Académique Documents
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Jim Throne
Dunedin, FL, United States
Figure 16.5 Sheet drawn into vacuum or draw box prior to forming against male or positive mold.
Figure 16.6 Sequence showing prestretching with draw box prior to sheet contact with plug prior to vacuum
drawing of prestretched sheet against wall of female or negative mold.
16: Thermoforming 349
Figure 16.7 Schematic of matched mold forming for stiff, sheet such as thermoplastic foam.
extensive cell collapse. As a result, foam is matched- thermoforming presses. The first sheet is heated and
mold formed at pressures of about 0.3 MPa. As formed into the lower mold. The second sheet is heat-
mentioned, thick-gauge filled and reinforced plas- ed and formed into the upper mold. Then the press
tics are often matched-mold formed. Filled plastics closes to form the peripheral pinch-off (Fig. 16.9).
and short-glass fiber-reinforced plastics are formed Thin-gauge twin-sheet forming has been used to pro-
at pressures of about 1 MPa. Long- and continuous- duce lightweight bottles, medical room devices, and
glass fiber-reinforced plastics and carbon-fiber-rein- air bladders in running shoes.
forced plastics are often formed at near-compression Contact forming is restricted to roll-fed thin sheet.
molding pressures of up to about 10 MPa. The sheet to be heated is brought in contact with a
Thick-gauge twin-sheet forming is being developed heated plate by vacuum. When the sheet reaches its
to compete with products that are manufactured using forming temperature, which is the same temperature
rotational and blow molding. Typical applications in- as the heated plate, the plate and sheet are pressed
clude pallets and recreational products. Depending on against the female or negative mold. A combination
the nature of the plastic, the two halves of the product of vacuum and air pressure pushes the sheet from
can be separately thermoformed and welded together the plate to the cool mold cavity (Fig. 16.10). When
with heat or solvents. In Europe, twin-sheet-formed the sheet is cool, the mold drops away and the sheet
products are formed by simultaneously heating two moves to a trimming fixture.
sheets of plastic in a single clamp frame (Fig. 16.8). Often, contact forming is used as the first part of
When the sheets are at forming temperature, air is a process known as rigid RFFS (Fig. 16.11). The
forced between the sheets, pressing them against molds formed products are conveyed with the trim-in-place
and the press is closed to form the peripheral pinch-off. through a filling operation, a sealing operation, and
In North America, thick-gauge twin-sheet-formed a trimming operation, where the products are re-
products are formed in sequential fashion on rotary moved from the trim. RFFS is used extensively in the
350 Applied Plastics Engineering Handbook
Figure 16.8 Twin-sheet thermoforming with both sheets held in a single clamp frame then heated and formed
simultaneously.
Figure 16.10 Contact thermoforming whereby the sheet is heated by contacting a heated plate then drawn or
blown off the heated plate onto a mold.
• pressurization system (optional), the oven and forming stations. In-feed nonstick or
• condition monitors and process control, nonscratch engagement shoes are used to position
• safety elements, and the sheet prior to engaging the pin-chains. Many
machines are equipped with automatic chain adjust-
• method of trimming the product from the web. ment, allowing the pin-chains to diverge slightly in
the heating and forming portions of the machine. The
As noted, there are two general categories of ma- sheet is advanced through the machine in a start–stop
chinery: thin-gauge or roll-fed thermoformers and fashion with the total time of each advance being
thick-gauge or cut sheet thermoformers. seconds. The pin-chains are servo-driven so that the
sheet moves smoothly through acceleration, decel-
16.6 Thin-Gauge Thermoforming eration, and constant speed during indexing.
16.6.1 Machinery
16.6.2 Oven
A typical thin-gauge thermoformer is shown in
Fig. 16.12. The roll is placed on a roll stand that In thin-gauge thermoforming, many products are
usually has passive breaking or a roll speed gover- molded at once. Forming cycles are determined by
nor to prevent uncontrolled unspooling. It may also the time a “shot” or portion of the continuous sheet
be equipped with an end-of-roll alarm and rapid roll resides in the forming press. One important criterion
changeover capabilities. is temperature uniformity across the sheet. To achieve
The sheet is fed into the machine where it engages this, most thin-gauge thermoforming machines have
pins that are spaced along the lengths of parallel or modular sandwich ovens that allow more than one
near-parallel, continuous cycle-link chains. The pin- shot to reside in the oven. For many plastics, such as
chains convey the impaled sheet through the machine. polypropylene (PP), a preheating oven that consists
The pin-chains are usually shielded from oven heat of a series of up-and-down roller-driven loops is rec-
and are outside the edges of the mold in the forming ommended. The preheating oven is placed between
press. The pin-chains may be lubricated but are of- the takeoff-stand and the in-feed pin-chain rail to the
ten designed to run dry for medical and food-product thermoformer. Energy consumption is a major ex-
applications. The pins are held vertically by guides. pense in all forms of thermoforming. As a result, all
For certain plastics, such as polystyrene (PS), brittle oven modules are often thoroughly insulated and the
chips may be vacuumed prior to the sheet reaching sides usually come to within 25 mm of the machine
Figure 16.12 Schematic of a small thin-gauge thermoforming machine with major forming elements identified.
16: Thermoforming 353
framework that holds the pin-chain rails. Baffles are ements and self-leveling platens. If products are to
often used between oven modules and usually be- be trimmed while on the mold face, provisions must
tween the last oven module and the press frame. The be made for protecting, sliding, and locking elements
types of heaters used in thin-gauge thermoforming from trim detritus.
ovens are discussed in the next section. In addition to providing sufficient space for the
Modern ovens have means of changing both the mold, the press must include space for a pressure
top and bottom sheet-to-heater gaps. Whenever the box and other elements, such as plug assist plates,
chain travel is interrupted, the ovens are quickly and cavity isolator plates, trim-in-place die plates, and
automatically retracted, either horizontally or by fly- ejector-ring plates. Water and vacuum lines should
ing open in a clamshell fashion. Rapid disconnects be properly located and should be easy to disconnect.
are used for individual or bank-heater elements and Programmable logic controls are needed for adjust-
for thermocouples. Insulated infrared temperature ment of all rate-dependent ancillary features, such as
measuring devices are usually inserted through top plug assist, cavity isolator, pressure box, and trim-in-
and bottom oven wall surfaces. Sag bands are either place sequence. Many newer machines are equipped
low-friction coated rods or continuous wires that in- with computer controls that provide for rapid setup
dex with the pin-chains. They are parallel to and be- after mold changeover. The press platens must allow
tween the pin-chain rails and minimize sag on very easy mold removal and installation.
wide sheet. As all shots in the oven and forming press As noted, thin-gauge thermoformed products, par-
are contiguous, each shot is exited from the oven to ticularly deeply drawn products, often require cav-
the forming press based on clock time rather than ity isolators, plug assist, and pressure forming [6].
sheet temperature. Some sheet temperature control is Plug travel is usually adjustable and each plug is
achieved by adding highly responsive heaters at the often easily adjusted and replaced. For certain plas-
oven segment closest to the forming press. tics, the plugs may need to be internally heated. As
a result, the electrical leads must be easily connected
and disconnected. Plug shape and plug material are
16.6.3 Forming Press discussed in the next section.
The heated sheet temperature may fall by 10°C or
more between the time it exits the last oven section 16.6.4 Trimming
and the time the forming press closes on it. The form-
ing press is a machine with many functions. The press There are three general methods for trimming
can be closed and clamped pneumatically, with ser- products from the sheet.
vo-mechanical linkages, or electrically. Platen lock-
ing devices and pneumatic bladders are used when 1. In-place trimming, where the trim die resides
high-forming air pressure is needed. Platen screws on the mold and is activated once the products
are usually self-lubricating, continuously lubricated, have been formed (Fig. 16.13).
or unlubricated if the press is used to produce medi- 2. In-machine trimming, where the sheet con-
cal, pharmaceutical, or food containers. Clean-room taining the formed products is indexed to a
thermoforming requires that thermoforming ma- trimming press located on the machine frame
chines be all electrical with unlubricated sliding el- (Fig. 16.12).
Figure 16.13 In-place or in situ forming and trimming for thin-gauge products with trim knives first acting as cavity
clamps then as methods for cutting the formed part from the skeleton or web.
354 Applied Plastics Engineering Handbook
Figure 16.14 Sequence for off-machine but in-line thin-gauge canopy trimming machine often called punch-and-
die trimmer.
3. In-line trimming, where the sheet containing ally hardened steel rule. Often the sheet containing
the formed products is indexed completely the products is usually fixtured and trimmed down-
from the trim machine to a separate trim press stream of the forming press. Although the prod-
(Fig. 16.14). ucts may be tabbed or notched before moving to a
stacking operation, the stacker may be part of the
With the first two methods, the trim die is notched entire in-machine trimming station. As the form-
to allow the products to remain attached to the sheet ing and trimming stations are separate, the mold
until it is moved to the product removal station. Prod- cost is lower than that for in-place trimming and
ucts are usually directly punched from the sheet to a there is greater versatility in adjusting the trim to
collection table in in-line trimming. achieve registry. In-machine trim presses are easier
In-place trimming is most effective with thin sheet to inspect and maintain and trim dies are easier to
(<1 mm) and narrow sheet. The advantages of in- inspect than in in-place trimming. However, in-
place trimming are that the trim die acts as a cavity machine trim presses may take longer to set up and
isolator; the formed products remain in the mold cav- align than in-place trimmers. Product warp-and-
ity and are therefore in perfect registry; the plastic shrink can lead to inaccuracy in trim lines. If the
is soft and, as a result, the trim forces are low; and product trim line is critical, the products are often
there is often less trim dust. The trim die is usually a fixtured during trim press action.
hardened steel rule that is rigidly mounted in a plate There are two general types of in-line trim presses
that is integral to the mold structure. [7]. The canopy trim press (Fig. 16.14) is more com-
The disadvantages of in-place trimming include: mon. The sheet containing the formed products is
directed from the pin-chain rails of the forming ma-
• higher mold cost, chine into the trim press via locating and registering
• difficulties in determining the quality of the elements. The sheet is indexed vertically between
trim die edge, the punch and die, with the products seated in the
punch pockets. The horizontal reciprocating die en-
• problems in aligning the trim die with the mold,
gages the sheet, squeezing the trim area between it
• increased on-mold time to allow for the trim- and the punch rim. The products are completely cut
ming to complete, and from the trim and are pressed through the punch cav-
• the real possibility that a product may separate ity onto a nearly horizontal collection table. The col-
from the trim, remain in the mold cavity, and lected products are nested, automatically counted,
interfere with forming the next product. and packed.
Typically, products are collected on the press side
In-machine trimming is also most effective with away from the reciprocating die. To locate, seat, and
thin, narrow sheet. As with in-place trimming, sheet trim deeply drawn products, such as drink cups, the
thickness is ∼1 mm or less and the trim die is usu- products must be presented to the press with the
16: Thermoforming 355
Figure 16.15 Two-step thin-gauge trimming sequence for parts that require punched sequences prior to having
the part trimmed from the web or skeleton.
products pointing up. This means that either the 16.7 Thick-Gauge Thermoforming
products are formed in the up position in the form-
ing press or the sheet containing the formed products 16.7.1 Machinery
must be rotated 180 degree between the thermoform-
er and the trim station. As noted, both thin-gauge and thick-gauge thermo-
Canopy machines are difficult to set up. Typically, forming machines have essentially the same functional
only a single row of products is cut at a time. As a elements. There are two general types of thick-gauge
result, the trim press cycles are far shorter than those machines—shuttle presses and rotary presses. Shuttle
of the thermoformer, meaning that frequent mainte- machines are very versatile and are capable of form-
nance and punch and die interference alignment are ing very large products (Fig. 16.16). As a result, they
often required. represent about 70% of the total number of machines.
Flatbed presses horizontally accept the sheet con- Shuttle presses are economically inefficient because
taining the products. The products nest in the punch- one set of products is fabricated for every two cycles
es on the lower platen. The dies vertically reciprocate of the machines. Rotary presses, such as the three-
into the punch, completely trimming the products station (Fig. 16.17), are quite energy efficient; but are
from the trim. The products are collected from below more expensive than equivalently dimensioned shut-
the lower platen. The vertical flatbed press is easier tle presses, require more care in setting up, and are
to set up and maintain than the horizontal canopy typically limited in the size of the product that can be
press. It can also trim more than one row of prod- handled in the rotary clamp frame.
ucts, although stacking and collection can be more As with thin-gauge thermoformers, machine cri-
complicated. teria include:
Products, such as point-of-purchase and berry
box rigid containers often require multiple punch • platen dimensions,
steps. The first punch forms holes or slots in the • depth of draw,
product. The second punch separates the product • general nature of the forming process, such as
from the trim. Although multiple punches can be vacuum, pressure, matched mold, plug assist,
accomplished on a single trim press, there is always and twin-sheet capability,
a concern about the first punch trim-out causing
problems with the second punch. As a result, tan- • nature of the motive power for moving the plat-
dem trim presses are usually used (Fig. 16.15). Set en and for indexing the clamp frame,
up and alignment of two presses often take substan- • types of heaters and methods of temperature
tially more time than the set-up time of the thermo- control, and
forming forming press. • the overall type of process control.
Fig. 16.15 shows one method of web take-up.
The roll is replaced when the spool has reached a Other features may include automatic heater-to-
specific diameter. For longer production runs, the oven adjustment, drop-side ovens, vacuum draw box,
web or trim is guillotined either at the end of the automatic sheet loading, through-oven temperature
thermoformer or at the end of the in-line trim press. monitoring, sag monitoring, and automatic fire sup-
The trim strips are either collected and baled or are pression.
fed directly to a grinder/chipper for shipment to the The shuttle press is the simplest commercial
extruder. thermoforming machine. The sheet is loaded in a
356 Applied Plastics Engineering Handbook
Figure 16.16 Schematic of typical thick-gauge shuttle thermoforming press detailing major components.
Figure 16.17 Schematic of three-station thick-gauge rotary thermoforming press detailing major components
(Note: Four-station heavy-gauge rotary thermoforming presses have a preheating station prior to the primary
oven).
four-sided clamp frame that is shuttled from the pneumatically prestretched prior to contacting the
load/unload station into the oven (Fig. 16.16). mold. The mold is usually, but not always, located
When the sheet has reached its forming tempera- beneath the heated sheet and the sheet is either low-
ture, it and the clamp frame are shuttled out of the ered onto the mold or the mold is raised onto the
oven to the forming station that also serves as the sheet. The formed sheet is held against the mold
load/unload station. Depending on the complexity surface until it is sufficiently cooled. The sheet and
of the process, the sheet may be mechanically or its formed products are then separated from the
16: Thermoforming 357
Figure 16.18 Schematic of thick-gauge thermoforming machine with two ovens thereby allowing one sheet to be
heated for each forming cycle thus doubling the throughput rate of a single oven machine. (Note: this machine,
often called a “double-ender,” can be equipped with a second mold to produce twin-sheet thick-gauge products).
mold, the clamp frame is opened, and the sheet is its trim are rotated to the load/unload station, where
removed to an off-line trim station. it is removed to the off-line trimmer.
As noted, when a sheet is being heated, there is The four-station rotary thermoforming machine is
no sheet being formed, and when a sheet is being used in North America to produce twin-sheet prod-
formed, no sheet is being heated. As a result, prod- ucts. This is accomplished by having two molds in the
ucts are produced only every other cycle. One way to forming station—one on the lower platen and one on
increase shuttle press efficiency is to use two ovens the upper platen. The first sheet is loaded in the rota-
with the load/unload/forming station between them ry clamp frame and indexed into the first oven. When
(Fig. 16.18). When one sheet is being formed, an- it has reached a predetermined temperature, the sec-
other is being heated. This technology is also used to ond sheet is loaded in the next clamp frame and the
produce twin-sheet thermoformed products. two sheets are indexed. The first sheet moves into the
Cabinet shuttle machines are common outside of second oven and the second into the first oven. When
North America. Instead of the sheet moving into and the first sheet has reached forming temperature, it is
out of the oven, the sandwich heaters horizontally indexed to the forming press, while the second sheet
move across the sheet while the sheet remains poised is indexed into the second oven. The first sheet is
over the mold. When the sheet is at forming tempera- vacuum formed into the lower mold where it is held
ture, heaters are retracted and the mold is raised onto until sufficiently cooled. At that point, the clamp
the sheet to form the product. This technique also al- frame is opened and the first sheet is released where
lows for plug assist and pressure forming. it resides on the lower mold. The second sheet at its
The rotary machine is used for long production forming temperature is then indexed into the form-
runs. The heart of the machine is the carrousel and ing press, where it is vacuum formed into the upper
turret that transports the sheet from station-to-station. mold. The upper and lower platens are then mated.
The three-station machine (Fig. 16.16) consists of a Air pressure is introduced between the two product
sandwich oven, a forming station, and a load/unload halves to ensure their continuing contact with their
station. For many materials, such as high-density respective mold surfaces. Often, auxiliary forming
polyethylene (HDPE), the heating station often con- bars in the molds are activated, applying pressure to
trols the overall cycle time. As a result, four-station produce a peripheral seal on the two halves of the
machines are used, with the fourth station being a product. When the product halves are sufficiently
preheating oven. A second oven is often recommend- cool, the platens separate and the twin-sheet product,
ed while heating and forming hygroscopic plastics, still held in the upper sheet clamp frame, is rotated to
such as acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) and the load/unload station for removal.
polymethyl methacrylates. As with the shuttle ma- The cut sheet may be manually inserted into the
chines, the sheet is clamped on all edges at the load/ clamp frame of the thick-gauge thermoformer, but
unload station. It is indexed into the oven by rotation vacuum pick-up and placement devices are more
of the turret. When the sheet has reached its forming common for long production runs. Pneumatic or
temperature, it is indexed to the forming press. When mechanical tables are used to lift very heavy or large
the product is formed and sufficiently cooled, it and sheets. Pneumatic clamp frame closures are usually
358 Applied Plastics Engineering Handbook
used. The closure edges are often toothed or barbed that allow smooth acceleration and deceleration of
to ensure that the sheet does not extrude from the the platens to minimize banging and chatter of molds
grips during heating or forming. Of course, all as they enter the hot sheet. Overhead air and oil lines
clamp frame elements are designed to withstand should be enclosed or self-sealing to minimize oil va-
high oven temperatures (up to 450°C) for long cycle por contamination of the hot sheet. Platen cogs and
times (several minutes) and many cycles (more than screws should be enclosed to minimize dirt collec-
10,000) without sticking, binding, or leaking air or tion in the flights. The platens should be self-leveling
fluids. or have easy means for leveling. All vacuum, air
The clamp frame must be robust enough to sup- pressure, and coolant lines should be equipped with
port the largest and heaviest sheet without oscil- over-sized rapid disconnects. When a pressure box
lating or bouncing. The indexing acceleration, is used, the press should have pneumatic interlocks
constant speed, and deceleration must be smooth to prevent premature depressurization when the box
without vibration or banging. Most turrets are is pressurized. As the platen size increases, locking
equipped with a positive stop arrangement to en- bayonet toggles and air bladders are often used dur-
sure positive positioning of the carrousel at every ing pressure forming.
operating station. Mold changeover is often labor intensive. For
very large machines, process adjustments may be
far above or below floor level. Permanently mounted
16.7.2 Oven caged ladders are used for overhead access. Special
breathing apparatus is needed for set up of controls
Energy costs are usually very important economic that are more than a meter below grade. If the carrou-
considerations in thick-gauge thermoforming. Mod- sel is far above the operators’ reach, automatic load
ern ovens are provided with appropriate side baffles and unload features are used.
or curtains to minimize drafts and optimize energy Two prestretching methods are commonly used in
usage. Heaters are equipped with rapid electrical dis- thick-gauge thermoforming. Mechanical prestretch-
connects and thermocouples. Ovens have provisions ing uses solid plugs that are driven into the sheet
for in-oven infrared temperature measuring, and are prior to the sheet touching the mold surface. The rate
equipped with photoelectric devices to detect exces- and extent of travel of the plugs are part of the auto-
sive sheet sag. For very large sheets and high sheet matic process sequence. The thick-gauge plug shapes
sag, oven sidewalls should pneumatically drop when and materials are discussed later.
the sheet is ready to be transported out of the oven. In pneumatic prestretching or bubble stretching,
Modern machines have provisions for rapid emer- the hot sheet is clamped over a hollow shape that
gency shutdown. Baffles between the sheet and the acts as a blow box. The sheet is then inflated with
heaters, high-velocity air blown across the sheet, and air pressure of up to 70 KPa with the height of the
carbon dioxide fire suppression means are recom- bubble monitored and controlled with a photoelec-
mended. More advanced thermoformers may include tric eye or a microswitch. For male or positive molds,
intermittent vacuum or airlift of the sheet to mini- the sheet is drawn with vacuum into a draw box. The
mize sag. Heater characteristics are discussed later. mold is then immersed into the prestretched sheet.
Until very recently, sheet exited the oven on time. Again, the extent of prestretching is monitored and
With advances in process control and infrared tem- controlled. The shape of the prestretched bubble is
perature monitoring, sheet is frequently exited on determined by the variation in temperature across the
temperature. sheet surface.
Improvements in thick-gauge process control
include advanced programmed logic control and
16.7.3 Forming Press computer-aided control systems that monitor energy
usage, index sheet on temperature, and sense sheet
The modern thick-gauge forming press is robust sag, pressure box pressure, brownout, power surge,
enough to adequately accommodate the weight of and a myriad of other tasks. In addition to single-
molds on both upper and lower platens. In addition, point infrared temperature measurement through the
the machine must be capable of supporting a steel- oven wall, newer optical devices scan the entire sheet
reinforced pressure box, plug assist plates, and on as it exits the oven. The two-dimensional thermal
some machines, trim-in-place, and forged trim dies. image that is produced is used to adjust individual
Modern machines have two-stage closing sequences heater temperatures.
16: Thermoforming 359
adhered to the web and is stripped from it prior to the is used for both thin- and thick-gauge products, its
web being chipped for recycling. greatest advantage is with the thick-gauge sheet
For wide or thicker sheet, a conventional thermo- where the sheet does not need to be cooled to room
former is used, with the formed products being car- temperature and then reheated to its forming tem-
ried on the web into the filling, sealing, and trimming perature in the thermoformer. Unfortunately, there
stations. Many RFFS machines are built for specific are major disadvantages with this combination. The
applications. For medical and pharmaceutical dose cycle time of the thermoformer controls the rate of
packaging, the machines are usually constructed extrusion. If the thermoformer cycle is interrupted,
of stainless steel with oilless and greaseless slides. either the extruder must be stopped or the extruded
These machines are frequently steam-sterilized. In sheet must be cooled and collected in some fashion.
many RFFS operations, thermoforming is usually a The major issue is usually mismatched capacities.
minor part of the process, with the major operational Typically, the throughput of the thermoformer is
efforts focusing on controlling the dosing and sealing small and the sheet is wide, meaning that the extruder
operations. is usually small and the ideal width of the extrusion
die too narrow.
Figure 16.19 In-line extrusion-thermoforming line that can be used for both thin-gauge and thick-gauge products.
16: Thermoforming 361
pressure in the cells expands the foam to as much as 16.9.2 Electric Plate Heaters
twice its original thickness. The sheet is then fed into
matched tooling in the forming press. Forming pres- Flat heaters direct the radiant energy primarily in
sures rarely exceed 0.34 MPa. the sheet direction. The simplest flat plate heater is
a metal plate that is backed with a serpentined ni-
chrome wire that is embedded in magnesium oxide.
16.9 Heaters Temperature control is usually by rheostat or other
proportional controller. Ceramic heaters are essen-
There are three modes of heat transfer in ther- tially firebricks or tiles with embedded nichrome
moforming. Energy is conducted from the sheet wire. The surface is usually a chemically resistant,
surface to its interior, from the sheet to the mold, nonporous glaze. As these heaters tend to be small in
and for very thin sheet, by direct contact of the size, they are often clustered or ganged, with one or
sheet with a heated plate, prior to vacuum forming. more of the heaters containing an embedded thermo-
Convection is air movement across a solid surface. couple for temperature control. Metal plate heaters
Very thick sheet is often heated in a large forced use nichrome wire partially embedded in porous ce-
hot air convection oven. Thin-gauge preheaters are ramic material. The heated wire radiates to the metal
often forced hot air ovens. Radiant heat is the most plate that is carbon steel, stainless steel, or even alu-
common and usually the most efficient way of heat- minum. The plate, that may have a low-friction coat-
ing sheets of nearly all thicknesses [9]. As air sur- ing, reradiates to the sheet surface. The quartz cloth
rounds the sheet while it is being radiantly heated heater is similar in structure, except that the quartz
and because air is in contact with one sheet surface cloth contacts the heated wire surface. Again, quartz
while the other is contacting plug or mold surface, is essentially transparent to radiant energy. Metal
all three energy transfer modes occur in nearly all plate- and quartz cloth heaters tend to be large. Flat
forms of thermoforming. panel and ceramic heaters are slow to respond to the
changes in energy input.
In thermoforming, energy cost is second only to • Level of control. Smaller heaters allow for
the cost of plastic sheet. The economic factors that greater versatility in energy input into the sheet.
are important in selecting the appropriate heater Very small heaters, such as ceramic elements
combinations are mentioned. are often ganged together. With advanced
computer controls, energy input to individual
• Day-to-day running cost. In North America, heaters is feasible. This is particularly useful
natural gas costs are about one-fourth of those when dealing with thick-gauge products that
of electricity. are very complex and require very careful lo-
• Maintenance cost. Heater efficiencies, re- cal temperature control. However, burned-out
placement of reflectors, required cleaning, re- heaters can only be detected if each heater has
placement of broken quartz glass heaters, and a monitored thermocouple. Slowly-responding
incomplete gas combustion are some major is- heaters are usually proportional-controlled.
sues. Ease of identification of burned-out heat- Rapidly responding heaters are controlled with
ers is also important. either simple on-off relays or traditional PID
• Initial installation cost. Large panel heaters re- controllers. As thin-gauge thermoformers form
quire fewer connections than ceramic heaters. many products at once, local temperature con-
Catalytic gas combustion heaters require elec- trol is quite limited. Often auxiliary heaters are
trical and natural gas installations and exten- located along and inside the pin-chain rails to
sive gas control and monitoring. ensure that the sheet nearest to these elements
is heated to the same level as the rest of the
• Heater versatility. A wide temperature range is sheet. Auxiliary heaters are used at the exit of
important if many types of plastics are to be the last oven as a fine adjustment of the sheet
formed. Rapid temperature response is needed temperature just before the sheet enters the
if the process requires frequent interruptions. forming press.
Ease in zoning or patterning the heater output
is important if many sizes of sheet are heated
or if the product is very complex. Reliability Table 16.1 gives comparative ratings of the infra-
and constant energy output are needed for long red heaters that are most commonly used in thermo-
production runs. forming.
16.10 Thermoforming Mold locally soft areas. The casting is usually 15–25 mm
Materials in thickness and is nearly uniform in thickness. When
the casting has cooled, it is deflashed, the risers are
The thermoforming mold is usually single-sur- machined away, coolant lines are welded or soldered
faced. Aluminum is the preferred material for longer to the back of the casting, vent holes are drilled in,
production runs for both thin- and thick-gauge ther- and the positive surfaces are finished. Sand or grit
moformers. The mold serves several purposes and blasting is a common finishing method.
has several requirements. Thin-gauge molds usually contain many cavities.
The development of computer-controlled milling
• It allows the production of the product that machines has allowed the machining of many cavi-
meets the customer’s all dimensional specifica- ties into a single plate of aluminum. Al 6061 T alu-
tions. minum is preferred although Al 7075 T, a tougher,
• It provides a dimensionally stable surface higher temperature aluminum, is used for higher
against which the hot sheet is pressed. temperature plastics, such as polycarbonate and for
filled and reinforced plastics. Coolant channels are
• It removes heat from the hot sheet in a rapid,
usually gun-bore drilled into molds that are designed
reliable, and consistent manner.
for deeply drawn products. For shallow products, a
• It is a modest pressure vessel. flat cooling plate is mounted between the mold and
• As the sheet is pulled against it, it must have the vacuum box.
means to remove air from the cavity in a con- A list of other mold materials includes the follow-
trollable fashion. ing materials.
• It must be robust enough to withstand repeated
formings at elevated pressures and tempera- • Prehardened P20 steel, often used for very
tures. high-temperature plastics, plastics that require
• It must resist attacks from gases emitted by the very high-forming pressure, and fiber-rein-
plastics. forced plastics.
• It must resist erosion from filled- or fiber-rein- • Cold electroformed nickel, used for products
forced plastics. that require very high or very fine surface de-
tails [11].
• It must be dimensionally stable during extend-
ed periods of storage. • Stainless steel, particularly 304 stainless steel,
used for thermoforming corrosive plastics.
• It is often a machine with sliding cams and
slides.
• It often includes platens that contain cavity iso-
lators, plugs, ejection rings or bars, and trim-in- 16.10.2 Prototype Mold Materials
place dies and anvils.
There are many occasions when only a few to a
There are two general categories of molds. Pro- few dozen products are needed. Traditional vacuum
totype molds are used to produce a few to a hundred forming uses low pressures and relatively low sheet
products. These molds are generally made of easily temperatures. As a result, many common materials
worked materials, such as plaster, wood, and even often serve as thermoforming molds. There are two
paper. Production molds are used for long produc- general types of prototype molds.
tion runs. Deductive mold materials are removed to form the
desired shape. Inductive mold materials are built up
to form the desired shape. Hardwoods, fiberboard,
16.10.1 Production Mold Materials and industrial plaster are examples of deductive ma-
terials, which under certain circumstances can also
Very large thick-gauge molds are usually made be used inductively. Syntactic foam, thermoset plas-
of atmospheric or foundry cast aluminum. A-360 se- tics, papier mâché, and sprayed white metals are nor-
ries aluminum is easy to melt, pour, machine, weld, mally considered to be inductive materials.
and has good corrosion resistance [10]. The mold To withstand repeated compression during vac-
is usually foundry sand. Properly cast aluminum is uum forming, the prototype mold material should
relatively free of surface and subsurface pores and have a compressive strength of around 25 MPa. Most
364 Applied Plastics Engineering Handbook
woods [12] and industrial plasters [13] achieve this metal molds are often made in a few hours [14]. The
strength. Sisal, glass fibers, or hemp is used to rein- mold surface often replicates the pattern surface with
force thin plaster molds. Medium-density fiberboard great detail. Water lines are usually soldered in place
is a pressed wood fiber product that is easily sawed, (Fig. 16.20). Thin metal shells are often backed with
shaped, and drilled with common woodworking high-temperature epoxy.
tools. It is somewhat porous, meaning that vacuum
can be drawn directly through thin sections without
the need of vacuum holes. Syntactic foam is a com- 16.10.3 Mold Design
posite of fly-ash, phenolic, or hollow glass spheres
in polyurethane, phenolic, or epoxy resin that may Cooling, cavity venting, undercuts, and surface
be foamed. Syntactic foams are available in plank or texture are important elements in the design of ther-
board at densities of 200–800 kg/m3, and are easily moform molds. Thin-gauge coolant aspects were
shaped with carbide-tipped cutters and routers. These discussed earlier. Thick-gauge thermoform molds
foams are more expensive than other prototype mold tend to be thin shells. Coolant lines are soldered or
materials and so find greater use as plug materials. mechanically affixed to the nonproduct side of these
Glass-reinforced epoxy and thermosetting poly- molds. Metal-filled epoxy is often used around the
esters are also used. These materials have excellent coolant line and between the coolant line and the mold
compressive strengths but they are usually restricted surface to ensure adequate conduction heat transfer.
to 125°C continuous use temperatures. Papier-mâché The key in all coolant-line designs is uniformity in
is very inexpensive, uses readily available materi- mold surface temperature during operation. Mani-
als, is easily shaped and worked, and can be used fold cooling lines are always preferred over serpen-
to produce a few products before deteriorating. An tine lines. Many coolant lines are preferred over a
epoxy coating is recommended to improve its heat few lines. Ideally, coolant temperature rise, inlet-to-
resistance and product surface quality. (There are outlet, should not be more than 3°C.
many recipes for papier mâché. For prototype molds, To produce a quality product, air must be quickly
it is recommended that low-viscosity, quick-setting and efficiently removed from between the sheet and
epoxy be used as the binder between the layers of the mold surface. This is accomplished with vacu-
paper or Bristol board.) White metals, such as zinc um or vent holes drilled through the primary mold
and zinc alloys are sprayed as molten drops directly surface. For thin-gauge molds, these holes are con-
against a pattern as fragile as a paper doily. Sprayed nected to machined vacuum channels, a plenum,
Figure 16.20 Schematic of mold fabrication where atomized metal, such as zinc or zinc alloy is sprayed against
a pattern that can be non-metallic in nature.
16: Thermoforming 365
Figure 16.21 Schematic of the evacuation route beginning with the mold cavity and proceeding through vacuum
holes to vacuum box, vacuum line and surge tank to the vacuum pump, said schematic valid for both thick-gauge
and thin-gauge mold designs.
and/or a vacuum box beneath the mold structure. For Thin-gauge products are often flexible enough to be
thick-gauge molds, the void behind the thin-shell pulled from minor undercuts, such as detents. If nec-
mold acts as an air reservoir. The vacuum box or air essary, ejector pins or rings are used. Moveable mold
reservoir is connected to the vacuum pump through elements are used with undercuts of thick products
vacuum lines, solenoid-actuated rotary valves, and a or for plastics that are stiff at product removal time.
vacuum or surge tank (Fig. 16.21). The number of Simple moving elements are hinged to swing away as
vacuum holes is determined by the volume of air the product is withdrawn. For severe undercuts, pneu-
trapped between the sheet and the mold surface. matic cylinders are activated to move elements away
The rate of evacuation must be rapid enough to al- as the product is pulled from the mold cavity. Orphan
low the sheet to stretch without riding on a cushion mold elements exit with the product are removed and
of exhausting air. As the plastic is stretched last into are reassembled in the mold for the next cycle.
two- and three-dimensional corners of the mold, Grit or sand-blasted mold surfaces having rough-
vacuum holes are always needed in these regions. ness dimensions of 200–300 µm are usually accept-
However, they are also needed in flat areas to prevent able for nonappearance products. Chemically etched
local air trap and in rim and lip areas to ensure that surfaces yield texture dimensions to 100 µm or less.
the sheet remains tight against the mold surface dur- Vacuum-formed products usually do not replicate
ing stretching. Spring-loaded valves, often connected mold surface details of less than about 50 µm. Mold
to a high-velocity low-vacuum source, are placed in surface texture details as fine as 10 µm can be repli-
the very bottom of very deep molds to accelerate air cated when the sheet is pressure formed.
evacuation. To minimize drawdown of the sheet into Whenever a hot sheet touches a cooler mold sur-
a vacuum hole, the vacuum-hole diameter should not face, it deglosses to a matte finish. If the surface must
exceed the thickness of the sheet covering it. Porous remain glossy, it can be formed free of the mold.
sintered metals are used when vacuum hole mark- Freely blown skylights and domes are examples. To
off is unacceptable (A list of porous sintered metal achieve a glossy surface on a product that has touched
manufacturers is given as Table 32.6.15 in Ref. [15]). a mold surface, the surface is often flame treated or
For thin-gauge products, porous aluminum with polished with 2400 grit Crocus cloth.
micron-sized pores is available in machineable and
castable forms (Metapor and Espor are manufactured
by Portec Ltd., Weiernstrasse 2, CH 8355, Aadorf, 16.10.4 Plug Materials
Switzerland).
As thermoforming is a relatively low-pressure, Plugs or mechanical prestretching devices are
single-surfaced process, undercuts are commonly considered part of the mold. Plugs are made of syn-
designed into both thin- and thick-gauge products. tactic foam, solid polyamide, or ultrahigh-molecular
366 Applied Plastics Engineering Handbook
Figure 16.22 Various methods of sealing edges of thick-gauge twin sheets prior to inflation to achieve desired
air pockets.
weight PE, heated aluminum, or felt-covered wood. purposes and in thin-gauge products for flat, dimen-
The choice of the material depends on whether: sionally accurate sealing areas.
In sequential twin-sheet thermoforming, after the
• the process is production or prototype, two product halves have been formed, peripheral and
• the final plug design is evolving, interior segments of the product are mated under sub-
• the plastic sheet is chilled and therefore marked stantial pressure. Often, secondary heaters are used
by certain materials, to keep the mating surfaces hot. Secondary hydraulic
elements are used to apply force sufficient to extrude
• the plug temperature needs careful control, some of the plastic from the welding area, thereby
• the sheet is very thick, and whether ensuring an integral seal. Various sealing configura-
• the sheet is very hot. tions are shown in Fig. 16.22.
vinyls—flexible PVC, ethylene vinyl acetate, and oth- the plastic. The upper curve of the forming window
ers—are noted for their fire retardancy and ultraviolet is the lowest forming temperature of the plastic. The
resistance. Other commonly thermoformed plastics lower curve is the highest forming temperature of the
include acrylics, such as polymethyl methacrylate, plastic. The crosshatched area represents the forming
polycarbonate, PE terephthalate, and semicrystalline area.
plastics, such as PE, rubberized thermoplastic olefins, The thermoforming window is technically iden-
and PP. There are niche applications for thermoformed tified as a plateau or near-plateau in the tempera-
products of fluoropolymers, polyamides, thermoplastic ture-dependent elastic modulus of a given plastic.
polyurethanes, polysulfone, PE sulfide, and high-nitrile Amorphous plastics, such as PVC and cycloolefin
resin. (COC) (Topas, Ticonal Advanced Polymers, Flor-
ence, KY) demonstrate broad plateaus at reasonably
high moduli values (Fig. 16.24), whereas homopoly-
16.11.1 Thermoforming Window mer polypropylene (homoPP) shows no such plateau.
Time-dependent extensional viscosity is another
The key to successful heating and stretching a ther- measure of the formability of a crystalline plastic. PE
moplastic is its thermoforming window. The thermo- strain-rate hardens as it is elongated (Fig. 16.25). As
forming window is the temperature range over which a result, it is thermoformed above its melting tem-
the plastic is pliable enough to be stretched and perature range as an elastic liquid. HomoPP does not
shaped into the desired product. Amorphous plas- strain-rate harden (Fig. 16.26) and so cannot be ther-
tics have relatively wide thermoforming windows. moformed above its melting temperature range [16].
Semicrystalline plastics have very narrow thermo- Branched or copolymerized PP behaves more like PE
forming windows. The forming field is envisioned in (Fig. 16.27), and so is thermoformed above its melt-
Fig. 16.23, as the interaction of sheet extensibility, ing temperature range.
sheet temperature, and applied force. The abscissa
is the extensibility of the plastics, a temperature-
dependent material property. The ordinate is the ap- 16.11.2 Semicrystalline Plastics
plied stress or applied force per unit area. The curved
lines represent the plastic elongation as a function of When a semicrystalline plastic is heated and
temperature and applied stress. The upper horizon- formed above its melting temperature range, it
tal bound is the maximum applied stress. The right must be recrystallized on the thermoforming mold.
vertical bound is the maximum design elongation of The rate of recrystallization is important when
Figure 16.23 The cross-hatched thermoformable area or “forming window” where sheet elongation is shown as
a function of levels of temperature-dependent applied stress (traditional vacuum forming and pressure forming).
368 Applied Plastics Engineering Handbook
Figure 16.24 Comparison of temperature-dependent elastic moduli for semicrystalline homopolymer polypropyl-
ene, amorphous polyvinyl chloride, and semicrystalline cyclic olefin copolymer (COC) showing that only homo-
polymer polypropylene has no appreciable thermoformable region.
Figure 16.25 The effect of shear or strain rate on the elastic viscosity of semicrystalline high-density polyethyl-
ene. (Note: the upsweep in viscosity is often referred to as strain rate hardening).
determining processing cycle times. PEs recrys- modified with a crystallizing nucleant and is formed
tallize rapidly at temperatures only a few degrees on a heated mold, the resulting product is semicrys-
below their melting temperatures. PPs recrystallize talline. As a food container, it will withstand 200°C
slowly and often at temperatures tens of degrees oven temperatures for up to 1 h.
below their melting temperatures. Product distor-
tion and warping can result when slowly recrys-
tallizing products are removed too early from the 16.11.3 Biobased Plastics
thermoforming mold. PE terephthalate is a very
slowly crystallizing plastic. It is amorphous when There is growing interest in biobased plastics
extruded into thin sheet. It remains amorphous if it [17]. Amorphous polylactic acid is thermoformed
is heated rapidly and formed on a cool mold. If it is into thin-gauge disposable packaging products.
16: Thermoforming 369
It extrudes and thermoforms as a stiff PS. It is mois- competitive price/performance characteristics and on
ture sensitive and the formed products tend to be legislative actions against traditional plastics.
brittle. Its low glass transition temperature of about
60°C restricts its use in hot-fill containers. Semicrys-
talline polylactic acid has the same glass transition 16.11.4 Filled and Reinforced
temperature, a melting temperature of about 170°C, Plastics
and a temperature-dependent elastic modulus plateau
of 90–140°C. The thin-gauge semicrystalline sheet is Particulate-filled thermoplastic polyolefins are
thermoformed using conventional forming pressures used in vehicle applications. Talc, calcium carbonate,
and warm molds. It has a practical hot oil-distortion and kaolin are typical fillers. Fillers do not change
temperature of 140°C [18]. the transition characteristics of the plastic. Fillers in-
Polyhydroxybutyrate, polyhydroxyvalerate, and crease the temperature-dependent elastic moduli of
blends have melting temperatures of 145–175°C [19]. the plastics, increasing the forces required to form the
Early results indicate that these microorganism-based plastics in the plateau-temperature regions. Matched-
plastics are processible in traditional thermoforming mold thermoforming is necessary if the product can-
equipment. Other biobased plastics include modified not be formed using a conventional pressure box over
polyesters and older plastics, such as polystarches, a single-surface mold.
plastics from gluten- and gliadin-based amino ac- Short-fiber-reinforced thermoplastics also do not
ids, casein, and, of course, cellulosics. Acceptance alter the transition characteristics of the plastics but
of biobased plastics depends on their long-term also increase forces required to form the plastics.
370 Applied Plastics Engineering Handbook
Again, matched-mold thermoforming is recom- achieved by adding small amounts of chemical foam-
mended. Long- and continuous-fiber-reinforced ther- ing agents and other cell nucleants, such as talc to
moplastics pose an additional processing problem. the plastic at the extruder hopper. Low-density foam
Although the reinforced sheet can be drawn into sheet must be carefully heated to achieve secondary
shallow shapes using matched-mold pressure form- foam expansion and to prevent catastrophic cell col-
ing, fibers are inextensible. As a result, products will lapse. The heated, expanded sheet is formed in match
exhibit resin-rich and resin-poor areas. Nonuniformi- molds. The sheet is primarily drawn into the mold by
ty in reinforcement implies nonuniformity in physi- the folding and collapse of cell walls rather than by
cal properties across the product. stretching of the plastic.
Figure 16.28 Thermal energy required to heat thermoformable amorphous and crystalline polymers to their
respective forming temperatures. HDPE, High density polyethylene at 960 kg/m3; MDPE, Medium-density poly-
ethylene at 945 kg/m3; LDPE, Low-density polyethylene at 920 kg/m3; POM,- Polyoxymethylene; PA-6, Polycapro-
lactam or polyamide; PP, Homopolymer polypropylene, PS, General purpose polystyrene; MIPS, Medium-impact
or rubber-modified polystyrene; ABS, Polyacrylonitrile-polybutadiene-polystyrene terpolymer; PMMA, Polymeth-
ylmethacrylate; FPVC, Flexible polyvinyl chloride; RPVC, Rigid polyvinyl chloride.
Figure 16.29 Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) traces for two thicknesses of polyethylene film (0.001 inch and
0.010 inch) with traditional thermoforming wavelength range of about 3 microns to about 8 microns.
Figure 16.30 Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) traces for two thicknesses of general purpose polystyrene film
(0.001 inch and 0.010 inch) with traditional thermoforming wavelength range of about 3 microns to about 8 microns.
372 Applied Plastics Engineering Handbook
Figure 16.31 Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) traces for two thicknesses of polyvinyl chloride film (0.003 inch
and 0.012 inch) with traditional thermoforming wavelength range of about 3 microns to about 8 microns.
Secondary concerns, such as scrap disposal, reli- two forms of shrinkage in thermoformed products.
ability, or availability of proper machinery, and re- The first is thermal shrinkage, being the result of
liability or availability of a trained labor force may the formed product cooling from its forming tem-
alter the manufacturing process. perature to room temperature. All plastics exhibit
Before thermoforming is selected as the appropri- this general temperature-dependent density increase.
ate process to manufacture the product, certain crite- Semicrystalline plastics formed above their melting
ria must be met. temperatures exhibit additional density increase as
they recrystallize. The rate at which plastics return
• Can the candidate plastic be satisfactorily ex- to their stable room temperature density depends
truded into quality sheet? strongly on the rate at which they are cooled. If a
• Can the sheet be heated to its forming tempera- product is pressed against a very cold mold and re-
ture without excessive sag? moved quickly, it will achieve its stable density at
• Is the plastic too stiff at its forming temperature some time after it has been trimmed and even pack-
to be formed with conventional thermoforming aged for shipment to the customer.
equipment? Orientation shrinkage occurs in addition to ther-
mal shrinkage. Residual stresses have been locked
• Can the sheet be heated to its forming tempera- into the product during cooling against the mold
ture without discoloration or degradation? surface. They relax over time. As the stress field is
• Can the sheet be stretched into the desired not uniform, the product may exhibit distortion,
shape? warp, and dimensional variation. Residual stress
• Is the market too large? relaxation is a vexation in the trimming operation.
• Is the market too small? It is often the cause of product rejection by the cus-
• Can the regrind be reused to produce sheet for tomer.
the same products?
• Are the product wall thickness variations too 16.12.2 Draft Angles
severe or abrupt?
• Are the product wall thickness dimensions too Draft angles are very important in thermoforming
critical? product design. If the product is formed onto a fe-
• Are there other processes that are better suited male or negative mold, it shrinks away from the mold
or more competitive economically? sidewalls. As a result, true female or negative prod-
ucts can be thermoformed with vertical walls hav-
Several general parameters affect thermoformed ing zero draft angles. If the product is formed onto a
product design. male or positive mold, it shrinks onto the mold side-
walls. A draft angle of 1–5 degree is recommended
for all male or positive products. The more the plastic
16.12.1 Shrinkage thermally shrinks, the greater the draft angle must be.
On textured male molds, the draft angle should be
As noted, thermoforming is a single-surface form- increased about 1 degree for every 5 µm of texture
ing method employing low pressure and low temper- depth.
ature. The formed product is the result of rigidifying Many products have both negative and positive el-
a hot rubbery sheet against a cold mold. There are ements. During cooling, the positive elements act to
16: Thermoforming 373
pull the plastic toward them and away from the nega- in contact with the mold surface. The thickness of
tive elements. This can change the final dimensions the plastic on the mold surface decreases as the sheet
of the product. Draft angles must be carefully chosen stretches. In addition, there are many vagaries in the
to minimize this effect. Using a plug to position the forming process, such as:
stretching sheet very close to the mold surface helps
mitigate this effect as well. • sheet thickness variation,
• level and quality of regrind,
• random thermal cycling of heaters,
16.12.3 Corners • sheet sag,
As noted, plastic is stretched last into horizontal • variation in ambient air temperature in both the
two- and three-dimensional corners. The sheet that oven and the forming station,
is drawn into a three-dimensional corner decreases • sheet that exits from the oven on time rather
in thickness in direct proportion to the corner radius. than on temperature,
In many applications, corners are most vulnerable to • plug temperature variation, and so on.
impact. In thermoforming, corners of large radii are
always recommended. Chamfers, being flattened ar- For thick-gauge sheet, local wall thickness of the
eas with 45-degree angles to all intersecting walls, forming product can be manipulated by prestretching
are substantially stronger than radii and are always and by changing local heater temperatures. The lat-
preferred for three-dimensional thermoformed cor- ter is called zoned or pattern heating. For thin-gauge
ners [21]. sheet, local wall thickness can be manipulated by
mechanical prestretching.
Wall thickness tolerance for commodity products,
16.12.4 Dimensional Tolerance such as thin-gauge drink cups and thick-gauge dun-
nage is typically 20%. Wall thickness tolerance for
Thermoforming, along with blow molding and ro- high-performance products, such as thing-gauge lid-
tational molding, is a single-surface forming process. ded containers and thick-gauge equipment housings
Thermoforming is a differential process. Stretching is typically 10% (Fig. 16.32). A 20% variation in wall
takes place only on that portion of sheet that is not thickness results in a 60% variation in stiffness. If the
Figure 16.32 Part-to-part and day-to-day variation in wall thickness at one specific place on a thick-gauge equip-
ment housing.
374 Applied Plastics Engineering Handbook
Figure 16.33 Rim-rolling sequence for the production of thin-gauge axisymmetric products, such as drinking
cups.
product must meet a minimum sidewall strength, for in which two locks are used to disable all electrical
example, the median product wall thickness must be and mechanical machine functions. One key is held
120% or more of the minimum thickness. by the person entering the machine and the other by
Rim rolling is an important method of stiffening a plant supervisor.
thin-walled thin-gauge thermoformed cups. Cups
are indexed through a device that heats and presses
the trimmed rim of the cut against a curling screw 16.13.2 Machine Set-Up
(Fig. 16.33). The rolled rim dramatically increases
the hoop strength of the cup and provides a smooth The set-up protocol for a new machine is differ-
surface for the user. ent from that for a used machine. When purchasing
a new machine, that the machine builder will offer a
thorough training session that includes hands-on op-
eration. The machine builder will often send an ex-
16.13 Operational Aspects of perienced operator with the new machine to the plant
Thermoforming [22] site, oversee installation and initial start-up, and will
floor-train all machine operators. The purchase of a
16.13.1 Safety Prior to Machine used machine requires additional steps. If possible,
Transfer to New Owner the machine should be inspected and run at its cur-
rent location prior to purchase. The original machine
The thermoforming process involves high-temper builder should be contacted before the machine is
ature, high mechanical forces, high-pressures, many purchased to obtain operating and safety guides. The
pinch points, high voltage, combustible plastics, and builder may wish to inspect the machine and may
electrically and electronically timed start–stop ele- recommend upgrading and refurbishing prior to ma-
ments that can maim and kill. Extensive protocols chine transfer to the new owner. The machine also
with detailed safety practices are required for ma- may need to be brought up to current Occupational
chine set up, maintenance, and operation. All per- Safety and Health Standards standards.
manent and temporary employees must be trained on
all aspects of the thermoforming process. All plant-
floor personnel must be provided with appropriate 16.13.3 Mold Set-up
safety equipment, such as earplugs and heat-resistant
gloves. No one should be permitted on the plant floor A specific protocol is recommended when pur-
without proper protective gear. All operating features chasing a new mold. The completed mold assembly
of the equipment must be disabled before anyone should be inspected at the mold maker to insure that
enters the operating theater of the equipment. One the basic design features are in place. Specifically, the
safety program emphasizes “Lock it and Pocket it!” entire mold surface should be inspected for texture
16: Thermoforming 375
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