PPL Theory

ADY 1

Stability – ‘The reaction of a body when it’s equilibrium is disturbed’.

Static Stability: Initial Response

Dynamic Stability: Response overtime

Longitudinal Stability: about the lat axis (pitch)

- About the Lateral Axis (pitch)

- Pivots ‘in direction’ of longitudinal axis
- A Longitudinally stable aircraft will stay in trim (pitch stability)

Several factors may contribute to longitudinal stability:

1. CoG position
- Distance between the CoG and tailplane affects longitudinal stability
- The further forward to CoG, the greater the length of the moment arm between
the CoG and the tailplane
 -Therefore, the greater the righting moment (tendency to restore stability)
-The closer the CoG to the tailplane, the less tendency it has to recorrect stability
-The further aft the CoG, the smaller the length of the moment arm and
therefore the smaller the righting moment
Remember:
a) CoG forward of forward limits = too stable
b) CoG aft of limits = not stable

Potential CASA Q 2. Tail plane surface area

- The area of the tailplane will also affect longitudinal stability

- The surface area of an aerofoil directly affects the amount of lift force generated
- Therefore, the larger the surface area of the tailplane, the greater the longitudinal
stability

3. Longitudinal Dihedral (Angle between the angles of incidence of the wing and tailplane)
- Angle of incidence refers to the angle between the chord line and the
longitudinal axis
- The angle at which the wing is fixed to the airframe

‘The tailplane is presented at a smaller angle of incidence so that a greater percentage

increase in lift will be produced when a disturbance occurs, producing a righting moment
(correcting force)’ **disturbance – when aircraft pitches up or down
Thrust

If thrust is increased, the nose will tend to pith up (negative static & dynamic

If thrust is decreased, the nose will tend to pitch down (negative static & dynamic)

In ana airxraft that pitches down at higher power setting

Lateral Stability: About the longitudinal axis (roll)

 Roll stability
 When an aircraft rolls it will tend to initially sideslip
into the turn initially
 This changes direction of relative airflow!

Dihedral Wing – Increases stability (upwards)

This means that during a sideslip, the lower wing presents at a greater angle of attack to the
relative airflow.

- Greater angle of
attack on down
going wing
- Down going wing
has tendency to be
pushed up as it
creates more lift,
wants to self
correct.
- This means that
during a sideslip,
the lower wing
presents at a greater angle of attack to the relative airflow
- Therefore, the lift on the lower wing will be greater and will work to level the
wings

Lateral Stability – Wing Anhedral

- Wing anhedral or negative Dihedral decreases Lateral Stability

- It has a destabilising effect but increase manoeuvrability – antonov, harrier jump jet

Pendulum Effect:

When a high wing aircraft is rolled, its low centre of gravity will also work to roll the wings level.

- Low Centre of Gravity = Wings swing back to centre

Floats: If an A/C is fitted with floats, stability

may be decreased. Relative Airflow hitting
keels/floats in a roll lowers stability.
Lateral Stability – Floats & Other Keel Surfaces

 If an aircraft is fitted with floats or other keel surfaces such as wheel fairings, lateral stability
may be decreased
 The relative airflow striking the keel surfaces in a sideslip during roll causes a destabilising
moment that wants to further the roll

Swept Back Wings:

- Swept back wings have more stability

Note: When aircraft yaws, outside wing

presents a greater frontal area to the
relative airflow, hence creating more drag.
This creates a tendency for the aircraft to
re-centre, to face into the airflow.

During a sideslip in a roll, the lower wing

will present more of its span to the
relative airflow than the upper wing,
therefore generating more lift to right the
aircraft

Directional Stability:

An aircraft has directional stability about the normal axis – Yaw Stability

- The large keel surfaces aft of the CoG provide the restoring force
- The greater the arm between to CoG and the vertical stabiliser, the greater the
stability
Spiral Instability:

In light aircraft, directional stability is strongest

- When ‘directional stability’ is stronger than ‘lateral stability’ an effect known as

spiral instability may occur.

As an aircraft rolls, it will sideslip, changing the direction of the relative airflow.

2 Things may Occur:

1. The lateral stability will attempt to roll the wings level

2. The directional stability will try to yaw the aircraft to try and line it up with
the new relative airflow. Directional stability is greater so the aircraft will
yaw.

As the aircraft yaw’s, the outboard wing travels faster and therefore generates more
lift, producing further roll.

The bank angle will continue to increase and eventually the aircraft will be
established in a spiral dive.

Spiral Dive:

- Speed Increasing
- Load Factor ‘G’ increasing
- Rapid height loss
- High Angle of Bank

Recover:

- Close the throttle

- Roll the wings level with coordinated rudder input
- Ease out of the dive

So Spiral Stability

High – Lateral

Low – Directional

(instability is opposite)
 ADY 2

Adverse Yaw:

- Secondary effect to ‘roll’ is ‘adverse yaw’

- Yaw in opposite direction to the roll

Down going aileron (up going wing) also

has an increase in form drag.
The upgoing Aileron creates an increase
However, because of the increased in parasite (form) drag.
camber it also has an increase in
induced drag.

More Drag = YAW in adverse direction

to roll

Aileron Design Features:

The Cessna 172 uses design features to cause the aircraft to yaw in the direction of roll. This
reduces fatigue on the pilot as reduces need to apply constant rudder through turns.

Types of Ailerons:

1. Differential Ailerons – Upgoing travels further then down going aileron

- Stops the yaw out

Note: don’t confuse with

the upgoing wing and
upgoing aileron – two
different things
 2. Frise Ailerons – Leading edge of the up going aileron
protrudes downward. Increasing form drag on the wing
(designed to be even with drag caused by down going
aileron)
- Stops yaw in

NOTE: The combination of differential and fries aileron designs means that an equal amount
of drag is produced by the up-going and down-going aileron during roll

NOTE: Equal amount of drag is produced by up going and down going ailerons through the
use of these design features.

NOTE: Induced drag – by-product of lift – more weight, more induced drag.

Flaps:

C172 has slotted flap’s (physical gap between trailing edge and the flap.

Increases camber therefore increase lift and drag.

‘By opening a slot between the wing and the flap, high pressure air from the lower surface flows
onto the upper surface.

This in turn re-energises the boundary layer and delays:

1. The breakdown of laminar flow into turbulence

2. The separation of the boundary layer from the
upper surface

Trim Tabs:

- Incorporated in the elevator on 172

- Reduce pilot work load
- Electric or manual
- Can be on elevator, rudder and aileron trim

Small force (deflected tab) holds the elevator up removing

back pressure and allows ‘hands free flying’.
Balance Tab’s: - Assists in movement

High speed = Firm Controls (hard to deflect into oncoming airflow)

Becomes difficult for pilots of large aircraft with large aircraft with large control surfaces,
which are also difficult to deflect due to their weight

Balance tabs reduce the force required to deflect the control surface into the airflow.

3 types of balance tabs:

1. Fixed – small tab that can be adjusted by engineers to a fixed position (On C172)

2. Aerodynamic – Horn Balances assist the pilot, by protruding a small surface area
into the opposing side of the flight control surface.

3. Mass Balance – At high speeds, control surfaces have a tendency to ‘flutter’.

Vibrations from pressure changes as the AoA is altered. If flutter is not stopped,
the control can destroy itself. Weight is always FWD of the hinge. Mass balance
brings CoG up to forward of the hinge line, increasing stability & prevents
flutter.

4. Automatic (Servo tab’s) – reduces weight off the flight control for deflection
When pilot moves controls:
1. The control input from the pilot causes the servo tab to move
2. The servo tab automatically moves in the opposite direction of
the flight control surface. This enables the control surface to
move more easily.

Anti-Servo Tab:

Used when the control surface is too light.

- When the stabiliser moves up, the anti-servo tab moves in the same direction
creating more ‘feel’
- An anti-balance tab or “anti-servo” tab is used
- Makes controls harder to move and in doing so, makes the controls heavier in
feel to the pilot
 ADY 3

CoG:

- CoG position is important considering aircraft stability during taxi

- To remain stable the A/C MUST have a centre of gravity somewhere in the area
between the three wheels
- The closer the CoG is to any one wheel, the more likely it is for the aircraft to tip
over at that wheel
- Continuous use of rudder must be applied in taildraggers to maintain direction
Effect of Wind:

- Most aircraft want to ‘weathercock’ (tend to turn head into wind)

- The nose of the aircraft will naturally want to swing and face into the wind’
- This is most pronounced in tail draggers as there is a larger keel surface aft of
the pivot point (main wheels)

Ground Looping

- If a swing to the left or right is allowed to continue unchecked, an unstable combination of forces
acts to point that even full rudder cannot prevent its continuation

- Due to the continuous yaw, a roll is induced which noses the aircraft into the ground

Managing Wind on the Ground:

When taxiing there is risk of:

1. The tail being lifted by a very strong wind

2. The ‘upwind’ wing being lifted by a strong wing

NOTE:

In a strong head wind – ‘PULL control column back or hold at neutral’ (Climb into wind)
In a strong tail wind – ‘PUSH control column forward’ (Dive out of wind)
Quartering Winds:

In a left quartering headwind, raise upwind aileron by moving the control column into the wind. This
in turn acts to pull the wing down, and hold the aircraft on the ground.

In a left quartering tail wind, lower the upwind aileron. This reduces the amount of airflow over the
aerofoil.

Wake Turbulence:

Aircraft generate vortices as a bi-product of lift creation

(induced drag).

These are ‘two counter rotating cylindrical vortices’, the

strength of which is governed by weight, speed and wing
shape of the body.

Vortices strength is greatest when the aircraft is heavy,

clean and slow. (Cruise configuration, gear up etc.)

1. Begins at take-off and ends at touch down

2. Vortices move downward and downwind,
sinking at 400-500ft/min, level off around 900ft
below flight path

How to avoid:
1. Remain 200 feet above flight path of another A/C
2. Remain 1000 feet below A/C flight path

When close to the ground (within 200ft), vortices move laterally along the ground at approx. 5knots.

NOTE: Light wind may cause the wake turbulence to remain stationary or clear faster.
 LIFE SPAN – 3 minutes+ on the ground and 5 minutes at altitude

Ground Effect: - ‘Ground effect is most significant during take-off and landing’

During landing as a result of extra lift and reduction in drag the pilot will experience a
floating sensation.

Wing Tip Vortices = Induced Drag

Ground Effect – when aircraft operate within one wingspan of the ground vortices cannot
fully develop. (the air is cushioned, artificially REDUCING drag by up to 41%)

- This artificial reduction in drag allows an aircraft to become airborne at a speed

slower then normally acceptable

- Ground effect is most pronounced within ½ a total wingspan from the ground

However, once ‘one wingspan’ above the ground, as much as 41% MORE drag is created
whilst leaving ground effect. This will decrease lift and increase induced drag.

HAZARD ON LANDING:
- If approach is too fast, aircraft will enter ground effect and will appear to float
- DON’T put the nose down, go round

Load Factor:

Load factor increases stall speed, therefore requires more lift to stay in the air

Stall AoA: 16° (always)

Stall Speed: Changes
 Load Factor Stall Speed Formula: NEW Vs = OLD Vs x (√Load Factor)

Lift/Drag MAX (best glide speed)

Turn Performance:

1. Radius of turn
2. Rate of turn

An aircraft is maximum turning performance

when:

1. Radius of turn is minimum

2. Rate of turn is maximum

RADIUS of Turn:
 V(TAS) ANGLE OF BANK
30° 60°
105 515m 170m
80 300m 100m

RATE of Turn:

3V(TAS) ANGLE OF BANK

30° 60°
105 6° / second 18° / second
80 8° / second 24° / second

Summary:

Speed Increase Constant

AoB Constant Increase
Rate Decrease Increase
Radius Increase Decrease

Types of Climbs:

Best Angle of Climb - Maximum vertical distance achieved over minimum horizontal distance

- Achieved at max excess thrust (62 knots in C172)

- Used for obstacle clearance
- Vertical Distance vs Horizontal Distance

Best Rate of Climb – Maximum vertical distance for minimum amount of time

- Achieved by flying at the speed for max excess power (74knots in C172)
- Common in flight training operations
- Vertical Distance vs Time

Cruise Climb – Lowest ‘rate’ of climb but best forward speed

- Better visibility and engine cooling
 CPL Aerodynamics

CADA 1

Air Pressure –

Bernoulli’s Theorem

Coanda Effect

 The tendency of the airflow to follow a surface with gentle curvature rather than
continue its original path until the stalling angle is reached – known as entrainment

 Results in the air being deflected downward after it leaves the trailing edge

 Creates an equal and opposite reaction on the wing

Aerofoil

 Chordline: The straight line joining the Leading Edge to the Trailing Edge

 Mean Camber Line: The line drawn halfway between the upper and lower surfaces

 Thickness: The distance between the upper and lower surfaces

 Camber: The curvature of an aerofoil

 The shape of the aerofoil is based on the intended application

 The point of maximum camber is where there is the greatest distance between the chordline
and the mean camber line (usually about 30% of the chord back from the leading edge)

 The Cessna 172 has a typical low-speed, high-lift wing and the maximum camber is about
25% of the chord back from the leading edge

 A Boeing 737 has a laminar-flow aerofoil designed for high speed cruise. It has less camber
and the maximum camber is at about 50% chord

 Another consideration when designing wings is the relationship between chord and span

 Relative Airflow (R.A.F): Opposite to the direction of the path of the aircraft

 Angle of Attack (AoA): The angle between the chordline and relative airflow
Effect of Flap

Lift Equation

How can we increase our CL?

 Increase AoA

 Increase Camber

 Deploy Flap

 Increase Thickness/Chord Ratio

Thickness/Chord Ratio

 The thickness/chord ratio, or t/c, describes an aerofoils relative thickness. It is a factor in

determining an aerofoils inflight characteristics.
Drag
Total Drag = Parasite Drag + Induced Drag

Parasite Drag: opposes the motion of the an object within a fluid (the atmosphere)

Parasite drag = skin friction drag + interference drag + form drag.

b) Interference Drag

Air mixing at junctions creates turbulence in the region of the joint

Occurs most frequently at the intersection of the fuselage with the wings , tailplane etc. reduced by
use of fairings
Induced Drag

 Is a by-product of Lift.

 At wing tips air leaks to the upper surface creating swirling vortices.

 The slower the aircraft flies, the more air has time to spill over the wing tip

 The greater the pressure difference between the bottom and top surface, the greater the
induced drag

What increases the pressure difference?

 Aircraft Weight

• W=L
Heavy aircraft must create more lift,
therefore a stronger pressure difference
must exist

• Angle of Attack (AoA)

 Wing Plan Form (Aspect Ratio)

• A high aspect ratio wing (long and skinny) has

a smaller wing tip, therefore less area for the
high pressure to spill over the tip

Wake Turbulence

A result of the air spilling around the wingtip from the region of higher pressure below the wing to
the lower pressure above

The greater the AoA (and

therefore the pressure
differential), the greater the flow
around the wingtips (and the
greater the wake turbulence).
If possible fly upwind and above the flightpath of the aircraft
producing wake turbulence, avoiding it altogether.

For take-off aim to lift off well before the rotation point of the
preceding, departing aircraft and climb well above its flightpath.

When taking off behind an aircraft which has just landed aim to
rotate well beyond its touchdown point or delay the take-off
(wait for vortices to dissipate), as per wake turbulence
separation standards in the JEPPS ATC AU-810

For landing after a preceding landing aircraft aim to approach

above it’s flightpath and land a safe distance beyond its
touchdown point.

For landing after a large aircraft has departed aim to touchdown

well before its point of rotation.

When landing on a
crossing runway plan to
cross above the larger,
landing aircraft’s
flightpath and touchdown
well beyond the runway it
has landed on (see
below).

When landing on a
crossing runway plan to cross above the larger, landing aircraft’s flightpath and touchdown well
beyond the runway it has landed on (see below).

When landing behind a larger aircraft taking off from a crossing runway, if the larger aircraft rotates
beyond the intersection, touch down before the intersection. If it rotates prior to the intersection
discontinue the approach unless the landing run can be completed before the intersection (see
below).
When landing behind a larger aircraft
taking off from a crossing runway, if the
larger aircraft rotates beyond the
intersection, touch down before the
intersection. If it rotates prior to the
intersection discontinue the approach
unless the landing run can be completed
before the intersection (see below).

Wake Turbulence vortices sink at a rate of

approx. 400-500fpm behind the flight path

At 900ft the vortices stabilise and once stabilised, the cover an area of sky equal to 2 wingspans
horizontally by 1 wingspan vertically

Therefore, when avoiding wake turbulence en-route aim to stay at least 200’ above and 1000’ below
the aircraft’s flightpath.

In the event a heavy aircraft conducts a baulked approach it should be assumed the entire length of
the runway could pose a hazard and the departure or approach delayed or discontinued
respectively.

Vortices can persist for up to 3 minutes on the ground and up to 5 minutes at altitude

Helicopters also produce wake turbulence (rotor downwash), the strength of which is usually far
greater than a fixed-wing aircraft of similar weight. The strongest wake turbulence occurs when the
helicopter is operating at lower speeds.

Rotor downwash can be hazardous up to a radius of  3 x rotor diameter

CADA 3

Thrust Available

Thrust is a force created by the propeller:

 Propeller thrust will be maximum at low airspeed and

will steadily decrease as airspeed increases
 The thrust from the propeller is proportional to the
difference between the velocity of the propeller
slipstream and the TAS of the aircraft
 Example: slipstream velocity = 150kts
 At TAS = 0kts, the Prop is changing the velocity of the air by 150kts
• Thrust is high
 At TAS = 150kts, the TAS = the slipstream velocity, so the prop is not changing the velocity of
the air
• Thrust is nil
Thrust Required

 The thrust required will be dependant on the drag

 At low airspeeds the thrust required in flight will be

high because drag is high

 At the minimum drag speed, the thrust required for

level flight will be a minimum

 At high airspeeds the thrust required in flight will be

high because drag is high

 The difference between the thrust available and the thrust required is called the excess
thrust

Excess Thrust

Excess thrust is the difference between the thrust available and

the thrust required

 The excess thrust determines how big the performance

margin of the aircraft is

 Large excess thrust allows steep climbs or quick

acceleration

 The maximum excess thrust will determine the maximum climb angle

• In the C172 this is 62kts

Power
Power Available

Power is a rate at which work is done, it is directly proportional to fuel flow and is defined by he
following formula:

Power = Thrust x TAS

 Power output is related to RPM

 The power available will tend to increase as speed
increases
 This is because as the TAS increases the RPM which
the engine can achieve will increase, therefor more
fuel can be burnt
 Think
 Stationary: Max RPM ~ 2300
 At 110kts: Max RPM ~ 2600-2700
• More power
Power Required

Power required = Drag x TAS

 The power required depends on a combination

of Thrust(drag) and TAS

 At low airspeeds, the power required will be

quite high, because drag is high

 At intermediate airspeeds the drag will be low,

so the power required will be low

 At high airspeeds the drag will be high and the TAS will also be high, so power required will
be very high

Excess Power

Excess power is the difference between the power

available and the power required

 The excess power determines how big the

performance margin of the aircraft is

 Large excess power allows high rates of climb or

high S&L airspeeds

 The maximum excess power will determine the maximum climb rate

• In the C172 this is 74kts

Minimum Drag on the Power Curve

The minimum drag will occur at an airspeed corresponding

to the highest ratio of TAS to Power (fuel flow)

 This point is found by drawing a tangent from the

origin to the power curve

 This point will also give you the maximum range in

nil wind (more on this later)

Region of Reverse Command

The area of the power curve where the power required increases with decreasing airspeed is known
as the Region of Reverse Command

 In the normal operating area, changes of airspeed in level flight will be resisted

 The aircraft is said to be speed stable

  In the region of reverse command,
changes in speed will not be resisted and
the speed will runaway from the set
speed

 The aircraft is said to be speed unstable

Example of speed stability

 If an aircraft is flying above

the min power speed and it
slows down due to a gust, the
power required reduces

 The power setting is now

greater than what is required
for level flight

 The excess power will cause

the aircraft to accelerate back
to its original speed

 The opposite will happen if

the speed increase

Example instability

 If an aircraft is flying below the min power speed and it slows down due to a gust, the power
required INCREASES

 The power setting is now less than what is required for level flight (despite not actually
changing)

 The lack of power will cause the

aircraft to slow down even further

 The pilot must take action to halt

speed loss

 The opposite will happen if the

speed increase