MALAWI SCHOOL CERTIFICATE OF EDUCATION

PHYSICS BLEND
A Candidate’s Companion towards a good grade in MSCE Physical Science

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Chapter one

MATTER AND THE KINETIC THEORY

0. INTRODUCTION
 MATTER: Anything that has mass and occupies space. The three states of
matter are solids, liquids and gases.
 An ATOM is the simplest particle of matter.
 A MOLECULE is the smallest particle of matter that can exist separately.
 A SUBSTANCE is a single type of matter with constant composition and
distinct properties.
 An ion is a charged atom. An atom becomes charged either by losing or
gaining an electron.
CLASSIFICATION OF SUBSTANCES
 PURE SUBSTANCES AND MIXTURES: A pure substance consists of that
substance only. A mixture contains more than one type of substance. Pure
substances have specific boiling and melting points.
 ELEMENTS AND COMPOUNDS: An element is a substance which is made
up of one kind of atoms only e.g. H2 gas. A compound is a substance which is
made up of two or more kinds of atoms e.g. CO2 gas.

1. WHAT DOES THE KINETIC THEORY OF MATTER STATE?

Facts about the kinetic theory of matter must be learnt like the multiplication table
 All matter is made up of tiny particles. Particles refer to atoms or molecules
or ions.
 The particles are always in constant rapid/haphazard motion. In solids they
vibrate about their fixed positions. In liquids they slide past each other. In
gases they move randomly.
 There are forces of attraction called Intermolecular Forces (IMF) also
known as Van Der Waals forces. These forces act outside and between
molecules.
 Temperature increases the kinetic energy of the particles and weakens the
IMF.
 Lighter particles diffuse faster than heavier particles.

 You are building your house on sand if you continue studying physical science before
learning by heart the above facts and terms!!!!!

2. INTERMOLECULAR FORCES
They do a “cement bonding” job. These forces act between and outside the
molecules of a substance. Solids have the strongest IMF. Liquids have IMF of
intermediate strength. Gases have the weakest IMF. As heat energy is supplied to
the substance the IMF are steadily weakened.

1
 WHAT CAUSES IMF?
Electrical attractions set up between molecules.
As two molecules approach each other closely, very weak induced charges are set
up between them. Outer electrons of the first molecule repel the outer electrons on
the second molecule. Repelled electrons concentrate on the opposite side. The side
nearest is positively charged. Forces of attraction between the opposite charges in
each molecule produce IMF.
WHAT DETERMINES THE MAGNITUDE OF IMF
a. Molecular sizes. As sizes of molecules get bigger IMF increases. A bigger
molecule has more electrons. Along an organic family series IMF become
stronger as the molecules get bigger.
b. The distance between the molecules. IMF increase as distance gets less.
IMF decides many of the physical properties of substances e.g. density, viscosity,
state at room temperature, boiling points.

3. PROPERTIES OF SOLIDS, LIQUIDS AND GASES

SOLIDS LIQUIDS GASES
Fixed shape No fixed shape No fixed shape
Fixed volume Fixed volume No fixed volume
High density Fairly high density Low density
Incompressible Incompressible Compressible
Low expansion rate Intermediate expansion rate High expansion rate

EXPLANATION OF THESE PROPERTIES

 Particles in solids are held together by strong IMF, are very close to each
other and are arranged in a regular pattern.
 Particles in liquids are held less strongly by weaker IMF as compared to
solids but are still close enough.
 Particles in gases are very far apart and move randomly at high speed.
Gases have very weak IMF
NB: Density refers to how closely the particles are packed. It is defined as mass
per unit volume of a substance.

4. THERMAL EXPANSION OF MATTER

All matter expands as it gets hotter and contracts when it cools.
EXPLANATION: Temperature increases the kinetic energy of particles and
weakens the IMF. As a solid is heated, the particles move faster and faster and so
vibrate with more force. As a result the particles spread apart slightly in all
directions and the solid expands.
Continued heating makes matter change from one state to another.

2
 OBSERVATION: Ice melts when put in the sun and candle wax melts when
heated.
EXPLANATION: The increase in temperature increases the kinetic energy of the
ice particles and weakens the IMF. The particles rearrange themselves from solid
state to liquid state hence melting.

5. CHANGES OF STATE OF MATTER

 MELTING: Change of state of matter from solid to liquid. MELTING
POINT is the temperature at which a solid changes to a liquid.
 FREEZING: Change of state of matter from liquid to solid
 BOILING: Change of state of matter from liquid to gas
 CONDENSATION: Change of state of matter from a gas to liquid.
 SUBLIMATION: Change of state of matter from solid directly to gas.
 DEPOSITION: Change of state of matter from gas directly to solid.
NOTES
A pure substance has a specific melting and boiling point. Impurities raise the
boiling point and lower the melting point.

Evaporation like boiling is a change of state of matter from liquid to gas. Unlike
boiling evaporation takes place even without heating and so takes place over a
wide range of temperature. Evaporation takes place on the surface of the container
only while during boiling all the liquid particles possess enough energy to change
from liquid to gas.

In terms of the kinetic theory of matter explain why liquids evaporate?

Particles in liquids are held less strongly by weak
intermolecular forces and they possess enough kinetic energy to
escape these weak IMF.
A heating graph of water has five sections

E
D

B C

A
Fig 1.1 heating graph of water

3
 Section AB shows ice, water in a solid state. Heat is supplied. Temperature rises.
Ice expands.
Section BC shows melting point. Heat is supplied. Temperature stays constant. Ice
particles use the heat to separate themselves against the IMF holding them. Solid
water rearranges its particles to liquid.
Section CD shows water in a liquid state. Heat is supplied. Temperature rises.
Water expands. Particles slide past each other and have enough energy to escape
the IMF holding them. Hence evaporation takes place.
Section DE shows boiling point. Heat is supplied. Temperature stays constant.
Water particles use the heat to separate themselves against the IMF holding them.
Water rearranges its particles to gas
Section EF shows water in a gas state. Heat is supplied. Temperature rises.
Gaseous water expands. Particles move randomly at high speeds.

6. DETERMINING THE STATE OF A SUBSTANCE AT ROOM

TEMPERATURE
Rule I: If both melting and boiling points are above room temperature, the
substance is a solid.
Rule II: If both melting and boiling points are below room temperature the
substance is a gas.
Rule III: If the melting point is below room temperature while the boiling point is
above room temperature, the substance is a liquid.
EXAMPLE
The table shows melting points and boiling points of elements A, B, C, D and E.

ELEMENT M.POINT (oC) B. POINT (oC)

A -220 -188

B -101 -34

C -7 59

D 114 184

E -42 88

Table 1.2 shows the melting and boiling points of elements

At room temperature, A and B are gases, C is a liquid while D is a solid.

At 100oC, A, B and C are gas and D is a solid.

At -100oC, A is a gas; B is a liquid while C and D are solids.

4
 EXERCISE

What is the state of substance E, at the following temperatures?

(i) 0oC (ii) 25oC (iii) 100oC (iv) -100oC.

7. UNWANTED EFFECTS OF EXPANSION AND CONTRACTION

 Bursting of tyres due to expansion of air inside them.
 Bursting of water pipes resulting from freezing of water inside them.
 Cracks in buildings
 Bending of railways
 Pods burst leading to loss seeds

Can you figure out why dentists warn people about drinking cold water soon after
taking a cup of tea?

8. USES OF EXPANSION AND CONTRACTION IN EVERYDAY LIFE

 Shrink fitting of axles into wheels. Axles are shrunk by cooling them in
liquid nitrogen at -196oC until the wheel can be slipped onto them. On
regaining normal temperature the axles expand to give a tight fit.
 Riveting metal strips to form a bi-metallic strip. A bimetallic strip
functions as a thermostat (automatic switch) in an electric iron and fire
alarms. How this happens? Heat from the fire makes the bimetallic strip
bend and complete the circuit, so that the bell rings.

Electric Bell

Contacts
Bimetallic strip

Heat from fire

Fig.1.2 Circuit diagrams of fire alarm bell.

 In the kitchen a tight lid can be removed from a glass jar by immersing the
lid in hot water so that it expands. Stuck glass tumblers can be separated
and screwed bottle covers can be easier unscrewed also by immersing in
hot water.

5
  The liquid inside thermometers uses expansion of matter to measure
temperature.
 Weathering of rocks leads to formation of soil.
 Pods burst leading to seed dispersal.
 Used in liquid thermostats.

9. ABSOLUTE ZERO AND THE KELVIN SCALE OF TEMPERATURE

Absolute zero temperature is the temperature at which molecular motion stops.
As the temperature falls the particles in matter lose their kinetic energy. They
move more and more slowly. At -273oC the particles can go no slower. i.e. they
stop moving. This is the lowest temperature there is and is called ABSOLUTE
ZERO. The Kelvin scale of measuring temperature uses the Absolute Zero as its
starting point.
0 Kelvin = -273oC
273 Kelvins = 0oC.
To convert degrees Celcius to Kelvins add 273.
To convert Kelvins to degrees Celsius subtract 273.

EXERCISE 1b
a. Convert (i)450K (ii) 100K to degrees Celcius
b. Convert (i) -2000C (ii) 27oC to Kelvins

10. EVIDENCE OF MOLECULAR MOTION

I. DIFFUSION
Diffusion is the spreading of a substance due to molecular motion from where
molecules are high in concentration to low concentration.

REASONS FOR DIFFUSION

a. The particles are in constant rapid motion
b. Between the particles in matter there is space available. The particles diffuse
to this available space.

EXAMPLES TO ILLUSTRATE DIFFUSION.

a. Smelling rice being cooked in a kitchen.
b. Smelling petrol upon opening its container.
c. Placing a gas jar containing bromine vapour at the top of another empty gas jar
and separating them by a cover.

6
 After a day, the
brownish red fumes
of gaseous bromine
have spread evenly
Gas jar
throughout both gas
jars from the liquid
present in the lower
Bromine Gas jar
Fig. 1.3. Diagram of diffusion of bromine vapour in gas jar.

When the cover is removed, the bromine brownish red fumes can be seen
diffusing into the lower jar. After sometime bromine vapour spreads evenly
throughout both jars.

d. Soaking a cotton wool in ammonia solution (a base) and placing a strip of

blotting paper dipped in phenolphthalein solution (an indicator).

Strip of blotting paper previously dipped

in phenolphthalein solution Rubber stopper

Cotton wool soaked in

Glass
ammonia solution

Fig.1.4. Ammonia solution placed near a strip of

blotting paper dipped in phenolphthalein.

The movement of ammonia vapour is indicated by the progressive turning

pink of the paper strip, due to the presence of the basic property of ammonia.

e. Placing a crystal of potassium permanganate in a beaker containing water. The

crystal releases solute particles and eventually the water becomes a uniform
pink colour.

EXCERCISE 1c
Explain the smelling of biscuits as one passes by the biscuit manufacturing
Universal industries?

7
 OBSERVATION EXPERIMENT
LIGHTER PARTICLES DIFFUSE FASTER THAN HEAVIER PARTICLES
Procedure:
 Cotton wool was soaked in ammonia (NH3) and put into one end of the
glass tube. At exactly the same time, cotton wool soaked in hydrochloric
acid was put into the other end of the tube. The whole set up is shown
below.

Rubber
stopper

Cotton wool soaked in glass tubing white smoke Cotton wool soaked in
ammonia solution form here hydrochloric acid
Fig. 1.5. lighter particles diffuse faster than heavier ones

Observation:
White smoke formed near the cotton wool soaked in HCl (aq).
Conclusion:
Ammonia particles are lighter than HCl particles. They have travelled faster and
further than HCl.

II. BROWNIAN MOTION

OBSERVATION EXPERIMENT
PROCEDURE:
 Using a burning straw made of paper fill a glass cell with smoke and cover
it with a thin glass lid.
 The lamp is connected to a 12V supply. The lamp provides light which
illuminates the glass cell.
 The glass cell acts as a lens and focuses light on smoke. The diagrams
below show the whole set up.

observer
Burning drinking
Microscope
straw
Window
Lid
Lamp
Smoke

Glass
cell
Glass rod Glass Smoke
c.
cell a. b.
Fig. 1.6. The Brownian motion

8
OBSERVATION:
Bright specks are seen to be dancing haphazardly. These specks are smoke
particles seen by the focussed light. Their random motion is due to collisions with
fast moving air molecules in the gas cell.
 Pollen particles in water when examined under a microscope show a
continuous vigorous haphazard movement.

RECAPITULATORY EXERCISE

1. Explain using the kinetic theory of matter why clothes dry faster
on a sunny day than on a cloudy day
2. Explain why candle wax melts when heated.
3. Describe how expansion and contraction of metals is used in
shrink fitting.
4. Define absolute zero.
5. In terms of the kinetic theory of matter explain why liquids
evaporate?
6. Explain the smell of biscuits as one passes near the universal
industries in Blantyre.

9
Chapter two

PRESSURE
O. INTRODUCTION
DEFINITION: Pressure is the force exerted per unit area.
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
FORMULA: Pressure = 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎

SI UNITS: Force is measured in Newtons (N), area is measured in square metres (m2). The
SI unit of pressure is Newton per square metre. 1 Newton per 1 square meter = 1 Pascal (Pa).
Therefore the SI unit of pressure is the Pascal.

Exercise 2a
POINTS TO NOTE:

 In all calculations never drop SI units until you finally arrive at the answer.
 Give an answer in its proper SI units. Pressure must be expressed in pascals (Pa)
unless stated otherwise.

(i) How many square centimetres make 1 square meter?

10 000 cm2 make 1m2. !!! Always express area in m2.

(ii) Convert 8mm2 into square meters

1000000 mm2 make 1m2. To convert mm2 into m2 divide by
1000000.
8
8mm2 =1000000 = 0.000008m2

(iii) Convert 4 kilonewtons into Newtons

1 000 N make 1kN. To convert kN to N multiply by 1000.
4kN = 4 X 1000 = 4 000N

(iv) Convert
(a) 2kg into Newtons
Force = mass X 10 (10 is acceleration due to gravity, g.)
2kg = 2X10 = 20N

(b) 200g into Newtons

200
200g = 1000 X 10 =0.2 X 10 = 2N.

10
(v) What force is exerted if a pressure of 2 kilopascals acts on an area of 0.2m2?
force
Pressure = area So Force= Pressure X area
Force = (2X1000)Pa X 0.2m2 = 2000Pa X 0.2m2 =400N

(vi) A concrete block has a mass of 2600Kg. The block measures 0.5m by 1.0m by
2.0m. What is the maximum pressure it can exert when resting on the ground?
(HINT: Sketch a diagram of the block)
The three possible positions of resting for the concrete block, are shown in the
sketch below. Note the creativity and neatness with which the diagrams have been
drawn.

2.0 m 0.5 m

2.0 m 1.0 m

2.0 m 2.0 cm
0.5 m

Which position gives the maximum pressure?

 It is C – force concentrates on smallest area.
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
Pressure = 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎
Force = 2600Kg X 10 = 26000N.
Area = 1m X 0.5m = 0.5m2
26000𝑁
Pressure = =52000Pa.
0.5𝑚

(vii) A cube of side 2cm and weight 1.2N is placed on a table. Calcukate the pressure it
exerts on the table. (Hint: Sketch a diagram of the cube - box whose all six sides
measure the same.)
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
Pressure = 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎
Force = 1.2N
4
Area = 2cm X 2cm = 4cm = 10000 = 0.0004m2
The area may also be worked out in this way
2 2
X =0.02 X 0.02 = 0.0004m2
100 100
1.2𝑁
Pressure = 0.0004𝑚 = 3000Pa.

11
1. SOLID PRESSURE
Solid pressure is the force a solid exerts per unit area.
HOW TO INCREASE PRESSURE IN SOLIDS.
a. Increase the force.
b. Decrease the area.
As a law solid pressure increases with decrease in area where the force is concentrating.

!!!Imagine this fat gigantic Matofutofu wearing a high heel accidentally stepping on
your foot in a bus....Oops! she exclaims....as you shout...O my God!.mukutipweteka!!

USES OF SOLID PRESSURE

a. Tractors are fitted with very large rear tyres so that they do not sink into soft soil.
The weight of tractors is spread out on a large area. This reduces the pressure.
b. Wall foundations have a large horizontal area. This reduces the pressure
underneath so that walls do not sink too any further into the ground.
c. Studs on football boots have a small area. The pressure under the studs is high
enough to give an extra grip.
d. The blade of the edge of a knife is extremely small. This produces a high pressure
for the blade to push easily through materials
e. A load spreading washer ensures that the nut is not pulled into the wood when
tightened up.
f. Skis have a large area to reduce the pressure on the snow so that they do not sink
too far.

2. PRESSURE IN LIQUIDS
A. FACTS ABOUT LIQUID PRESSURE
1. A fluid exerts its pressure on the walls of a container in all directions at
right angles.

Water jets out

Water in all directions
filled at right angles
balloon

Fig. 2.1. A pricked water filled balloon

If a rubber balloon is filled with water under pressure and holes are
pricked on the balloon water jets spout out in all directions at right angles.
APPLICATION OF THIS FACT
Deep sea-diving vessels are built to withstand the crushing effect of sea
water whose pressure pushes inwards from all directions.

12
 2. The magnitude of a fluid pressure depends on the depth. Fluid pressure
increases with an increase in depth. A greater weight of a liquid acts at a
greater depth.
A tall can with holes filled
with water

Less depth: Lower pressure

Greater depth: Higher pressure

Fig. 2.2. Fluid pressure increases with an increase in depth

APPLICATIONS OF THIS FACT

a. Dams are constructed thicker at the bottom than at the top because
there is greater pressure at bottom.
b. Submarines are constructed with thick walls to withstand the great
pressure at the bottom of the sea.
3. Liquid pressure depends on the density of the liquid. The denser the liquid
the higher the pressure.
4. Liquid pressure does not depend on the shape of the container.

Fig. 2.3. Pressure at points A, B, C and D is the same

5. Pressure at a particular level of a liquid in a container is the same.

B. PRESSURE FORMULA FOR FLUIDS

𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
 Pressure = 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎
Force = mass x 10m/s2 (acceleration due to gravity, g)
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑥10𝑚/𝑠/𝑠
 So by substitution Pressure = 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎
Mass = density x volume

13
 𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑥 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑥 𝑔
 So by substitution Pressure = 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎
Volume = Area x height
𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑥 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑥 𝐻𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑥 𝑔
 So by substitution Pressure = 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎
The areas cancel each other
 Therefore Pressure = Density x Height x g

The SI Unit of density is Kg/m3.

We use g/cm3 because we deal with small quantities. In density calculations use
Kg/m3 unless stated otherwise.
Converting g/cm3 is done by multiplying by 1000. 1g/cm3 = 1000Kg/m3.
How is this arrived at?
1g/cm3 = 1000g/1000cm3 = 1kg/1dm3 = 1000kg/1000dm3 = 1000kg/m3.
Density of water is regarded as 1000Kg/m3.

EXERCISE 2b
i. Petrol of density 0.7g/cm3 is in a large metal tank to a depth of
1.5m. Calculate the pressure of petrol exerted to the bottom of the
tank.
Pressure = Density X Height X g
Density = 0.7 X 1000 = 700Kg/m3.
Pressure = 700Kg/m3 X 1.5m X 10m/s/s =10500Pa

ii. The brain of giraffe is 2m above the heart. If a pressure of 2.2kPa

is needed to make the blood circulate between the heart and the
brain what is the density of blood?
Pressure = density X height X g
𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 2.2𝑋1000 22000𝑃𝑎
Density =ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑋 𝑔 = 2𝑚 𝑋10𝑚/𝑠 = = 1100Kg/m3.
20

C. USES OF LIQUID PRESSURE

I. Water supply system.
Water reservoirs which supply water to towns and cities are placed on high
grounds. Water flows from them through pipes to any tap or storage tank that is
below the level of the water contained in the reservoirs. The lower the place
supplied the greater the pressure at it.

II. Hydraulic machines.

Examples of hydraulic machines include: hydraulic car brakes, hydraulic jack,
hydraulic press and a hydraulic fork lift truck.
Why are liquids used in hydraulic machines?
They pass on any pressure applied to them because they are incompressible.

14
 Object being
Input force lifted High
INPUT OUTPUT output
force
acts on piston piston
caused because
12N cylinder cylinder
a small
Large
surface area Area=0.01m² Area=0.1m² surface area
causing
Oil High pressure transmitted has High
High pressure
pressure acting on
it
caused because

Fig. 3.4. A simple Hydraulic Machine showing principle on

which all hydraulic machines work

Consider the above diagram:

A downward force of 12N is exerted on a piston with area of 0.01m2.
𝐹 12𝑁
P=𝐴= = 1200Pa.
0.01𝑚
The oil in the connecting pipe transmits the pressure of 1200Pa which acts on
piston with area 0.1m2 in the output cylinder.
Output force = pressure x area = 1200Pax 0.1m2 = 120N.
An input force of 12N produces an output force of 120N therefore a hydraulic
machine acts as a force multiplier.

3. PRESSURE IN GASES
Gas pressure is the pressure which a gas exerts per unit area.
Gases have weight which can be made to act over an area.

What produces gas pressure?

Collisions between gas molecules and the walls of the container.
What can increase gas pressure?
 Temperature increase: this increases the kinetic energy of the gas
molecules and weakens the IMF. The gas particles move more rapidly and
the number of collisions between the gas molecules with the container per
second increases to increase gas pressure.
 Adding gas molecules in the container
 Reducing the volume of a given container. When the volume of the given
mass of a gas is reduced at constant temperature, the number of gas
molecules and the kinetic energy of the particles remain constant.
However the gas particles collide more frequently with the smaller
surfaces of a container. These more frequent collisions between the gas
particles and the reduced surfaces of the container cause higher pressure.
15
 Piston

Cylinder

Volume of the gas

a. b. halved: Pressure
doubled

Fig. 3.5. Experimental setup showing how reducing

volume increases of a gas increases gas pressure
If the piston (shown in Fig. 3.5a.) is pressed downwards on the volume of
the gas (as shown in Fig. 3.5b.), it increases pressure on the gas hence
reducing the distance between gas molecules in turn. This reduces the
volume of the gas.

A. GAS LAWS: PRESSURE LAW, BOYLE’S LAW AND CHARLES’ LAW

PRESSURE LAW (Links up pressure and temperature)
It states that the pressure of a fixed mass of gas is directly proportional to its
absolute temperature if the volume remains constant.
Mathematically: Pressure α Temperature
𝑃 𝑃1 𝑃2
P α T, P = kT, k =𝑇 , =
𝑇1 𝑇2
The graph of pressure against
temperature when plotted has a
straight graph line.
Pressure
in Pascals

Temperature in Kelvins

BOYLE’S LAW (Links up pressure and volume)

The volume of a given mass of a gas is inversely proportional to its pressure if the
temperature remains constant. Remember reducing the volume of a given mass of
a gas increases its pressure
1
V = 𝑃 , V1P1 = V2P2.

CHARLES’ LAW (Links up volume and temperature)

It states that the volume of the given mass of a gas is directly proportional to its
absolute temperature if pressure is constant.
𝑉 𝑉1 𝑉2
V α T, V = kT, k =𝑇 , =
𝑇1 𝑇2

16
 Volume
(cm³)
A Black
Bottle
containing
gas inside
Temperature in Kelvins

HEAT

Fig. 3.6. Experimental setup to show Charles’ Law

When the bottle is heated the balloon will inflate because the air inside is heated.
The increase in temperature has increased the volume of the gas.

AN EQUATION COMBINING ALL THE THREE GAS LAWS

𝑉 𝑃 𝑃𝑉 𝑃1𝑉1 𝑃2𝑉2
= k ,𝑇 = k, V1P1 = k, =k , =
𝑇 𝑇 𝑇1 𝑇2

In calculations using the above equations

 Calculate temperature in kelvins
 Pressure can be calculated in pascals, atmospheres of pressure, or mmHg
(pressure due to the mercury column). A pressure of 1 atmosphere has a
mercury column of 760mm and is about 102 000 pascals. Use same units
for pressure.
 Use same units for volume.

EXERCISE
i. Work out the pressure of a gas at 40oC if its pressure at 25oC is 760mmHg
P1 P2
= (Pressure law)
T1 T2
P1T2
P2 = T1
T1 = 25 + 273 = 298K
T2 = 40 + 273 = 313K
760mmHgX313K
P2= = 798.25mmHg.
298K

ii. A gas occupies a volume of 200cm3 at 273 K. Calculate the temperature of

the gas if its volume increases to 300cm3 at constant pressure.
𝑉1 𝑉2
𝑇1
= 𝑇2
(Charles’ law)
𝑉2𝑇1 273𝐾𝑋300𝑐𝑚
T2= T2= = 409.5K
𝑉1 200𝑐𝑚

17
 iii. A bicycle pump contains 50cm3 of air at 17oC and 1 atm pressure. Find the
pressure when the air is compressed to 10cm3 and temperature rises to
27oC.
𝑃1𝑉1 𝑃2𝑉2
= (Combined gas laws)
𝑇1 𝑇2
𝑇2𝑃1𝑉1
P2 = 𝑉2𝑇1
T2 = 27+273 = 300K, P1 = 1, V1 = 50cm3, V2 = 10cm3, T1 = 17 +
273 = 290K
300𝐾𝑋1𝑎𝑡𝑚𝑋50𝑐𝑚
P2= = 5.17 atm.
10𝑐𝑚𝑋290𝐾

B. MEASURING FLUID PRESSURE – BOURDON GAUGE

Curved metal
tube

Fluid pressure

Fig. 3.7. A Bourdon Gauge

When fluid pressure is applied the curved metal tube straightens out (uncurls) and
rotates a pointer of the graduated scale.

C. MEASURING LUNG PRESSURE – U-TUBE MANOMETER.

A manometer is a u-tube which contains
mercury and a scale of numbers. Each surface
of the liquid mercury is acted on equally by
atmospheric pressure and the levels are the
Connected same. Side A is connected to a gas supply. The
Atmospheric to Gas
pressure Supply gas exerts pressure on surface A and the
mercury level of surface B rises. BC gives the
B
height difference. The height difference shows
Gas extra pressure that the gas supply has in
h Pressure addition to atmospheric pressure. This extra
C
A pressure is excess pressure. The manometer
measures pressure difference. LUNG
PRESSURE = ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE
a. b. + EXCESS PRESSURE.
Fig. 3.8. A U-Tube Manometer

18
 D. A MERCURY BAROMETER
A BAROMETER is an instrument which
measures atmospheric pressure.
A mercury barometer contains the metallic
Mercury liquid mercury. It is made by filling a thick
walled glass tube with the liquid metal mercury.
760 mm When completely filled the glass tube is inverted
Atmospheric
and the open end is placed into the bowl of
Pressure
mercury.
In the upside position a space forms at the top of
the mercury in a glass tube. This space is devoid
of matter. Therefore is called vacuum.

Fig. 3.9. A Mercury Barometer

ADVANTAGES OF LIQUID MERCURY

 Mercury has high density and so can withstand great pressure.
 Mercury does not evaporate quickly.
 Can easily maintain a vacuum above the liquid

There are no air molecules in the vacuum to exert any downward pressure on the
bottom of the mercury column. The mercury is being pushed upwards by full
atmospheric pressure. This pressure is transmitted from the open surface of the liquid
mercury in the bowl.
This is a case of unbalanced pressure. This causes the atmospheric pressure acting
downwards on the open surface of the liquid to force the mercury down into the
container and then up into the glass column and support it there.
Atmospheric pressure A = pressure at x because at a particular level in a container a
liquid has equal pressure. Pressure at x is calculated by working out pressure due to the
mercury column BC. Therefore the column height BC is the measure of the
atmospheric pressure.

**The average height of the mercury column is taken as 760mm. This is called standard
pressure and it is one atmosphere of pressure (1 atm).

E. USES OF GAS PRESSURE

1. Cans do not crush because of the air pressure inside them. If air is removed
from the can there is nothing to resist the outside pressure and the can
crushes.
2. Drinking through a straw. You expand your lungs to reduce the air pressure
inside the straw. As a result atmospheric pressure pushes the liquid up the
straw.

19
3. The pressure in the lungs and blood system protects us from being crushed.
4. Gas pressure is used in vacuum cleaners. A fan lowers the air pressure just
beyond the fan atmospheric pressure rushes in carrying dirt with it.
5. Rubber sucker: Pressing a wet sucker against a surface pushes out the air.
Atmospheric pressure holds the sucker firmly against the surface.

RECAPITULATORY EXERCISE
1. Convert 40g into newtons.
2. A rectangular block of metal 20cm by 5cm by 3cm has a mass of
900g. What is the greatest pressure it can exert when placed on a
bench? (HINT: Sketch the diagram of the rectangular block).
3. A nail has a point of area 1mm2. The nail is pushed into a piece of
soft board with a force of 40N. What is the pressure exerted by the
nail on the softboard?
4. A rectangular block measures 4cm by 4cm by 1cm with a mass of
180g. Calculate the pressure when it is placed on a table resting on
a side of 4cm by 1cm.
5. Calculate the pressure at the bottom of a water column if its height
is 10m.
6. What is the height of a water column if pressure at the bottom is
a. 3.2kPa
b. 1 megapascal.
7. Calculate the density of mercury at atmospheric pressure if the
barometer reads 760mm. (Take 1 atm to equal 102 000 pascals)
8. At 27oC a gas exerts 1 atm of pressure. At what temperature will
the gas exert 2atm of pressure. State the assumption made.
9. 500mm3 of gas exerts 2 atmospheres of pressure. What pressure
will the same gas exert if its volume is increased to
2000mm3assuming that the temperature is kept constant.

20
Chapter three

VECTORS, FORCES AND NEWTON’S LAWS OF MOTION

PART A: VECTORS
0. INTRODUCTION
CLASSIFICATION OF PHYSICAL QUANTITIES
Physical quantities are classified as either vector quantities or scalar quantities
 Vector quantities have both magnitude and direction. Examples are force,
velocity, momentum, acceleration and displacement. When giving an answer
we give the magnitude as well as the direction e.g. velocity of 60m/s due East.
 Scalar quantities have magnitude only. Examples are mass, temperature,
distance, speed, time, frequency, energy, voltage and work done.

1. REPRESENTING VECTORS ON PAPER

On paper vectors are represented by using arrow lines drawn to scale.
The size of the line indicates magnitude. The arrow indicates direction.

2. COMBINING/RESOLVING VECTORS
 Vectors acting in the same direction are added. If a man is running forward at
a velocity of 5km/hr on top of a moving train which is travelling at 50km/hr to
the east the resultant velocity is 50 + 5 = 55km/hr east.
 Vectors acting in opposite directions are found by subtraction.
What is the resultant velocity of a man if he swims upstream at a velocity of
3km/hr in a river whose velocity is 8km/hr parallel to the river bank.
ANSWER: 8 – 3 = 5km/hr in the direction of the river current.
 Vectors acting at an angle can be resolved by

I. SCALE DRAWING
A cyclist travels due south from point R for 12km to point V then she turns to the west
and cycles to point Q for another 5km.
i. Work out the total distance she has travelled from R to Q
Total Distance = 12km + 5km = 17km.
ii. Work out displacement RQ by scale drawing

21
II. CALCULATION-TRIANGLE RULE: Pythagorus theorem/SOHCAHTOA.
Using the example given for the scale drawing above, work out displacement RQ by
calculation.

III. PARALLELOGRAM RULE

It states that, if two forces acting at a point are represented in size and direction by
the sides of a parallelogram drawn from the point, their resultant is represented in
size and direction by the diagonal of the parallelogram drawn from the point.

Example
2 forces of magnitude 240N and 420N are being used to pull a boat at an angle of
60o to each other. Find the resultant by scale drawing (Use scale of 1cm to
represent 100N)

RESULTANT VECTOR means a single vector which can be found and can replace
two or more vectors acting on an object to produce the same effect.

22
 3. DISPLACEMENT, SPEED AND VELOCITY
Displacement is the distance in a specified direction. It is a vector quantity because it
has both magnitude and direction.
Speed refers to distance per unit time. The SI unit is m/s.
Velocity refers to displacement per unit time. Velocity is also speed in a particular
direction. The SI unit is m/s.

Exercise 2a
Why is speed a scalar quantity while velocity is a vector quantity?
Velocity has both magnitude and direction while
speed has magnitude only.

PART B FORCES
1. INTRODUCTION
A force is a push or a pull.
On a piece of paper it is represented by using arrow lines.
Force is a vector quantity because it has both magnitude and direction.

2. EFFECTS OF FORCES
 Changing the shape of an object
 Changing direction of a moving object
 Bringing a moving object to rest
 Decreasing or increasing motion of an object – deceleration or acceleration.

3. BALANCED FORCES
Balanced forces are equal forces acting in opposite directions. When forces are
balanced the resultant is zero and the effect is INERTIA. Inertia literary means
laziness. The results of inertia on a body are:
 The body will remain at rest if it is at rest (stationary)
 The body will continue moving uniformly in a straight line if it is moving.

4. WEIGHT/FORCE OF GRAVITY
It is the pull of the earth on an object. Things fall when they are not supported because
of gravitational force. There is gravitational attraction between any 2 objects that have
mass. The pupil and the desk attract each other but the force is too negligible.
Factors which increase the gravitational attraction are:
i. Increase in masses of the objects
ii. Decrease in distance between the centres of the 2 objects.

23
5. FRICTIONAL FORCE
Friction is a force that opposes motion.
Friction begins to act when there is motion and force.

SOLID FRICTION is set up because surfaces are not smooth and IMF between the
molecules of the two surfaces rubbing together at very short distances.

FLUID FRICTION
All objects are slowed down as they pass through a fluid.
CAUSE
a. Randomly moving molecules of a fluid strike the moving object and slow it down.
Solution: Making moving objects streamlined.
b. IMF: An object moving in a fluid must push aside and displace molecules of the
fluid. In the process IMF have to be broken. This requires energy from the object
therefore the object is slowed down as the fluid molecules resist the movement.
FACTORS AFFECTING FLUID FRICTION
a. Shape and size of the object.
b. Viscosity of the liquid.
c. Speed of the object in the fluid/medium
EXERCISE:
Explain why fluid friction increases as the speed of the object in the fluid increases?
ANSWER: The number of the randomly moving molecules of the fluid striking
the moving object increase.

6. FALLING IN A LIQUID A steel ball bearing is dropped here

Friction Upthrust

Ball bearing a
falling in motor 8 cm b
Weight c Position of
oil d
Forces act on the ball bearing ball bearing
e falling in
a. Weight acting downwards.
Motor oil motor oil at
b. Upthrust acting upwards f
1 sec
c. Frictional force acting upwards interval

Speed of
ball Terminal speed
bearing in
motor P Q
oil/liquid
(cm/s)

Time taken (s)

Fig. 3.1. A steel ball bearing falling in motor oil

24
 OBSERVATIONS: The ball travels further each second in the first four seconds
(From A to D). This is acceleration. After passing point D the ball moves with
uniform velocity. We say the ball has reached TERMINAL VELOCITY.
EXPLANATION: The ball accelerates from point A to point D. The forces are
unbalanced. The downward force weight is greater than the sum of the upward forces
friction and upthrust. This produces a real resultant. From point D to the bottom the
ball bearing moves with uniform velocity. The downward force and the sum of the
upward forces balance. The increase in speed causes an increase in frictional force.
There is no resultant force and the ball bearing reaches terminal velocity.
The graph beside the diagram shows motion of the ball in the liquid.
WHAT IS TERMINAL VELOCITY?
It is the maximum uniform velocity reached by an object falling through a fluid
WHAT IS UPTHRUST?
It is an upward push that any object experiences if immersed in a liquid. It is a
constant force and is not related to friction.

7. FALLING IN DIFFERENT LIQUIDS: WATER, ETHANOL AND GLYCERINE

Ethanol

Water
Speed of
Glycerine
ball
bearing
tg tw te
(cm/s)

Time taken to reach Terminal

Speed (s)
Water Ethanol Glycerine
Fig. 3.4. Falling in different liquids: Water, Ethanol and Glycerine

OBSERVATION EXPERIMENT
3 identical ball bearings are dropped into 3 identical jars containing different liquids
water, ethanol and glycerine.
OBSERVATION
The ball bearing in ethanol reaches the bottom first and the ball bearing in glycerine
reaches the bottom last.
EXPLANATION
In all the 3 jars the ball bearings accelerate from the surface until they reach terminal
speed. The balls accelerate because of unbalanced resultant forces. Weight is greater
than the sum of upthrust and friction forces. This produces a real resultant.

WHAT MAKES THE BALL BEARINGS REACH A TERMINAL SPEED?

Weight and the two upward forces balance.

25
 WHY DOES THE BALL BEARING IN ETHANOL REACH THE BOTTOM
OF THE JAR FIRST?
Ethanol has weakest IMF and lowest viscosity. The friction force in ethanol is
smallest. Resultant force is greatest in ethanol. Therefore the ball bearing accelerates
the longest time before reaching terminal speed. The average terminal speed is
greatest. Glycerine has larger IMF and higher viscosity. Glycerine would have a
largest frictional force.
The graph beside the diagrams shows motion of the ball bearings in water, ethanol and glycerine.

8. BALLS WITH SAME MASSES BUT DIFFERENT VOLUMES FALLING IN

MOTOR OIL

OBSERVATION EXPERIMENT

Both balls
have the
same mass

Transparent Two balls with same masses but

jars containing
different volumes are placed in
motor oil
identical jars containing motor oil
Smaller Larger at the same time.
ball falls ball falls
faster slowly

Fig. 3.5. Balls with equal masses but different volumes falling
in motor Oil

OBSERVATION: The smaller ball reaches the bottom first.

EXPLANATION
For the small ball frictional force is small because of its smaller size. The resultant
force is greater and so acceleration takes a longer time. The ball takes a longer time to
reach the terminal speed. Therefore the small ball reaches the bottom first.

9. FALLING IN AIR
OBSERVATION EXPERIMENT
Drop a ball bearing and a feather at the
same time from a given height.
Position of Air particles
Feather present Observation
inside
Position of The ball bearing reaches the bottom first.
ball bearing
Fig. 3.6. Falling in air

26
 Explanation
The resultant force of the ball is larger than that of the feather because
a. The ball bearing has greater weight than the feather
b. The feather has larger frictional force because of its large surface area.
In air upthrust is negligible for most bodies because weight is incomparably greater
than upthrust.
Therefore the ball bearing accelerates for a longer time reaches terminal speed last
and reaches the bottom first.

10. FALLING IN A VACUUM – FREE FALL

Free fall means falling under conditions of no air resistance.
Position
of ball In a vacuum all bodies fall with the same acceleration of
bearing
10m/s/s. This is acceleration due to gravity, g.
and
feather
Started together they reach the bottom together.

Connected to Vacuum
pump

Fig. 3.7. Free fall

OTHER CONDITIONS OF FREE FALL

 Heavy dense objects: For them air resistance is negligible compared to the
weight of the object.
 Small balls falling through a short distance: For them air resistance has
negligible effect.

11. FALLING WITH A PARACHUTE

PARACHUTE NOT OPEN (Closed Parachute)

A parachutist jumping from an aeroplane is pulled down by force of gravity. Weight
is greater than frictional force producing an unbalanced force. The person accelerates
downwards. Speed increases and frictional force increases too. Weight and friction
become equal (Kumbukiranikuti in air upthrust is negligible). The parachutist reaches
the terminal speed of about 60m/s. This is called skydiving.

PARACHUTE OPEN
Frictional force becomes greater than weight. This produces an upwards unbalanced
resultant force. The effect is acceleration in the opposite direction.
The parachute decelerates, frictional force decreases and once more the weight and
frictional force balance. He reaches terminal speed of 7m/s. This is the landing speed.

27
 P Q
60
Speed
of fall
(m/s) R S
7

Time (s)

Fig. 3.8. Velocity time graph of falling with a parachute

The graph line in Fig. 3.8. shows four sections:

1. QP: falling with the parachute unopened.
2. PQ: Terminal speed with parachute unopened
3. QR: Deceleration after opening the parachute
4. RS: Lower terminal speed on landing

12. FORCE, MASS AND ACCELERATION

Consideration: Pushing a given mass with force N and produce acceleration M. To
produce double the acceleration you must double the force.
 Force is directly proportional to acceleration. F α a.
Another consideration: If you double the mass you must double the force to produce
the same acceleration.
 Force is directly proportional to mass. F α m
 Force is directly proportional to both mass and acceleration of an object. F α
mxa
 The force acting on a body is directly proportional to the product of its mass
and acceleration. This is Newton’s second law of motion.

13. ACCELERATION AND DECELERATION (RETARDATION)

It is a change in velocity per unit time.
It is also defined as the rate of change in velocity.
RETARDATION
It is acceleration in the opposite direction.
FORMULA
𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦−𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
Acceleration =
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛
𝑣−𝑢
a= 𝑡
SI UNITS: Velocity is measured in m/s. Time is measured in seconds. Therefore the
SI UNIT of acceleration is m/s/s or m/s2 or m/s-2.
𝑣−𝑢
Combining the formulas F = ma and a = 𝑡
𝑣−𝑢 𝑚𝑣−𝑚𝑢
Substituting a in F = ma gives us F = m ( ). Hence F =
𝑡 𝑡

28
 EXERCISE 2b.
i. A car weighing 500Kg moves from rest and reaches a speed of 15m/s in 5
seconds. Calculate
a. the acceleration of the car.
𝑣−𝑢 15𝑚/𝑠−0𝑚/𝑠 15𝑚/𝑠
a= a= a= = 3m/s2.
𝑡 5𝑠 5𝑠
b. the force exerted by the engine.

F=ma (Newton’s 2nd law) =500Kg X 3m/s2 = 1500N

ii. A car decelerates at a rate of 3m/s2 for 5 seconds. If the initial speed is
20m/s, calculate the final speed (MANEB 2012)
𝑣−𝑢
a= v = at + u = -3m/s2X5s +20m/s =-15+20 =5m/s.
𝑡

iii. The speed of a runner dropped from 80m/s to 60m/s in 4 seconds.

Calculate
a. the average deceleration of the runner
𝑣−𝑢 60𝑚/𝑠−80𝑚/𝑠 −20𝑚/𝑠
a= a= a= = -5m/s/s.
𝑡 4𝑠 4𝑠
b. the time taken for the speed to reach 0 if the runner maintained the
deceleration.
𝑣−𝑢 𝑣−𝑢 0𝑚/𝑠−80𝑚/𝑠
a= , at = v-u , t = t= −5𝑚
𝑡 𝑎 /𝑠
𝑠
−80
a = −5 =16s

14. MOMENTUM
Momentum of a body is the product of its mass and velocity.
Momentum = mass x velocity. Momentum is a vector quantity.
SI UNITS:Kg.m/s
Large momentum requires
(i). Big mass. (ii). High velocity.
CONNECTING MOMENTUM AND FORCE
𝑚𝑣−𝑚𝑢
F= 𝑡
mv-mu = change in momentum
Therefore force = change in momentum per time taken
Force is defined as the rate of change of momentum. This is Newton’s second law of
motion too.

29
EXERCISE 2c

A lorry of mass of 15 000kg is travelling at 20m/s. The driver puts on the

brakes and the lorry stops in 10 seconds. What is the average braking force
acting on the lorry.
𝑚𝑣−𝑚𝑢 15000𝑘𝑔𝑥0𝑚/𝑠−15000𝑘𝑔𝑥20𝑚/𝑠 −30 0000
F= F= F= =-30 000N
𝑡 10𝑠 10
The negative sign means the force of 30000N acts in the
opposite direction to the car.

THE PRINCIPLE OF CONSERVATION OF MOMENTUM

When two or more objects act on each other their total momentum remains constant
provided no external forces are acting.
Total momentum before collision = Total momentum after collision.
M1V1 = M2V2.

EXERCISE 2d

i. A bullet of mass 10g is fired into a block of wood. The mass of the block is
390g. The wood moves at velocity of 10m/s. What is the velocity of the bullet?
𝑚2𝑣2 390+10 0.4𝑘𝑔𝑥10𝑚/𝑠
M1V1 = M2V2. V1 = 𝑚1
M2 = 1000
=0.4Kg = V1= 0.01𝑘𝑔
= 400m/s.

15. IMPULSE
Impulse is change in momentum
FORMULA: Ft = mv-mu.

SI UNITS = Ns (Newton second)

Impulse is important because it is a constant value. The size of the force can be made
smaller if the time for which the force acts is made longer.

CRUMPLE ZONE OF A CAR

Crumple zone reduces the impact of collision by making contact time longer. A car
takes a longer time to stop.

SEAT BELTS
They also reduce the impact of collision. They stretch and so make contact time
longer. The force with which the passenger and the windscreen collide is made
smaller.

CRASH HELMETS
These are filled with an elastic soft form that protects the head. During a collision
with the ground, they allow more time for the head to come to rest.

30
16. EQUATIONS OF MOTION
𝑣−𝑢
a. a = 𝑡
b. F = ma (Newton’s second law)
𝑚𝑣−𝑚𝑢
c. F = 𝑡
d. Ft = mv-mu
e. v = u +at. (from equation a by making v the subject of the formula)
𝑠 𝑢+𝑣
f. Average velocity (1) =
𝑡 2
𝑠 1 𝑠 𝑢+𝑣
(2) 𝑡 = u + 2at By substituting v by u +at) in the equation 𝑡 = .
2
1
g. s = ut + at2
2
1
h. s =2 (v+u) t (from equation e1 by making s subject of the formula.)
1 1
i. v = v + at, v2 = u2 + 2uat +a2t2 = u2 + 2a(ut+ at2) but s = ut+ at2
2 2
therefore v2 = u2 +2as.

NB. S must not be mistaken with speed. s is displacement. Displacement, s can be

worked out by using formulae or calculating area of the geometrical shape.
EXERCISE 2c
The graph below shows a journey made by a motorist. Calculate the distance covered
by the motorist from A to C. (MANEB 2013.)

1
a. Calculation using the formula s =2 (v+u) t
1
From A to B s =2 (15m/s+0m/s) 3s = 22.5m
1
From B to C s =2 (15m/s+15m/s) 3s = 45m
Distance from A to C = 22.5m + 45m = 67.5m
b. Calculating the area of the trapezium
1 1
Area = 2
(sum of // sides) h = 2
(3+6) 15 = 67.5m

31
17. TELLING A STORY FROM VELOCITY-TIME GRAPHS
a. Interpreting the graph in exercise 2c
The motorist accelerates uniformly at 5m/s/s for 3
seconds. He gains constant speed of 15m/s which is zero
acceleration for the next 3 seconds and decelerates
uniformly at 15m/s/s for 1 second.
b. Draw a graph of a stationary vehicle

Distance Observation:

Time is increasing but the distance stays the same

Time

c. Interpret the graph below

B C
Velocity

A Time

SECTION A TO B: Decreasing acceleration

SECTION B TO C: Uniform velocity
SECTION C TO D: Increasing deceleration
d. Draw a graph showing a motorist accelerating increasingly, moving with
uniform velocity and finally decreasing uniformly.

Velocity

Time

32
PART C: NEWTON’S LAWS OF MOTION
1. NEWTON’S FIRST LAW OF MOTION
It states that unless compelled by some external force to act otherwise a body will
remain in its state of rest if it is at rest or will continue moving uniformly in a straight
line if it is moving.
It is a law of inertia. The ability of a body to stay as it is.
EXAMPLES:
 Coin supported by a piece of paper over a box. If the card is given a sharp
push (flicked away), the coin will stay as it is i.e. in a state of rest because of
inertia. But the paper will not be there to support it. The coin will therefore
just fall down into the box below after the paper is removed.
 When a car stops suddenly, its occupants lurch forward in an attempt to
continue moving.
 When standing on a bus and suddenly the bus moves you fall backwards. Your
body will try to stay in the state of rest as the bus was before it started moving.
 A pilot jumping from space craft will continue to travel at the same speed and
direction like the spacecraft.

2. NEWTON’S SECOND LAW OF MOTION

It states that the force acting on a body is directly proportional to the product of its
mass and acceleration.
Mathematically, F = ma.
It also states that the rate of change of momentum of a body is directly proportional to
the force applied and takes place in the direction in which the force acts or
Force is directly proportional to gain in momentum per unit time.
𝑚𝑣−𝑚𝑢
Mathematically, F = 𝑡

3. NEWTON’S THIRD LAW OF MOTION

It states that for every force of action acting on a body there is an equal and opposite
force of reaction to the body.
It can also be cheaply expressed as for every action there is an equal and opposite
reaction.
EXAMPLES
 Stepping from a rowing boat
 Hand pressing against a wall
 Suitcase placed on a table
 Walking: Feet push backwards on the ground. The ground pushes forward
against your foot with an equal and opposite force of reaction.
 Kicking a football.
 Cannonball explosion. The ball and cannon act on each other with equal and
opposite forces.

33
RECAPITULATORY EXERCISE

a. Why is speed a scalar quantity while velocity is a vector quantity?

b. A car with mass 1200Kg accelerates from rest to 15m/s in 10
seconds.
Calculate (i) The acceleration of the car
(ii) The force needed to produce the acceleration.
c. A track of mass 60kg moving with velocity 3m/s collides and
couples with a stationary track of mass 30kg. The two move off
together with the same velocity V2. Find V2.
d. A small car of mass 750kg travelling at 30m/s hits a brick wall and is
made to stop in 0.1 seconds. Calculate the force acting on the seat
belt if they hold during collision.
e. A car of mass 1200kg travelling at 72km/hr is brought to rest in 4
seconds. Calculate
(i) the average deceleration
(ii) the average braking force
(iii) the distance covered
f. Consider an aeroplane dropping a load of food to people stranded in
a village. The parachute falls unopened in free fall for 5 seconds.
The parachute then opens and decelerates uniformly for a further 12
seconds to reach a constant landing speed of 10m/s. This terminal
speed is maintained for another 20s before the load touches down the
ground.
(i) What is the downward velocity just as the parachute opens
(Hint: on dropping the parachute falls with free fall)
(ii) What is the magnitude of the constant deceleration after the
parachute has opened.
(iii) Work out the height from which the aeroplane dropped the
parachute (Hint: Sketch a speed-time graph)

34
Chapter Four

OSCILLATIONS, WAVES AND LIGHT

PART A: OSCILLATIONS
0. INTRODUCTION
DEFINITION: An oscillation is a to and fro or up and down movement of a
particle that repeats itself.

1. EXAMPLES OF OSCILLATING SYSTEMS:

Cantilever, Pendulum, Spiral spring
Wooden ruler
G-Clamps
String
a Spring
Bob
b
a

c b Mass

a c c
b

2. TERMS ASSOCIATED WITH OSCILLATING SYSTEMS

EQUILIBRIUM: The final resting position finally reached in an oscillating system.
AMPLITUDE: The maximum displacement of the vibrating material as measured
from the equilibrium position to amplitude position.
SYMBOL: X SI UNITS: metres
AMPLITUDE POSITION: Extreme position of a swing.
CYCLE: One complete oscillation.
FREQUENCY: The number of complete cycles per unit time.
SYMBOL: f SI UNITS: Hertz (Hz)
PERIODIC TIME: The time taken for the oscillating system to perform one
complete cycle.
SYMBOL: T SI UNITS: second

3. HOW TO COUNT ONE COMPLETE CYCLE

Using the above oscillating systems start from a to c and back to a each time
going through b.

4. RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN FREQUENCY AND PERIODIC TIME

1
f = 𝑇. If one complete cycle takes 2 seconds, then in 1 second the number of cycles
is half giving a frequency of 0.5Hz.

35
5. FACTORS AFFECTING FREQUENCY OF OSCILLATING SYSTEMS
SYSTEM FACTORS AFFECTING
Spiral spring Mass on end
Material (Stiffness)
Pendulum Length of string
Amplitude changes
Material of pendulum
Cantilever Mass on end
Length of cantilever
Material of cantilever
FACTORS NOT AFFECTING
Length of spring
Amplitude changes
Mass on end (bob)
Small amplitude changes
Amplitude changes

6. MODEL QUESTION
With the aid of a well labelled diagram, describe an experiment that could be done to
show that the frequency of a vibrating pendulum increases with decrease in length of
string (Maneb 2011 and 2012)
MATERIALS: 100cm nylon string, meter rule, stop watch, 50g mass, clamp and
clamp stand.
PROCEDURE:
i. Tie 100cm nylon string to the clamp with the 50g mass on
end. The set up should look like the diagram on the left.
ii. Pull the mass to one side and leave it to vibrate freely
String 100cm iii. Record the time taken to make 10 complete vibrations.
iv. Work out frequency by dividing the 10 complete vibrations
Clamp by the recorded time taken.
stand
v. Repeat steps b, c and d using 80cm, 60cm, 40cm and 20cm
50g mass lengths respectively.
vi. Record the results in the table below
LENGTH TIME TAKEN FOR 10 FREQUENCY
COMPLETE VIBRATIONS
i. 100cm
P
l
80cm
o
60cm
t
40cm
20cm
vii. Plot a graph of length against frequency
EXPECTED SHAPE OF GRAPHLINE: see on the left
EXPECTED RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN LENGTH AND
FREQUENCY FROM TABLE AND THE GRAPHLINE:
Frequency increases with decrease in length
VARIABLES TO KEEP CONSTANT
Material of string and Amplitude changes

From the model question a candidate can find a skeleton serving as a paradigm for
attempting a question on investigating how length, amplitude, mass on end and material can
affect the frequency of an oscillating pendulum, spiral spring or cantilever.

36
 7. PROPERTY OF OSCILLATING SYSTEMS
Each oscillating system is an example of continuous interchange of potential energy
and kinetic energy.
In the diagrams of cantilever, pendulum and spiral spring on page 24,
 From a to b potential energy changes to kinetic energy
 From b to c kinetic energy changes to potential energy
 Potential energy is maximum at a and c. It is zero at b.
 Kinetic energy is maximum at b. It is zero at a and c.
ASSUMPTION: They are ideal systems with no energy loss.

8. WHY DO THE OSCILLATIONS DIE AWAY

There is energy loss in a form of heat because of friction due to
b. air resistance to the moving particle
c. Rubbing between the holding clamp and the ruler/spring.

Note that the heat energy is considered a loss because the heat energy is not put to any
use in this system. Pajatu speaking scientifically energy is neither gained nor lost.

9. NATURAL FREQUENCY
A frequency at which a material vibrates freely.
Natural frequency does not change even if amplitude decreases.

PART B - WAVES
0. INTRODUCTION
DEFINITIONS:
 It is a disturbance in a medium
 It is a form of energy which is passed from one particle to another particle
in the material through which the wave travels.
Waves carry energy from place to place and can also transmit information.

1. TYPES OF WAVES
I. TRANSVERSE WAVES
 The oscillations are up and down perpendicular to the direction of the waves.
 They produce crests and troughs, see diagram on page 38.
 They can travel through a vacuum
Examples of transverse waves are radio waves, light waves, ultraviolet radiation
(These three belong to a family of electromagnetic waves) and water waves.

37
 Wave direction

Crest

Equilibrium
position

II. LONGITUDINAL WAVES

 The oscillations of a particle are backward and forward or to and fro in the
direction of the wave.
 They produce compressions and rarefactions
 They need a medium e.g. sound waves – When a turning fork is hit it
vibrates and produces sound. The vibrating tuning fork pushes and releases
the air in contact with it. The squeezed air forms a compression and the air
that is released forms a rarefaction. A series of compressions and
rarefactions move out from the fork and strike the eardrum which picks the
sound.
Wave direction

C R C R C R

C = Compression
R = Rarefaction

2. CHARACTERISTICS OF WAVES
WAVE AMPLITUDE (A)
It is the maximum displacement of the particles in the wave.
WAVE PERIOD (PERIODIC TIME) (T)
It is the time taken for a vibrating particle in the wave to complete a cycle.
WAVE FREQUENCY (F)
It is the number of oscillations performed by a particle in the wave per unit time.
WAVE LENGTH
 It is the length occupied by one complete wave.
 It is the distance between two points that are in phase.
 It is the distance between two consecutive crests or troughs or
compressions or rarefactions.

3. THE WAVE EQUATION

VELOCITY = FREQUENCY X WAVELENGTH (v = fλ)
𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑠𝑐𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠
= X wavelength
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛

38
 EXERCISE 3a
(i) A local FM radio station broadcasts on 98.2 Megahertz. Calculate the
wavelength at which the station broadcasts.
v= 300 000 000m/s which is the speed of all
electromagnetic waves, f =98.2 X 1000000 =
98200000Hz
𝑣 300000000𝑚/𝑠
V = fλ λ= 𝑓
= 98200000𝐻𝑧
=3.05m.

4. PROPERTIES OF WAVES
Properties of waves are easily studied using a ripple tank.

Motor to Lamp Stroboscope

produce
Tank Water (spinning disc) to freeze
vibrations
the wave motion

Vibrating block to
produce ripples

Wave shadows
on screen

STROBOSCOPE is a spinning disc to freeze the wave motion.

EXERCISE 3b
(i) The horizontal metal strip in the ripple tank above produces straight
parallel waves. Suggest how it can be made to produce circular ripples?
By using a vertical spherical-ended rod.
(I) REFLECTION
It is the bouncing back of a wave when it strikes an obstacle
Examples: an echo which is reflection of sound waves, reflection of light
waves in a plane mirror and reflection of water waves on hitting a cliff.

TERMS ASSOCIATED WITH WAVE REFLECTION

The point where a wave strikes a reflecting surface is called POINT OF
INCIDENCE.
NORMAL: It is an imaginary line drawn perpendicular to the reflecting
surface at the point of incidence.
INCIDENT WAVE is the wave that strikes a reflecting surface.
REFLECTED WAVE is the wave that bounces off a reflecting surface.
ANGLE OF INCIDENCE is the angle made between the incident wave
and the normal.
ANGLE OF REFLECTION is the angle made between the reflected wave
and the normal.

39
 NORMAL Reflected wave
Incident wave KEY
i = angle of Incidence
r = angle of reflection

Reflecting surface
Point of incidence

LAWS OF REFLECTION
 The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection.
 The incident wave, the reflected wave and the normal all lie in one plane.

(II) REFRACTION
It is the change of speed of a wave and consequently its change in
direction which happens at the boundary between media of different
densities or different resistance.
Examples of refraction:
Incident NORMAL  Light travelling from air into glass
ray and from glass back into air. Glass
air
has greater optical density than air
so when a light wave moves from
glass
air into glass it bends towards the
normal.
air Emergent ray

NORMAL

NORMAL
Incident
water
wave
90⁰ Water surface
 A Water wave travelling from
Reflected shallow water to deeper water.
Shallow water wave Resistance is less in deep water
water than in shallow water. The speed
Deep of the wave increases. The wave
water
bends away from the normal.

Why does the speed of a water wave decrease as it passes from deep to shallow
water? The wavelength becomes shorter while frequency remains the same. Since
Velocity = frequency X wavelength the speed decreases.

LAW OF REFRACTION. A wave bends towards the normal when it enters a medium
of greater density or greater resistance and a wave bends away from the normal when
it enters a medium of less density or less resistance.

40
(III) DIFFRACTION
 It is the spreading of a wave as it passes through a gap.
 It is the bending of a wave round the sides of an obstacle.
CONDITION FOR DIFFRACTION TO OCCUR
The size of the gap should be about the same as the wavelength.
Wider gaps produce less diffraction.
Wider gap
Narrow gap

(IV) INTERFERENCE
This is when identical waves combine resulting in either reinforcement or
cancelling each other.
CONDITION : Identical waves combining.
The waves may be superposed in phase or out of phase. In phase means
crest falling on crest, trough falling on trough, rarefaction falling on
rarefaction or compression falling on compression.
Out of phase means crest falling on trough, compression falling on
rarefaction.

TYPES OF WAVE INTERFERENCE

a. CONSTRUCTIVE: Where waves coincide in phase resulting into
bigger amplitude – reinforcement.
b. DESTRUCTIVE: Where waves coincide out of phase resulting in
disappearance of the wave
Antinodal lines are lines of increased disturbance.
Nodal lines are lines along which a wave is exactly out of phase.
Constructive
Destructive interference
interference

Crest

Trough

Source of Disturbance

41
 5. WAVE FRONT
This refers to the common circles of all particles which vibrate in phase. E.g.
circular waves generated by dropping a spherical object in water such that circular
pattern are equidistant from the centre of disturbance.

Wave direction

Source of disturbance

WAVE FRONT

PART C: LIGHT
0. INTRODUCTION
A. CLASSIFICATION OF OPTICAL MATERIALS
I. TRANSPARENT MATERIALS
These allow light to pass through them and objects can be seen through them e.g.
water, air and glass.
II. TRANSLUCENT MATERIALS
These allow light to pass through them but objects cannot be seen through them.
E.g. frosted glass, oiled paper. Windows of toilets use translucent glass because
light must pass through but the object inside need not be seen.
III. OPAQUE OBJECTS do not allow light to pass through and objects cannot be
seen through them.

B. SOURCES OF LIGHT
FIRST CATEGORISATION
I. LUMINOUS SOURCES produce their own light.
II. NON LUMINOUS SOURCES do not produce their own light.
SECOND WAY OF CATEGORISATION
I. POINT SOURCES of light are very small sources of light e.g. a small bulb,
light passing through a slit.
II. EXTENDED SOURCES of light are big sources of light e.g. the sun, torch.
Their shadows have two regions; one of partial darkness called PENUMBRA
another of total darkness called UMBRA.

C. PATH OF LIGHT
A light wave is called a ray. It is the direction of path of light.
On paper it is represented using a straight line with an arrow.
A group of light rays is called a BEAM. Beams can either be parallel, divergent or
convergent. Converging rays meet and cross each other.

42
 D. CONVEX LENSES AND CONCAVE LENSES

Difference

 A convex lens is thicker in the middle

and thinner in the edges while a
concave lens is thinner in the middle.

Similarity

 Both lenses produce images by

refracting light rays.
 Light rays bend when entering and
leaving the lenses.
o In a convex lens light rays bend
towards the principal axis.
o In concave lens they bend away
from the principal axis.

1. TERMS ASSOCIATED WITH CONVEX LENSES

OBJECT (o) is the real thing while IMAGE (i) is the picture of the real thing.
OBJECT DISTANCE (u) is the distance between the object and lens.
IMAGE DISTANCE (v) is the distance between the image and the lens.
OPTICAL CENTRE is the centre of a lens where light rays are not refracted.
A light ray passing through the optical centre is never bent because the sides of the
lens are almost parallel in the middle.
PRINCIPAL AXIS is an imaginary line passing through the optical centre which is
also perpendicular to the plane of the lens.
PRINCIPAL FOCUS or FOCAL POINT (F)
It is the meeting point of a beam of light rays passing through a convex lens.
FOCAL LENGTH (f) is the distance between the focal point and the optical centre.
FOCAL PLANE is a line perpendicular to the principal axis passing through focal
point.

2. CHARACTERISTICS OF AN IMAGE
a. An image can either be upright/erect or upside down/inverted.
b. An image can either be real or virtual. A real image forms where light rays meet
and cross. A real image is cast on a screen and is upside down. A virtual image
forms where light rays appear to meet and cross. A virtual image cannot be cast on
a screen and is upright.
c. An image can be magnified, diminished or same size as the object.

43
3. FORMULA FOR MAGNIFICATION
𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑒 ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡(𝐻2)
a. Magnification = 𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 (𝐻1)
This is called LINEAR MAGNIFICATION: the number of times in which the
image is bigger than the object.
𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 (𝑣)
b. Magnification = 𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 (𝑢)
𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
c. Angular magnification = 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑛𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑑 𝑒𝑦𝑒.
Angular magnification is used in a telescope.
NEAR POINT OF THE EYE: The closest distance an object can be placed and
still be seen clearly by a naked eye. The distance from near point to the eye is
called LEAST DISTANCE OF DISTINCT VISION.

4. HOW TO CONSTRUCT LIGHT RAY DIAGRAMS GEOMETRICALLY –

FINDING IMAGE DISTANCE BY SCALE DRAWING.
Three light rays always start from the source point object.
The ray that passes through the optical centre is not refracted.
The point at which the rays meet is where a real image forms.
NOTE ON SCALE: Use same scale for f, u and v. h1 and h2 should also have same
scale which may be different from that of f, u and v.
EXERCISE 3c
Use scale drawing to find image distance and in each case state characteristics of
image for the following instances. (scale for h₁ and h₂ should be 1:10, for f, u and v the
scale should be 1:5)

(i) An object 10cm high is placed 20cm in front of a convex lens of focal length 10cm.

(ii) An object 10cm high is placed 30cm in front of a convex lens of focal length 10 cm.

44
 (iii) An object 10cm high is placed 10cm in front of a convex lens of focal length 10cm

(iv) An object 10cm high is placed 5cm in front of a convex lens of focal length 10cm.

Question i is for an abject at 2F, question ii is for an object outside 2F, question iii is for
an object at F and question iv is for an object between F and the lens.

SUMMARISING IMAGE POSITION AND IMAGE CHARACTERISTICS

OBJECT POSITION IMAGE POSITION IMAGE CHARACTERISTICS
Distant infinity At F Real, diminished, inverted. M < 1.
Outside 2F Between F and 2F Real, diminished, inverted. M < 1.
At 2F At 2F Real, same size, inverted. M = 1
Between F and 2F Outside 2F Real, magnified, inverted. M > 1
At F At infinity Virtual, magnified, erect. M > 1
Between F and lens Same side as object Virtual, magnified, erect. M > 1

5. THE LENS FORMULA – FINDING IMAGE DISTANCE BY CALCULATION.

1 1 1
=𝑉+𝑈
𝐹

EXERCISE
Use calculation to find image position and characteristiscs
(i) An object 10cm high is placed 10cm in front of a convex lens of focal length 15cm.

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
= +𝑢 ⇒ = - therefore = -
𝑓 𝑣 𝑣 𝑓 𝑢 𝑣 15𝑐𝑚 10𝑐𝑚

1 2−3
= = -30cm
𝑣 30
1 1
Therefore 𝑣 = - 30 ⇒ v = -30cm. Answer
The answer id negative to show that it is a virtual image.

45
 NOTES
A negative sign in an answer means the image is virtual. Virtual images are upright.
An image is magnified if image distance is greater than object distance.

6. HOW TO DETERMINE FOCAL LENGTH OF A LENS

a. Focussing an image of a distant object e.g. a window across a large room.
PROCEDURE:
Holding a lens a short distance from a wall (function as a screen) trying to
produce a clear image of the window on the opposite wall. The lens is moved
forward and backward until a sharp image is produced. The distance from the wall
to the lens is the focal length of the lens.
EXPLANATION: Light rays from a distant object travel parallel to each other. On
being incident on a convex lens they are refracted. On emerging they meet and
cross each other at the principal focus or in the focal plane.

b. GRAPHICAL METHOD
MATERIALS: A candle, matches, meter ruler, lens holder, lens and a screen.
PROCEDURE
a. Set up the apparatus as shown below and light the candle
b. With the candle at 22.5cm from the lens produce a well focussed image of the
flame on the screen.
c. Measure and record the image distance in the table of results
d. Repeat steps (c) and (d) for the object distances shown in the table below
U cm V cm 1/u cm 1/v cm u+v cm
22.5 45 0.044 0.022 67.5
28.0 32 0.035 0.031 60
37.5 23 0.026 0.043 60.5
45.0 22.5 0.022 0.044 67.5
52.5 21 0.019 0.047 73.5
!!!!. Carry out your own experiment to find v. WOSALOWEZA TABLEYI!!!
1 1
e. Draw a graph of 𝑢against 𝑣.
1 1
USING THE GRAPH OF AGAINST 𝑣.
𝑢

(1). Extend the graph line to cut the y axis at D.

1
At D, = 0. This means image distance is infinity and the
𝑣
1 1
object must be at F. 𝑢 = 0.066 cm. u =𝑜.066𝑐𝑚 = 15.1cm.
1
(2) Extend the graph line to cut the y axis at N. At N, 𝑢 = 0.
This means object distance is infinity and the image must
1 1
form at F. 𝑣 = 0.067. v = 𝑜.067𝑐𝑚 = 14.9cm. The answers
are very close.

46
 f. Another graph which may be drawn is of u+v against u.

Shape of graph line = curve upwards

Important point is the lowest point, L.

At the lowest point (1) u = 2F. From the graph u = 31 =
2F. F = 31/2 = 15.5cm.
At the lowest point (2) u+v = 4F. F
rom the graph u+v =58 = 4F. F = 58/4 = 14.5.

The graphical method cannot be very exact but must be

close. This also applies where one finds an answer by
scale drawing unlike calculation.

c. PLANE MIRROR METHOD

PROCEDURE
Set up the apparatus as shown below. Light the candle.

Move the lens forward and backwards until a sharp focussed image is formed on
the screen. The image distance is equal to the focal length.
PRINCIPLES OBEYED HERE
 Rays of light incident on a plane mirror at right angles are reflected in the
same path.
 For an object placed at F, light rays become parallel after striking a convex
lens.
 Rays of light that are parallel to each other before striking a convex lens
converge at F.

7. REFLECTION IN A PLANE MIRROR

A plane mirror follows regular reflection.
Object Virtual
image

Mirror

47
 On being reflected the rays become divergent. Image forms where the rays appear to
meet and cross.
PROPERTIES OF AN IMAGE FORMED BY A PLANE MIRROR
(i) It is virtual because it cannot be cast on a screen since light rays do not meet.
(ii) It is upright.
(iii) It is inverted sideways – lateral inversion.
(iv) It is found at the same distance behind the mirror as the object is in front of it.

8. DISPERSION
It is the splitting of white light into its different component colours which happens as
white light passes through a prism.
SPECTRUM is the band of coloured lights that forms after dispersion has taken place.
HOW MANY COLOURS DOES WHITE LIGHT COMPRISE?
An infinite range. For convenience’s sake we say seven.
HOW DOES THE PRISM SPLIT THE COLOURS?
Each of the colours of the spectrum has different wavelength and frequency. These
differences in wavelength and frequency make the speed of each coloured light to
decrease by different amounts as the white light is incident on the glass prism.
Consequently each colour is refracted at a different angle leading to the splitting of
the colours hence dispersion.
Red light is refracted least. Violet light is refracted the most.
The colours always occur in the same order: Red, orange, yellow, Green, Blue, indigo
and violet.
 A rainbow is a spectrum of white light that has been dispersed by
raindrops acting like little prisms.
 As a law refraction of light in a prism is always towards the wider base.
DOES THE PRISM MANUFACTURE THE COLOURS?
The answer is a BIG NO.
WHAT IS THE EVIDENCE THAT THE PRISM DOES NOT MANUFACTURE
THE COLOURS?
I. Recombination experiments
Lens
2nd Inverted Prism

Blue
green
violet
White light image
Red Yellow
1st Prism

A rotating disc of spectrum

colours produces white light

a. Rotating a disc of spectrum colours produces white light

b. Repassing coloured light through a second inverted prism produces white
light.

48
 II. Passing a single colour through a second prism produces that colour only on the
screen.

KEY A ray of white 1st white

light screen
r = Red ray 2nd white screen
g = Green ray
b = Blue ray
1st Prism
White
light Slit 2nd Prism
source
Slit Green
image of slit

HOW TO PRODUCE A PURE SPECTRUM

1st position of screen, S¹

Converging lens White light image

from lens 2nd position
White
light of screen, S
rays

Grass Prism
Slit
White light
source Pure Spectrum

OBJECT: Light passing through a slit

LENS: Forms a sharp clear focussed image of white light on a screen.
PRISM: Moved into the path of white light rays. Dispersion takes place at a prism and
the differently coloured lights are diverged.
 Screen is moved carefully from position S1 to position S keeping a constant
distance from screen to prism to keep the image focussed.
 The spectrum is pure because colours do not overrun each other, colours do
not merge and cannot be blurred.

9. OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS
A. SLIDE PROJECTOR
PRINCIPLE: An object placed between F and 2F of a convex lens forms its image
outside 2F. The image is real, inverted and magnified.

49
 PROJECTOR LIGHT RAY DIAGRAM
Screen
Lamp Slide

Concave mirror Condenser Projector lens

PARTS AND FUNCTIONS

FILM: it is the object. It contains small pictures. It is placed upside down in order
for the upside down image to appear upright to the viewer.
PROJECTOR LENS: It has long focal length. It produces a focused real
magnified and inverted image on a screen.
LAMP: Illuminates the film.
CONDENSER LENS: It is a convex lens of short focal length.
Converges and focuses light onto the film.
CURVED MIRROR: Sends back wasted light onto the film.

B. MAGNIFYING GLASS
Placing and object inside F of a convex lens makes the lens a magnifying glass.
The image appears on the same side as the object. It is upright, virtual and
magnified.

C. ASTRONOMICAL TELESCOPE
An instrument used to look at stars, the moon or any distant object.
PRINCIPLE
 A distant object focuses a real, inverted and diminished image at principal
focus, F.
 An object placed at focal point produces a virtual, upright and magnified
image at infinity
DIAGRAM

Eyepiece lens

Light rays from

a distant object Objective lens Parallel rays enter
the eye and the
image is at
INFIRNITY

50
 Light rays from a distant object are striking the objective lens, Lo. the rays are
travelling parallel to each other but not parallel to the P.A. of the lens. the rays
emerge from the lens to cross in the focal plane of the lens. The rays continue to
the eyepiece lens.
PARTS AND FUNCTIONS
Objective lens: Has long focal length. It focuses a real inverted diminished image
at focal point.
Eyepiece lens: Has short focal length. It focuses a virtual magnified upright image
at infinity. It acts as a magnifying glass.
NOTES
 Image of the objective lens becomes an object of the eyepiece lens.
When compared to the original object the final image is upside down.
 Length of the telescope is equal to the sum of the focal lengths of the
objective lens and eyepiece lens.
𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑥 𝑓𝑜
 Magnification for telescope = 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑦 = 𝑓𝑒
EXERCISE
Suggest how you can increase magnification in a telescope?
State one disadvantage of a telescope
How can the final image in a telescope be formed closer than at infinity?

D. LENS CAMERA
Film spool
Diaphragm Film

Glass lens

Aperture Camera box

Shutter

Threads (Focusing Ring)

PARTS AND THEIR FUNCTION

Film: It is a plastic material that is coated with silver bromide (light sensitive
material). It has to be kept in the dark
Camera Lens/Glass Lens: Refracts light rays and focus them onto the film to
produce a real, inverted and diminished image.
Aperture: Allows light rays to enter the camera.
Shutter: Controls the amount of light entering the camera. When light is not
needed the shutter prevents light from entering the camera.
Diaphragm: Controls size of the aperture thereby controlling the amount of light
entering the camera.
Threads: They move the lens forward and backward in order to produce a clear
image on the film. This process is called focusing.
Camera Box: Acts as a container. It is dark inside to prevent damaging the film.
51
E. THE HUMAN EYE

Iris
Cornea Retina

Eye lens
Pupil

Ciliary muscle
Optic nerve

PARTS AND FUNCTIONS

The parts of the eye discussed here are those having to do with focusing an image.
EYE LENS: Used to focus an inverted real image on a screen called retina.
The special ability of the eye lens is that it can change its shape. The shape of the
lens decides the focal length of the lens.
RETINA: The screen on the back of the eye where the image is formed.
Contains one hundred million light sensitive cells.
PUPIL: A black hole in the front of the eye. It admits light.
EYEBALL: Contains parts of the eye.
IRIS: Muscles that control the size of the pupil and control the amount of light
entering the eye.
CILIARY MUSCLES: They are connected to the eye lens. They change the shape
of the eye lens so that light rays entering the eye are made to cross on the retina.
Changing the shape of the eye lens changes the focal length too.
CORNEA: Forms a tough and protective transparent outer cover of the eye. It
allows light to enter the eye and helps in some refraction of light rays.
EYE LIDS: Opens and closes to allow light in and to block light it is not needed.
OPTIC NERVE: Connected to retina at the back of the eye.
Carries visual messages to the brain for the body to act.

ACCOMMODATION: It is the ability of the eye to change the shape of the eye
lens and so change the focal length. It is achieved by contraction and relaxation of
the ciliary muscles.

SIMILARITIES BETWEEN THE CAMERA AND THE EYE

 Eyelid in the eye and shutter in the camera open and close to control
entry of light.
 Pupil in the eye and aperture in the camera are holes through which light
enters.
 Retina in the eye and film in the camera are light sensitive parts.
 Ciliary muscles in the eye control the shape of the eye lens and threads in
the camera make the camera lens move forwards or backwards.
 Eye lens and camera lens both have convex lens for production of real
images.

52
  Eye ball and camera box are containers that protect the parts inside
 Image distance in the eye is fixed while in the camera image distance
changes.
 Eyes are open while the common namely closed except when taking a
picture.
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN THE HUMAN EYE AND CAMERA
 Human eye has fluids while the camera does not contain fluids.
 The camera lens is a rigid glass while the eye lens is a soft tissue.
 The eye produces a clear image by accommodation while the camera
produces clear images by focusing.
 The eye has an optic nerve while the camera does not have an optic nerve
 The image in the camera is formed on different parts of the film while in
the eye the image is formed on the same spot of the retina.

I. MYOPIA – SHORT SIGHTEDNESS

A person sees near objects clearly but cannot see distant objects clearly
CAUSE:
 Eye lens being too thick
 Inelastic ciliary muscles
 Eye ball being too long.
 Cornea lens being extremely powerful
 Focal length of the lens being too short
EFFECT
Light rays meet and cross before they reach the retina.
Image forms inside the retina.
CORRECTION OF MYOPIA
Wearing concave lenses.

Light rays from

a distant object

II. HYPERMETROPIA/LONG SIGHTEDNESS

A person sees distant objects clearly but cannot see near objects clearly.
CAUSES:
 Eye ball being short.
 Eye lens being too thin
 Focal length being too long.
EFFECT: Light rays meet and cross outside the retina.

53
 CORRECTION OF HYPERMETROPIA:
Wear converging lenses.

I
Light rays from
a near object
Light rays from a near object

RECAPITULATORY EXERCISE
a. A water wave travels 480cm in 2 minutes. Its wavelength is 5cm. Work out
(i) the speed of the wave (Distance covered in m over time in s)
(ii) the frequency of the wave.
b. With the aid of a well labelled diagram, describe how a pure spectrum could
be produced from white light.
c. An object 10cm high is placed 15cm in front of a convex lens of focal length
10cm. Find the image position by scale drawing. State the characteristics of
the image.
d. An object 6cm long is placed 30cm in front of a converging lens of focal
length 10cm. Use calculation (the lens formula)to find image distance. State
characteristics of the image.

54
Chapter four

ELECTRICITY
PART A: ELECTROSTATICS – STATIC ELECTRICITY
0. INTRODUCTION
A. DEFINITION
Static electricity is the flow of electrons in insulators
B. INSULATORS, CONDUCTORS AND SEMI-CONDUCTORS
INSULATORS are non conductors of heat and electricity.
Their electrons are tightly held to atoms and are not free to move.
CONDUCTORS are materials that let electrons flow through them
Metals are good conductors of heat and electricity because the metallic bonding
has many free electrons. Silver and gold are excellent conductors. Aluminium,
copper and carbon allotrope graphite are good conductors.
SEMI-CONDUCTORS are materials that become conductors under specified
conditions. They are materials whose conductivity is between that of insulators
and conductors.

1. WHERE DO THE CHARGES COME FROM

The charges come from transfer of electrons from one material to the other.
An atom is electrically neutral. When two materials are rubbed together, electrons
may be transferred from one material to the other.
!!!!The charges are not created .... NAY.....NJEE.... Rubbing only separates the
charges that are already there.Insulators are easy to charge by rubbing because the
electrons that get transferred tend to stay where they are.

2. METHODS OF CHARGING AN OBJECT

I. FRICTION
This is charging by rubbing. For example:
a. Rubbing a plastic pen against hair – the pen gains electrons to attain a
negative charge. It can then pick small pieces of paper. Other objects that
attain a negative charge by rubbing are balloon, Bakelite and silk.
b. Rubbing perspex with a cloth makes the cloth to gain electrons. Perspex
becomes positively charged. Other objects that attain a positive charge by
rubbing are glass, wool and cellulose acetate.
wool
Perspex

Electrons
transferred
by rubbing

55
 II. BY CONTACT
When a neutral object is in contact with a positively charged cellulose acitate,
electrons are transferred from the neutral ball to the rod and so the ball
becomes positively charged. Eventually the charged acetate will be neutral. In
brief a neutral object takes the charge of the charged object in contact.
Before After contact
contact
Transfer of
Charged rod –ve charges

Charged rod neutralized

Neutral ball Ball +vely
charged by
contact

III. INDUCTION
Induced charges are charges that appear on an uncharged object because of a
charged object nearby.
OBSERVATION EXPERIMENT
A negatively charged balloon is brought closer to a wall.
attraction
OBSERVATION: Balloon sticks to the wall
Electrons
being EXPLANATION: As the balloon approaches
repelled the wall the electrons are repelled away from
from
surface the surface of the wall into the wall leaving the
Charged of wall wall surface positively charged. The balloon is
ballon
attracted
attracted to the wall and gets stuck.
to wall Wall surface left +vely
charged by induction
In charging by induction a neutral object takes
a charge opposite to that of a charged object.

3. DETECTION OF A CHARGE
An electroscope is a device which is used to
a. Detect a charge on an object
b. Work out the type of charge on an object.
TYPES OF ELECTROSCOPES
a. GOLD LEAF ELECTROSCOPE

Metal cap
Metal rod/stem
Insulating plug
Has a metal cap on a metal rod. At the
Metal plate
foot is a metal plate having a leaf of gold
Gold leaf
Glass window
foil attached.

Wooden or metal case

earthed by resting on bench
56
 HOW THE GOLD LEAF ELECTROSCOPE WORKS
 Charge the electroscope by induction using a rod of known charge.
The gold leaf rises. Like charges in the metal plate and gold leaf repel.
 Bring a rod of unknown charge near the metal cap
RESULTS AND INTERPRETATION
 Further divergence means the rod has the same charge as the electroscope.
 Falling of the leaf can either mean the rod is neutral or has a charge
opposite to that of the electroscope.

b. PITHBALL ELECTROSCOPE
A pith ball is a very light ball that has a conducting surface of aluminium and is
suspended freely by a thin insulating thread of nylon.

The +ve rod P attracts

–ve pith ball B

HOW IT WORKS
 Charge the pith ball by contact using a rod whose charge you know. The
pith ball has the same charge as the rod.
 A rod of unknown charge X is then brought near the pith ball electroscope.
RESULTS AND INTERPRETATION
 Repulsion means the rod and the pith ball have same charges.
 Attraction means the rod and the pith ball have opposite charges
 No attraction, no repulsion means the rod under test is uncharged.

4. EARTHING
Connecting an object to the ground by a conducting material so that the unwanted
charge flows away. The earth has an infinite capacity for absorbing extra electrons.
Why are metals difficult to charge by friction?
Electrons move freely and will leak away if a good path can be found.
Static electricity experiments are difficult to perform in rainy season because in wet
weather, water molecules act as the conducting pathway for charges to flow to earth.
NOTES
A metal with an insulated handle gives no path for the electrons to escape and can be
charged with static electricity.

5. DANGERS OF STATIC ELECTRICTY

 Building up of charges during refuelling as fuel rubs along the pipe. An
aircraft and its tanker must be earthed during refuelling to prevent sparks
which can lead to fire.

57
  Dust and germ are attracted to the equipment and medical personnel in
operating theatre.
 Static electricity builds up on helicopters during flight. It is dangerous to touch
the helicopter before the winch cable touches the ground.
 Computers are vulnerable to electrostatic damage
 Lightning

6. LIGHTNING
Energy explosion in a form of light and heat accompanied by thunder (sound)
How do charges build up in a cloud?
Friction caused by air currents.
The like charges in the cloud repel each other causing the electric potential energy of
very high voltage. Electrons burst out and force their way through the air to earth. Air
provides a high resistance path for the high voltages leading to energy explosion in a
form of light heat and sound.
LIGHTNING CONDUCTOR: a vertical thick metal strip made of copper with the
lower end buried in the ground
FACT: The concentration of charge on a conductor is greatest where the surface is
most sharply curved.
HOW DOES A LIGHTINING CONDUCTOR PROTECT A BUILDING?
 Providing a low resistance route for electrons to pass into the ground. The
lightning discharge is guided through the lightning conductor to the ground.
 Partly neutralising the negatively charged cloud. When a charged cloud passes
over a building the conductor becomes charged by induction. The top end of
the conductor is left positively charged. Induced positive charges in the
lightning conductor repel positive charges in air. The repelled positive ions in
the air are attracted towards the negatively charged cloud and so partly
neutralise it.

A lighting conductor
Metal plate made of copper strip
(earth plate)
buried in the Electrons repelled to
ground the earth

7. APPLICATION OF ELECTROSTATICS
a. Photocopiers print copies of original documents on paper.
Inside the photocopier a light sensitive plate is given a negative charge. An
image of the original document is projected onto the plate. The bright
areas lose their charge but the dark areas keep it. Powdered ink called

58
 toner is attracted to the charged areas. A blank sheet of paper is pressed
against the plate and picks up powdered ink. The paper is heated so that
ink melts and sticks to it.
b. An electrostatic precipitator removes dust and ash that goes up the
chimney of a coal burning power station. It consists of a charged fine wire
mesh which gives a similar charge to the rising particles of ash. They are
then attracted to plates with an opposite charge. These are tapped from
time to time to remove the ash which falls to the bottom of the chimney
from where it is removed.
c. Inkjet printers
Tiny drops of ink are forced out of fine nozzle, charged electro statically
and the passed between two oppositely charged plates. A negatively
charged drop will be attracted towards the positive plate causing it to be
deflected. The amount of deflection and hence the position at which the
ink strikes the page is determined by the charge on the drop and the
potential difference between the plates.
d. Paint spraying
e. Capacitors.

PART B- CURRENT ELECTRICITY

1. INTRODUCTON
A. DEFINITION
Current electricity is the flow of electrons in a conductor.
B. TYPES OF ELECTRICAL CURRENT
I. Direct Current (d.c.): It flows in one direction only
II. Alternating Current (a.c.): It flows to and fro (forward and backward)
C. Electric current is a complete path of an electric circuit. Electric current is produced
by uniform flow of electrons. Electrons flow only when the circuit is complete.
EXPLANATION: In a wire electrons are free to flow because according the metallic
bonding in a metal there are fixed positive metals ions and delocalised (free)
electrons. A cell repels electrons at the negative terminal and attracts the electrons at
the positive terminal to cause their uniform flow. (can you suggest why? – Like
charges repel and unlike charges attract.)
D. CONVENTIONAL CURRENT DIRECTION
It is given by the direction of fixed metal ions. The direction is opposite to the flow of
electrons. Before discovering that electric current results from flow of electrons scientists
thought electricity was produced by flow of positive metal atoms. This is not scientific but
just an understanding of electric current to be flow of positive charge from the high positive
terminal of the battery through the wire and back to the low negative terminal. It is like you
are in a moving vehicle. Stationary trees apparently ‘move’ in the opposite direction.

59
2. ELECTRIC CIRCUIT SYMBOLS

wire A cell Milliameter

Transformer
Earth
Wires crossing A Battery Ammeter

Wires joined Voltmeter

Alternating
current source Electric motor

Terminals Fuse

Bulb Loudspeaker Diode

Switch
B
E C

Thermistor Resistor Variable resistor Rheostat Transistor

3. SERIES CIRCUITS AND PARALLEL CIRCUITS

A Series Circuit

A Parallel Circuit

A. FACTS ABOUT SERIES CIRCUITS

 Components are connected end to end
 Total voltage is divided amongst the components
 All components are controlled by one switch.
 Current at any point along the circuit is the same.
 Total resistance is the sum of component resistances.
Formula for finding total resistance, Rs: Rs = R1+R2

60
B. FACTS ABOUT PARALLEL CIRCUITS
 Components are connected across each other
 Voltage across each component is equal. The sum of voltage across each
component is equal to the voltage entering the branch or voltage across battery.
 Total current is divided amongst the components.
 Each component is controlled by its own switch.
 Total resistance is equal to the sum of reciprocal of all resistances.
Formulae for finding total resistance, Rp:
1 1 1
a. = +
𝑅𝑝 𝑅1 𝑅2
𝑅1𝑅2
b. Rp = (Use this formula when the resistors are not more than two)
𝑅1+𝑅2

4. POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE
Potential Difference (PD) is the scientific name for voltage.
Voltage is the force that drives electrons in a conductor.
Voltage is measured in Volts (V) by a voltmeter.
ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE (EMF) is the maximum pd voltage of a cell.
It is the voltage across the terminals of a battery in an open circuit.
EXPLANATION: When a battery is being used, pd voltage drops because of energy
wasted inside the cell. Chemicals inside the cell offer internal resistance leading to
wastage of energy.

5. ELECTRIC METERS: AMMETERS AND VOLTMETERS

Ammeters measure electric current in Amperes or Amps (A).
Voltmeters measure pd voltage in volts.
Ammeters are connected in series to record electric current without interfering with
the readings. Current at all points in series circuit is the same. Voltmeters are
connected in parallel. In parallel arrangement voltage is the same and so the
voltmeters record the voltage accurately.

6. RESISTANCE
Definition: Resistance is the opposition to the flow of electrons in a conductor.
SI Units: Ohms SYMBOL: (Ω) Greek “Omega”
𝐕
Formula: R = 𝐈 (Ohm’s law)
Cause: Collisions between electrons and fixed metal atoms as electrons flow.
EXPLANATION: In a conductor as electrons flow they bump into fixed metal ions.
The effect is that electrons are slowed down. The electrons lose their energy to the
fixed metal ions. The fixed metal ions vibrate about their fixed positions.

61
A. FACTORS AFFECTING RESISTANCE IN A WIRE
I. Temperature – Raising the temperature of a conductor makes the metal ions
vibrate with bigger amplitude. The bigger vibrations slow down the electrons
and increase the resistance of the conductor.
II. Length of a wire – In a long wire there are more collisions between electrons
and the fixed metal ions than in a short wire. Hence as length of a wire
increases, resistance increases
III. Cross-sectional area (Thickness/Diameter)
A thicker wire is wider and has more space for electrons to flow. In a large
diameter wire there are few collisions between fixed metal ions and electrons.
Electrons are slowed down less. Resistance decreases.
IV. Type of material – According to the metallic bonding different metals hold
onto their electrons differently. Different metals have different slowing down
effect on the flow of the electrons. Conductors hold onto their electrons less
strongly than resistors. Conductors provide many free electrons. Examples of
resistance wires are nichrome, tungsten and constantan.

B. MODEL QUESTION
Describe an experiment that you can carry out to show that resistance of a wire
depends on its length
MATERIALS: Nichrome wire, meter rule, 2 cells, a cell holder, a voltmeter, an
ammeter, a switch, connecting wires and crocodile clips.
PROCEDURE:
i. Connect the ammeter, switch and the cells in series using the connecting
wires and the crocodile clips. Leave a gap XY and connect the voltmeter in
parallel across the gap. The set up looks like the diagram below.

ii. Measure 80cm of the nichrome wire and connect it on the gap XY and
close the switch
iii. Take note of ammeter and voltmeter readings. Work out the resistance by
𝐕
using the formula R = 𝐈 (Ohm’s law)
iv. Repeat steps (ii) and (iii) for lengths nichrome wire of 60cm, 40cm and 20cm.
v. Record the results in a table
Length (cm) Ammeter Reading (A) Voltmeter Reading (V) 𝑉
Resistance( )
𝐼
80cm
60cm
40cm
20cm
vi. Plot a graph of length against resistance.

62
 EXPECTED RESULTS FROM THE TABLE AND THE GRAPH
As length of nichrome wire increases resistance increases too.

From the model question a candidate can find a skeleton serving as a paradigm for attempting
a question on investigating how thickness and material of the wire affect the resistance of a
conductor.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM THAT CAN BE USED TO INVESTIGATE THE

TEMPERATURE FACTOR

Thermometer
Stirrer

C. USES OF RESISTANCE COMPONENTS

I. To reduce the current
II. To keep currents and pd at levels needed for other components to work properly
MORE USES are discussed under semiconductor devices in
ELECTRONICS

D. RESISTANCE EQUATIONS (Revision)

FORMULA FOR RESISTANCE IN SERIES, Rs: Rs = R1+R2
FORMULAE FOR RESISTORS IN PARALLEL Rp:
1 1 1 𝑅1𝑅2
(i) = + (ii) Rp =
𝑅𝑝 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅1+𝑅2
Use the second formula when resistors are NOT MORE THAN TWO.

E. RESISTOR COLOUR CODE

Writing the actual value in ohms may not easily fit on the resistor itself. So the
resistor colour code is used to indicate the resistance of a resistor. The following
table gives the colours and their respective values.
Black Brown Red Orange Yellow Green Blue Violet Grey White
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
 The first two colour bands indicate the first two digits.
 The third colour band indicates the number of zeros after the first two
digits.
Example: A resistor of 12000 ohms (12 kiloohms) would have brown as first
colour band, red as second colour band and orange as third colour band.

63
 TOLERANCE: Tolerance is how much resistance may differ from the marked
value expressed as a percentage. On the resistor colour code it is given by the
fourth band. A smaller tolerance would mean the resistance is closer to the marked
value. The following table gives the colours and their respective tolerances.
Brown Pink Red Gold Silver No Colour
1% 2% 2% 5% 10% 20%
EXERCISE 4a
 What are the colours on the resistor if its value is 15±5%.
Brown, green, black and gold.
 What is the value of the resistor if its colours are in the following order
from the first colour: yellow, black, yellow and silver.
400000±10% Ω

F. RESISTANCE CODE (RESISTANCE STANDARD NOTATION)

In resistance standard notation the position of the letters R or K before or in
between figures gives the magnitude and position of the decimal in given figures
Tolerance is given by an extra letter at the end of the resistors as shown in the
following table.
F G J K M
1% 2% 5% 10% 20%

Study the following pattern of resistance values and their standard notations. Fill in the
missing gaps
CODE STANDARD NOTATION RESISTANCE VALUE
2R7M 2.7±20%Ω
55K0J 55±5%kΩ
5K6K
7.8±2%kΩ
K45F

7. HEATING EFFECT OF CURRENT

Resistance wires placed in circuits become hot as electric current passes through
them. As electrons flow through a conductor they bump into stationary metal ions.
The effect on electrons is that they are slowed down. The ions vibrate because the
electrons lose energy to them. The vibration of the fixed metal ions causes a rise in
temperature.

8. OHM’S LAW
Ohm’s law states that the current flowing through a metallic conductor is directly
proportional to the pd voltage across its ends if temperature and other physical factors
are kept constant.
It also states that resistance of a conductor is the ratio of the potential difference
voltage its ends to the current flowing through it.

64
 MATHEMATICAL EXPRESSIONS OF OHM’S LAW
𝑉
 Vα I V = kI k= 𝐼
In Ohm’s law k is the resistance. The unit of resistance is volts divided by amps. 1volt
divided by 1amp is equal to 1 ohm. Therefore the SI unit of resistance is the ohm (Ω).
𝑉
Since k = resistance R, then R = 𝐼
Ohm’s law mathematically is V=RI
For wires to obey Ohm’s law they must be at a constant temperature and their
physical conditions like tension should not be tampered with.

9. RULES OF CIRCUIT CALCULATIONS

I. Total current in circuit is the current that passes through a battery. (In
calculating total current you can work out current in any component which is
in series with the battery).
II. For resistors and components in series the current through each resistor is the
same but their potential difference voltages are usually different.
III. For resistors in parallel the voltage across the resistors are equal but the
currents through each resistors are usually different.
IV. At a junction in a circuit, the sum of the currents entering the junction is equal
to the sum of the currents leaving the junction.
V. For a battery of EMF, E volts supplied to a circuit the EMF is equal to the sum
of the PD voltages used up across the resistors in the external circuit. (This
rule makes the assumption that there is no internal resistance inside the
battery).
VI. For more than one resistor in series the single resistance Rs that can replace
the other resistances is given by Rs = R1+R2
VII. For more than one resistor in parallel the single resistance Rp that can replace
1 1 1
the other resistances is given by = +
𝑅𝑝 𝑅1 𝑅2

EXERCISE 4b
a. In an electrical circuit an 8 ohms resistor is connected in series with a 24V
battery. A 6 ohms resistor and 12 ohms resistor are connected in parallel
arrangement. (Draw a sketch). Calculate
I. Total resistance in the circuit
I I I
= + (total sum of resistors in a parallel circuit)
R R₁ R₂

I 1 1 3 1
= + ⇒ ⇒
R 6 12 12 4

I 1
= ⇒ 𝑅 = 4Ω
R 4
Total resistance = 8Ω + 4Ω = 12Ω. Answer

65
 II. Current in the 8 ohms resistor
Current in the 8Ω resistor = Current flowing through the battery (total current)
V 24V
I= ⇒ I= = 2 Amps.
R 12Ω

Therefore, I = 2 Amps. Answer

III. Voltage wasted in the 8 ohms resistor.

V = RI = 8Ω × 2Ω = 16 Volts. Answer.

IV. Voltage wasted in the 6 ohms resistor.

The total voltage entering the branches = 24V – 16V = 8V
Therefore, the voltage wasted in the 6Ω resistor = 8V. Answer.
(The reason is that components connected in parallel circuit have the same voltage)

10. EQUATIONS FOR WORKING OUT INTERNAL RESISTANCE

Symbol of internal resistance: r
 E = V + v or v = E-V.
 E = RI + rI or E = I (R +r) ( pajatu V = RI)
 Ir = E –V
𝐸−𝑉
 r = 𝐼

11. ELECTRICAL POWER IN CIRCUITS

Power is the rate of doing work. It is work done per unit time. Power is the rate of
transferring (using up) energy.
Electrical power is the electrical energy transferred per unit time. It is the rate of using
up electrical energy.

𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦
FORMULAS: Power = 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛

Energy = Power X Time

SI UNITS:
Energy is measured in joules (J), time taken is measured in seconds (s). Power is
measured in J/s. 1J/1s = 1 watt. Therefore the SI unit of power is the watt (W).

EQUATIONS FOR POWER, VOLTAGE AND CURRENT.

Power = Voltage X current W=VI
V = RI. By substituting V with RI we have W =RI2.
𝑉 𝑉2
I= By substitution we have W = 𝑅
𝑅

66
EXERCISE 4c
a. Calculate the voltage across the ends of a wire with a resistance of 6 ohms if it
dissipates power of 24 watts.
V²
W= ⇒ V² = WR
R
V² = 24W × 6Ω = 144
V = √144
Therefore, V = 12 Volts. Answer

b. A 240volts mains supply delivers a current of 2 amps to a coffee maker for 5 min.
Work out:
I. Power of the coffee maker
W = VI
W = 240V × 2 A ⇒ 480
Therefore, W = 480 W. Answer

II. Heat energy produced in the coffee maker

Energy = Power × Time
Therefore, Energy = 480W × (5min×60sec) ⇒ 480W×300sec ⇒ 144,000 joules
Therefore, Energy = 144,000 joules. Answer

POWER LOSSES IN CABLES

Electrical power from a power station can be transmitted through cables either at high
voltage low current or low voltage high current. Power losses result from resistance of
the long conductor cable. Copper (Aluminium) cables have negligible resistances but
with long distances of transmission, the resistance becomes significant.

Consider feeding 100kW to a transmission cable of resistance 2 ohms.

a) Transmission at 1000 volts and 100 amps. Work out
I. PD voltage wasted across the cable
V = RI
V = 2Ω × 100A ⇒ 200V
V = 200V. Answer

II. Voltage reaching the consumer

Voltage reaching the cells = 1000V – 200V = 800V. Answer

III. Power supplied to the consumer

W =VI
W = 800V × 100A ⇒ 80,000V ⇔ 80kW
Therefore, W = 80kW. Answer

67
 IV. Power Loss
100kW – 80kW = 20kW. Answer

b) Transmission at 20 000volts and 5amps. Calculate

I. PD voltage lost across the cable
V = RI
V = 2Ω × 5A ⇒ 10V
V = 10V. Answer

II. Voltage reaching the consumer

20,000V – 10V = 19,990V. Answer

III. Power supplied to the consumer

W = VI
W = 19,990 × 5A ⇒ 99,950W ⇔ 99.95kW
W = 99,950W or 99.95kW. Answer

IV. Power Loss

100kW – 99.95kW = 0.05kW. Answer

CONCLUSION
Power losses in cables are minimised when electrical power is transmitted at high
voltage low current.

EXERCISE 4d
a. A 6kW of power is fed to a transmission cable of resistance 3 ohms. If the power
is transmitted at 300volts, calculate the power wasted in the cable.

6kW = 6,000watts (1000watts = 1kW)

W 6,000W
I= = = 20A (Current at which power is transmitted)
V 300V
Power (W) = RI²
= 3Ω × 20A × 20A
= 1200W. Answer

12. COSTING ELECTRICITY

Commercial units of electricity are worked out from the equation
ENERGY = POWER X TIME
Here we deal with large quantities. So power is calculated in Kilowatts (kW) not
watts. Time is calculated in hours not seconds
SI UNITS OF ELECTRICAL ENERGY: Kilowatt-hour (kWh).
DFINITION OF KILOWATT-HOUR: Electrical energy used by a one kilowatt
appliance in one hour. One kilowatt-hour is one unit of electricity.

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 EXERCISE 4e
a. (i) The power rating of a television is 150watts. How much power in kilowatt-hours will
it use in 10 hours
Power = Energy in kW × Time in hrs
150
Converting 150 watts into Kw: 1000 = 0.15kW
W = 0.15kW × 10hrs
W = 1.5kWh. Answer

(ii) If the cost of power is K5 per unit what will be the cost of running the television for
10 hours in two days.
kWH for 2 days = 1.5kWh × 2 = 3kWh
if 1 kWh = K5
3 kWhs = ?
? = K5× 3kWh
= K15. Answer

b. An electric cooker has three rings with a power of 1.5kW each and a 3 kW oven.
The voltage supply is 250V. If one unit of electricity costs K12 what is the cost of
running the cooker with all switches closed for 4 hours.

Total kWh = (1.5 kW × 3) + 3kW ⇒ 4.5kW + 3kW ⇒ 7.5kW

Total Units = 7.5kW× 4hrs = 30kWh
Cost of electricity = 30kWh × K12
= K360. Answer

13. HOUSEHOLD ELECTRICITY

A. MAINS ELECTRICITY
This is the source of the household electricity. It uses alternating current. The
mains voltage in Malawi ranges from 220V to 240V and has a frequency of 50Hz.
For normal working all appliances must work at voltages close to the mains
voltage supply.

B. BULBS AND APPLIANCES IN CIRCUITS

In household wiring the bulbs are connected in parallel. Rings of cookers are
resistors connected in parallel.The advantages are:
(i) All bulbs receive the same voltage which is the total voltage of the supply
(ii) Each bulb can be switched on and off separately

ADVANTAGES OF FLUORESCENT TUBES AND ENERGY SAVER BULBS

OVER ORDINARY LIGHT BULBS.

 They are more efficient

 They last longer

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C. POWER RATING OF A BULB
A bulb may be labelled 240V-100W just as an example.
INTERPRETATION: For normal brightness of the bulb the supply voltage must
be 240V. The bulb uses up 100 joules electrical energy per second kapenakuti the
bulb dissipates 100 joules heat energy per second.
HOW TO DESCRIBE BRIGHTNESS OF A BULB
Normal Brightness – When voltage supply = voltage label of that bulb.
Dim Brightness – Voltage supply is below voltage label
Very Bright – Voltage supply just exceeds voltage label
Super Bright – Voltage supply greatly exceeds voltage label

EXERCISE 4f
i An electric bulb is marked 240V, 60 W (MANEB, 2010)
a. What is the meaning of 240V, 60W.
For normal brightness of the bulb, the voltage supply to the bulb must be 240V.
the bulb also uses 60 joules electrical energy per second

b. Calculate the heat dissipated by the bulb, in joules, if it operates for 8

minutes.
Energy = Power × Time
= 60W × (8 × 60sec)
⇒ 60W × 480s
= 28,800 joules. Answer

D. CIRCUITS IN A HOUSE
Most households have three kinds of circuits and all circuits are connected in
parallel.
I. LIGHTING CIRCUITS
These carry electrical current to the lights in the house. The wires are thin
and maximum current is 5 Amps.
II. POWER CIRCUITS
They are connected to the three pin outlets on the wall of the room. They
use thicker wires than those in lighting circuits. The maximum current is
13 Amps.
III. COOKER CIRCUITS
They use very thick wires which carry current up to a maximum of 30
Amps. Cookers have their own special switches connected into a special
wall socket.

70
E. HIGH CURRENTS IN CIRCUITS
I. CAUSES
 SHORT CIRCUIT: Accidental touching of live and neutral wires
giving a low resistance path and large current.

Fuse O Live wire

Fuse
240V Large Neutral
current
0V wire
240V

P 0V A B X Y
O-P is a short circuit: caused by the
accidental touching of live wire and Electric Coffee Hair Electric fire
neutral wire giving rise to a low kettle maker dryer
resistance path and a large current
a. Short Circuit b. Overloading

 OVERLOADING: Adding more and more electrical appliances on

three pin electrical points on the walls

PROBLEM (TO ILLUSTRATE OVERLOADING)

An electric cooker has three rings with a power of 1.5kW each and a 3kW
oven. The voltage supply is 250V.

a. Sketch a circuit diagram (Place rings and oven in parallel arrangement

with own switch)

b. Calculate current in one ring only.

W = VI
W
I= V
1.5kW ×1000 1,500W
I= ⇒ = 6 Amps
250V 250V
I = 6 Amps. Answer

c. Calculate total maximum current expected

I = 6 × 3 = 18Amps (Current in the three rings)
3,000𝑉
I= = 12Amps (Current in the oven)
250𝑉
Total Current = 18 + 12 = 30Amps. Answer

See that using all rings and oven at once causes high current by overloading

71
 II. DANGERS OF HIGH CURRENTS
 Can cause fire
 Can cause an electric shock which may lead to death.

III. PROTECTION AGAINST HIGH CURRENTS

This is done by having a fuse and an earth wire in a three pin plug.

F. FUSES
Definition: A fuse is a low melting point metal wire connected in the circuit right
next to the beginning of the live wire supply.
Function: Protecting the circuit against high currents.
Fuses melt when a current exceeds the normal maximum current expected. The
fuse value should just be a little bigger than the expected maximum current value.

G. THE THREE PIN PLUG

USE: Connecting electrical appliances in a house to mains electricity source.

Live wire Fuse

(brown)
Earth wire
(green and
yellow)

Neutral wire (blue)

LIVE WIRE: This wire has a potential voltage that keeps on changing regularly
from +240V to -240V. These voltages are compared to an earth potential of 0.0V.
The current has a frequency of 50 Hz.
NEUTRAL WIRE: Completes the circuit. It is attached to the earth at a potential
of 0.0 V. This is usually done by connecting the wire to a metal plate in the
ground.
EARTH WIRE: It is buried in the ground. It functions as a protection against high
currents (unwanted charges) in the event that a short circuit occurs.

PART C: ELECTROMAGNETISM
0. INTRODUCTION
 A magnet is any ferrous material that can exert a force of attraction on other
metallic objects
 Magnets have the following properties
(i) They attract materials made of iron, steel, nickel and cobalt.
(ii) When a magnet is free to swing it will always point north-south when it
comes to rest.

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 OBSERVATION EXPERIMENT
Suspend a magnet using a string and stirrup on a bench as demonstrated below

Stirrup

Stirrup
Bar magnet

Let the magnet swing and allow it to come to rest freely

OBSERVATION: It points north-south.
Magnets are used as compass needles because when a magnet is free to swing it will
always point north-south when it comes to rest.
 MAGNETIC FIELD. This is the region around the magnet in which magnetic
materials experience magnetic force. This field consists of imaginary lines
with arrows called magnetic field lines or magnetic lines of force.
 HOW TO DETECT FIELD PATTERN OF A MAGNET.
Place a bar magnet on a flat surface. Lay a stiff paper over it. Sprinkle iron
fillings on the paper. Tap the card gently. The iron fillings set along the field
lines and produce a pattern that appears as shown below.

 HOW MATERIALS GET ATTRACTED TO A MAGNET

It is by magnetic induction. Moving a magnet close to iron makes the
magnetic particles rearrange so that the side close to the magnet acquires a
pole different to that of the magnet. The two unlike poles attract.

1. THREE WAYS OF MAKING MAGNETS

I. INDUCTION: Bringing a magnet close to a magnetic material.

Magnet

Iron
nail

II. BY STROKING: A magnetic material is rubbed with a magnet in single

stroking. In double stroking the magnetic material is rubbed with two magnets.

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 III. ELECTRICAL METHOD: This is done by placing an iron core (a magnetic
material) in a solenoid which has been connected to direct current. A Solenoid is
copper wire coiled into a helical shape. When electric current flows through the
solenoid the bar becomes magnetised. It becomes an electromagnet
HOW TO DETERMINE THE POLES OF A SOLENOID AS AN
ELECTROMAGNET – RIGHT HAND GRIP RULE
Imagine your right hand gripping the coil such that the fingers point the same way
as the conventional current direction. Then the thumb points towards the north-
pole.
Thumb points to N pole

2. PERMANENT MAGNETS AND TEMPORARY MAGNETS

Permanent magnets retain their magnetism even after the magnetic material that
induced the magnetism in them is removed.
Temporary magnets lose the magnetism once the magnetic material inducing the
magnetism in them is removed e.g. electromagnet.

3. HOW TO DEMAGNETISE
I. Stopping the flow of current in an iron electromagnet
II. Placing the iron core in a coil carrying alternating current
III. Heating a magnet
IV. Hammering or dropping.

4. ELECTRIC CURRENT HAS A MAGNETIC EFFECT

A wire carrying current sets up a magnetic field (flux). If a compass is placed
close to the wire the compass needle is deflected towards the wire. The current
direction and direction of magnetic flux is given by Maxwell’s corkscrew rule.

MAXWELL’S CORKSCREW RULE

Imagine a corkscrew being screwed along the wire in the direction of current, the direction of
rotation of the screw gives the direction of the magnetic flux. The direction (movement) of the
screw is the direction of the current.

Plotting compass Right-handed screw

Iron filings

Card

Straight wire Current direction

74
5. ELECTROMAGNETS
These are temporary magnets made by placing a ferrous material (soft iron core)
in a solenoid of direct current. When electricity passes through a solenoid it acts
as a magnet. The solenoid demagnetises by stopping the flow of current or by
allowing a.c. flow through it.
USES OF ELECTROMAGNETS
I. Making electric bells
II. Separating ferrous materials from non ferrous ones
III. Removing steel splinters from a patients eye in hospitals
IV. Lifting iron and steel loads
V. Used as telephone relays
VI. Switching on different circuits
VII. Used in generators
VIII. Used in transformers

 THE ELECTRIC BELL.

Bell
Hammer

Solenoid wire Metal spring

Soft iron core

Soft Iron armature

Solenoid Screw

Copper strip

HOW THE ELECTRIC BELL WORKS

 The bell push switch is closed.

 When electric current flows in the solenoid the solenoid is magnetised
 A soft iron armature is pulled to one end of the solenoid by its magnetic
attraction
 The iron core strengthens this attraction
 A hammer is also held into the steel spring that carries the soft iron armature.
As the armature is pulled the hammer is pulled as well
 The hammer strikes the gong and rings the bell.
 The circuit breaks at the copper strip. Current stops flowing and the solenoid is
demagnetised.
 The steel spring flies back to its original position.
 The circuit is again complete and the action is repeated.

75
 ADVANTAGES OF ELECTROMAGNETS
I. It is easily demagnetised by switching off current (or allowing a.c pass
through it)
II. It can easily be controlled unlike a permanent magnet.
III. Magnetism can easily be increased. HOW?
 By using soft iron core
 By increasing the turns in the solenoid
 By increasing the current
 By making poles closer.

6. ELECTRICITY IN A MAGNETIC FIELD PRODUCES MOVEMENT

A wire carrying current in a magnetic field experiences a force. The force acts at
right angles to both the current and the field
EXPLANATION: There are two field patterns. One due to the magnetic field and
the other one due to the wire carrying current. The resultant field produces
movement.
FLEMING’S LEFT HAND RULE
Hold the thumb and the first two fingers of the left hand at right angles to each
other. The first finger indicates the direction of the magnetic field. The second
finger points in the direction of the current. The thumb points in the direction of
the thrust (force). This applied in an electric motor.

HOW AN ELECTRIC MOTOR WORKS

An electric motor consists of a coil of wire in a magnetic field. When electricity
flows through the wire movement is produced.
INPUT: Electric energy and magnetic field
ENERGY CHANGES: electrical energy  kinetic energy.

The commutator is a half split ring of copper. The brushes are carbon blocks.
They are connected to an electrical supply. As electricity flows XZ will
experience an upward force. WY will experience a downward force. The coil

76
 rotates in an anticlockwise direction until it is vertical. In a vertical position the
brushes are in line with the gaps in the commutator and the current stops. The coil
overshoots the vertical because of inertia. The commutator halves change contact
from one brush to the other. Then the direction of current reverses and the
direction of forces reverses as well.

GALVANOMETER (MICROAMMETER)
It is a very sensitive ammeter. It measures very small currents. Therefore it is a
microammeter.
INPUT: Electric current and magnetic field

Fine wire suspension

Mirror
Force

N S

The coil is suspended on a vertical wire about which it rotates. The rotation causes
the connected pointer to move across a graduated scale. Rotation of the fine wire
makes the coil twist.
DISADVANTAGES OF THE GALVANOMETER
 It cannot measure alternating current
 It can easily break the suspension wire with a large current
 It has to be on a level surface before use

7. ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION
INTRODUCTION
Kumbukirani kuti (remember that) a wire carrying current sets up a magnetic flux.
Komanso electricity in a magnetic field produces movement. Now hypothesise
what can happen if there is movement in a magnetic field???
 MOVEMENT IN A MAGNETIC FIELD PRODUCES ELECTRICITY
 WHENEVER A CONDUCTOR CUTS MAGNETIC LINES OF FORCE
ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE IS INDUCED.

Magnet pushes into the coil

S N

Ammeter moves right

77
Electromagnetic induction is the effect of producing electricity when magnetic
field lines cut a coil of wire.
The electric current produced by magnetic field lines cutting a conductor is called
Induced Current.

I. WAYS OF INCREASING INDUCED E.M.F

 Moving the coil (or magnet) faster
 Increasing the number of turns in the coil
 Using a stronger magnet

II. FARADAY’S LAW

The size of the induced current in a wire is directly proportional to the rate at
which the conductor cuts the magnetic field lines.

III. FLEMING’S RIGHT HAND RULE

Hold the thumb and the first two fingers of the right hand at right angles to each
other. The thumb points in the direction of motion. The first finger points in the
direction of the magnetic flux and the second finger points in the direction of
current. This is applied in a dynamo/generator.

IV GENERATOR (DYNAMO)
A dynamo consists of a coil of wire in a magnetic field. The coil of wire is rotated
meahanically. As it rotates it cuts magnetic field lines and produces induced
E.M.F. A dynamo produces a.c.
INPUT: Kinetic energy and magnetic field
ENERGY CHANGES: Kinetic Electrical
If slip rings are replaced by a commutator a.c. changes to d.c.

Coil rotating direction

North pole South pole

Carbon brushes

Slip rings

As the coil rotates it gives the highest induced current when it is

horizontal because it cuts the magnetic field lines at the greatest rate.
When the coil is vertical no magnetic field lines are cut and induced
E.M.F is zero.

78
 COMPARING AND CONTRASTING A DYNAMO AND AN ELECTRIC MOTOR.
Both an electric motor and a dynamo consist of a coil of wire in a magnetic field.
The differences are:
 The input in an electric motor is electrical energy while in a dynamo the
input is kinetic energy.
 The electric motor circuit has a battery.
 Dynamos have slip rings while electric motors have commutators.
NOTE
An a.c. generator becomes a d.c. generator if the slip rings are replaced by
a commutator.

A BICYCLE DYNAMO
A bicycle dynamo consists of a coil of wire and a magnet. Movement of the
bicycle wheel turns the dynamo. The magnet inside turns as well. As the magnet
moves the fixed coil cuts the lines of force producing electric current in the coil.
The current lights the rear lamp and the head lamp.

8. MUTUAL INDUCTION – FARADAY’S IRON RING EXPERIMENT

Soft iron
ring

Galvanometer
PRIMARY
CIRCUIT PRIMARY
CIRCUIT

A primary coil P and a secondary coil S are wound on opposite sides of an iron
ring. Coil P is connected to a battery and a tapping key. Coil S is connected to a
galvanometer.
OBSERAVATION
On pressing the key the galvanometer gives a momentary deflection. When the
circuit is being broken current is induced in the opposite direction.
EXPLANATION:
Pressing the key builds up a magnetic flux through the iron ring. The secondary
coil S cuts the magnetic field lines to produce induced current.
Breaking the circuit makes the magnetic flux to collapse and the secondary coil
re-cuts the lines of force producing induced current.
 The magnetic flux must grow out and collapse to produce induced E.M.F.
A stationary magnetic flux cannot produce induced E.M.F.
 A soft iron core is used to increase the strength of magnetism. More lines
of force cut the secondary coil to increase the induced E.M.F.

79
 9. TRANSFORMERS
A transformer is a device which steps up or steps down voltage.
I. HOW A TRANSFORMER WORKS
A transformer has a
primary coil and secondary coil
which are wound on opposite
N N sides of an iron ring. When
alternating current flows through
240V
12V a.c. the primary coil a magnetic field
bulb
builds up which grows out and
Iron core Secondary collapses i.e. moves to and fro.
Primary circuit The secondary coil cuts and re-
circuit
cuts the field lines as they grow
out and collapse thereby
producing induced EMF in the
secondary circuit.
II. TYPES OF TRANSFORMERS
a. STEP UP TRANSFORMER – has more turns in the secondary coil than in the
primary coil
b. STEP DOWN TRANSFORMER – has more turns in the primary coil than in
the secondary coil.
III. TRANSFORMER EQUATIONS
INPUT POWER = OUTPUT POWER (The assumption is that it is a an ideal
transformer with no power losses)
𝑉𝑝 𝐼𝑠
a. VpIp = VsIs =
𝑉𝑠 𝐼𝑝
𝑁𝑝 𝐼
b. NpIp = NsIs =
𝑁𝑠 𝐼𝑝
𝑁𝑠 𝑉𝑠
c. NsVp = NpVs =
𝑁𝑝 𝑉𝑝

EXERCISE
i. A step down transformer has 1200 turns in the primary coil and 50 turns
in the secondary coil. Calculate the voltage in the secondary coil if the
voltage in the primary coil is 240 V. (Maneb 2010).

𝑁𝑠 𝑉𝑠
=
𝑁𝑝 𝑉𝑝
𝑁𝑠 × 𝑉𝑝
𝑉𝑠 =
𝑁𝑝
50 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑠 ×240𝑉
Vs = 1200𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑠
⇒ 10𝑉. 𝑨𝒏𝒔𝒘𝒆𝒓

80
ii. A step up transformer has 100 turns in the primary coil. The input power
is 6kW and current in the primary coil is 30A. Work out the number of
turns in the secondary coil if the output voltage is 1200V.
𝑊
V= 𝐼
6,000𝑊
V= = 200V
30𝐴
𝑁𝑠 𝑉𝑠 𝑉𝑠𝑁𝑝 1200𝑉 ×100 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑠
Since 𝑁𝑝 = ; Ns = = ⇒ 600 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑠.
𝑉𝑝 𝑉𝑝 200𝑉
𝑉 = 600 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑠. 𝑨𝒏𝒔𝒘𝒆𝒓

The Equation Input Power = Output power makes the assumption that
there are no power losses in a transformer. This is just ideal because in
reality there power losses.

I. CAUSES OF POWER LOSSES IN TRANSFORMERS

i. Leakage of field lines – This happens when the secondary coil
does not cut all the field lines due to poor designing of the
transformer
SOLUTION: Proper designing
ii. Eddy currents: The soft iron core is a conductor. The moving
magnetic field in the primary coil induces eddy currents in the soft
iron core. The eddy currents have a heating effect
SOLUTIONS: Using oil (But remember kuti vandals tamper with
transformers to obtain this oil kuti akakazingire chips) and
laminating the iron core.
iii. Resistance of the windings
The coil of wire is not a perfect conductor. It has resistance of its
own and heats up as electric current flows through it.
SOLUTION: Using thick copper wire.
iv. Hysteresis Losses: the magnetisation and demagnetisation of the
core by a magnetic field requires energy. This energy heats up the
core and is lost as heat energy.
SOLUTION: use soft iron core because it is easy ta magnetise.

II. EFFICIENCY OF A TRANSFORMER

Remember a transformer is not 100% efficient because there are power
losses in it.

𝑂𝑈𝑇𝑃𝑈𝑇 𝑃𝑂𝑊𝐸𝑅 𝑋 100

Efficiency =
𝐼𝑁𝑃𝑈𝑇 𝑃𝑂𝑊𝐸𝑅

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 EXERCISE
i. Calculate the efficiency of a transformer that steps down voltage
from 240V to 20V if current in the primary coil is 1A and current
flowing through the secondary coil is 10A.
Input power = 240V × 1A = 240V
Output power = 20V × 10A = 200W
𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 ×100
Efficiency = 𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟

200𝑊 ×100
Efficiency = 240𝑉
⇒ 83.33%
Therefore, the efficiency = 83.33% Answer

ii. A step up transformer has an input voltage of 20V and delivers an

output of 250V. The transformer is 80% efficient and is connected
to a 250V-100W bulb
a. Work out the primary current
𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 ×𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
Efficiency = 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
100𝑊 ×100
80% = 20𝑉 ×𝐼𝑝
100𝑊 ×100
⇒ Ip = ⇒ 6.25A. Answer
80% ×20𝑉

b. Calculate the current in the secondary coil

Output power = Vs × Is = 100W
100𝑊
Is = = 0.4A. 𝑨𝒏𝒔𝒘𝒆𝒓
250𝑉

c. Work out the turns ratio

𝑉𝑠 𝑁𝑠
=
𝑉𝑝 𝑁𝑝

250𝑉 𝑁𝑠
=
20𝑉 𝑁𝑝

⇒ Ns:Np = 25:2. Answer

PART D: ELECTRONICS
0. INTRODUCTION
DEFINITIONS:
 It is a branch of electricity that deals with components that use small currents.
 It is a branch of electricity that deals with electrical properties of some
materials under specified conditions.

NOTE
Electronic circuits have microchips and other semiconductor devices.

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1. THE BAND THEORY
It states that isolated energy levels of atoms in conductors, semi-conductors and
insulators are broadened into energy bands that belong to a crystal as a whole.
Shells of an atom are known as energy levels because they are associated with a
certain quantity of energy.
VALENCE BAND is the outermost shell of an atom. This is the only band which
may not be completely full.
CONDUCTION BAND is an imaginary band outside the valence band into which
free electrons move when they have jumped from the valence band after gaining
energy.
THE FORBIDDEN GAP (FIXED BAND) is found between the valence band and
the conduction band.

2. EXPLAINING CONDUCTIVITY OF CONDUCTORS, INSULATORS AND

SEMICONDUCTORS ACCORDING TO THE BAND THEORY.
I. CONDUCTORS
Conductors have a narrow forbidden gap so that the electrons just require a
little energy to move from the valence band to the conduction band. In
metals the conduction band is filled with electrons.
II. INSULATORS
In insulators the forbidden gap is very wide and electrons require a lot of
energy to leave the valence band and jump into the conduction band. The
conduction band has no electrons hence insulators cannot conduct electric
current.
III. SEMICONDUCTORS
In semi-conductors the forbidden gap has an intermediate distance. It is not
as narrow as in metal conductors and not as wide as in insulators.
Compared to insulators less energy is required to make the electrons jump
from the valence band to the conduction band.

In conductors, the valency and conduction bands overlap so that no energy is needed
to overcome the forbidden gap.

Conduction
band
Forbidden
gap

Valence band

In conductors In insulators In semi-conductors

Normally semiconductors are insulators. Under specified conditions semiconductors

become conductors. On the periodic table, semiconductors belong to group 4. Examples
are silicon, germanium and carbon-graphite allotrope. They are metalloids because they
are non metals with metallic properties.

83
3. HOW TO IMPROVE CONDUCTIVITY OF SEMICONDUCTORS
I. DOPING – Adding small impurities to a semiconductor to improve its
conductivity
II. RAISING THE TEMPERATURE – Semiconductors require a little added
energy for electrons to jump from the valence band into the conduction
band. Increasing the temperature provides sufficient energy for electrons to
move from the valence band into the conduction band.

4. CLASSES OF SEMICONDUCTORS
I. PURE OR INTRINSIC – They occur naturally. They are made from the
same type of element. To increase their conductivity there is need just to
raise the temperature.
II. IMPURE OR EXTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTORS – These are human
made by doping. They are of two types.
a. N-type – formed when silicon is doped with a group 5 element e.g.
Phosphorous or nitrogen
b. P-type – when silicon is doped with group 3 elements e.g. boron,
indium.

5. ADVANTAGES OF USING SEMICONDUCTORS IN ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS

III. It is easy to control the conductivity of the semiconductor material
IV. They are cheap small and reliable.
V. Can be used to make smaller but very effective appliances

6. SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES – RESISTANCE COMPONENTS

I. DIODE/DIODE VALVES/RECTIFIERS
 A diode allows current to flow in one direction only.
 They have extremely high resistance in one direction and low
resistance in the other.
 Diodes are also called diode valves. They are made from specially
treated crystals of silicon.
 They can be forward biased or reverse biased. The diagrams below
illustrate this.

Forward Reversebiased
Reverse biased
biased Diode Diode
Diode

Conventional Current No current

When the diode is forward biased it has extremely low resistance so that
current flows through it and bulbs light up. The arrowhead in the symbol
points in the same way as conventional current direction.The diode is
reverse biased by reversing the cell or by reversing the diode itself.

84
 Diodes are used for rectification. Rectification is the changing of
alternating current into direct current.

LIGHT EMITTING DIODES (LEDS) are used as indication light on

electronic equipment and on clocks for digital display. They glow when a
small current passes through them.
II. VARIABLE RESISTORS
a. RHEOSTAT
A rheostat changes current flowing in a circuit by changing the resistance
in the circuit. The resistance in the circuit is changed by varying the length
of the resistance wire. Current changes from maximum to minimum.
USES OF A RHEOSTAT
 Acting as a dimmer – controlling the brightness of a bulb by
controlling current.
 Acting as a volume in radios by controlling current
 Protecting the ammeter from large currents that could overload and
break the meter.
b. RESISTORS AS POTENTIAL DIVIDERS
A potential divider is a way of wiring resistors so that only a proportion of
a battery’s voltage is delivered. It also changes the voltage available to a
component in a circuit. The circuit diagrams below illustrates this.

12V

3V

III. LIGHT DEPENDENT RESISTORS (PHOTORESISTORS)

Photoresistors are special resistors whose resistance falls when light shines
on them. In darkness their resistance rises.
 Together with a transistor LDRs are used in bulbs which come on
automatically at night.
IV. THERMISTORS
A thermistor is a resistor whose resistance decreases with increase in
temperature.
USES OF A THERMISTOR
 As an electronic thermometer in a refrigerator
 Used in automatic fire alarm

V. CAPACITORS
A capacitor is a device that stores small amount of charge. The SI unit of
capacitance is FARAD. Commonly microfarads are used because the farad
is too big.

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 USES OF CAPACITORS
 Smoothing out current changes
 Passing on signals from one circuit to another
 Tuning circuits so that they respond to signals of one frequency
 Amplifying a charge.

VI. TRANSISTORS
Transistors are made from specially treated crystals of silicon
USES OF TRANSISTORS
 Controlling current as an electronic switch.
 Amplifying current in a circuit

HOW IT WORKS

Collector (c) CONDITION: There must be a small current in

base circuit. The small base current switches on
Base (c)
the transistor and causes large current to pass in
the collector emitter circuit. In case of high
current the transistor does not work. When there
Emitter (e) is no current the transistor does not work as
well. THERE MUST BE A SMALL
CURRENT.

RECAPITULATORY EXERCISE
a. Why are insulators easy to charge by rubbing?
b. Why are static electricity experiments difficult to perform in rainy
season?
c. The mains supply of an electric heater is 240volts and the heater is
rated 3600W. Calculate
(i) Current passing through the heater
(ii) Resistance of the heater
d. Why do we speak of power lost through cables when transmitting
electricity when in fact energy is always conserved?
e. In the circuit diagram above the EMF of the battery is 5V, the four
bulbs are identical. Each has a resistance of 2 Ω. The label on each
bulb is 2.0V.
(i) Calculate the total current in the circuit
(ii) Calculate the p.d. voltage across each bulb
(iii) Work out the power dissipated in each bulb
(iv) Describe the brightness of each bul?

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Chapter Five

RADIOACTIVITY (NUCLEAR PHYSICS)

This chapter discusses chemical reactions taking place automatically inside nuclei of atoms.

1. INTRODUCTION
 Define matter, an atom and an element.
 An atom has a centre called nucleus. The particles found in the nucleus are
protons and neutrons. Electrons rotate around the nucleus at very high speeds.
Protons and neutrons are collectively together called NUCLEONS.
 The total number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an atom is called
NUCLEON NUMBER or MASS NUMBER or ATOMIC MASS or ATOMIC
MASS NUMBER.
 NUCLIDES are atoms which have different nucleon number whether the
difference is in the number of neutrons, the number of protons or both protons
and neutrons are bonded together in the nucleus by the binding energy.
 ISOBARS are nuclei with the same mass number but different atomic
numbers e.g. I-131 and Xe -131, C-14 and N-14. Isobars have different
chemical properties because they have different electron configuration.
 ISOTOPES are atoms of the same element having the same atomic number but
different mass numbers because of the difference in the number of neutrons in
the nuclei. Isotopes have similar chemical properties because they have the
same electron configuration.
EXAMPLES OF ISOTOPES
Isotopes of carbon are C-12 (with 6 protons, 6 electrons and 6 neutrons), C-13
(with 6 protons, 6 electrons and 7neutrons) and C-14 (with 6 protons 6
electrons and 8 neutrons).
Isotopes of hydrogen are H-1 called a proton (with 1 proton, 1 electron and 0
neutrons), H-2 called deuterium (with 1 proton, 1 electron and 1 neutron) and
H-3 called tritium (with 1 proton, 1 electron and 2 neutrons)
TYPES OF ISOTOPES
I. NATURAL e.g. C-12, C -13, C-14 and U – 235.
II. ARTIFICIAL e.g. O-17 and U-236.
 STANDARD NOTATION OF ELEMENTS
𝐴
𝑍
X
o X represents the Symbol of the element.
o A represents the Mass Number while Z represents the Atomic number
of the element
Fig 15.1 diagram showing standard notation of elements

Naming the element and giving its mass number e.g. C-12.
Standard notation for a proton, an electron and a neutron

87
 Fig 15.2 diagram showing standard notation for a
proton, an electron and a neutron

EXERCISE 15 a

1. Why do chemical reactions take place?

2. In what four ways do atoms find stability?

2. STABLE AND UNSTABLE ISOTOPES

Stable nuclei generally have similar or same the same number of protons as neutrons
in them E.g. C-12, C-13
Unstable nuclei have many more neutrons in them than protons.
As atomic number increases instability increases because elements with higher atomic
numbers have many more neutrons than protons in their nuclei.
When the mass of an atom becomes large, the nucleus is unstable and the atom
disintegrates.
SUNGANI IZI (Keep this in mind) – Unstable heavy nuclei find stability by
RANDOM SPONTANEOUS DISINTEGRATION.

3. RADIOACTIVITY
It is the random spontaneous disintegration of certain atomic nuclei with the emission
of different types of radiation such as alpha, beta and gamma rays.
NUCLEAR PHYSICS is the study of vast amount of energy that can be obtained from
the nucleus of an atom and which can be released in nuclear reactions.
SPONTANEOUS EMISSION
When an atom splits the nucleus divides and the protons and neutrons in it form two
new species. The electrons divide themselves between the two new species. This is
called RADIOACTIVE DECAY.
Elements that decay spontaneously are called Radio nuclides, radioactive elements or
radioisotopes. No external energy is given to the atom.
BINDING ENERGY is the energy required to break the nucleus.
RADIATION is the emission of energy in form of infrared light, ultraviolet light, heat
or x – rays.
A PHOTON is a packet of light energy
TRANSMUTATION is when a radioactive substance changes to a new element.
RADIOACTIVE EMISSION is the breakdown of nucleus to produce new nuclides
and particles.

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4. TYPES OF RADIOACTIVITY
I. Natural
II. Artificial or Induced

5. CHARACTERISTICS OF RADIOACTIVE SUBSTANCES

I. They have unstable nuclei.
II. They can be transmuted to different elements
III. They release vast amount of energy in form of radiation

6. TYPES OF RADIATION
These include alpha, beta and gamma radiation. They are called ionising radiation
because they cause ionisation of gases.
IONISATION means the removal of electrons from an atom to form positive ions.
A. ALPHA RADIATION
 Alpha particles consist of a nucleus of a helium atom.
 They have two protons and two neutrons
 Atomic number decreases by 2
 Mass number decreases by 4
 New element forms
 Alpha particles are emitted at a speed of about 6% the speed of light
GENERAL EQUATION
𝐴 𝐴−4 4
𝑍
𝑋  Y + He
2
𝑍−2
(Parent) (Daughter) (α -particle emitted)
EXAMPLES OF ALPHA DECAY
Uranium  Thorium + alpha particle
238
92
U  234
90
Th + 42 He
(Parent) (Daughter) (α – particle emitted)

PROPERTIES OF ALPHA RADIATION

 They have slight penetrating power. They are easily stopped by paper.
 They are emitted with the same velocity
 They are highly ionising
 They are deflected by an electric or magnetic field.

B. BETA PARTICLES
They are electrons that move at very high speeds comparable to the speed of light.
Where do the electrons come from?
 A neutron in the nucleus of an atom breaks up into an electron and a
proton. The proton remains in the nucleus while the electron is emitted as a
beta particle.
Atomic number increases by 1. A new element is formed. Mass number remains the
same.

89
 GENERAL EQUATION

𝐴
𝑍
X  𝑍 +𝐴 1 0
Y + −1 e
(Parent) (Daughter) (β – Particle emitted)

EXAMPLES OF BETA DECAY

Carbon – 14  Nitrogen + electron

14 14 0
6
C 
7
Y +
−1
e
(Parent) (Daughter) (β- Particle emitted)
PROPERTIES OF BETA RADIATION
 They are deflected by magnetic or electric field.
Why are beta rays deflected towards a positive plate?
 They are negatively charged being electrons.
Why are beta rays deflected more than alpha particles despite having a
smaller charge?
 They are lighter.
 Have intermediate penetrating power. Beta rays can go through paper but
are stopped by aluminium sheets.
 Have varying velocities in air.
 They have intermediate ionising power

C. GAMMA RAYS
Nuclei that are unstable because they have too much energy emit gamma rays to
discard the excess energy.
Gamma rays are high energy electromagnetic radiation emitted by a nucleus when
it also emits alpha and beta radiation.
Particles in the nucleus remain unchanged

PROPERTIES OF GAMMA RAYS

 They cannot be deflected by an electric or magnetic field. WHY? They
have no charge.
 They have greatest penetration power because they carry no charge. They
are absorbed by thick lead or concrete
 In air they cause little ionisation.
 They have shorter wavelength than x-rays.

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 DIAGRAM SUMMARISING PROPERTIES OF ALPHA, BETA AND
GAMMA RAYS
Thin Thick lead
source of Electrically paper
charged plates Aluminium sheet block or
and
concrete

stopped

stopped stopped

Fig 15.3. Properties of alpha, beta and gamma rays

7. HALF LIFE
 It is the time taken for radioactivity of a radioactive substance to fall to half of
its initial value.
 It is also the time taken for a given mass of a radioactive element to be
reduced to half.
Half life varies from a fraction of a second to millions of years.

EXERCISE 15 b
A radioactive source has a half life of 30 minutes. The initial count rate
is 228. How long is it going to take for the count rate to be 57? Show
your working.
0 228
30 114
60 57
ANSWER: It will take 60 minutes.

8. NUCLEAR FISSION
It is a nuclear process where heavier nuclei are broken into lighter ones and energy is
given out.

An example is bombarding U-235 with a slow moving neutron

235
92
U + 10 n  144
56
Ba + 90
36
Kr + 2 10 n + energy

The U-235 becomes U-236. Being heavy and unstable it splits into 2 neutrons.

91
 What are the other products from the equation?
 A vast amount of energy in form of heat is given out.
 The two neutrons produced further react with other U-235 nuclides to
produce four electrons. The four neutrons hit and split 4 uranium nuclides
to produce 8 neutrons. This is a chain reaction.
ADVANTAGE: Releasing vast amount of energy.
DISADVANTAGE: Results into an atomic bomb if not controlled.
HOW TO CONTROL CHAIN REACTIONS
 Using neutron absorbing boron rods.
 Using graphite

9. NUCLEAR FUSION
It is a nuclear process in which lighter nuclei combine into heavier nuclei releasing
vast amount of energy.
Nuclear fusion reactions take place at very high temperatures to overcome electrical
repulsions between the nuclei. Hence nuclear fusion is a thermonuclear reaction.

EXAMPLE
Three deuterium atoms combine to produce a helium atom, a proton, a neutron plus
vast amount of energy.

Fig 15.4. Illustrating nuclear fusion

10. MEASUREMENT OF RADIOACTIVITY

A. PHOTOGRAPHIC FILM
When a photographic plate is exposed to radiation it goes foggy (darkens).
People working with radioactivity wear badges with photographic film in them.
When developed the photographic film fogs up. The more the film fogs up the
more the radioactivity they have been exposed to.

B. GOLD LEAF ELECTROSCOPE

Works on the principle that, “radiation is ionising”.

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 When a radiation source is brought close to a charged gold leaf electroscope the
electroscope neutralises. The gold leaf of the electroscope falls.
Supposing the metal cup is negatively charged, positive ions are attracted to it.
This neutralises the charge on the electroscope. The leaf falls.

Metal cap

Metal rod

Insulating plug

Metal plate

Gold leaf

Glass window

Wooden or metal case earthed Metal ca

by resting on a bench

Fig 15.4 diagram of a gold leaf electroscope

C. THE GEIGER MULLER TUBE (GM TUBE)

Cathode (metal cylinder)

450 V
Mica window

Argon gas at low

To scaler or
pressure
ratemeter

Anode wire

Fig15.5. A Geiger Muller tube

It is the commonest way of detecting ionising radiation. It contains argon at low

pressure inside the Geiger Muller tube.
Alpha and beta particles enter through the thin mica window. Gamma rays can
enter even through the tube walls. Radiation ionises the argon gas inside.
Electrons go to the wire anode. Positive argon ions go to the cathode. This creates

93
 an electrical impulse. The impulse is amplified and radioactivity is measured by
the number of counts per minute.

D. CLOUD CHAMBERS
PRINCIPLES: Radiation causes ionisation. Supersaturated vapour easily
condenses to form a line of cloud.
EXPANSION CLOUD CHAMBER

Glass view window

Radiation

piston
Radiation
entry
window

Fig 15.6 diagram illustrating expansion cloud chamber

The piston is moved downwards. The volume increases. Pressure drops.

Temperature drops too. The gas vapour mixture inside becomes supersaturated.
Incoming radiation causes ionisation to produce ions. The ions act as nuclei of
condensation to produce a line of cloud (a trail).

DIFFUSION CLOUD CHAMBER

Glass view window

Liquid at
temperature
T2
Radiation
entry
window
Liquid at temperature T1

Fig 15.7 . Diffusion cloud chamber

It has two liquid reservoirs. Round the top of the chamber is a felt strip soaked in
ethanol. The liquid at the top is heated to produce vapour
The liquid at the bottom is cooled to make the gas mixture become supersaturated.
There is solid carbon dioxide at -78oC

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 When radiation enters the chamber it ionises the gas vapour mixture. The ions
produced act as a nuclei of condensation resulting into a trail.
Alpha particles produce straight and thick tracks
Beta particles produce thinner and fainter tracks
Gamma rays leave no clear tracks

E. SPARK COUNTER

A
Very +
high -
voltage
B

Fig 15.8. A spark counter

A spark counter has two metal plates which are several meters long. A PD voltage
is applied between the 2 plates A and B until there is sparking. The PD is then
reduced until the sparking just stops. Incoming radiation causes ionisation and the
sparks occur again. To determine the range of radiation the source is raised above
the chamber until sparking stops.

F. IONISATION DETECTOR
Current pulse
+

Incoming radiation Electrons

Positive ions

Fig 15.9. An ionisation detector

It has two plates, one is positively charged and the other negatively charged.
Incoming radiation ionises the air. Electrons go to the positively charged plate.
The positive ions go to the negatively charged plate. This flow of charges
generates an electric current. This is registered by a sensitive ammeter in an
electric circuit.

95
 Incoming radiation
G. SCINTILLATION COUNTER

Solid scintillator
Flash lights

Photomultiplier tube

Electrical signal
Fig 15.10. A scintillation counter
A scintillater is any material that produces flashes of light when radiation falls on
it. Radiation causes ionisation by knocking off the electrons from the atoms.
When the electron vacancies are refilled there are flashes of light. The flashes of
light strike the photomultiplier. The photomultiplier produces electrons at the
cathode. Electrons go to the anode and flow as pulses of electric current. The
current is amplified and measured.

11. USES OF RADIOACTIVITY

a. Automatically controlling paper thickness
When paper is manufactured it is important to make it to a particular thickness.
Beta radiation is passed through paper and there is radiation detection on the other
side. The thicker the sheet of paper, the weaker the radiation that will be detected.
If the thickness of paper changes then the operator will know and be able to adjust
the manufacturing process appropriately.

Rollers
Paper pulp Source of ᵦ radiation
Paper sheet
Detector
MACHINE: adjust
pressure on rollers

Fig 15.11. Automatic control of paper thickness

b. Nuclear power generation: This uses carefully controlled chain reactions to

produce heat energy. The heat vapourises water at high pressure. The steam
drives the turbine and the generator produces electrical energy.
c. Carbon-14 dating is an accurate means of determining the age of organic
matter. Plants and animals contain C-14 isotope and the level of radioactivity
is constant. At death plants and animals stop absorbing C-14 isotope from the
atmosphere. Radioactivity decreases as C-14 isotope decays. The half life of
C-14 isotope is known. (It is 5570 years). Therefore we can determine the
level of radioactivity in organic matter and determine its age.

96
 d. Investigating the thyroid gland, detecting brain tumours, internal bleeding,
metabolic disorders and blocked kidneys: Iodine 131 is injected into the blood
vessels and GM tubes point at the part to be diagnosed. If radiation decreases
it will indicate that there is blockage in the system.
e. Checking welds in pipes and machine wear: Radiation is put inside the welds
in pipes. A radioactive isotope is injected into the pipes. If there is a breakage
in the pipe it will lead to a leakage. GM tubes placed outside the leaking spot
or photographic film wrapped around the leaking spot can detect the radiation
and engineers can tell exactly where the fault is.
f. In agriculture to study the uptake of fertilizer by plants and also to study plant
uptake of nutrients.
g. In industry to measure fluid flow in pipes
h. Radiotherapy for treating cancer. Cancer cells are more easily killed than
normal body cells. Radiation is aimed very accurately at the cancer cells to kill
them without killing too many healthy body cells.
i. Reducing insect population by sterilisation of male insects
j. Sterilising medical items by irradiating them with gamma rays from cobalt
k. Also used in food preservation. Gamma radiation can be used to kill bacteria
in order to preserve food
l. Detecting smoke in manufacturing industries. Alpha particles are stopped by
smoke. This sets off the detector and triggers the fire bell sound.

12. DANGERS OF RADIOACTIVITY

a. Causes cancer, loss of hair, skin burns and ulceration, redness and eye cataracts.
b. Weakening of the immune system.
c. Radiation sickness which has vomiting, fever and diarrhoea as symptoms.

13. SAFETY PRECAUTIONS IN HANDLING RADIOACTIVE SUBSTANCES

a. When using radioactive substances an authorised person must be in attendance.
b. Using forceps and no bare hands
c. Holding a radioactive substance away from eyes
d. Wash hands before touching anything after handling a radioactive substance
e. Handle radioactive substances so that they point away from the body.
f. Keeping radioactive substances in boxes that are well labelled.
g. Radiographers must operate machines behind lead screens

14. HOW TO DISPOSE OF RADIOACTIVE SUBSTANCES

a. Dump them in containers made of thick concrete or thick lead and sink them deep
in oceans and earth.
b. Reprocessing: This involves carefully controlled nuclear reactions to recycle the
nuclear waste.

NB Pregnant women should be exposed to minimum radiation.

97
 BIBLIOGRAPHY

Tom Duncan and Heather Kennett, 2011. GCSE Physics, 4th Edition. London: Hachette UK
Company.

Tom Duncan, 2011. Physics for Today and Tomorrow, 2nd Edition. London: Hachette UK
Company.

Abbott, A. F., 1989. Physics, 5th Edition. Malaysia: Heinemann Education.

Keith Wallis, 2010. Chanco Physical Science for Malawi: MSCE Book Two, 3rd Edition.
Zomba: Chancellor College Publications.

Samuel Kaleya,

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