence nor market production as such is sufficient
for survival
∗ High personal and family pressure to survive/ succeed
∗ High risks: natural disasters, disease, market fluctuations, retrenchment
∗ Extended family/ social groups as “insurance”
∗ Importance of client / patronage relations
∗ Migrant/ absentee male head of household affecting use of production
resources
∗ Insecurity with respect to land tenure
6.1.3 Socio-cultural characteristics of poor people
∗ Social differentiation and high regard for status/ hierarchies

∗ Cultural/ ethnic differentiation / in-group bonding/ cultural
inclusion or exclusion
∗ Communal ownership of land
∗ Gender relations/ gender specific roles in household/ enterprise
and projects
∗ Important role of women in production and household
subsistence
∗ economic unit not always the same as the reproduction unit (limited use of
western household model)
∗ Children as economic and social assets
∗ Survival mechanisms in dual cultures.
6.1.4 Corresponding wide-spread survival strategies

∗ minimising risks, therefore
⇒ necessity to maintain some subsistence production, and keep
balance between subsistence and the market-oriented approaches
⇒ diversification in production (e.g. reluctance to cultivate single
crop)
⇒ urban-skills / wage employment focus pursued rather than only
self-employment and rural production
∗ “social investment”: importance (in the form of time, energy and

resources) attributed to social relations and rituals/ obligations (as opposed
to economic investments)
∗ clientelistic (vertical) links preferred to linking-up (horizontally) in the same

social strata
⇒ logic is: “good relations to (a few) powerful people is better than
good relations to (many) powerless companions”
⇒ hence may be problems (of allegiance) in target group organisations
which promote solidarity structures
∗ state and projects are sometimes perceived as “patrons” or “milk-cows”

⇒ often results in prevalence of “recipient mentality”
⇒ also pro forma acceptance of measures
∗ diplomatic balance maintained between the relations with social groups/

companions and economic gains via patrons
∗ economic redistribution systems may go against reproductive obligations for

example (men to women)
∗ optimising in the deployment of the scarce factor

⇒ e.g. in many South African situations access to market is the
bottleneck, not land
⇒ non-adoption of methods for increasing land productivity
∗ selective or transformative utilisation of support:

⇒ hence ”misappropriation” of credit or “diversion” of assistance
∗ reluctance to invest in productivity of land as risk of non-sustainable tenure
∗ in general, people’s tendency to rationalise and solve problems on their own

leads to endogenous solutions and innovations.
Conclusion: Ignoring the structural characteristics and strategies of target groups in

design and planning leads to low acceptance of measures by the target
group or leads to certain groups being excluded by measures.
Intervention strategies have to match with people's strategies in order
to be successful (and not: people have to be selected who suit or can
be fitted to fixed/ pre-determined measures)
Intervention strategies have to be adjusted to the structural situation
and to the strategies of the different target groups / clients / groups of
beneficiaries
Also inclusivity/ broad effect can only be achieved through a
combination of varied measures specifically adjusted to all target
groups.
Further reading on the articulation (social, cultural, economic) between the rural poor and
the wider economy:
Barnett, Tony, Sociology and development. London; New York: Routledge, 1988. ISBN 0-
415-07871-7. (chapter 5: “Rural development: entering the market”, chapter 6: “Rural
development and social differentiation”).
Further reading on outsiders, approaches to and views of the poor:

Chambers, Robert, Rural development: putting the last first. Harlow, Essex: Longman
Scientific & Technical, 1983. ISBN 0-582-6443-7
6.2 Principles of target group and gender orientation
6.2.1 Background:
Why the use of a target group and gender oriented approach?
¬ Target group orientation is a methodological approach, not merely a
principle
(for example as is used in public relations, training, marketing)
¬ In development planning: the concern is to move away from the traditional

approach which sought to transfer pre-conceived innovations to people.
Therefore this approach involves the adjustment of measures to people,
instead of selecting appropriate people who fit (predetermined) measures.
¬ Historical background: development and other (e.g. anthropological)

experience tells us that the "poor" are not a homogenous mass but differ
among themselves with respect to their resource endowment, activities,
constraints, potentials and needs.
6.2.2 Definitions: Target population and target group
implementary
target group
e.g. politicians,
implementary administration
target group
e.g. traditional
leaders
implementary
target group
e.g. craftsmen
poverty line
indirect
target group
e.g. traders
Direct target
direct target direct target group III
group I
group II
e.g. farmers in
central areas e.g. for village
e.g. farmers in
well project
remote areas
indirect target
group
e.g. seasonal
labourers indirect target
group
e.g. beer brewing Below self-help cap

women
Below
self-help
capability
u Target population: The sector of the total population which belongs to the
envisaged beneficiaries of project interventions
* in the frame of the original concept of poverty orientation: everybody
below the poverty line
* in the frame of development: the mass of small scale producers and
traders, unemployed, and landless people (with a focus on "poverty-
stricken-groups", without excluding the producers above the poverty
line from being potential beneficiaries)
u Target groups: (statistical) subgroups1 of the total population who are

differentiated according to certain characteristics, who are addressees of
support measures identified.
Target groups do not necessarily belong to the target population.
Differentiate between:
* direct target groups: those people towards whom measures are
directed (e.g. small -holder peasants)
* indirect target groups: those people who may benefit from indirect
effects of measures (e.g.: daily paid workers, who work on peasant
smallholdings, traders, who sell products from smallholdings, and sell
manufactured goods to peasants)
* implementary target groups: those people who do not belong to the
target population, but are supported because of their strategic
importance in relation to the direct target group, rather than own need
(e.g. special craftsmen, traders, administrators who could support the
process of peasant production and marketing)
* target groups for development programmes (which comprise all
service or support or implementing agencies): subgroups of the
regional population
* target groups for development projects (as the supportive
agencies to the system of agencies): above all organisations; the
population in general only in the frame of pilot schemes as direct
target groups, otherwise as indirect target groups
In the following elaboration we always mean the target group of the development
programme.
1
Clarification of the term “group”: it is important to differentiate between
- ‘group’ as a social unit (“social group”): a number of human beings who do something jointly;
characterised by the feeling of togetherness, interaction of group members, common objectives
(e.g. church group)
- ‘group’ as a statistical unit (“sociological group”): individuals who share a certain set of
characteristics which distinguish them from other people (e.g. farmworkers, peasants, young
male unemployed, female headed rural households).
⇒ such “sociological groups” are the relevant type of groups for a target-group analysis
The term ‘target group’ is based on the statistical term. If social groups form target groups one can
name them ‘target group organisations’ (synonymous to ‘self-help organisations’, ‘peoples
organisations’, etc.)
6.2.3 Gender: Approaches to promotion of women
A. Special consideration in the development context:
The "western" concept of "household" does not correspond to gender roles in

other cultures. Married couples do not necessarily constitute the basic
economic units: men are in charge of the cash economy, women are in charge
of reproductive (subsistence) economy.
→ Therefore, benefits from measures targeting heads of households often

do not reach women and children. The "trickle across" between
genders does not take place.
B. Historic overview of approaches to the promotion of women :
* Since 1950s:
Focusing on promoting home economics activities in the context of
community development / Women’s clubs; via the promotion of
"traditional" cooking, knitting and nursing activities
* Since mid - 1970s:

Women components appear as separate sections in development
programs concentrating on income generating activities and usually
reaching only small groups of women; resulting in a type of
“emancipating to new roles"
* Since beginning of 1980s, two opposing main-streams:

(a) Integration of women into mainstream development (measures)
(e.g. consideration of women when designing agricultural extension
packages involving "participation of women")
(b) at the same time (as contra-position to (a)): design of support
measures specifically for women (e.g. focus on subsistence,
"development guided by women" concerns)
* Recent "genderised-" synthesis:
(see diagram on next page)

gender-specific design and planning of measures

depending on the situation leads to:
gender-specific measures adjusted to

measures = women- the situation of women =
(or alternatively men-) integration of women by
oriented measures women-oriented
adjustment of measures
Gender-specific measures can be meaningful and necessary

- if activities are exclusively carried out by either women only or men only
- in relation to activities which should be reserved for a (socio-economically)
disadvantaged gender, or which (in the sense of restitutive justice) require a
unilateral promotion
Adjustment of (non-gender-specific) measures to the situation of women can

be meaningful
- in the case of activities which involve men as well as women, but where women-
specific constraints or potentials had been identified
- wherever women may be affected by general or men-specific measures or may
gain from them.
C. Principles of genderised planning:
∗ Gender-specific measures are to

- be orientated towards the majority of women
- consider differentiation (socio-economic, age-groups, family
situation) among women
à even women are not a homogenous group
à even women compete among themselves
∗ Combined consideration of
"practical gender needs"
→ approach actual, practical problems and
"strategic gender needs"
→ long-term strengthening of women's bargaining power in
order to sustainably improve their chances of needs
satisfaction
∗ Gender-specific procedures must be institutionalised.
Note: "genderised" primarily means avoiding discrimination of women through

project or programme measures; it does not aim at changing of gender-
relations by alien interventions !
D. Advantages of genderising
Ä leads to situation-adjusted and socio-culturally appropriate ways to

improve the position and opportunities of women
Ä approaches problems of all members of a family or the micro-unit of

society in a systems-oriented and holistic way
Ä starts off with problems and does not perceive the integration of women
into any kind of activity to be an objective by itself
Ä links short term solutions to practical and pressing problems with

empowerment, which means the long term strengthening of
disadvantaged groups.
Background reading on gender and development:

• Barnett, Tony: Sociology and development. London; New York: Routledge, 1988.
ISBN 0-415-07871-7. (chapter 8: “Gender and development”).
• Friedman, John: Empowerment: the politics of alternative development.
Cambridge. Blackwell, 1992. ISBN 1-55-786-300-8. (chapter 6: “Political claims II:
Gender equality and sustainability”).
B. Design and planning methodology: target group and gender

analysis
6.3 Overview of steps in target group and gender oriented design

and planning
(1) Delineation of the target population and preliminary separation into

potential target groups on the basis of a macro-level analysis
(2) Target group and gender analysis
(3) Target group identification (decision on groups to be supported)
(4) Adjustment of support measures to different target groups
6.4 Target groups analysis
6.4.1. Context
¬ The target groups analysis has as its prerequisite a provisional

classification of the population into different groups with similar
characteristics (units of analysis).
These classifications are taken from the results of previous
analytical steps, rapid appraisals, and other information sources.
¬ Target groups analyses are done with participatory as well as

specialist methods. Neither is sufficient in itself; each informs the
other:
Specialists’ surveys and analyses
→ Information basis for participatory dialogue with target groups
Participatory research and dialogue (e.g. PRA)

→ Questions and hypotheses for specialists’ analyses
¬ The target groups analysis in general is carried out by

interdisciplinary survey teams.
Ideally it takes place during the process of project design (before a

final decision is taken on the project strategy). During an orientation
phase, a target groups analysis is a must. In later project phases it
may be combined with an analysis of effects / impacts (e.g. analysis
of differences between those who are involved and those not or
between successful and non-successful participants in program
measures).
6.4.2 Expected results of a target groups analysis

a. The population is classified according to criteria relating to intended
measures (verification or modification of the classification on which a
target group analysis had tentatively been based)
b. The problems and constraints specific to every target group are

known
c. The potentials of target groups are known
d. The types of organisations of target groups are known
e. The interrelations between different target groups are identified
Target groups analysis should help to generate all the information required for
identifying the target groups of the project/programme intervention measures.
6.4.3 Steps of analysis

These steps are the responsibility of the project/programme planner, desk officers,
consultants.
Step 1: Selection of level of system in the project/programme environment to be

analysed
a. In dealing with rural small scale producers as target
groups, in most cases it is the level of the farm- /
household- / family-system which is in focus
(note also gender considerations here)
See next page for an example of a model for such a

system.
b. If the improvement of village infrastructure is at stake, the

system level of village becomes relevant
→ analysis of the social system of the village community
c. If it is mainly ecological measures, the level of the land

use system will become relevant
→ this has as a precondition that there are homogenous
land use systems applied above the level of farms
Example:
Systems-model for an analysis of a farm- / enterprise- / household-system)
problems as
objectives of
seen by support
supporting
agencies
agencies
dialogue
potentials
sustainable and reliable subjectively

constraints experienced people´s
satisfaction of needs objectives
(actual) problems
sold
sales
constraints
potentials
level of production of goods potentials

constraints and services
constraints
level / efficiency of potentials
activities
constraints
availability of resources
natural labour capital / potentials

resources know how means of
(soil, ...) production
respective quantities / qualities
constraints
markets/ infra- social potentials

structure system
inputs
public
services
legal
systems
Frame conditions
Step 2: Tentative categorisation of potential target groups (classification

including zoning)
This involves the specified selection of units / groups for the target groups
analysis, based on information gained during previous analysis.
Note: Minority groups, which may be overlooked in an unstratified sample
survey, are also taken into account here.
¬ Criteria for classification are:

1. obvious characteristics by which groups can be
differentiated; these are obtained from evidence or
secondary data
2. those potential- and / or constraint-factors by which the
population can clearly be distinguished
Example: In countries with unequal landownership,
farm size or property title may be an important
characteristic for classifying; in countries with a
homogenous ownership structure a classification
according to the main cash- and subsistence crops or
according to ownership / access to equipment and
other means of production may be more relevant.
3. Zoning: Classification according to spatial criteria;
this is important if the (natural) conditions of production
vary widely (e.g. highland / lowland, or: central area /
remote area)
Step 3: Selection of relevant variables in the system which are to be analysed in

more depth (i.e. a focus on parts of the system)
This is based on hypotheses about relevant cause-effect relations
(constraints / potentials) for problems, and about the linkages within the
system.
Example: If nutrition is a central problem, factors which influence nutrition,

and which can be influenced to change the nutritional situation
by external interventions, become relevant. If the availability of
cash is a central problem, other factors have to be in the focus
of analysis (and nutrition may be one of them)
These steps are essential for a systems- and problem-oriented analysis

and are to be co-ordinated among the planners, desk officers and/or team
of consultants (to be laid down in the terms of reference). All further steps
(e.g. the determination of indicators, methods of information gathering,
random sampling, etc.) will follow established empirical research methods
and should be entrusted to the professional know how of specialists
(social researchers).
6.5 Gender Analysis
6.5.1 Definition
Gender analysis is a specific type of target group analysis
It focuses on the
- gender specific distribution of roles and duties in a system
- socio-economic interrelations among the genders in a system
Once again it is based on the principle of a systems approach, i.e. no isolated

analysis of problems, constraints and potential of women, but: an
analysis of the interrelations within the "farm- / household- /
family-system", which differentiate the genders
6.5.2 Structure of gender analysis
The target group analysis approach (see steps in 6.4.3) applies here, with the
following considerations:
n In the centre of the analysis is the distribution of
RESOURCES
⇓
TASKS / ACTIVITIES
⇓
GOODS / INCOME
between the genders in relation to the interconnected aspects of:
CONTROL / POWER
→ who is in charge ?
→ whom to address ?
⇓
WORK LOAD / DUTIES
→ labour constraints?
⇓
SATISFACTION OF NEEDS
→ who will benefit?
n Classification: The analysis usually focuses on married couples but -

depending on the socio-cultural circumstances - also on extended
families.
Note that in many African societies the socio-economic relations

between brother and sister are as important as those between husband
and wife.
n The relevant variables for the gender analysis can be derived from the
system's model of the target groups analysis:
a. Control over and access to resources:

- control over land and natural resources (including
heritage systems, rights and obligations after the death of
a partner)
- control over family and extra-family labour force
- access to knowledge; distribution of relevant skills
- control over means of production (e.g. equipment)
- possibilities of gender-specific capital accumulation
- access to credit
- access to supply and delivery markets
b. Distribution of tasks and activities:

- responsibility in terms of goods / services and working
steps
• under own control
• under joint control
• under control of the other(s)
- daily distribution of workload / activities
- annual distribution of workload / activities
- gender-specific differentiation in efficiencies /
competencies / trades / skills
- control over norms and regulations (e.g. family planning)
c. Distribution of goods, services and money:

- control over goods and services
- control over food
- control over cash income (for different sources of income)
- distribution / redistribution of cash income
- responsibility for buying certain goods or rendering
certain services (e.g. school fees)
- rules for redistribution
Notes:Differentiate gender-analysis according to other socio-economic and /

or socio-cultural criteria.
In many societies the gender roles vary in peoples life cycle or
according to professional groups / socio-strata.
6.6 Identification of target groups of a development programme

Differentiation of the population into groups with common and/or problem
characteristics, (with related constraints, potentials), only constitutes an information
base for identifying target groups. Therefore following target groups analysis
(including gender considerations), a decision needs to be taken as to which group to
support, i.e. at which level to intervene.
Note that not every group of population needs support / can be supported by
development interventions.
6.6.1 Which target groups should be supported ?
¬ Criteria for determining the target groups

a. need for support
b. possibilities for support / for improvements (people’s self-help
capacity and readiness for self-help, in the face of improvements
introduced by external interventions, can be forecasted)
Priority is given to poor groups of the population, with constraints which
can be overcome sustainably by support measures, and with under-
utilised potentials
¬ Target group-orientation and mass effect / poverty orientation: the sum of

all target groups should be the majority of the target population. The size
of a target group hence is not a criteria for exclusion.
¬ For assessing the possibilities to improve a situation through support to

one or other target group, one has to take into consideration:
- the results from the regional analysis about resources and market
potentials
- the results from the analysis of organisations / implementing agencies
about support possibilities (see chapters 8 & 9 below)
6.6.2 Who belongs to a target group and hence should benefit?
There are two ways of determining membership of a target group:

1. Administrative categorisation by setting inclusion criteria and checking
whether individuals fulfil this before administering support.
Example: only farmers with up to x ha are admitted
or: only female heads of households with children
under 15 have access to a certain program
Advantages: only defined groups of the needy persons get access to
support
Disadvantages: bureaucratic, administratively costly, politically (and
possibly culturally) problematic; could spark the
response: “We ... are one people. Nobody is supposed
to divide us into so-called target groups”;
In the context of clientelistic relations among poor and
rich people an outspoken administrative classification
into target groups by socio-economic criteria can
produce problems
2. By defining measures which result in self-targeting by target group.

Target group orientation achieved by designing and offering measures
which suit the specific conditions of a certain group without excluding
others from those measures (and without needing to name the target
group explicitly).
Example: fixing the upper limit of credit for input requirements to
quantities needed only for x ha;
or: special relief for women from work loads (no
exclusion of men, but support of women-specific
activities)
Advantages: politically and socially less problematic

(being inclusive and segretative at the same time);
less intervention driven, less bureaucratic
(e.g. no registration needed; let people decide whether
they want to make use of an offer)
Disadvantages: Some undesired support to groups who do not require

it
Limitations: Support can be so attractive that the envisaged target
groups are pushed out of the way by groups which do
not need support
6.7 Adjustment of measures to specific target groups
6.7.1 Principle: Use target group specific constraints (actual and

foreseeable ones) and potentials to determine the design
of support measures
e.g.: the technical and organisational arrangements for
introduction and utilisation of draft animals by target-
group
6.7.2 Approaches to target group adjustment of measures:
Following target groups analysis and identification, the project/intervention measures

designed as a result of the economic and ecological design stages, need to be
adjusted for the chosen target groups’ needs and contents. The types of adjustments
are:
1. adjustment of the decisions on priority sectors or products for
promotion
2. adjustment of the type of support provided or made accessible e.g.
‘food for work’ versus ‘cash for work’, ‘motivation’ versus ‘information’
3. technical adjustments
e.g.: mixed cropping systems for integrating subsistence- and cash-

crop cultivation if women face labour difficulties in clearing of
fields and in ploughing
e.g.: reduce clearing requirements by production systems which
demand shifting of fields only after 15 years (instead of after 5
years) by fallow periods, soil fertility restoring cultivation
methods to restore soil fertility, etc.
e.g.: limit supply of oxen implements on credit (e.g. only carts and
ploughs, but no harrows, weeders etc.) so that oxen owners
find it more attractive to do contract-ploughing and -transport
for other peasants who do not own the oxen rather than
enlarging their own field areas
4. institutional adjustments
e.g.: adjustments of the timing for extension meetings to the work

schedules of women
e.g. adjusted credit conditions (e.g.: group liabilities where
physical collaterals are not available)
e.g. obligation to joint use of implements laid down in the credit
contract
6.7.3 Means of tackling constraints
Note that ways in which constraints can be addressed/tackled are varied:
¬ overcome the constraints

bad soil quality → provide access to fertiliser
bad access to markets → provide access to transport
¬ adjust to the constraints

bad soil quality → introduce plants which grow on poor
soils
bad access to markets → orient production to local demand
¬ reduce objectives
bad soil quality ; bad access to markets → limit intervention to
securing
subsistence, or:
promote migration
out of the area

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COMiT: Development Design - Target group and gender 142

6. Target group and gender orientation

6.1 Poor people’s strategies for poverty-reduction

To a large extent, the economic and ecological dimensions of development design

The starting point for this dimensions of development design is an understanding of

6.1.2 Prevailing economic conditions among poor people

∗ Low levels of marketable/ employable and management skills

6.1.3 Socio-cultural characteristics of poor people

∗ Social differentiation and high regard for status/ hierarchies

6.1.4 Corresponding wide-spread survival strategies

∗ “social investment”: importance (in the form of time, energy and

∗ clientelistic (vertical) links preferred to linking-up (horizontally) in the same

∗ state and projects are sometimes perceived as “patrons” or “milk-cows”

∗ diplomatic balance maintained between the relations with social groups/

∗ economic redistribution systems may go against reproductive obligations for

∗ optimising in the deployment of the scarce factor

∗ selective or transformative utilisation of support:

∗ reluctance to invest in productivity of land as risk of non-sustainable tenure

∗ in general, people’s tendency to rationalise and solve problems on their own

Conclusion: Ignoring the structural characteristics and strategies of target groups in

Further reading on outsiders, approaches to and views of the poor:

6.2 Principles of target group and gender orientation

¬ In development planning: the concern is to move away from the traditional

¬ Historical background: development and other (e.g. anthropological)

6.2.2 Definitions: Target population and target group

e.g. beer brewing Below self-help cap

u Target groups: (statistical) subgroups1 of the total population who are

6.2.3 Gender: Approaches to promotion of women

A. Special consideration in the development context:

The "western" concept of "household" does not correspond to gender roles in

→ Therefore, benefits from measures targeting heads of households often

B. Historic overview of approaches to the promotion of women :

* Since mid - 1970s:

* Since beginning of 1980s, two opposing main-streams:

* Recent "genderised-" synthesis:

(see diagram on next page)

gender-specific design and planning of measures

gender-specific measures adjusted to

Gender-specific measures can be meaningful and necessary

Adjustment of (non-gender-specific) measures to the situation of women can

C. Principles of genderised planning:

∗ Gender-specific measures are to

∗ Gender-specific procedures must be institutionalised.

Note: "genderised" primarily means avoiding discrimination of women through

Ä leads to situation-adjusted and socio-culturally appropriate ways to

Ä approaches problems of all members of a family or the micro-unit of

Ä links short term solutions to practical and pressing problems with

Background reading on gender and development:

B. Design and planning methodology: target group and gender

6.3 Overview of steps in target group and gender oriented design

(1) Delineation of the target population and preliminary separation into

6.4 Target groups analysis

¬ The target groups analysis has as its prerequisite a provisional

¬ Target groups analyses are done with participatory as well as

Participatory research and dialogue (e.g. PRA)

¬ The target groups analysis in general is carried out by

Ideally it takes place during the process of project design (before a

6.4.2 Expected results of a target groups analysis

b. The problems and constraints specific to every target group are

6.4.3 Steps of analysis

Step 1: Selection of level of system in the project/programme environment to be

See next page for an example of a model for such a