What is Unconventional Gas?

Gas deposits are classified as conventional if they are contained in porous reservoirs, often in
limestone or sandstone, which have interconnected spaces that allow the gas to flow freely in the
rock and through well boreholes.

Unconventional reserves are situated in rocks of low permeability, which makes the gas difficult
to access. In order to extract it, different and more expensive techniques are required to those
employed in the extraction of conventional gas deposits.

Unconventional reserves can be defined either in purely geological terms, as rock formations
with permeability of less than 1 millidarcy, or in economic terms, as reserves which are not
commercially recoverable at current prices using conventional technology.

These definitions are not precise, since the definition of ‘conventional technology’ shifts over
time. The original upper limit of 1 millidarcy permeability was defined by the US government in
1970 to determine which wells wouldreceive tax credits for producing gas from tight reservoirs.

Another way of defining unconventional gas is that can only be produced economically by using
hydraulic fracturing, horizontal drilling, or other techniques to expose more of the reservoir to a
borehole in order to gain access to the gas.

Unconventional gas is usually categorized as:

Tight gas

Unlike shale gas or coal bed methane, tight gas is formed outside the rock formations where it is
found and has migrated over millions of years into extremely impermeable hard rock or
sandstone or limestone formations which are unusually non-porous (known as tight sands).

The pores in these rocks, which are generally much older than conventional gas formations, are
often in irregular patterns and badly connected, so that that the ability of the gas to flow through
he rock is impaired.

Tight gas is produced using a combination of hydraulic fracturing and directional drilling — a
technique whereby a large number of wells are drilled in different directions from one location.

Coal Bed Methane (CBM)

Coal bed methane is produced from and stored in coal seams which are of extremely low
permeability. CBM reservoirs are often sources of drinking water, and so hydraulic fracturing is
restricted in some regions because of contamination concerns.
Shale gas

Shale gas is found in shale deposits, which are made up of thin layers of fine-grained
sedimentary rock, typically found in river deltas, lake deposits or floodplains. Shale is both the
source and the reservoir for the natural gas. This can either be ‘free gas’ which is trapped in the
pores and fissures of the shale rocks, or adsorbed gas which is contained in surfaces of the rocks.

Like tight gas, shale gas is produced by a combination of horizontal drilling and hydraulic
fracturing, but the fracturing techniques are more difficult and need much more water because of
the nature of the rocks in the shale formations.

Methane hydrates

These are a crystalline combination of natural gas and water formed at low temperatures under
high pressure in the permafrost and under the oceans. These have not yet been developed and are
unlikely to be commercially viable for at least another 10 to 20 years.

Total unconventional gas in place is estimated at 923 tcm, of which a quarter lies in North
America and a third in the FSU and China.
Half of the total gas in place is shale gas, of which North America and China between them hold
45%. Other assessments of unconventional reserves put the figure even higher, and it is likely to
change over time as more detailed exploration is carried out in regions other than North America.

Recovery rates in fields so far developed are much lower than for conventional gas reserves — just
under 20% compared with 75%. If this rate is not improved, recoverable reserves are probably nearer
170 tcm, close to the figure for conventional gas.

What Makes Gas Shale?

Shale can be both a source rock and a reservoir rock; gas shale is both. The amount and type of
organic matter contained within the shale determines the amount of gas or oil (or both) that is
eventually formed. The temperature of the Earth acts to cook the organic matter, leading to the
development and expulsion of the hydrocarbons from the shale into adjacent formations acting as
reservoir rocks. The trick to developing gas shale is to find shale that still retains the gas and is
easy to hydraulically fracture.

The "gas window" implies the shale has been cooked enough to produce gas. There are two basic
ways in which the gas is stored in a gas shale: free gas and adsorbed gas. These storage
mechanisms are illustrated below in Figure 1

Figure 1
Two ways to store gas in a shale (free and adsorbed). This slide is taken from a presentation by
Dr. J. Forgotson from the University of Oklahoma.

The basic elements of good gas shale are shown below in Figure 2. The gas has been developed
in the mature shale but has not been expelled. This is the case where the ability to hydraulically
fracture the shale is important. Hydraulic fractures develop pathways from the reservoir to the
well where the production will take place. Mother Nature helps shale evolve by heating it to a
more silica-rich form which makes the shale easier to fracture.

Figure 2

The fundamental elements of gas shale shown in a slide by Dr. J. Forgotson.

The following map Figure 3 gives a picture of the gas shale plays within the United States.
 Figure 3

Despite having gas shale in great shape for development, using hydraulic fracturing is both a
science and an art. Fractures do not go exactly where you want them to go. This is why
microseismic surveys are so important; they give a direct picture of where the fractures occur
within the reservoir.

Recovering Gas from Shale using Hydraulic Fracturing

The nice aspect of shale gas is the size of reservoir (determined by the initial microseismic
reservoir). Once the production of a well begins to slow, drilling an adjacent well is simply a
matter of completing a well that compliments the fracturing of the previous well. The
microseismic events that occur in breaking new and untested portions of the reservoir will be
different from the already produced portion of the reservoir. As a result, the source mechanisms
for these events can be used to identify fracture and reservoir issues Figure 1.
 Figure 1

Microseismic source mechanism parameters- Schlumberger presentation. These in turn can be

used to predict new well positions Figure 2. It is very much like a mining process where one
region of the reservoir is mined at a time.

Figure 2
Changes in microseismic source mechanisms can be used to identify new well positions –
Schlumberger presentation.

Summary
Gas shale development requires the use of hydraulic fracturing and microseismic surveys to
evaluate the reservoirs. The locations of the microseismic events give a good picture of where
the fracturing took place and can be used many times to indicate the volume of gas production
from a well.

The subsequent development of a gas shale reservoir after the first well requires the use of
multiple microseismic surveys so that microseismic events occurring in portions of the reservoir
where the pore pressure has been lowered due to production and portions of the reservoir that
have not been touched by production. In this case, the source mechanisms of the microseismic
events provide the prediction of new drilling locations.
 Surveillance Data for Unconventional Resource

Microseismic surveys of hydraulic fracturing have played a key role in developing gas shale
plays

Reservoir Studies using Microseismic Surveys

Microseismic surveys are relatively new to reservoir studies, and their potential is just beginning
to be acknowledged.

Table 1: Applications of Microearthquake Monitoring

Micorearthquakes caused by… Information gained Applications

Oil and gas reservoirs

Underground storage facilities

Reservoir pressure data
Pore pressure changes (production or (hydrocarbon, CO2, etc.)
injection)
Rock mechanical properties
Geothermal reservoirs

Thermal EOR projects

Distribution of hydraulic fractures from

microseismic event locations

Distribution of production from fractured

reservoirs from microseismic event locations Gas shale

Hydraulic fracturing Stress-pore pressure distribution from source Oil shale

mechanisms
Tight reservoirs
Flow estimates from timing and distribution of
seismic events

Tying of well control to surface seismic data

Oil and gas reservoirs

Lowering (producing) or raising (injection) the
pore pressure of a reservoir
Reservoir pressure studies
Underground storage facilities
(hydrocarbons, CO2 … etc)
Reservoir geomechanics (reservoir mechanical
properties)
Geothermal reservoirs Stream
floods

Microearthquakes likewise play a significant role in identifying natural fractures. Natural

fractures and faults control the event patterns of microearthquakes since they are weaker and
easier to break than a “solid” formation.

 The geometries and source mechanisms of seismic events are useful in interpreting
natural fracture patterns.
  The combined use of formation imaging tools in a treatment well with microseismic and
surface seismic data can provide an integrated interpretation of fracture systems.

Natural fractures and faults control the event patterns of microearthquakes since they are weaker
and easier to break than a solid formation.

Geometry and source mechanisms of microseismic events ⇒ interpretation of natural fracture

patterns

Use FMI in treatment well + microseismic data + surface seismic data ⇒ integrated
interpretation of fractures

Microearthquakes depend upon the geological formation, stress and pore pressure. Therefore, it
is not surprising that there are many ways to use microseismic surveys in reservoir studies.

Reservoir Heterogeneity
Microseismic surveys can be used as a reservoir surveillance tool to identify bypassed
production and optimize development strategies. Monitoring of reservoirs during hydraulic
fracturing can provide immediate indications of reservoir heterogeneity . This is important
for hydraulic fracturing of shale since shale is not as homogeneous as often thought.

Reservoir Volume Estimates

Microseismic surveys associated with hydraulic fracturing operations can provide valuable
information about the volume of hydrocarbons associated with the well; this information
supplements data obtained from initial well tests. Microseismic surveys run during hydraulic
fracturing can be used in multiple ways to estimate the volume of the reservoir contacted
with the hydraulic fracturing.

Reservoir Fracture Estimates

Microseismic surveys associated with hydraulic fracturing are ideal for detecting natural
fractures at a higher resolution because seismic surveys are restricted to the well location
and may not have the resolution required for detecting these fractures. When fluid is
injected during hydraulic fracturing, it causes any open natural fractures encountered to be
the site of a microearthquake. There is a big difference in the patterns of microearthquakes
for hydraulic fracturing in a reservoir with open natural fractures and one that does not
have the natural fracturing. The resolution of these fractures is far superior to any other
geophysical method.

Reservoir Pressure Estimates

During the normal course of production, microseismic surveys can be used to help predict
reservoir pore pressure. Since pore pressure and stress in a formation are related,
microearthquakes begin to occur in a reservoir when the pore pressure is reduced to a
critical value. In this way the occurrence of microearthquakes within the reservoir gives a
direct measure of when the reservoir pressure has reached this critical value.

Reservoir Geomechanics
Microseismic surveys can be used to monitor the physical and mechanical properties of the
reservoir rock and surrounding formations. Modern reservoir studies for large fields include
accounting for the geomechanical characteristics of the reservoir. Reservoir production
changes the pore pressure, which in turn changes the stress field in and around the
reservoir. The microearthquakes observed during the production of a field give a direct
indication of the stress and pore pressure changes associated with the reservoir.

Mircoseismic and Hydraulic Fracturing

Table 1 compares different fracture evaluation methods for hydraulic fracturing. As you can
see, microseismic studies provide information on reservoir properties that are not available
by any other method.

Hydraulic Fracture Diagnostic Technology

Table 1: Comparison of Fracture Evaluation Methods for Hydraulic Fracturing
(Modified from www.geospacetech.com)

Degree of Certainty
Technique Range Analysis Time
Azimuth Height Length Asymmetry

Microseismic High High High High Far During treatment

Tiltmeters High Low Low Low Far During treatment

Fracture Modeling Low Low Far Pre/post treatment

Radioactive Tracers Low High Wellbore Post-treatment

Temperature Logging Low Wellbore Post-treatment

Wellsite Testing Low Far Post-treatment

Production Data Low Far Post-treatment

Microseismic surveys used during hydraulic fracturing give a direct picture of where the
reservoir is fractured and where the fracture has gone into adjacent formations. By
following the microearthquakes, the operator can tell when the hydraulic fracture has left
the reservoir because of faulting or penetration of an adjacent formation.
The monitoring of microearthquakes caused by hydraulic fracturing can provide such
information as

 Distribution of hydraulic fracturing from microseismic event locations

 Distribution of production from fractured reservoir from microseismic event locations
 Stress-pore pressure distribution from source mechanisims
 Flow Estimates from timing and distribution of microseismic events
 A new tool for trying well control to surface seismic data

Applications in unconventional resources include gas shale, oil shale and tight reservoirs.

Life of Field (LOF) Studies

Microseismic surveys are more economic for normal production studies or hydraulic fracturing
studies in an instrumented field (one with permanent geophones or other acoustic sensors to
complement standard engineering gauges). Instrumented fields can be used to record
microseismic data for the life of the field.

 If normal production is being studied, microearthquake activity would be observed

throughout the life of the field for optimized production.
 If hydraulic fracturing is being studied for a shale play, the recognition of depleted zones
and new development zones can be accomplished using microearthquake surveys that
are extended through the life of the field.