geochemical Prospecting
particles without crushing. This can be done with a pestle
and mortar or other suitable non-contaminating mechani-
cal device that can be thoroughly cleaned between samples.
In earlier geochemical prospecting work, orientation stud-
ies on soils, stream sediments, and other surficial materials
revealed that the separation of –80 mesh material for analysis
was appropriate in many surveys. With some elements, such
as those commonly concentrated in residual minerals (W, Sn)
and other elements dispersed in weathering products in arid/
semi-arid environments, fractions coarser than 80 mesh give
superior geochemical patterns with better contrasts. Surveys
in glacial till environments benefit from the analysis of the
–240 mesh (63 µm) or even finer fractions. Careful size frac-
tion analysis during orientation will not only indicate the most
appropriate fraction for routine work, but the metal distribu-
tion throughout the sample reveals invaluable information on
metal behavior for interpretation purposes. Sieves must have a
non-contaminating composition. Those most frequently used
are made from stainless steel.
heavy Mineral Separations
Heavy mineral separations from stream sediment, glacial till,
and rock samples commonly utilize the liquids tetrabromo-
ethane (specific gravity [sp gr] 2.9) and methylene iodide
(sp gr 3.3). More recently, solutions of sodium polytungstate,
with specific gravity ranging from 1.0 to 3.1 according to dilu-
tion, can also be used to avoid the disposal issues associated
with tetrabromoethane and methlyene iodide. Usually these
liquid separations are carried out on coarser sample size frac-
tions (e.g., –30 + 80 mesh), but separations can be made on
material down to 200 mesh if the metal of interest is present
in the finer size fractions. If necessary, heavy mineral concen-
trates can be further subdivided by electromagnetic separation
into magnetic, paramagnetic, and nonmagnetic fractions and
analyzed separately.
vegetation Samples
Ideally, vegetation and humus samples should contain no
clastic material. Dust on leaves and twigs can be removed by
rinsing with demineralized water, but humus material is rarely
100% organic. The presence of excessive clastic material may
dilute or contaminate the metal content of the organic material
and adversely interfere with lower detection limits possible
on organic material using the neutron activation analytical
technique.
After drying at temperatures of less than 70°C (160°F) in
a standard drying or microwave oven, vegetation samples are
macerated in a Wiley mill to a –2 mm mesh size. This material
is compressed into either 8.0- or 30.0-g pellets for direct anal-
ysis by neutron activation or can be ashed in a muffle furnace
at 450° to 470°C (842° to 878°F) for approximately 15 hours.
The plant ash is then analyzed in a similar manner to clastic
sample material.
Rock Samples
Some surveys call for the analysis of specific minerals in
rock samples. Such minerals may include magnetite, biotites,
feldspars, and sulfides that may be concentrated by magnetic
separation or with heavy liquids from the most suitable size
fraction, after appropriate sample treatment (Govett 1983).
Most rock samples collected in geochemical programs
are analyzed for their whole rock or trace element contents.
This requires crushing and pulverizing and, if the contained
133
metals of interest are heterogeneously distributed (e.g., as
with coarse gold), the principles of sampling theory must be
observed (Pitard 1993). The pulverized whole rock product
that is commonly analyzed has a grain size of less than 150
to 200 mesh. The sample is rarely reduced to this fine grain
size in its entirety, but, as a general rule, the finer the sample
can be crushed or ground prior to sample splitting, the more
representative the split is likely to be.
The emphasis on gold exploration in recent years has
focused attention on sample heterogeneity. This has stimu-
lated some significant developments in the design and adap-
tation of crushing and grinding equipment for improved
sample preparation. In addition to sample representativity,
the geochemist must be concerned with sources of contami-
nation in the sample preparation equipment. Grinding plates
and blades of different composition are available so that the
obvious contamination from chrome steel, tungsten carbide,
and other materials can be avoided. Similarly, loss of sample
representivity through smearing of native copper, native gold,
molybdenite, or other soft material on pulverizer plates can
be avoided in many instances by the selection of alternative
equipment with a different comminuting action.
Because sample weights analyzed in geochemical work
are small (0.1 to 50 g [0.0002 to 0.1 lb]) compared with
the original sample size, sample homogeneity is important.
Improved mixing can be achieved, when necessary, by care-
ful blending and the pulverization of coarser fractions to the
–200 mesh size.
AnAlyTiCAl TeChniQueS
Analytical Methods
A prime requirement for cost-effective geochemical explo-
ration surveys is the availability of analytical procedures
capable of high productivity, low detection limits, high pre-
cision, and acceptable accuracy. These criteria were met in
the 1950s by a series of colorimetric analytical techniques
with productivities ranging from 20 to 100 samples per day.
Technological developments have subsequently led to the
introduction of atomic absorption spectrophotometry (AAS),
inductively coupled plasma (ICP) spectrometry , X-ray fluo-
rescence (XRF), and instrumental neutron activation analy-
sis (INAA) with far greater analytical sensitivity and vastly
increased productivity.
These analytical techniques provide accurate, pre-
cise determinations with detection limits of less than 5 ppb
to 1 ppm for many of the elements commonly measured in
exploration geochemical surveys. The ICP-mass spectrometer
instrument is capable of even greater sensitivity. Comparison
of some of these analytical methods is shown in Table 3.4-2.
In the minds of the inexperienced, the spectacular ana-
lytical capabilities of these instruments often overshadow
the critical importance of the sample preparation and sample
decomposition stages of sample treatment.
It was emphasized in the preceding section on sample
preparation that the most informative fraction of a geochemical
sample may be the heavy mineral fraction, a relatively coarse
fraction (–30 + 80 mesh), a fine fraction (–80 mesh), or a very
fine fraction (–250 mesh), depending on the material being
analyzed or the particular property of interest in a sample. If an
improperly chosen solid sample material is correctly analyzed,
the results can be no better than mediocre in the context of the
exploration program and may even be misleading.