A

Project Report
On
CANAL SYSTEM

Bachelor of Technology
In Department of Civil Engineering

Submitted To:- Submitted by:

Niraj Kumar VatsalPushkarna
(HOD) B.Tech 8thSem
Department of civil engineering Roll No
15EAJCE064

Department of Civil Engineering

ARYABHATTA COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND RESEARCH
CENTRE
Rajasthan Technical University, Kota

1
CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that Vatsal Pushkarna of civil 8th sem student has
successfully completed this project on the topic "Canal System"
prescribed by Mr. Niraj Kumar sir, during academic session 2018-2019 as
per the guidelines issues by Aryabhatta College of Engineering And
Research Center Ajmer(Rajasthan) affiliated by rajasthan technical
university.

Mr. Niraj Kumar

(H.O.D)

Department Of Civil Engineering

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 Candidate’s Declaration

I hereby declare that the work, which is being presented in the Seminar
report entitled ”Canal system” of Degree of “Bachelor of Technology”
in Department of civil Engineering, and submitted to the Mr. Niraj
Kumar, Head of Department of Civil Engineering, Aryabhatta
College of Engineering and Research Centre, Rajasthan Technical
University is a record of my own investigations carried under the
Guidance of HOD MR. Niraj sir.

I have not submitted the matter presented in this report any where for the
award of any other Degree.

(Name and Signature of Candidate)

Vatsal Pushkarna

Enrolment No- 15EAJCE064

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 PREFACE

I have made this report file on the topic Canal system ; I have tried my
best to elucidate all the relevant detail to the topic to be included in the
report. While in the beginning I have tried to give a general view about
this topic.

My efforts and wholehearted co-corporation of each and everyone has

ended on a successful note. I express my sincere gratitude to Mr. NIRAJ
KUMAR who assisting me throughout the preparation of this topic. I
thank him for providing me the reinforcement, confidence and most
importantly the track for the topic whenever I needed it.

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 INDEX

1) INTRODUCTION……………...……………………………….4
2) TYPICAL SECTION OF LINE CANAL……...…..……………9
3) SURFACE DRAINAGE OF LINE CANAL…………..…..…..12
4) DESIGN OF UNLINED CANAL…………………….................13
5) UNLINED ALLUVIAL CHANNELS ……………………….....17
6) LONGITUDINAL SECTION OF CANALS…………….............18
7) CANAL DROPS AND FALLS …………………………………24
8) FALLS OF ANTIQUITY ………………………………………..25
9) MODERN FALLS ……………………………………………….28
10) CANAL REGULATION ……………………………………..….38
11) SILT VANES ………………………………………...……..……41
12) SKIMMING PLATFORMS ………………………………….…..44
13) CANAL ESCAPE …………………………………………...……46
14) CANAL IRRIGATION SYSTEM ………………………………..48
15) CURVES IN CHANNELS …………………………………….….50
16) SIPHONS …………………………………………………………51
17) SIGHT LOCATION FOR SYPHON ……………………………..55
18) GENERAL KNOWLEDGE OF CANAL………………….………62
19) IMPORTANT TERMS ……………………………………………69
20) REFERENCES ……………………………………………………70
21) CONCLUSION ……………………………………………………71

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 INDEX FOR FIGURE

1) Channel sections………………………………..……...5
2) Typical sections of lined channels………………….….9
3) Subsurface drainage of lined canals…………….…….12
4) Unlined alluvial canals in clear water………………...14
5) Longitudinal section of canals…………………….…..20
6) Typical location canal drop ………………………..…24
7) Falls and antiquity ………………………………….…28
8) Modern falls …………………………………..……….38
9) Slit vanes ………………………………………………..41
10) Skimming platforms ...…………………………………44
11) Canal escapes ………………………………………….46
12) Aqueduct with unobstructed canal ……………………54
13) Alluvial and non-alluvial canal ………………………...61
14) Unlined canal…………………………………………...62
15) Lined canal …………………………………………….63

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Instructional Objectives

On completion of this lesson, the student shall learn about:

1. The basics of irrigation canals design

2. The procedures followed to design unlined and lined canals
3. Methods for subsurface drainage of lined canals

Introduction

The entire water conveyance system for irrigation, comprising of the main canal,
branch canals, major and minor distributaries, field channels and water courses
have to be properly designed. The design process comprises of finding out the
longitudinal slope of the channels and fixing the cross sections. The channels
themselves may be made up of different construction materials. For example, the
main and branch canals may be lined and the smaller ones unlined. Even for the
unlined canals, there could be some passing through soils which are erodible due
to high water velocity, while some others may pass through stiff soils or rock,
which may be relatively less prone to erosion. Further, the bank slopes of canals
would be different for canals passing through loose or stiff soils or rock. In this
lesson, we discuss the general procedures for designing canal sections, based on
different practical considerations.

Design of lined channels

The Bureau of Indian Standards code IS: 10430 -1982 “Criteria for design of lined
canals

and guidelines for selection of type of lining” (Reaffirmed in 1991) recommend

trapezoidal sections with rounded corners for all channels-small or large.
However, in India, the earlier practice had been to provide triangular channel
sections with rounded bottom for smaller discharges. The geometric elements of
these two types of channels are given below:

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Triangular section

The expressions for A and P may, again, be verified by the reader. In all the above

expressions, the value of is in radians.

The steps to be followed for selecting appropriate design parameters of a lined

irrigation channel, according to IS: 10430 may be summarized as follows:

1. Select a suitable slope for the channel banks. These should be nearly
equal to the angle of repose of the natural soil in the sub grade so that no earth
pressure is exerted from behind on the lining. For example, for canals passing
through sandy soil, the slope may be kept as 2H: 1V whereas canals in firm clay
may have bank slopes as 1.5H: 1V canals cut in rock may have almost vertical
slopes, but slopes like 0.25 to 0.75H: 1V is preferred from practical
considerations.

2. Decide on the freeboard, which is the depth allowance by which the

banks are raised above the full supply level (FSL) of a canal. For channels of
different discharge carrying capacities, the values recommended for freeboard are
given in the following table

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 Type of Channel Discharge Freeboard

(m3/s) (m)

Main and branch canals > 10 0.75

Branch canals and major distributaries 5 – 10 0.6

Major distributaries 1–5 0.50

Minor distributaries <1 0.30

Water courses < 0.06 0.1 – 0.15

3. Beams or horizontal strips of land provided at canal banks in deep

cutting, have to be incorporated in the section, as shown in Figure 3.

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The beams serve as a road for inspection vehicles and also help to absorb any soil
or rock that may drop from the cut-face of soil or rock of the excavations. Beam
width may be kept at least 2m. If vehicles are required to move, then a width of at
least 5m may be provided.

4 For canal sections in filling, banks on either side have to be provided with
sufficient top width for movement of men or vehicles, as shown in Figure 4.

The general recommendations for bank top width are as follows:

Discharge (m3/s) Maximum bank top width (m)

For inspection road For non-inspection

Banks

0.15 to 7.5 5.0 1.5

7.5 to 10.0 5.0 2.5

10.0 to 15.0 6.0 2.5

15.0 to 30.0 7.0 3.5

Greater than 30.0 8.0 5.0

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5. Assume a safe limiting velocity of flow, depending on the type of lining, as given
below:
• Cement concrete lining: 2.7 m/s
• Brick tile lining or burnt tile lining: 1.8 m/s
• Boulder lining: 1.5 m
6. Assume the appropriate values of flow friction coefficients. Since Manning’s
equation would usually be used for calculating the discharge in canals, values of
Manning’s roughness coefficient, n, from the following table may be considered
for the corresponding type of canal lining.

Surface Characteristics Value of n

Concrete with surfaces as:

a) Formed, no finish/PCC tiles or slabs 0.018-0.02

b) Trowel float finish 0.015-0.018

c) Gunited finish 0.018-0.022

Concrete bed trowel finish with sides as: 0.019-0.021

a) Hammer dressed stone masonry

b) Course rubble masonry 0.018-0.02

c) Random rubble masonry 0.02-0.025

d) Masonry plastered 0.015-0.017

e) Dry boulder lining 0.02-0.03

Brick tile lining 0.018-0.02

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7 The longitudinal slope (S) of the canal may vary from reach to reach, depending
upon the alignment. The slope of each reach has to be evaluated from the
alignment of the canal drawn on the map of the region.

8 For the given discharge Q, permissible velocity V, longitudinal slope S, given

side slope , and Manning’ roughness coefficient, n, for the given canal section,
find out the cross section parameters of the canal, that is, bed width (B) and depth
of flow (D).

Since two unknowns are to be found, two equations may be used, which are:

• Continuity equation: Q = A * V (6)

1 2/3 1/2

• Dynamic equation: V = (A R S ) (7)

In the above equations, all variables stand for their usual notation as mentioned
earlier, A and R is cross sectional area and hydraulic radius, respectively.

Typical sections of lined channels

Though there may be a large number of combinations of the factors on which the
cross-section of a lined canal depends, some typical examples are given in the
following figures, which may give an idea of laying and a practical channel cross
section.

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13
14
The Bureau of Indian Standard code IS: 10430-1982 “Criteria for design of lined
canals and guidelines for selection of type of lining” (Reaffirmed in 1991) may
generally be used, in addition to special codes like IS: 9451-1985 “Guidelines for
lining of canals in expansive soils (first revision)” (Reaffirmed in 1991), which
may be used under particular circumstances.

Subsurface drainage of lined canals

Lined canals passing through excavations may face a situation when the canal is
dry and the surrounding soil is saturated, like when the ground table is very near
the surface. Similar situation may occur for lined canals in filling when the
confining banks become saturated, as during rains and the canal is empty under
the circumstances of repair of lining or general closure of canal. The hydrostatic
pressure built up behind the linings, unless released, causes heaving of the lining
material, unless it is porous enough to release the pressure on its own. Hence, for
most of the linings (except for the porous types like the boulder or various types
of earth linings which develop inherent cracks), there is a need to provide a

mechanism to release the back pressure of the water in the sub grade. This may be
done by providing pressure relief valves, as shown in Figure 6.

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Design of unlined canals

The Bureau of Indian Standard code IS: 7112-1973 “Criterion for design of cross-
section for unlined canals in alluvial soils” is an important document that may be
consulted for choosing various parameters of an unlined channel, specifically in
alluvial soils. There are unlined canals flowing through other types of natural
material like silty clay, but formal guidelines are yet to be brought out on their
design. Nevertheless, the general principles of design of unlined canals in alluvial
soils are enumerated here, which may be suitably extended for other types as well
after analyzing prototype data from a few such canals.

The design of unlined alluvial canals as compared to lined canals is more complex
since here the bed slope cannot be determined only on the basis of canal layout,
since there would be a limiting slope, more than which the velocity of the flowing
water would start eroding the particles of the canal bed as well as banks. The
problem becomes further complicated if the water entering the canal from the
head-works is itself carrying sediment particles. In that case, there would be a
limiting slope, less than which the sediment particles would start depositing on the
bed and banks of the canal. In the following sections the design concept of unlined
canals in alluvium for clear water as well as sediment-laden water is discussed
separately.

Unlined alluvial canals in clear water

A method of design of stable channels in coarse non- cohesive material carrying

clear water has been developed by the United States Bureau of Reclamation as
reported by Lane (1955), which is commonly known as the Tractive Force
Method. Figure 7 shows schematically shows such a situation where the banks are
inclined to the horizontal at a given angle to remain stable, even under a dry canal
condition. When there is a flow of water, there is a tendency for the particle A to
be dragged along the direction of canal bed slope, whereas the particle B tries to
get dislodged in an inclined direction due to the shear stress of the flowing water
as shown in Figure 8.

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17
The particle A would get dislodged when the shear stress, τ, is just able to
overcome the frictional resistance. This critical value of shear stress is designated
as τC may be related to the weight of the particle, W, as

τC b= W tanφ (8)

For the particle B, a smaller shear stress is likely to get it dislodged, since it is an
inclined plane. In fact, the resultant of its weight component down the plane, W
′
Sin and the shear stress (designated asτC ) would together cause the particle to

move. Hence, in this case,

(τCS ) 2+ (W sin θ ) 2=[Wcosθ]tan φ (9)

In the above expression it must be noted, that the normal reaction on the plane for
the particle B is W Cos θ.

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As may be seen from the above figures, for any type of channel section, the
maximum shear stress at the bed is somewhat more than for that at the sides for a
given depth of water (Compare τb and τS for same B/h value for any graph).

Very roughly, for trapezoidal channels with a wide base compared to the depth as
is practically provided, the bottom stress may be taken as γRS and that at the sides
as 0.75 γRS. Finally, it remains to find out the values of B and h for a given
discharge Q that may be passed through an unlined trapezoidal channel of given
side slope and soil, such that both the bed and banks particles are dislodged at
about the same time. This would ensure an optimum channel section.

Researchers have investigated for long, the relation between shear stress and
incipient motion of non-cohesive alluvial particles in the bed of a flowing stream.
One of the most commonly used relation, as suggested by Shields (1936), is
provided in Figure 12.

Unlined alluvial channels in sediment laden water

It is natural for channel carrying sediment particles along with its flow to deposit
them if the velocity is slower than a certain value. Velocity in excess of another
limit may start scouring the bed and banks. Hence, for channels carrying a certain
amount of sediment may neither deposit, nor scour for a particular velocity.
Observations by the irrigation engineers of pre-independence India of the
characteristics of certain canals in north India that had shown any deposition or
erosion for several years, led to the theory of regime channels, as explained in
Lesson 2.10. These channels generally carry a sediment load smaller than
500ppm. The first regime equation was proposed by Kennedy in the year 1895,
who was an engineer in the Punjab PWD. Lindley, another engineer in the Punjab
proposed certain regime relations in 1919. Later these equations were modified by
Lacey, who was at one time the Chief Engineer of the UP Irrigation Department.

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In 1929 he published a paper describing his findings, which have been quite
popularly used in India. These have even been adopted by the Bureau of Indian
Standards code IS: 7112-1973 ‘Criteria for design of cross section for unlined
canals in alluvial soils” (Reaffirmed in 1990), which prescribes that the following
equations have to be used:

The Indian Standard code IS: 7112-1973 has also recommended simplified
equations for canals in certain parts of India by fitting different equations to data
obtained from different states and assuming similar average boundary conditions
throughout the region. These are listed in the following table.

S.No Hydraulic Parameter All Indian Punjab UP Bengal

Canals canals canal canals

1 S (Bed slope)

2 P (wetted Perimeter)

3 R (Hydraulic radius)

It may be noted that the regime equations proposed by Lacey are actually meant
for channels with sediment of approximately 500ppm. Hence, for canals with
other sediment loads, the formula may not yield correct results, as has been
pointed out by Lane (1937), Blench and King (1941), Simons and Albert's on
(1963), etc. however, the regime equations proposed by Lacey are used widely in
India, though it is advised that the validity of the equations for a particular region
may be checked before applying the same. For example, Lacey’s equations have
been derived for non-cohesive alluvial channels and hence very satisfactory
results may not be expected from lower reaches of river systems where silty or
silty-clay type of bed materials are encountered, which are cohesive in nature.

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Application of Lacey’s regime equations generally involves problems where the
discharge (Q), silt factor (f) and canal side slopes (Z) are given and parameters
like water depth (D), canal bed width (B) or canal longitudinal slope (S) have to
be determined or Conversely, if S is known for a given f and Z, it may be required
to find out B, D and Q.

Longitudinal section of canals:

The cross section of an irrigation canal for both lined and unlined cases was
discussed in the previous sections. The longitudinal slope of a canal therefore is

also known or is adopted with reference to the available country slope. However,
the slope of canal bed would generally be constant along certain distances,
whereas the local ground slope may not be the same. Further in Lesson 3.6, the
alignment of a canal system was shown to be dependent on the topography of the
land and other factors. The next step is to decide on the elevation of the bed levels
of the canal at certain intervals along its route, which would allow the field
engineers to start canal construction at the exact locations. Also, the full supply
level (FSL) of the canal has to be fixed along its length, which would allow the
determination of the bank levels.

The exercise is started by plotting the plan of the alignment of the canal on a ground
contour map of the area plotted to a scale of 1 in 15,000, as recommended by Bureau
of Indian standards code IS: 5968-1987 “Guidelines for planning and layout of canal
system for irrigation” (Reaffirmed 1992). At each point in plan, the chainages and bed
elevations marked clearly, as shown in Figure 13. The canal bed elevations and the
FSLs at key

21
locations (like bends, divisions, etc) are marked on the plan. It must be noted that
the stretches AB and BC of the canal (in Figure 13) shall be designed that
different discharges due to the off taking major distributary. Hence, the canal bed
slope could be different in the different stretches.

The determination of the FSL starts by calculating from the canal intake, where
the FSL is about 1m below the pond level on the upstream of the canal head
works. This is generally done to provide for the head loss at the regulator as the
water passes below the gate. It is also kept to maintain the flow at almost at full
supply level even if the bed is silted up to some extent in its head reaches. On
knowing the FSL and the water supply depth, the canal bed level elevation is fixed
at chainage 0.00KM, since this is the starting point of the canal. At every key
location, the canal bed level is determined from the longitudinal slope of the
canal, and is marked on the map. If there is no off take between two successive
key locations and no change in longitudinal slope is provided, then the cross-
section would not be changed, generally, and accordingly these are marked by the
canal layout.

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At the off takes, where a major or minor distributary branches off from the main
canal, there would usually be two regulators. One of these, called the cross
regulator and located on the main canal heads up the water to the desired level
such that a regulated quantity of water may be passed through the other, the head
regulator of the distributary by controlling the gate opening. Changing of the cross
regulator gate opening has to be done simultaneously with the adjustment of the
head regulator gates to allow the desired quantity of water to flow through the
distributary and the remaining is passed down the main canal.

The locus of the full supply levels may be termed as the full supply line and this
should generally kept above the natural ground surface line for most of its length
such that most of the commanded area may be irrigated by gravity flow. When a
canal along a watershed, the ground level on its either side would be sloping
downward, and hence, the full supply line may not be much above the ground in
that case. In stretches of canals where there is no off take, the canal may run
through a cutting within an elevated ground, and in such a case, the full supply
line would be lower than the average surrounding ground level. In case irrigation
is proposed for certain reaches of the canal where the adjacent ground level is
higher than the supply level of the canal, lift irrigation by pumping may be
adapted locally for the region.

Similarly, for certain stretches of the canal, it may run through locally low terrain.
Here, the canal should be made on filling with appropriate drainage arrangement
to allow the natural drainage water to flow below the canal. The canal would be
passing over a water-carrying bridge, called aqueducts, in such a case.

As far as possible, the channel should be kept in balanced depth of cutting and
filling for greatest economy and minimum necessity of borrow pits and spoil
banks.

The desired canal slope may, at times, is found to be much less than the local
terrain slope. In such a case, if the canal proceeds for a long distance, an enormous
amount of filling would be required. Hence, in such a case, canal falls

23
are provided where a change in bed elevation is effected by providing a drop
structureusually an energy dissipater like hydraulic jump basin is provided to kill
the excess energy gained by the fall in water elevation. At times, the drop in head
is utilized to generate electricity through suitable arrangement like a bye-pass
channel installed with a bulb-turbine.

A typical canal section is shown in Figure 14, for a canal stretch passing through
varying terrain profile. Here, no withdrawals have been assumed and hence, the
discharge in the entire stretch of the canal is assumed to remain same. Hence, the
canal bed slope and water depth are also not shown varying. It is natural that if the
canal has outlets in between, the change in discharge would result in
corresponding changes in the full supply line.

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3.9.1 Canal drops and falls

A canal has a designed longitudinal slope but has to pass through an undulating
terrain. When a canal crosses an area that has a larger natural surface slope, a canal
drop, also called fall in India, has to be provided suitably at certain intervals (Figure
2)

The location of a fall has to be judiciously worked out such that there should be a
balance between the quantities of excavation and filling. Further the height of the fall
has to be decided, since it is possible to provide larger falls at longer intervals or
smaller falls at shorter intervals. It may be observed that the portion of the canal
which is running in filling (Figure2) may be able to serve the surrounding area by
releasing water by gravity.

25
For the portion of the canal that is running in excavation, if surrounding areas have to
be irrigated, it has to be done through pumping.

There are various types of fall structures, some of which are no more provided these
days. However, there are many irrigation projects in India which have these structures
in the canal network, as they were designed many years ago. Many of these structures
used boulder masonry as their construction material, whereas now brick masonry or,
more commonly, mass concrete is being used commonly in modern irrigation
projects.

3.9.2 Falls of antiquity

The Ogee type of fall has been one of the first to be tried in the Indian canal irrigation
system, probably since more than a century back (Figure 3a). However, according to
the earliest structures provided, the crest of the fall was in the same elevation as that
of the upstream section of the canal. This caused a sharp draw-down of the water
surface on the upstream side. On the downstream, the drop in elevation added energy
to the falling water which exited the falls as a shooting flow, causing erosion of the
canal bed immediately downstream. These difficulties were later removed by raising
the crest level of the fall above the upstream canal bed level and providing suitable
stilling basin with end sill at the downstream end of the fall which kills most of the
excess energy of the leaving water by helping to form a hydraulic jump (Figure 3b).

26
The rapid-fall was tried in some of the north-Indian canals which were constructed
with boulders cemented together by lime concrete (Figure 4). These were quite
effective but, the cost being prohibitive, was gradually phased out.

27
The trapezoidal-notch fall consists of one or more notches in a high crested wall
across the channel with a smooth entrance and a flat circular lip projecting
downstream from each notch to disperse water (Figure 5). This type of fall was started
around the late nineteenth century and continued to be constructed due to its property
of being able to maintain a constant depth-discharge relationship, until simpler and
economical alternatives were designed.

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3.9.3 Modern falls

Some falls have been commonly used in the recent times in the canal systems of
India.

These are described in the following sections. Detailed references may be had from
the following two publications of the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO):

FAO Irrigation and Drainage paper 26/1: Small Hydraulic Structures, Volume
1 (1982)

FAO Irrigation and Drainage paper 26/2: Small Hydraulic Structures, Volume
2 (1982)

These books are also available from the web-site of FAO under the title “Irrigation
and Drainage Papers” at http://www.fao.org/ag/agL/public.stm#aglwbu.

3.9.3.1 Falls with vertical drop

These are falls with impact type energy dissipaters. The vertical-drop fall (Figure 6)
uses a raised crest to head up water on the upstream of the canal section and allows it
to fall with an impact in a pool of water on a depressed floor which acts like a cushion
to dissipate the excess energy of the fall. This type of fall was tried in the Sarda canal
of Uttar Pradesh, which came to be commonly called as the Sarda-type fall.

29
Typical plan and section of a Sarda-type fall is shown in Figure 7. Usually, two
different crests for the fall are adopted, as shown in Figure 8. For canals conveying
discharges less that 14m3/s, crest with rectangular cross section is adopted, and for
discharges more than that, trapezoidal crest with sloping upstream and downstream
faces is chosen.

30
For smaller discharges, the following a may be provided.

Well drop fall (Figure 9)

Pipe drop fall (Figure 10)

Baffled apron drop (Figure 11)

31
32
3.9.3.2 Falls with drop along inclined glacis

These are falls with and inclined glacis along which the water glides down and the
energy is dissipated by the action of a hydraulic jump at the toe of the structure.
Inclined drops are often designed to function as flume measuring devices. These may
be with and without baffles as shown in Figures 12 and 13 respectively and
supplemented by friction blocks and other energy dissipating devices (Figure 14).

33
34
Similar type of fall was also developed in Punjab which was called the CDO type fall,
as shown in Figure 15 (for hydraulic drop up to 1m) and Figure 16 (for hydraulic drop
above 1m).

35
36
The glacis type falls may be modified in the following ways:

Flumed or un-flumed, depending upon the crest width being smaller or equal
to the bed width of the canal (Figure17).

Meter or non-meter fall depending upon whether the canal fall may be used to
measure the discharge as well. Details of a meter-fall is described in Lesson 3.10

37
38
The following appurtenant structures should be considered while providing a vertical-
drop or a glacis-type fall:

1. The floor of the falls should be able to resist the uplift pressure under the
condition of dry canal and a high ground water table.
2.
3. Cut-off walls or curtain walls either of masonry or concrete should be
provided at the upstream and downstream ends of the floors of the falls.
4.
5. Bed protection with dry brick pitching should be provided in the canal just
upstream and downstream of the fall.
6.

7. Side protection should be provided at the upstream and downstream splays

with brick pitching.

Since falls are structures across a canal, it is usual for providing a bridge along with
the fall structure for crossing the canal.

3.9.4 Canal regulators

These include the cross regulator and the distributary head regulator structures for
controlling the flow through a parent canal and its off-taking distributary as shown in

Figure 1. They also help to maintain the water level in the canal on the upstream of
the regulator. Canal regulators, which are gated structures, may be combined with
bridges and falls for economic and other considerations, like topography, etc.

A typical view of a distributary head regulator and a cross regulator (shown partly in
section) is illustrated in Figure 18.

39
In the figure, the gates and gate hoisting arrangements have not been shown, for
clarity.

Further, the floor of the regulators would be protected on the upstream and
downstream with concrete blocks and boulder apron. A typical sectional drawing
through a regulator is shown in Figure 19.

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The angle at which a distributary canal off-takes from the parent canal has to be
decided carefully. The best angle is when the distributary takes off smoothly, as
shown in Figure 20(a). Another alternative is to provide both channels (off-taking and
parent) at an angle to the original direction of the parent canal (Figure 20b). When it
becomes necessary for the parent canal to follow a straight alignment, the edge of the
canal rather than the centre line should be considered in deciding the angle of off-take
(Figure20c).

41
To prevent excessive entry of silt deposition at the mouth of the off-take, the entry
angle should be kept to between 600 and 800. For the hydraulic designs of cross
regulators, one may refer to the Bureau of Indian Standard code IS: 7114-1973
“Criteria for hydraulic design of cross regulators for canals”. The water entering in to
the off-taking distributary canal from the parent canal may also draw suspended
sediment load.

The distributary should preferably be designed to draw sediment proportional to its

flow, for maintaining non-siltation of either the parent canal or itself. For achieving
this, three types of structures have been suggested as discussed below along with the
relevant Bureau of Indian standard codes.

3.9.5 Silt vanes

(Please refer to IS: 6522-1972 “Criteria for design of silt vanes for sediment control in
off-taking canals” for more details)

Silt vanes, or King’s vanes, are thin, vertical, curved parallel walled structures
constructed of plain or reinforced concrete on the floor of the parent canal, just
upstream of the off-taking canal. The height of the vanes may be about one-fourth to
one-third of the depth of flow in the parent canal. The thickness of the vanes should
be as small as possible and the spacing of the vanes may be kept about 1.5 times the
vane height. To minimize silting tendency, the pitched floor on which the vanes are
built should be about 0.15 m above the normal bed of the parent channel. A general
three dimensional view of the vanes is shown in Figure 21 and a typical plan and
sectional view in Figure 22.

42
3.9.6 Groyne walls or curved wings

(Please refer to IS: 7871-1975 “Criteria for hydraulic design of groyne wall (curved
wing) for sediment distribution at off-take points in a canal” for more details)

These are curved vertical walls, also called Gibb’s groyne walls, which project out in
to the parent canal from the downstream abutment of the off-taking canal. The groyne
wall is provided in such a way that it divides the discharge of the parent canal in
proportion of the discharge requirement of the off-taking canal with respect to the
flow in the downstream parent canal. The groyne wall extends upstream in to the
parent canal to cover ¾ to full width of the off-take. The proportional distribution of
flow in to the off-taking canal is expected to divert proportional amount of sediment,
too. A general view of a groyne wall is shown in Figure 23.

43
44
The distance of the nose from the upstream abutment of the off-take may be kept so as
to direct adequate discharge in to the off-take. The height of the groyne wall should be
at least 0.3m above the full supply level of the parent canal. At times, a combination
of groyne wall and sediment vane may be provided.

3.9.7 Skimming platforms

(Please refer to IS: 7880-1975 “Criteria for hydraulic design of skimming platform for
sediment control in off-taking canal” for more details).

A skimming platform is an RCC slab resting on low height piers on the bed of the
parent canal, and in front of the off-taking canal, and in front of the off-taking canal as
shown in Figure 24.

45
This arrangement actually creates a kind of low tunnel at the bed of the parent canal,
which allows the sediment moving along its bed to pass through downstream. The
floor of the off-taking canal being above the level of the platform thus only takes
suspended sediment load coming along with the main flow in the parent canal. A
skimming platform arrangement is suitable where the parent channel is deep (about
2m or more) and the off-take is comparatively small.

The tunnels should be at-least 0.6m deep. The upstream and downstream edges of the
platform should be inclined at about 300 to the parent canal cross section. At times,
silt vanes can be combined with a skimming platform. In that case, the piers of the
platform are extended downstream in the form of vanes. A typical plan and section
view of a skimming platform is shown in Figure 25

46
3.9.8 Canal escapes
These are structures meant to release excess water from a canal, which could be main
canal, branch canal, distributary, minors etc. Though usually an irrigation system
suffers from deficit supply in later years of its life, situations that might suddenly lead
to accumulation of excess water in a certain reach of a canal network may occur due
to the following reasons:

1 Wrong operation of head works in trying to regulate flow in a long channel

resulting in release of excess water than the total demand in the canal system
downstream.

Excessive rainfall in the command area leading to reduced demand and consequent
closure of downstream gates.

• Sudden closure of control gates due to a canal bank breach.

The excess water in a canal results in the water level rising above the full supply level
which, if allowed to overtop the canal banks, may cause erosion and subsequent
breaches. Hence, canal escapes help in releasing the excess water from a canal at
times of emergency. Moreover, when a canal is required to be emptied for repair
works, the water may be let off through the escapes.

Escapes as also built at the tail end of minors at the far ends of a canal network. These
are required to maintain the required full supply level at the tail end of the canal
branch.

The construction feature of escapes allows it to be classified in to two types, as

described below.

3.9.8.1 Weir or surface escapes

These are constructed in the form of weirs, without any gate or shutter (Figure 26) and

47
3.9.8.2 Sluice or surplus escapes

These are gated escapes with a very low crest height (Figure 27). Hence, these sluices
can empty the canal much below its full supply level and at a very fast rate. In some
cases, these escapes act as scouring sluices to facilitate removal of sediment.

The locations for providing escapes are often determined on the availability of
suitable drains, depressions or rivers with their bed level at or below the canal bed
level so that any surplus water may be released quickly disposed through these natural
outlets. Escapes may be necessary upstream of points where canals takeoff from a
main canal branch. Escape upstream of major aqueducts is usually provided. Canal
escapes may be provided at intervals of 15 to 20km for main canal and at 10 to 15km
intervals for other canals.

The capacity of an escape channel should be large enough to carry maximum escape
discharge. These should be proper energy dissipation arrangements to later for all
flow conditions. The structural and hydraulic design would be similar to that of
regulators or sluices or weirs, as appropriate.

The Bureau of Indian Standards code IS 6936:1992 (reaffirmed 1998) “Guide for
location, selection and hydraulic design of canal escapes” may be referred to for
further details.

48
Canal Irrigation System
General:
A direct irrigation scheme which makes use of a weir or a barrage as well as a storage
irrigation scheme which makes use of a storage dam or a storage reservoir, require
necessary network of canals ,as explained earlier. The entire system of main canals
,branch canals ,distributaries and minors is to be designed properly for a certain
realistic value of peak discharge that must pass through them so as to provide
sufficient irrigation to command areas .these canals have to aligned and excavated
either alluvial soils or non alluvial soils ;depending upon which they are called
alluvial canals or non alluvial canals .

Open channels: an open channel is which water flows with free surface.

Classified to its origin at :

1-Natural channel.
2-artificial channel.

An engineering practice the artificial open channel is given different names:-

canal , flume, chute, drops, culvert, open flow tunnel.

*classified in the following ways based on the function.

1- irrigation canal: carrier water to the agricultural field.

2- carrier canal: besides doing irrigation it carrier water for a nether canal.

3-feeder canal : constructed with idea of feeding two or more canals.

4- navigation canal

5- power canal

49
Classification based on discharge and its relative importance
irrigation net work canals:-

1-main canal(M.C):Carrier water direct irrigation from the source .it's not used
for direct irrigation but carry water only.

*Some time there are two main canals which take from the reservoir, called left bank
M.C and right bank M.C depend on the topography of catchments.

A- Main canal( head reach):The canal head works generally situated in avalley
in a short distance. In this reach must be aligned very carefully and has to be
excavated in a deep cutting below( natural surface level).

B-Main canal(portion below head reach): attempts are made to aligned the canal
along the watershed and somewhat a central to commanded area. Sometimes
watershed has to be sacrificed by pass towns and villages,..etc

2-Branch canals(B.C):the canals branches from M.C ,feeder the

distributaries canal. It s also don't carry out any direct irrigation.

( when a main canal leaves the high ground and must therefore, bifurcate into
branches, covering the whole area required to be irrigated).

3-distributary canals(D.C):Smaller channels ,which take off from the branch

canals and distribute their supply through outlets into water courses are called
distributaries.

4- water courses(W.C): The canals which feeds the water to the farm units
5- farm channel(F.C):the channels which distributers water on the farm.

50
Curves in channels:
Attempt are made to align the channels straight as possible whenever a curve is
proposed while aligning un lined channel it s should be gentle as possible. A curve
causes distribution of flow and results in silting on inside (i.e. convex side).and
scouring on the outside(i.e. concave side ).

Pitching is proposed on the concave side so as to avoid scouring .if the

discharge is more, the curve should more gentle and should have more radius.

1-Gross commanded area:(G.C.A): it’s the total area which can be

economically irrigated without considering the limitation of the quantity of available
water it include the cultivable as well as the non- cultivable area.

2-culturable commanded area (C.C.A): cultivable area is the total area on

which cultivation is possible. all of the cultivable area may not necessary be under
cultivation at a time. pastures and fallow lands ,which can be made cultivable are
included in this area ,but populated areas like ponds, reserved

3-Intensity of irrigation(I.I); the entire cultivable commanded area is not

proposed to be brought under irrigation at the same time. This is because of two
reasons. One reason is that the quantity of water is limited and therefore ,extensive
irrigation is preferred to intensive irrigation so as to ensure socialistic distribution of
water. Another reason is that intensive irrigation (i.e. irrigating all the field of the
same area at the same time causes over-irrigation and water logging ; which reduces
the crop yield.

Due to these reason only a certain percentage of the cultivable area is brought
under irrigation annually.

4- Area to be irrigated : the area proposed to be irrigated at any one time is

called the “ area to be irrigated". it is obtained by multiplying C.C.A by intensity of
irrigation (I.I).

5- capacity factor: it is the ratio of the mean supply discharge to the full
capacity discharge.

Area estimated to be irrigated during base period

6- full supply coe. =-------------------------------------------------------------------------

Design full supply discharge at its head during peack demand

51
FUNCTIONS OF SIPHONS;

The siphon has been recognized for ages. A siphon is created by a tube or other type
of conduit filled with the liquid to be siphoned, thereby creating a continuous and
closed path. Syphon is a cross drainage work, i.e. a structure which is constructed at
the crossing of a canal and a natural dam. So as dispose of drainage water without
interrupting the continuous canal super piles. In whatever way the canal is aligned,
such drainage work generally become unavailable. In order to reduce the cross
drainage work, the artificial canals are generally aligned along the ridge lines called
water shed. When once the canal reaches the watershed, line across drainage work are
generally not required, unless the canal aligned is deviated from the watershed line.
However before the watershed is reached, the canal which takes off from the river has
to cross a number of drains, which drove from the watershed towards the river.

A Cross drainage work is generally a costly construction and most be avoided as far
as possible, Since the watershed canal crosses minimum number of dams.

 The number of cross drainage work may also be reduced by diverting one dam
into another and also by the alignment of canals. So that it crosses below the junction
of the drains.

PURPOSE OF DESIGNING SYPHON

 The purpose of siphon is to drain liquid from the reservoir by liquid flow that
passes over a higher level than the liquid surface in reservoir.
 A canal conveying water from the hand work has to run for large distance and
has to maintain the water levels appropriately as designed along its length.
 It has to run through terrains which generally would have a different slope
than the canal. The surrounding areas would invariably have its own discharge system
ranging from small stream to large rivers.
 The has to carry the water across these water bodies as well as artificial
obstacles like railway or roads.
 Hence to prevent the hindrance of mobility of water as well as mobility of
people or vehicles. We prepare a design for a structure known as siphon

In any siphon the discharge end of the conduct must be lower than the level of the
fluid in the source reservoir. Atmospheric pressure of the reservoir surface becomes
the driving force pushing the fluid through the tube to the lower point of the
discharge.

52
TYPES OF SIPHON;

Depending upon the level of discharge it is of following types;

 Aqueduct;- When the high flood level(HFL) of the drain is sufficiently below
the bottom of the canal such that the drainage water flows freely under gravity, then
the structure is known as Aqueduct.

 Siphon Aqueduct;-In siphon aqueduct the high flood level(HFL) of the drains
is much higher above the canal bed and the water runs under siphonic action through
the aqueduct i.e. known as siphon aqueduct.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

AQUEDUCT AND SYPHON AQUEDUCT;-

In these works, the canal is taken over the natural drain, such that the drainage water
runs below the canal either freely or under siphoning pressure. When the HFL of the
drain is sufficiently below the bottom of the canal, so that the drainage water flows
freely under gravity, the structure is known as the aqueduct. However, if the HFL of
the drain is higher than the canal bed and the water passes through the aqueduct
barrels under syphonic action, the structure is known as siphon aqueduct.

53
In this case of a siphon Aqueduct, the drain bed is generally depressed and provided
with a pucca floor as shown in figure on the upstream side, the drainage bed may be
joined to the pucca floor either by a vertical drop (when the drop is of order of 1m) or
by a glacis of 3.1m (when the drop is more).The down-stream rising slope should not
be steeper than 5:1.
In this type of cross-drainage work, the canal remains open to inspection, and the
damage caused by floods are rare. However, during heavy floods, the foundation of
the work may be susceptible or waterway of the work may be chocked with debris,
trees etc.

SUPER PASSAGE AND SYPHON;-

In these works, the drain is taken over the canal such that the canal water runs below
the drain either freely or under siphoning pressure. When the FSL of the canal is
sufficiently below the bottom of the drain through. So that the canal water flows
freely under gravity, the structure is known as super passage. However, if the FSL of
the canal is sufficiently above the bed level of the drainage through, so that the canal
syphon or syphon.
A super passage is thus the reverse of an aqueduct, and similarly, a siphon is reverse
of an aqueduct, and similarly, a siphon is reverse of an aqueduct syphon. However in
these type of cross drainage work the inspection road cannot be provided along the
canal and separate bridge is required for the road way. For effective economy, the
canal may be flumed, but the drainage through is never flumed. In the case of siphon,
the canal bed is depressed and a ramp is provided at the exits so that the trouble of
silting is minimized.

VARIOUS TYPES OF AQUEDUCTS AND SYPHON

AQUEDUCTS;-

TYPE-I ;-
In this type, the sides of the aqueduct are earthen banks with complete earthen slopes.
The length of the culvert through which the drainage the water has to pass under the
canal should not only be sufficient to accommodate the water section of the canal but
also the earthen banks of the canal with aqueduct slopes

54
TYPE-II ;-
In this type, the canal continuous in its earthen section over the drainage, but the outer
slopes of the canal banks are replaced by retaining walls, thereby, reducing the length
of the drainage culvert by that much extent.

TYPE-III ;-
In this type, earthen section of the canal is discontinuous and the canal water is carried
in a masonry or a concrete though. The canal is generally flumed in this case, so as to
find economy in the construction. The culvert length or width of aqueduct is
maximum in type-I and minimum in type-III. An intermediate value exists in type-III.

55
SELECTION OF SUITABLE TYPE;-
The selection of a particular type out of three types of aqueducts or siphon-aqueducts
lies on the consideration of economy. T he cheapest of three types at a particular place
shall be the obvious choice.

SIGHT LOCATION FOR SYPHON

The following points should be considered while selecting the site of a

cross-drainage work:

 At the site, the drainage should cross the canal alignment at right angles. Such
a site provides good flow conditions and also the cost of the structure is usually a
minimum.
 The stream at the site should be stable and should have stable banks.
 For economical design and construction of foundations, a firm and strong sub-
stratum should exit below the bed of the drainage at a reasonable depth.
 The site should be such that long and high approaches of the canal are not
required.
 The length and height of the marginal banks and guide banks for the drainage
should be small.
 In the case of an aqueduct, sufficient headway should be available between the
canal trough and the high flood level of the drainage.
 The water table at the site should not be high, because it will create De-
watering problems for laying foundations.
 As far as possible, the site should be selected d/s of the confluence of two
streams, thereby avoiding the necessity of construction of two cross-drainage works.

The possibility of diverting one stream into another stream upstream of the canal
crossing should also be considered and adopted, if found feasible and economical.

 A cross-drainage work should be combined with a bridge, if required. If

necessary, the bridge site can be shifted to the cross-drainage work or vice versa. The
cost of the combined structure is usually less. Moreover, the marginal banks and
guide banks required for the river training can be used as the approaches for the
village roads.

56
SELECTION OF SUITABLE TYPE OF CROSS-
DRAINAGE WORK

The following factors should be considered while selecting the most suitable type of
the cross-drainage work.

1. RELATIVE LEVELS AND DISCHARGES:

The relative levels and discharges of the canal and of the drainage mainly affect type
of cross-drainage work required. The following are the broad outlines:

1. If the canal bed level is sufficiently above the H.F.L. of the drainage, an
aqueduct is selected.
2. If the F.S.L. of the canal is sufficiently below the bed level of the drainage, a
super-passage is provided.
3. If the canal bed level is only slightly below the H.F.L. of the drainage, and the
drainage is small, a siphon aqueduct is provided. If necessary, the drainage bed is
depressed below the canal.
4. If the F.S.L. of the canal is slightly above the bed level of the drainage and the
canal is of small size, a canal syphon is provided.

57
2. PERFORMANCE:

As far as possible, the structure having an open channel flow should be preferred to
the structure having a pipe flow. Therefore, an aqueduct should be preferred to a
syphon aqueduct. Likewise, a super-passage should be preferred to a canal siphon. In
the case of a syphon aqueduct and a canal syphon, silting problems usually occur at
the crossing. Moreover, in the case of a canal syphon, there is considerable loss of
command due to loss of head in the canal. The performance of inlet-outlet structures
is not good and should be avoided.

3. PROVISION OF ROAD:

An aqueduct is better than a super-passage because in the former, a road bridge can
easily be provided along with the canal trough at a small extra cost, whereas in the
latter, a separate road bridge is required.

4. SIZE OF DRAINAGE:

When the drainage is of small size, a syphon aqueduct will be preferred to an

aqueduct as the latter involves high banks and long approaches. However, if the
drainage is of large size, an aqueduct is preferred.

5. COST OF EARTHWORK:

The type of cross-drainage work which does not involve a large quantity of earthwork
of the canal should be preferred.

6. FOUNDATION:

The type of cross-drainage work should be selected depending upon the foundation
available at the site of work.

58
7. MATERIAL OF CONSTRUCTION:

Suitable types of material of construction in sufficient quantity should be available

near the site for the type of cross-drainage work selected. Moreover, the soil in
sufficient quantity should be available for constructing the canal banks if the structure
requires long and high canal banks.

8. COST OF CONSTRUCTION:

The cost of construction of cross-drainage work should not be excessive. The overall
cost of the canal banks and the cross-drainage work, including maintenance cost,
should be a minimum.

9. PERMISSIBLE LOSS OF HEAD: Sometimes, the type of cross-drainage is

selected considering the permissible loss of head. For example, if the head loss cannot
be permitted in a canal at the site of cross-drainage, a canal syphon is ruled out.

10. SUBSOIL WATER TABLE:

If the subsoil water table is high, the types of cross-drainage which requires excessive
excavation should be avoided, as it would involve De-watering problems.

11. CANAL ALIGNMENT: The canal alignment is sometimes changed to

achieve a better type of cross-drainage work. By changing the alignment, the type of
cross-drainage can be altered. The canal alignment is generally finalized after fixing
the sites of the major cross-drainage works.

DATA-REQUIREMENT

6.1- For any type of cross drainage work some data is required which is common to
all types of cross drainage works. A location map for the work with results of
subsurface exploration conducted at site, cross sections of the stream, upstream and
downstream of the proposed site, should be prepared, as given in 6.2 to 6.9.

59
6.2- An index map to a suitable scale showing the recommended location of the cross
drainage structure, the alternative sites of crossings investigated and rejected, the
existing communications, the general topography of the country and the import?&
habitations in the vicinity. . J 1

6.3- A catchment area map to a suitable scale, with contour markings at suitable
intervals showing the main drainage channel front its sources together with all its
tributaries. The map should also show the various locations of rain gauge stations,
gauging sites, etc, as also the general soil types and land use (that is forests, cultivated
and uncultivated areas). The hydrological observation sites should also be marked.
Existing, under construction or proposed embankments and flood management
measures should also be shown.

6.4 A detailed survey plan of the drainage channel to suitable scale showing important
topographical features extending considerable distances, downstream and upstream,
of the proposed site of crossing and either of its banks. I

6.5- A site plan to a suitable scale showing & details of the site selected and extending
upstream and downstream, of the centre line of the proposed crossing and covering its
approaches to sufficient distances, so as to demarcate levels, cadastral survey plot
numbers, important topographical features like depressions near the proposed
alignment of canal, general sub-soil water levels (with slope, if possible), etc.

6.5.1- The other requirements for the plan at 6.5 are: a) b) 4 d j e) 0 g) reference to the
position of the bench-mark used as datum with its full description and reduced level;
the lines and identification numbers of the cross sections and longitudinal sections of
drainage channel taken within the scope of site plan and exact locations of their
extreme points; the locations of the various trial pits and/or. Borings with tilter
identification numbers; The contour of the drainage channel at intervals between 0’5
m to 1’5 m depending upon the terrain. This interval region be greater in mountainous
regions; The direction of flow of water; The angle of direction of crossing; and Cross
alignment of canal further upstream for some distance beyond the limits of cross
drainageworks.

6.6- A cross section of the drainage channel at the proposed site of the crossing to
appropriate vertical and horizontal scales indicating the following information: a)
Cross section covering the bed and banks of the channel portion and the ground levels
beyond the banks covering the entire flood plain, or from ridge to ridge at close
intervals to sufficient distances on either side showing all uneven features and
habitations, if any; b) Nature of the soil in bed, banks and approaches, with trial pit or

60
bore-hole sections showing the levels and natures of the various strata down to
stratum suitable from foundation considerations and front considerations of safe
bearing capacity of soil; c); Low-water level; and d). &High flood level

6.7- Longitudinal section of the drainage channel covering a reasonable reach to

suitable scale, showing the location of the cross drainage work, with levels of the
observed flood, the low water and the bed levels at suitably spaced intervals along the
line of the deep water channel. 6.8 A note giving the salient features relating to the
catchment area, the meteorological conditions experienced thereon, besides the
following other points: a) b) 2 Any predictable (future) alteration in the land use;
Storages in the catchment (artificial or natural)

6.8- A note giving the salient features relating to the catchment area, the
meteorological conditions experienced thereon, besides the following other points: a)
b) 2 Any predictable (future) alteration in the land use; Storages in the catchment
(artificial or natural). and embankment breaches that have occurred in the past; Short
duration intensity and frequency data in respect of rainfall in the catchment; Liability
of the site to seismic disturbances; Likelihood of heavy sediment charge or floating
timber, Particulars of foundation exploration data incidental to design requirements;
and Recuperation tests, where foundation depth is more than 3 m below the water
table and where the strata are pervious.

6.9- A note giving the salient design features of structures existing upstream or
downstream of the proposed site. 63.1 Presence of dams, barrages, weirs, etc, on the
natural drainage channel in the vicinity either upstream or downstream, may affect the
hydraulic characteristics of the natural drainage channel, like obliquity and
concentration of flow, scour, silting of bed, change in bed levels, flood levels, etc.
These effects should be considered in the design of the cross drainage work.

6.10- For preparing the design of a cross drainage structure, the following specified
hydraulic data should -- also be made available.

6.10.1 Canal 1. 2 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. Full supply discharge, Q; Bed width; Full
supply depth; Water surface slope; Bed level; Bed slope; Full supply level; Top of
bank level; Cross section of canal showing Natural Ground Level; Subsoil water
level; and Nature puff bed material and value of ‘n’ (rugosity coefficient in
Manning’s formula). i’ 6.10.2 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. IS 7784 (Part

61
1) : 1993 Drainage Channel Extent and nature of drainage area (catchment’ area);
Maximum annual rainfall and the period (years) of data; Maximum intensity of
rainfall with year; Maximum observed flood discharge at the site; Maximum flood
level; Water surface slope; Site plan of proposed crossing including contours; Log of
borehole or trial pit data; Type of bed load of drainage channel; Longitudinal section
of the stream for suitable distance upstream and downstream of the canal depending
upon site conditions; Cross section of the drainage channel for a distance 100 m to
300 m upstream and downstream, at intervals of 10 m to 50 m; Waterways provided
in road and railway bridges or other hydraulic structures on the drainage channel;
Spring water level at the crossing site in May and October; and Silt factor.

62
63
64
Manning’s coefficient(n)

As per C l 4.1.2.1 ofIS10430:‘Criteriafor design of lined canal sand guidelines

for selection of type of lining ’the value of “n” may be taken as shown in Table
6.5given below.

Side Slope
As per C l8.1.1 of IS10430: ‘Criteria for design of lined canal sand guideline for
selection of type of lining’ the side slopes are given in Table

Table

Recommended side slopes for the lined canals

Sl. Type of soil Side slope(Horizontal: Vertical)
In cutting In filling
No.
1 Very light loose sand to 2:1 to 3:1 2:1 to 3:1
average sandy soil
2 Sandy loam 1.5:1to 2:1 2:1
3 Sandy gravel / murum 1.5:1 1.5:1to 2:1
4 Black cotton 1.5:1to2.5:1 2:1 to 3.5:1
5 Clayey soil 1.5:1to 2:1 1.5:1to2.5:1
6 Rock 0.25:1 to 0.5:1 0.25:1 to0.5:1

Freeboard
As per Clause 8.2 of IS10430: ‘Criteria for design of lined canals and
guidelines for selection of type of lining’ the value of freeboard is considered
as per Table given.

65
 Table

Values of freeboard considered for lined canals

Canal discharge Freeboard

Morethan10cumec 0.75 m
Between 3to10 cumec 0.60 m
1to 3 cumec 0.50 m
Lessthan1 cumec 0.30 m
Lessthan0.1 cumec 0.15 m

66
Important terms

Free Board: A depth corresponding to the margin of safety against over top ping
of the banks due to sudden rise in the water level of a channel on account of
accidental or improper opening or closing of gates at a regulator on the
downstream.

Borrow pits: Specific site within a borrow area from which material is excavated
for use is called a borrow pit.

Spoil Banks: Piles of soil that result from the creation of a canal, deepened
channel, borrow pit, or some similar structure.

67
References:

• IS: 10430 -1982 “Criteria for design of lined canals and guidelines for
selection of type of lining”

• IS: 4558-1983 “Code of practice for under design of lined canals” (First
revision)

• IS: 5968-1987 “Guidelines for planning and layout of canal system for
irrigation” (Reaffirmed 1992).

• IS: 7112-1973 “Criteria for design of cross-section for unlined canals in

alluvial soils”

• IS: 9451-1985 “Guidelines for lining of canals in expansive soils” (first

revision)

• Shields, A (1936) “Anwendung der Aehnlichkeits mechanic und

dsertuirbulenz-forchung auf die Geschiebebewgung”, Mitteilun gender
Pruessischen Versuchsanstalt fur wasserbau und Schiffbau, Berlin

• Swamee, P K and Mittal, M K (1976) “An explicit equation for critical

shear stress in alluvial streams”, CBIP Jnl of Irrigation and Power, New
Delhi.

68
 CONCLUSION

 The comparative study for the project reveals that not only the selection of
type of CDs for a particular crossing plays a vital decisive discriminatory role, but
also the design of the structural with various alternatives with respective to (i)
suitability of foundation vis-à-vis various foundation strata, (ii) transitions (iii) u/s and
d/d protection works (iv) post construction operation and maintenance etc. does
equally challenge the hydraulic engineers exposure to the veracity of the job’s
complex nature.

 The aqueduct which we have designed is found to be the most stable and
economical structure as compared to the any other cross drainage work. Here we have
not provided any inspection road but in future, if required, then we can design and
provide an inspection road.

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