Académique Documents
Professionnel Documents
Culture Documents
OCR
Additional
Mathematics
FSMQ
(6993)
Revision Notes
1
First Edition © C Morris. Only authorised for use by students at Reading School.
Index
Index ................................................................................................................................ 2
Syllabus for OCR FSMQ in Additional Mathematics (6993) ..................................... 4
Formulae.......................................................................................................................... 7
Algebra ............................................................................................................................ 8
Rationalising Surds ....................................................................................................... 8
Manipulation of Algebraic Expressions ....................................................................... 8
Addition and subtraction of polynomials ................................................................. 8
Multiplication of polynomials .................................................................................. 9
Division of polynomials ........................................................................................... 9
Remainder Theorem ................................................................................................... 12
Factor Theorem........................................................................................................... 13
Solution of Equations ................................................................................................. 15
Solving Equations Reducing to Quadratics ............................................................ 15
Solving Simultaneous Linear and Quadratic Equations (A Reminder) .................. 16
Completing the Square ........................................................................................... 17
Another (shorter) way of Completing the Square .................................................. 20
Sketching Quadratics using Completing the Square .............................................. 21
Finding the maximum and minimum point for a Quadratic Curve ........................ 21
Solving Quadratic Equations by Completing the Square ....................................... 23
Solving Cubic Equations Using The Factor Theorem ............................................ 24
Solving cubic and cubic inequalities ...................................................................... 26
Discriminant ........................................................................................................... 27
The Binomial Expansion ............................................................................................ 28
Pascal’s Triangle..................................................................................................... 28
Application to Probability – Binomial Distribution ................................................... 30
Co-ordinate Geometry ................................................................................................. 32
The Straight Line ........................................................................................................ 32
Gradient of a Straight Line ..................................................................................... 32
Mid-point of a Line Segment.................................................................................. 32
Length of a Line Segment ...................................................................................... 33
Finding the Equation of a Straight Line ................................................................. 33
Parallel and Perpendicular Gradients ..................................................................... 35
The Coordinate Geometry of Circles.......................................................................... 38
Equation of a Circle ................................................................................................ 38
Finding the Centre and Radius of a Circle ............................................................. 39
Useful Properties in Circle Problems ..................................................................... 41
Finding the Equation of a Tangent to a Circle........................................................ 42
Finding the Equation of a Normal to a Circle ........................................................ 43
Finding the Closest Distance of a Given Point from a Circle ................................ 43
When do circles meet? ............................................................................................ 44
Regions ....................................................................................................................... 45
Applications to Linear Programming ......................................................................... 47
2
First Edition © C Morris. Only authorised for use by students at Reading School.
Trigonometry ................................................................................................................ 50
IGCSE Revisited......................................................................................................... 50
Applications ................................................................................................................ 50
Graphs of Sine, Cosine and Tangent for Any Angle .................................................. 51
Trigonometric Identities ............................................................................................. 54
Solving simple trigonometric equations ..................................................................... 55
Trigonometry and Pythagoras in 3 Dimensions ......................................................... 59
Angle between a line and a plane ........................................................................... 59
Line of greatest slope .............................................................................................. 59
Angle between two planes ...................................................................................... 60
Calculus ......................................................................................................................... 61
Differentiation ............................................................................................................ 61
Notation .................................................................................................................. 61
Gradient Function ................................................................................................... 61
Differentiation of powers of x and constant multiples, sums and differences. ....... 62
Equations of tangents and normals ......................................................................... 63
Location and Nature of Stationary Points............................................................... 64
Sketching Curves .................................................................................................... 67
Practical Maximum and Minimum Problems ......................................................... 68
Integration ................................................................................................................... 69
Integration as the Reverse of Differentiation ......................................................... 69
Indefinite Integration of powers of n, constant multiples, sums and differences ... 69
Finding the constant of integration using given conditions .................................... 70
Definite Integrals ........................................................................................................ 71
Area between a curve and the x axis ...................................................................... 71
Area between two curves ........................................................................................ 74
Application to Kinematics .......................................................................................... 75
Motion in a Straight Line........................................................................................ 75
SUVAT Equations (Constant Acceleration Formulae) .......................................... 79
Displacement-time and Velocity-time Graphs ....................................................... 83
These Revision Notes contain the material that is additional to the IGCSE syllabus.
Material already covered in the IGCSE Revision Notes will not be repeated here.
3
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Algebra
Manipulation of algebraic expressions Be able to simplify expressions including algebraic
fractions, square roots and polynomials.
The remainder theorem Be able to find the remainder of a polynomial up to
order 3 when divided by a linear factor.
The factor theorem Be able to find linear factors of a polynomial up to
order 3.
Solution of equations Be confident in the use of brackets.
Be able to solve a linear equation in one unknown.
Be able to solve quadratic equations by factorisation, the
use of the formula and by completing the square.
Be able to solve a cubic equation by factorisation.
Be able to solve two linear simultaneous equations in 2
unknowns.
Be able to solve two simultaneous equations in 2 unknowns
where one equation is linear and the other is quadratic.
Be able to set up and solve problems leading to linear,
quadratic and cubic equations in one unknown, and to
simultaneous linear equations in two unknowns.
Inequalities Be able to manipulate inequalities.
Be able to solve linear and quadratic inequalities algebraically
and graphically.
The binomial expansion Understand and be able to apply the binomial
expansion of (a + b)n where n is a positive integer.
Application to probability Recognise probability situations which give rise to the
binomial distribution.
Be able to identify the binomial parameter, p, the
probability of success.
Be able to calculate probabilities using the binomial
distribution.
4
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Co-ordinate Geometry
The straight line Know the definition of the gradient of a line.
Know the relationship between the gradients of parallel
and perpendicular lines.
Be able to calculate the distance between two points.
Be able to find the mid-point of a line segment.
Be able to form the equation of a straight line.
Be able to draw a straight line given its equation.
Be able to solve simultaneous equations graphically.
The co-ordinate geometry of circles Know that the equation of a circle, centre (0,0), radius
r is x2 + y2 = r2.
Know that (x – a)2 + (y – b)2 = r2 is the equation of a
circle with centre (a, b) and radius r.
Inequalities Be able to illustrate linear inequalities in two variables.
Be able to express real situations in terms of linear
inequalities. Be able to use graphs of linear inequalities to
solve 2-dimensional maximisation and minimisation
problems, know the definition of objective function and
be able to find it in 2-dimensional cases.
Trigonometry
Ratios of any angles and their graphs Be able to use the definitions of sin , cos and tan
for any angle (measured in degrees only).
Be able to apply trigonometry to right angled triangles.
Know the sine and cosine rules and be able to apply them.
Be able to apply trigonometry to triangles with any
angles.
Know and be able to use the identity that sin tan
cos
Know and be able to use the identity sin 2 cos 21 .
Be able to solve simple trigonometrical equations in given
intervals.
Be able to apply trigonometry to 2 and 3 dimensional
problems.
5
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Calculus
Differentiation Be able to differentiate kxn where n is a positive integer or
0, and the sum of such functions.
Know that the gradient function dy gives the gradient
dx
of the curve and measures the rate of change of y with
respect to x.
Know that the gradient of the function is the gradient of the
tangent at that point.
Be able to find the equation of a tangent and normal at
any point on a curve.
Be able to use differentiation to find stationary points on a
curve.
Be able to determine the nature of a stationary point.
Be able to sketch a curve with known stationary points.
Integration Be aware that integration is the reverse of
differentiation.
Be able to integrate kxn where n is a positive integer or
0, and the sum of such functions.
Be able to find a constant of integration.
Be able to find the equation of a curve, given its gradient
function and one point.
Definite integrals Know what is meant by an indefinite and a definite
integral.
Be able to evaluate definite integrals.
Be able to find the area between a curve, two ordinates
and the x-axis. Be able to find the area between two
curves.
Application to kinematics Be able to use differentiation and integration with respect
to time to solve simple problems involving variable
acceleration.
Be able to recognise the special case where the use of
constant acceleration formulae is appropriate.
Be able to solve problems using these formulae.
6
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Formulae
You have been spoilt by not having to learn many mathematical formulae.
In the Additional Mathematics examination you are not given a formula sheet and
so the only formulae you will have with you are the ones that you have taken in there
in your head!
You are advised to make your own list of things to learn from the work covered
during the Additional Mathematics course.
You are also reminded to learn the formulae from the IGCSE formula sheet including
b 2 c 2 a2
any rearrangements of formulae on it e.g. cos A
2bc
7
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Algebra
Rationalising Surds
As well as the surds at IGCSE Level you may be asked to simplify more complicated
surds using the difference of two squares as an aid.
2 2 2 3 4 23 4 2 3 4 2 3 4 23
2
232323 22 3 4 3 1
3 5 3 5 3 5 9 65 5 14 6 5 14 6 5 7 3 5 7 3
5
35 35 35 2 2 9 5 4 2 2 2
3 5
Manipulation of Algebraic Expressions
When adding or subtracting polynomials combine the terms with the same powers.
Examples
10 3 x 5 x 2 4x3
(6 2 x 4 x 3 ) (4 4 x 7 x 2 ) 6 4 2 x ( 4 x ) 7 x 2 4x3
2 6x 7x2 4x3
8
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Multiplication of polynomials
This is exactly like expanding linear brackets at GCSE. Multiply each term in the
second bracket by each term in the first bracket and then simplify. Laying your work
out systematically can avoid silly slips being made as shown in the example below.
(3 4 x 2 x 3 )(1 x x 2 x 3 ) 3 3 x 3 x 2 3x3
4x 4x2 4x3 4x4
2 x 3 2 x 4 2 x 5 2x6
3 x 7x2 5 x 3 6 x 4 2 x 5 2x6
Division of polynomials
Example
2 x 2 2 x5
x 2 2x 2x23
x 3 2x2 times ( x 2) is (2 x3 4 x2 )
2 x3 4x2
2x 2 x Take (2 x3 4 x2 ) from (2 x3 2 x2 ) and bring down the x
2 x 2 4x
5x 3 2x times ( x 2) is (2 x 2 4 x)
5 x 10
7 Take (2 x 2 4 x) from (2 x 2 x) and bring down the 3
That is to say ( x 2) does not go into 7 so this is your remainder
(2 x 3 2 x 2 x 3) ( x 2) (2 x 2 2 x 5) remainder 7
2x3 2x2 x 3 2x 2 2x 5 7
x 2 x 2
or
2 x 3 2 x 2 x 3 ( x 2)(2 x 2 2 x 5) 7
9
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From Method 1 it is clear that when you divide a cubic by a linear term you will
obtain a quadratic plus a constant remainder. Using the last form from above:
(2 x 3 2x2 x 3) ax 3 bx 2 cx 2 ax 2 2bx 2c d
b 2a 2 (comparing coefficients of x2 )
b 4 2
b 2
c 2b 1 (comparing coefficients of x)
c 4 1
c 5
2c d 3 (comparing constants)
10 d 3
d 7
(2 x 3 2x2 x 3) ( x 2) (2 x 2 2 x 5) remainder 7
10
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Method 3
(2 x 3 2x2 x 3) ( x 2)(2 x 2 bx c ) d
The terms that will have an x2 in come from x bx and 2 2x2 . These together must give
2x 2 .
b 4 2
b 2
(2 x 3 2x2 x 3) ( x 2)(2 x 2 2x c) d
The terms that will have an x in come from 2 2x and cx . These together must give
x.
c 4 1
c 5
(2 x 3 2x2 x 3) ( x 2)(2 x 2 2 x 5) d
2 5 d 3
10 d 3
d 7
So
(2 x 3 2x2 x 3) ( x 2) (2 x 2 2 x 5) remainder 7
11
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Remainder Theorem
There is a much easier way of finding the remainder when you divide by a linear
a
The remainder when f ( x) is divided by ( bx a) is f b
Example 1
Example 2
Example 3
3 2
f ( 12 ) 8 1
2 4 2
1
2 1
2 1.
1 1
8 84 4 1 1
1 1 1 1
2
12
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Factor Theorem
If f ( a) 0 then ( x a) is a factor of f ( x)
a
If f b 0 then ( bx a) is a factor of f ( x)
Example 1
Solution
Let f ( x ) x3 3x2 10 x 24
f (3) 33 3 32 10 3 24
27 27 30 24 0
x 3 is a factor of f ( x)
x 2 x ( 2)
3 2
f ( 2) ( 2) 3 ( 2) 10 ( 2) 24 8 12 20
24 0
x 2 is a factor of f ( x)
13
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Example 2
Solution
Let f ( x ) 2 x 3 9x2 7x 6
f (1) 2 9 7 6 6 0 so ( x 1) is not a factor of f ( x)
In the quadratic bracket on the right the x2 coefficient must be 2 to give 2x3 when you
multiply out.
In the quadratic bracket on the right the constant must be 3 to give 6 when you
multiply out.
To find the value of b look at the x2 term on the right hand side when you multiply out
and compare this with the x2 term on the left hand side.
2 2x2 bx 2 9x2
b 4 9
b 5
As a check look at the x term which should be the same on both sides.
On the right hand side this is 2 5 x 3 x 7x which agrees with the left hand side.
If the quadratic factorises we can now complete the factorisation. In this case it does
and leads to
14
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Solution of Equations
Example 1
Solution
x 4 5 x2 36 0 ( x
2
) 2 5( x2 ) 36 0
y 2 5 y 36 0 ( y
9)( y 4) 0
y 9 0 or y 4 0 y 9 or
4
x2 9 or 4
Example 2
4
Solve the equation 2 x 7 0
x
Solution
4
2x70x
2 x 2 7 x 4 0 (multiplying through by x) (2
x 1)( x 4) 0
2 x 1 0 or x 4 0 x 12 or
4
15
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Example 1
Solution
x2 49 14 x x2 25 (expanding)
2x2 14 x 24 0
Note that the x and y values must be paired in the final answer otherwise you may lose
marks.
Example 2
By solving the equations simultaneously find where the line y 5 x 6 and the curve y x
2
x 2 meet and comment on your answer.
Solution
x 2 x 2 5 x 6 (equating y values) x 2 4
x40
( x 2) 2 0 x
2
y 5 2 6 4
16
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There are quicker methods for those good with mental gymnastics but this basic routine
is always effective. Another way of approaching things is to be found at the end of this
section.
Example 1
Solution
x2 4 x 3 ( x a )2 b
x 2 4 x 3 ( x a )( x a ) b x 2 4 x
3 x 2 2ax a 2 b
b 3 4 7
So
x2 4 x 3 ( x 2) 2 7
17
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Example 2
Solution
7 6 x x 2 a ( x b)2
7 6 x x 2 a ( x b )( x b)
7 6x x2 a (x2 2bx b2 )
7 6x x2 a b2 2bx x2
Then compare the bits on the 2 sides.
a97a
16
So
7 6x x2 16 ( x 3)2
18
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Example 3
Solution
2x2 8 x 11 a ( x b )2 c
2x2 8 x 11 a ( x b )( x b ) c
2x2 8 x 11 a ( x 2 2bx b 2 ) c
2x2 8 x 11 ax 2 2abx ab 2 c
22b8b2
8 c 11 c
3
So
2x2 8 x 11 2( x 2) 2 3
19
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Since
( x a ) 2 ( x a )( x a ) x 2 2ax a2 we can
use the fact that
x2 2 ax ( x a )2 a2
In the brackets with the x is half the number of x’s in the original expression.
Example 1
x2 4 x 3 ( x 2) 2 22 3 ( x 2) 2 7
Example 2
2x2 16 x 7 2( x 2 8 x) 7
2 2
2 ( x 4) ( 4) 72(x
4) 2 16 7
2( x 4) 2 25
Example 3
3 6x 2x2 3 2( x 2 3 x)
3 2 3 2
3 2(x 2 ) 2
15 2( x 3 )2
2 2
20
First Edition © C Morris. Only authorised for use by students at Reading School.
For example the curve y x 2 4 x 3 i.e. y ( x 2) 2 7 is the curve y x2 translated 2 units in the
negative x direction and translated 7 units in the negative y-direction.
Therefore the vertex of the curve (in this case the lowest point) is at ( 2, 7) .
10 y = x2 + 4x – 3
8
6
4
2
-6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5 x
-2
-4
-6
-8
( – 2, – 7)
-10
If you have completed the square on a quadratic it is easy to decide where the maximum
(or minimum) point on the curve is.
Example 1
Solution
y 2 x2 4x 2
y 2( x 2) 2 2 2 ( 2)2 y 2( x
2) 2 6
21
First Edition © C Morris. Only authorised for use by students at Reading School.
Example 2
Complete the square on y 3 8 x 4x2 and hence find the coordinates of the
maximum point on the curve.
Solution
y 4 x2 2x 3
y 4( x 1) 2 3 4 12 y 7 4(
x 1)2
Since the largest value of 7 4( x 1)2 will be when x 1 the maximum value of y 3 8 x
4x2 will be y 7 when x 1 .
22
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Example 1
Solution
x2 4x 3 0
( x 2) 2 22 3 0
( x 2) 2 7 0
( x 2) 2 7
x 2 7
x 2 7
Sometimes you are asked to give answers in surd form (which will be exact as no
decimal approximation will have taken place) but if you have to give decimal
answers you can obtain them easily from here.
If you needed answers to 3 decimal places they would be 4.646 and 0.646.
Example 2
Solution
( x 3) 2 ( 3) 2 8 0
( x 3) 2 17 0
( x 3) 2 17
x 3 17
x 3 17
x 1.12 or 7.12 (3 sf)
23
First Edition © C Morris. Only authorised for use by students at Reading School.
Example 1
Solution
Let f ( x ) x3 1 f
(1) 13 1 0
x 1 is a factor of x3 1
x3 1 ( x 1)( ax 2 bx c)
ax 3 (b a ) x 2 ( c b) x c
a 1
b a b 1 0 b 1
c b c 1 0 c 1
x3 1 ( x 1)( x 2 x 1)
24
First Edition © C Morris. Only authorised for use by students at Reading School.
Example 2
Solution
Let f ( x ) 2 x 3 5x2 x 6
f (1) 2 5 1 6 2 0 so ( x 1) is not a factor
f ( 1) 2 5 1 6 0 so ( x 1) is a factor
You can then go through two different routes. Either take out x 1 as a factor (as in the
example on the next page) or find another factor. Pursuing this route gives
Let f ( x ) 2 x3 5x2 x 6
f (2) 16 20 2 6 0 so ( x 2) is a factor
This final factor comes from observing that it must start with a 2x to give 2x3 and
must end up with 3 to get 6 .
25
First Edition © C Morris. Only authorised for use by students at Reading School.
Example
Solution
Let f ( x ) 2 x3 7x2 3 x 18
f (1) 10 so ( x 1) is not a factor of f ( x)
f ( 1) 12 so ( x 1) is not a factor of f ( x)
f (2) 0 so ( x 2) is a factor of f ( x)
Either by long division or by
f ( x ) ( x 2)(2 x 2 3 x 9) f ( comparing coefficients
x ) ( x 2)(2 x 3)( x 3)
3
f ( x ) 0 when x 2 or 3 or
2
y
y = (x – 2)(2x + 3)(x – 3)
15
10
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5 6 x
-5
-10
3
f ( x) 0 when the curve is on or above the x axis so f ( x) 0 when x 2 or x 3.
2
26
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Discriminant
ax 2 bx c 0, a 0
You know that the solutions (if there are any) are given by the quadratic
equation formula
b b2 4ac
x
2a
The part underneath the square root sign is called the discriminant, often given
the symbol . So b 2 4ac .
0 Solutions
0 No solutions
a perfect square The quadratic factorises
Examples
27
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Pascal’s Triangle
The coefficients for expanding (1 x)n come from the rows of Pascal’s Triangle.
1
1 1
1 2 1
1 3 3 1
1 4 6 4 1
1 5 10 10 5 1
1 6 15 20 15 6 1
1 7 21 35 35 21 7 1
For example the entries in the row beginning 1, 6, 15, 20, 15, 6, 1 come from
6 C , 6C , 6 C, 6
C , 6C , 6 C , 6C respectively.
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
(1 x ) n 1 n
C1 x n
C2 x2 n
C3 x 3 n
Cr xr xn
n!
Where nCr .
r !( n r )!
n
Note that nCr is sometimes written as (NB no fraction line!)
r
28
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( a x )n an n
C1 a n 1
x n
C2 an 2
x2 n
C3 a n 3
x3 n
Cr a n r x r xn
Example 1
Find the first five terms in the expansion of (1 x)10 in ascending powers of x.
Solution
(1 x)10 1 10
C x 10 C x 210C x 310C x4 ...
1 2 3 4
Example 2
Solution
(1 2 x ) 7 1 7
C1 ( 2 x ) 7
C2 ( 2x)2 7
C3 ( 2 x)3
1 14 x 84 x 2 280 x3 ...
Example 3
Find the binomial expansion of (3 2 x)5 and use your expansion to estimate 3.0025
correct to 1 decimal place.
Solution
(3 2 x) 5 35 5
C 34 (2 x) 5
C 33 (2 x ) 2 5
C 32 (2 x ) 3 5
C 31 (2 x )4 (2 x)5
1 2 3 4
29
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Example 4
Use the answer to example 2 to find the expansion in ascending powers of x up to and
including the term in x3 of (2 3 x )(1 2 x)7 .
Solution
n
P( X r ) C r p r qn r
n
P( X r ) C r p r (1 p)n r
Mean of X np
The outcome of each trial is independent of the outcomes of all the other trials
n
In the formula P( X r ) C r p r (1 p)n r
there must be
30
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Example 1
X B (9, 0.15)
9
(a) P( X 5) C5 0.15 5 0.85 4 0.00499 (3 sf)
(b)
P( X 3) P( X 0 or 1 or 2 or 3)
P( X 3) 0.85 9 9
C1 0.151 0.85 8 9
C2 0.15 2 0.85 7 9
C3 0.153 0.856 0.966 (3 sf)
(c)
P( X 1) 1 P( X 0)
Example 2
How many fair cubical dice must be rolled for there to be a 99% chance of obtaining
at least one six?
Solution
n
5
1 0.99
6
n
5
0.01
6
25
5
0.01048... 0.01
6
26
5
0.008735... 0.01 (using trial and improvement)
6
At least 26 dice must be rolled for there to be a probability of at least one six
31
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Co-ordinate Geometry
The Straight Line
( x2 , y2 )
y 2 y1
x
Gradient x
2 x1
( x1 , y1 )
Example
Find the gradient of the line joining the points ( 3, 7) and (2, 13) .
13 7 20
Gradient 4
2 ( 3) 5
y x1
x2 , y1 y2
Mid point M is
2 2
( x2 , y 2 )
M
x
( x1 , y1 )
Example
Find the midpoint of the line joining the points ( 3, 7) and (2, 13) .
3 2 7 ( 13)
The midpoint is , 1
2
, 3
2 2
32
First Edition © C Morris. Only authorised for use by students at Reading School.
( x1 , y1 )
Example
Find the length of the line segment joining the points ( 3, 7) and (2, 8) .
5 2 ( 15)2
250 25
10 5 10
The equation of a straight line is of the form y mx c where m is the gradient and c is the
y-intercept.
Remember that the equation must be in this form before you can read off the gradient. If
it is not you must rearrange the equation first.
Be careful that you give the answer in the required form. Sometimes a question will ask
you to give your answer a specific way e.g. in the form ax by c 0 where a, b and c are
integers.
There are several approaches each of which needs you to have a gradient and a point
that the line goes through. If you are given 2 points you can obviously find the gradient
from this.
33
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Example 1
3
The gradient of the line 3 x 4 y 7 0 is since rearranging the equation gives 4
3x 4y 7 0
4y 3x 7
3 7
y x 44
Example 2
Find an equation of the straight line with gradient 3 going through the point with
coordinates ( 3, 7) .
Approach 1
y 3x c
3) c c 2
y 3x 2
Approach 2 (preferred)
y 7 Gradient
is x ( 3) 3
y 7 3( x 3)
y 73x9y3x
2
34
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Example 3
Find an equation of the straight line through the points with coordinates
(2, 5) and ( 3,15) .
y ( 5) 15 ( 5) Gradient
x 2 3 2
y 5 20
4
x 2 5
y 5 4( x 2) y
5 4x 8y 4
x 3
Two lines are parallel if and only if they have the same gradient.
Example
The equations of 5 lines are given below. Which lines are parallel to L and which lines
are perpendicular to L.
L: y 2x 5
M: 4x 2y 8
N: 2y x 4
P: 2x 4y 5
R: 4x 2y 3 0
L: y 2x 5
M: y 2x 4
1
N: y 2 x 2
1 5
P: y x
2 2
3
R: y 2x
2
35
First Edition © C Morris. Only authorised for use by students at Reading School.
Example
Find the equation of the line that is parallel to y 2 x 7 and goes through the point ( 3,
3) .
Solution
y 3
2
x ( 3)
y 3 2( x 3) y
3 2x 6y 2
x 9
Example
Find the equation of the line that is perpendicular 3 x 2 y 2 0 and goes through the point
(2, 5) giving your answer in the form ax by c 0 where a, b and c are integers.
Solution
1 2
3 3
2
y ( 5) 2
x 2 3
3( y 5) 2( x 2) 3 y
15 2 x 4
2 x 3 y 11 0
36
First Edition © C Morris. Only authorised for use by students at Reading School.
Reminder
Remember that lines parallel to the x-axis are of the form y k where k is a constant
and lines parallel to the y-axis are of the form x k where k is a constant.
All lines perpendicular to a line of the form y k1 will therefore be of the form x k2
where k1 and k2 are constants and vice versa.
Example
Find the equation of the line perpendicular to x 4 and going through the point (2, 3) .
Solution
The line must be of the form y k and since it goes through a point with y-coordinate 3 it
must be y 3 .
37
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Equation of a Circle
The equation of a circle centre the origin and with radius r is given by
x2 y2 r2
( x a ) 2 ( y b )2 r2
Notes
Examples
3x2 3 y2 147 is a circle centre the origin and radius 7 since it can be rewritten as
x2 y2 49 by dividing throughout by 3.
38
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Example 1
x2 y2 8x 6y 5 0x2 y2
8 x 6 y 5 0 ( x 4) 2 42 (y
3) 2 ( 3) 2 5 0 ( x 4) 2 (y
3) 2 20 0
( x 4) 2 ( y 3) 2 20
39
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Example 2
(i) x2 2y2 6 x 8 y 36
(ii) x2 y2 2 xy 6 x 12 y 11 0
(iii) (x y)2 ( x y) 2 50
(iv) y2x2 4 x 6 y 12
(v) x2 y2 10 x 2 y 50 0
Solutions
(i) This is not a circle because the coefficients of x2 and y2 are not the same.
x2 2 xy y 2 x2 2 xy y2 50
x2 y2 25
x2 4x y2 6 y 12
( x 2) 2 ( y 3) 2 12 2 2 32 25
x2 y2 10 x 2 y 50 0
( x 5) 2 ( y 1) 2 50 5 2 12 24
This is not a circle because the right hand can’t be a radius squared since it
is negative.
40
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Example
Find the equation of the circle that has a diameter with endpoints (2, 4) and ( 4,8)
Solution
2 ( 4) 4 8
The centre of the circle is at , 1, 2
2 2
( 4 2) 2 (8 ( 4) 2 ( 6) 2 12 2 180 36 5 6 5
x ( 1) 2 y 2 2 (3 5)2
x 12y 22 45
41
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This can be found by using the fact that the tangent to a circle is perpendicular to
the radius of the circle.
Example
Find the equation of the tangent to the circle x 2 y 2 6 x 8 y 0 at the point with
coordinates (6, 8) .
x2 y2 6x 8y 0
( x 3) 2 ( y 4) 2 ( 3) 2 42 25
4 ( 8) 4
Gradient of radius to (6, 8)
3 6 3
1 3
Gradient of tangent at (6, 8)
4 4
3
y ( 8) 3
x 6 4
4( y 8) 3( x 6) 3 x
4 y 50
42
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The equation of a normal to a circle can be tackled in a similar fashion to the equation
of the tangent. Remember that the equation of a normal to a circle at a particular point,
P say, has the same gradient as the gradient of the line joining P to the centre of the
circle.
Example
In the scenario outlined above, the equation of the normal at the point with coordinates
(6, 8) on the circle with equation x 2 y 2 6 x 8 y 0 is given by
y ( 8) 4
x 6 3
3( y 8) 4( x 6)
4x 3y 0
Essentially this reduces to finding the coordinates of the point, P, where a line
through the given point, A and the centre of the circle, C, meet the circle and use this
point to calculate the required distance.
y
4
2 4 x
43
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Example
Find the point on the circle with equation ( x 2) 2 ( y 7) 2 5 that is closest to the
point with coordinates (8,19) .
Solution
(8 2) 2 (19 7) 2 62 12 2 180 36 5 6 5
6 5 5 5 5
If r1 and r2 are the radii of two circles, r1 r2 and d is the distance between their
centres then
d r1 r2 d r2 r1
(iii) Circles do not intersect (iii) Circles intersect at two distinct points
d r1 r2 r2 r1 d r1 r2
44
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Regions
Solid lines are used for inequalities that include = and dashed lines otherwise.
You are usually expected to shade the regions that are excluded e.g. when representing
the inequality x 3 you would shade the region that is NOT x 3
y y
5 5
4 4
3 3
x>3
2 x22
1 1
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5 x x
- 5 - 4 - 3 - 2 -1 1 2 3 4 5
-1 -1
-2 -2
-3 -3
-4 -4
-5 -5
y y
5 5
4 4
3 3
y> –2
2 2
1 1
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5 x x
- 5 - 4 - 3 - 2 -1 1 2 3 4 5
-1 -1
-2 -2
-3 -3 y 1
-4 -4
-5 -5
y y
5 5
4 4
3 3
2 2
1 1
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5 x -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5 x
-1 -1
-2 -2
-3 y<x+2 -3 x – 2y 2
-4 -4
-5 -5
45
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If you are not sure which way to shade, just pick a test point off the line and see whether
it satisfies the inequality. You will know which way to go then.
In the last diagram, for example, if you use the point (3, 2) you get x 2 y 3 2 2 7 2 so (3,
2) does satisfy the inequality.
When drawing a graph such as 3 x 2 y 24 a very quick way is to find out where it
meets the axes by putting x 0 to get y 12 and by putting y 0 to get x 8 .
Questions often require you to shade regions that satisfy a number of inequalities.
Example
Use shading to show the region (often called the feasible region) that satisfies the
following inequalities. You should shade the region that is not required.
x 2
y 2
x y 3
Solution
y
x=2
y=2
2
-6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 x
-2
-4
x+y= 3
46
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x2y62
xy8
x2y
3
Such maximum points usually occur at a vertex (corner) of the region. The slope of
lines of the form x y k indicates that in this case this would be where x 2 y 6 and 2 x y
8 meet. By solving simultaneously this pair of equations it can be shown
that these meet at 3 13 ,1 13 . The maximum value of x y is therefore 3 13 1 13 4 23 .
x + 2y = 6
2
x= 2
-4 -2 0 2 4 x
2x + y = 8
-2
y= 3
-4
47
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Example
Grizelda is going to make some small cakes to sell at school and raise money for
charity. She has decided to make some chocolate muffins and some yummy munchies.
She would like to make as many cakes as possible but discovers that she only has 2 kg
of flour and 750 g of butter. She has more than enough of the other ingredients.
For 16 yummy munchies she needs 200 g of flour and 125 g of butter.
(i) Using x to represent the number of batches of muffins and y to represent the
number of batches of yummy munchies, write down and simplify two
inequalities relating to the available ingredients.
(ii) Illustrate the region satisfied by these inequalities, using the horizontal axis
for x and the vertical axis for y, and shading the unwanted region.
(iii) Write down the objective function for the total number of cakes and find
the greatest number of cakes that Grizelda can make.
48
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Solution
(i) 300 x 200 y 2000 (restriction on flour) Using m to represent the number
3 x 2 y 20
2 x 5 y 30
(ii) y
20
15
10 3x + 2y = 20
5
The coordinates (4, 4) 2x + 5y = 30
give the largest value of
12 x 16 y in the feasible
region i.e. 112 cakes. 0 5 10 N = 12x + 16y 20 x
Remember that lines of the form 12 x 16 y k are all parallel to each other.
Look for the largest value of N that satisfies the conditions from (i) and (ii)
with both x and y whole numbers (this is required from the context since the
number of batches of each must be a whole number). Remember that this
will usually be at or near a corner of the region formed by the constraints.
49
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Trigonometry
IGCSE Revisited
You obviously need to be familiar with all the work from IGCSE to do with
This includes finding sides and angles and may include the ambiguous case for use
of the sine rule to find an angle.
1
Finding areas of triangles including use of the formula ab sin
C2
Remember that you will not have any of the formulae and will have to have
learnt them!
Applications
You are much more likely to be asked application of trigonometry. Likely contexts
include the use of terms such as
Angle of elevation
Angle of elevation
x°
Horizontal
Angle of depression
Horizontal
°
x
Angle of depression
Problems involving bearings and other real life situations are also very likely so
make sure that you revise this.
50
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1 y = sin x
0.5
-1
Observe that
sin 90 1 sin
270 1
) sin x
51
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1 y = cos x
0.5
-1
Observe that
cos 0 cos360 1
cos180 1
cos(180 x) cos x
cos( x ) cos x
52
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y
10
8 y = tan x
6
4
2
Observe that
tan 45 1
tan135 tan 45 1
tan 90
tan 270
tan(180 x ) tan x
tan( x ) tan x
53
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Trigonometric Identities
sin 2 cos 2 1
sin
tan
cos
z
y
90 –
x
x
sin cos(90 ) z
y
cos sin(90 ) z
x 1 1
tan y y tan(90)
x
54
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Example 1
Solution
From the symmetry of the sine graph there will also be a solution at
Example 2
Solution
Since the tangent graph repeats itself every 180 there will also be a solution at
Example 3
Solution
Another can be found from the symmetry of the cosine graph about 0 i.e.
101.5 (1 dp)
There is a third that can be found using the symmetry of the cosine graph about
180 .
55
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Example 4
Solution
sin
2
cos
tan 2
63.4 or 243.4
Example 5
Solution
Example 5
Solution
1
sin2 2
1
sin
2
When sin 1
2
45 or 135
1
When sin
2
225 or 315
56
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Example 6
Solution
sin 2 5sin 5 03
5sin 2 0
Let y sin 3
y25y20
3 y 2 ( y 1) 0
3 y 2 0 or y 1 0 y 23
or y 1
Example 7
Solution
tan cos 1
sin cos 1
cos
sin 1
270
57
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Example 8
Solution
tan 2 sin
sin
2sin
cos
0 or 180 or 360
or 1 2 cos 0
1
cos
2
60 or 300
Example 9
Solution
If 0 360 0 2 720
cos 2 0.3
58
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Remember the key skills of identifying which angles you are working with and
extracting suitable triangles to work with.
You also need to be familiar with some additional terms that you might not have met
before just in case they come up.
You should drop a perpendicular line down from the line to the plane to form a
right-angled triangle.
Plane
Line
This is the steepest line down a slope. It is essentially the path a ball would take
if released on the slope!
59
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This is the angle between lines in the two planes that meet at right angles to where the
two planes meet.
60
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Calculus
Differentiation
Notation
dy
is the (first) derivative of y with respect to x.
dx
d2 y
is the second derivative of y with respect to x.
dx2
dy
This is the derivative of with respect to x.
dx
The first derivative of f ( x) is written as f '( x) and the second derivative is written as
f ''( x)
d
When differentiating something you will often see it written as something .
dx
For example if you are differentiating x 3 3 x 2 3 x 2 you will often see this written as
d
( x3 3 x 2 3 x 2) . dx
Gradient Function
dy
is also called the gradient function as it gives the gradient of a curve at the point
dx
( x , y) when the x-coordinate of the point is substituted into it.
61
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d ax nnaxn 1
where a is a constant. Multiply by the power and reduce the
dx power by 1.
d
ax n bx m nax n 1 mbx m 1 where a and b are constants,
dx
Remember to write functions as powers of x before you differentiate and make sure that
you simplify expressions first.
d d
(2 x 1)(3 x 2 2) 6x3 3x2 4x 2
dx dx
18 x 2 6 x 4
You must write anything to be
differentiated as powers of x
d x7 x11 d 4 8
before you begin, multiplying or
3 x x dividing out before you begin.
dx x dx
4x3 8x7
62
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The normal to a curve at a point is the line perpendicular to the tangent at that point as
shown by the diagram below.
y Normal
Tangent
Example
Find the equation of the tangent and the normal to the curve y 3 x 2 2x at the point where
x2.
dy
6x 2
This simply dx
means put the
value x 2 into the When x 2, y 3 2 2 2 2 16
gradient function.
dy 6 2 2 14
dx
x 2
y 16
Equation of the tangent is 14
x 2
y 16 14 x 28
y 14 x 12
The gradient of the
y 16 1 normal is 1 divided by
Equation of the normal is
x 2 14 the gradient of the
tangent.
14( y 16) ( x 2)
14 y x 226
63
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Stationary points can be maximum points, minimum points (these are both called
turning points) or points of inflexion (sometimes spelt inflection).
y
Maximum
Point
Point of
Inflexion Minimum
Point
In order to determine the nature of a stationary point (i.e. to find out what sort of
stationary point it is) you can either
(a) find the gradient dy either side of the point, or
dx
2
d
y
(b) use the second derivative 2
dx
If you use the first approach don’t go too far away from the stationary point or you
might move past another stationary point and draw an incorrect conclusion.
2
Value of d y Conclusion dy to the left dy at the point dy to the right
dx2 dx dx dx
0 Maximum point + ve / 0 ––– \ ve
64
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Note: The examples here are harder than you will meet in the examination but they
illustrate the principles well.
Example 1
Find the coordinates and nature of the stationary points on the curve y x 3 2x2 4x .
Solution
dy
3 x 2 4 x 4 (3 x 2)( x 2) dx
d2 y
6x 4
dx2
dy 2
dx 0 when x 2 or x3
2 40
d2 y 8 0, so there is a maximum at 2
, 40
dx2 x 2 3 27
3
65
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Example 2
Find the coordinates of any stationary points on the curve y x3 ( x 1)2 and determine
their nature.
Solution
y x 3 ( x 1) 2 x 3 ( x 1)( x 1)
x 3 ( x 2 2 x 1)
x5 2x 4 x3
dy
5 x 4 8 x 3 3x2
dx
d2 y
20 x 3 24 x 2 6 x 2(10 x 3 12 x 2 3 x) dx2
dy
When 5x4 8x3 3 x2 0
dx
x 2 (5 x 2 8 x 3) 0 x
2
(5 x 3)( x 1) 0
x 0 or 35 or 1
d2 y
0 (no information gained)
dx2 x 0
dy
0.0385 0
dx
x 0.1
d2 y
2 0 so a minimum at (1, 0)
dx2 x 1
66
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Sketching Curves
You may be expected to sketch simple curves using any of the mathematics included in
the syllabus. Useful things to bear in mind (although not all would be required on any
particular sketch, nor should you work them all out unless you are asked to) are
The general shapes of particular types of curves that you might know such as
y x2
y x3
1
y
x
y 1
x2
67
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Example
A cylindrical tin has a volume of 128 cm3. Find the dimensions necessary for the tin to
have the minimum possible surface area, and find the minimum possible surface area.
Surface area, S 2 r2 2 rh
Circular ends Curved surface
Volume, V r 2 h 128
128
h
r2
128
S 2 r2 2 r
r2
256
2 r2
r
dS 256
4 r
dr r2
d 2S 512
4
dr 2 r3
dS 256
0 when 4 r 0 i.e. when r 3 64 i.e. when r 4
dr r2
d2 S
4 8120 i.e. S is a minimum value when r 4 cm
dr 2 r 4
128
So the radius, r 4 cm and the height, h 8 cm
42
256
S min 24 2 96 cm2
4
68
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Integration
dy
dx y c where c is an arbitrary constant of integration. dx
axn 1
ax n dx cn1 .
n 1 Remember c once you have integrated.
a f ( x) dx a f ( x) dx
Make sure that you have written things
as powers of x before you integrate.
[f ( x) g( x )]d x f ( x) dx g( x) dx
Examples
3
3 x 7 dx x8 c
8
(x2 2)( x 3 1)dx ( x 5 x3 x2 2)dx
x6 x4 x3
6 4 3 2x c
x10 5x 8
dx (x 6 5x 4 )dx
x4
x 7 5x5
c
7 5
x7
x5 c
7
69
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Example 1
dy
Suppose that a curve y f ( x) is such that 2 x 1 and the curve passes through the dx
point (1, 2) .
Solution
y (2 x 1) dx x 2 x c
so y x 2 x 4
Example 2
dy
Suppose that 3 x 2 4x b where b is a constant. dx
Solution
dy 3 x 2 4x b
dx
y(3 x 2 4 x b )dx
x 3 4x2 bx c
2
y x3 2x 2 bx c
7 13 2 12 b 1 c
b c 4 (1)
12 2 3 2 22 b 2 c
2b c4 (2)
b8 (2) (1)
y x3 2x2 8 x 12
70
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Definite Integrals
b
If f ( x ) d x F( x ) c then f ( x ) d x F(b ) F( a) .
a
y
y = f(x)
x
a b
To find the area between the curve y f ( x) the x-axis and the lines x a and x b we
calculate
b b
y d xf ( x ) d x F(b ) F( a)
a a
For example the area between the x-axis, the curve y x 2 x 2 and the lines x 1 and x 3
is given by
3
Area( x 2 x 2) dx y y = x2 – x + 2
1
3
10
x3 x2 9
2x
3 2 1 8
33 32 13 12 7
2 3 21 6
3 2 3 2
9 1 1
5
9 2
63 2
2 4
8 32 3
2
1
-3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5 x
71
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Note that sometimes areas can be calculated using more straightforward methods. For
example, when working out the area under a straight line you can use the area of a
triangle or trapezium.
Note also that using symmetry can occasionally make calculations quicker.
Example
Find the shaded area between the curve y x3 and the line y 4x .
Solution
2 2 2
Area 2 4 x dx 2 x3 d x 2 (4 x x 3 ) dx
0 0 0
2
2 x4 16
2 2x 2 8 0 0 8 square units
40 4
The second uses the fact that the area under the line is the area of a triangle.
When x 2 , y 8 .
2
1 3
Area 2 22 82 x dx
0
2
x4 16
16 2 16 2 0 8 square units
4
0 4
72
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A warning!
You are strongly advised to draw a sketch of any curve before you find the area.
If a curve has part above the x-axis and part below the x-axis you need to consider the
two parts separately and combine the sizes of the areas.
Example
For example consider the area between the curve y x2 9 , the x-axis and the lines x 2
and x 5 .
A sketch shows that part of the area is below the x-axis and part is above.
2
y y=x –9
12
-2 -1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 x
-4
-8
3
3 2 x3 8 2
(x 9) d x 9x 9 273 182 3
2 3 2
3 3 3
Area required 2 23 14 23 17 13
5
NB Had we done ( x 2 9) d x then we would have obtained that the (incorrect) answer 12!
2
73
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To find the area between two curves y f ( x) and y g( x) which meet at x a and x b
which are such that f ( x) g( x) between these values find
b
f ( x ) g( x) dx
a
Example
y
10 y=x2 –2
8
6
4
2
-6 -4 -2 2 4 6 x
-2
-4
-6
-8 2
-10 y= –x +6
x2 2 x2 6
2 x2 8
x 2
We therefore need to evaluate the integral of the top curve take away the bottom one.
2
2 2
Area x 6x 2 dx
2 Note that if you had subtracted the integrals the
2 wrong way round you would have obtained the
2x2 8 dx answer 21 13 .
2
74
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Application to Kinematics
t time
s distance
ds
v velocity
dt
dv
a acceleration
dt
dv
Maximum/minimum velocity occurs when maximum of graph i.e. 0 i.e. when
dt
a 0.
v adt
75
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Example 1
The distance of a particle, s metres, from a fixed point O after time t seconds is given by
the formula s t 3 t 2 5t 2 .
Solution
(i) v ds 3t 2 2t 5 (ii) a dv 6t 2
dt dt
(v) v 3t 2 2t 5 0
(3t 5)(t 1) 0
t 1 23 seconds
76
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Example 2
A particle moves such that its displacement s metres after time t seconds is given by
st3 t2 t 1.
Solution
ds
(a) v 3t 2 2 t 1 (3t 1)( t 1)
dt
1
When v 0 , t 3 since t must be positive.
dv
(b) a 6t 2
dt
The only value of t that gives a 0 is t 13 and since time is always positive the
acceleration can never be 0.
Example 3
A particle has acceleration given by a 9t 2 1 where t is the time since the particle started
moving. Find the velocity in terms of t given that its initial velocity is 7 ms -1.
Solution
a 9t 2 1
v (9t 2 1) d t 3t 3 t c
When t 0, v 7 so 7 3 0 2 0 c
c 7
v 3t 3 t 7
77
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Example 4
st 2 t dt
t3 t2
s c
3 2
8 4 14
When t 2, s c c
3 2 3
27 9 27
When t 3, s c c
3 2 2
27 14
Distance travelled c c 8 65 metres
2 3
3
s t2 t dt
2
t3 t2 3
s
3 22
27 9 8 4
s
3 2 3 2
78
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These are for motion with constant acceleration in a straight line (horizontal or vertical)
only.
v u at s displacement
1
s ut 2 at 2 v final velocity
s u v t a acceleration
2
1
s vt 2 at 2 t time
Remember:
As these are vector quantities they have both magnitude and direction, so the signs
of the quantities in these equations can be positive or negative. Choose a direction
to be positive and then quantities in the opposite direction are negative. Slowing
down, retardation and deceleration are all terms for negative acceleration.
Usually g, the acceleration due to gravity is taken as 9.8 ms-2 (positive ↓).
You should choose the equation that fits the information you know and the
quantity that you are trying to calculate.
If there are two unknowns to find it may be that you need to form and solve a pair
of simultaneous equations.
If a particle is projected up and then falls down again you can look at the motion
in two stages, but this is not required, as long as you are careful with directions.
Total Distance
Average Speed
Total Time
Total Displacement
Average Velocity
Total Time
When projecting a particle vertically, at maximum height the velocity will be zero.
79
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Example 1
A car begins to accelerate at 0.5 ms-2 for a distance of 500 m. At the end of this the
car is travelling at 30 ms-1, calculate the initial speed of the car.
Solution
We know: a = 0.5
s = 500
v = 30
u=?
so use: v2 = u2 + 2as
30 2 u2 2 0.5 500
u2 30 2 2 0.5 500
u2 400
u 20 ms-1
Example 2
Solution
Because the particle is only acting under its own weight, its acceleration will be due
to gravity.
Because it reaches maximum height the final velocity at that height will be zero.
so use: v2 = u2 + 2as
0 30 2 2 ( 9.8) s
19.6 s 900
s 45.9 m (3 sf)
80
First Edition © C Morris. Only authorised for use by students at Reading School.
Example 3
Daisy is cycling at a steady speed of 6 ms 1 when she comes to a hill which causes her
to slow down at a rate of 0.5 ms 2 .
(a) How far up the hill does she travel before coming to a rest?
Solution
(a)
u 6
v 0
a 0.5
Using v 2 u2 2as
02 62 2 0.5 s
0 3 s
s 36
She travels 36 metres up the hill
(b)
u 6
v 2
a0.5
Using v u at
2 60.5 t
0.5t 4
4
t 8
0.5
She takes 8 seconds to slow down to 2 ms 2
81
First Edition © C Morris. Only authorised for use by students at Reading School.
Example 4
A particle is projected with a velocity of 20 ms-1. For how long will it be above a
height of 16m?
Solution
We know: u = 20 ↑
a = 9.8 ↑
s = 16 ↑ i.e. from the floor
t=?
so use: s = ut + ½ at2
16 = 20t – 4.9t2
2
0 = 4.9t – 20t + 16 use the quadratic formula
t = 1.09 s
t = 2.99 s (3 s.f.)
Two answers were expected because the particle will reach 16m both on the way up and
on the way down during its motion.
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First Edition © C Morris. Only authorised for use by students at Reading School.
These are often useful as tools in your armoury to tackle problems involving constant
(straight lined velocity-time graphs) or variable acceleration (curved velocity-time
graphs).
(t, s) [Displacement-time]
(t, v) [Velocity-time]
The area under this graph represents displacement when taking direction into
account and distance if only the total of the magnitudes of the areas are
considered.
Example 1
Displacement
(metres)
4 B C
D F
A
2 4 5 6.5 8.5 time
(seconds)
-6 E
Between points A and B on the graph the particle is travelling with a constant velocity of
2 ms-1 away from its starting point. Between B and C the particle is stationary.
Between C and D the particle travels back towards its starting point with constant
velocity –4 ms- 1 i.e. in the opposite direction to its initial motion. Between D and E the
particle travels 6 m away from its starting point in the opposite direction, still with
constant velocity –4 ms-1. For the final part of the journey between E and F the particle
travels with constant velocity 3 ms-1 in its original direction until it returns to its
starting point.
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First Edition © C Morris. Only authorised for use by students at Reading School.
Example 2
Velocity
-1
(ms )
D F
A
2 4 5 6.5 8.5 time
(seconds)
-6 E
At the point on the graph marked A, the particle starts at rest. Between points A and B on
the graph the particle is travelling with a constant acceleration of 2 ms - 2 away from its
starting point. Between B and C the particle is travelling with constant velocity
4 ms 1 away from its starting point.
The total distance travelled can be calculated by evaluating areas ABCD and DEF.
Notice that Examples 1 and 2 are quite different even though the graphs look the same!!!
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