Advance Mech of Solid Lab Manual CE305L 10-12-16

Advance Mechanics of Solids
Table of Content
Lab 1: Introduction of Steel ........................................................................................................................... 2

Lab 2: To perform tension test on following specimen: ............................................................................10
Hot rolled deformed bar ..........................................................................................................................23
Cold Form / Tor Bar ................................................................................................................................25
Mild Steel...................................................................................................................................................27
Cast Iron ....................................................................................................................................................29
Lab 3 : To Determine of shear center of a channel section cantilever beam ...........................................31
Lab 4 : To Study the Bending Behavior of an Unsymmetric Section ......................................................38
Lab 5: To Determine the Torsion Strength of Mild Steel Specimen ........................................................47
Lab 6 : To Study the Deflection of an Eccentrically Loaded Column .....................................................57
Lab 7 : To Study the Stresses on Thin Cylinder ........................................................................................63
Lab 8 : To Study the Elastic Strain behavior in Bending using Electrical Resistance Strain Gauges ..69
Lab 1: Introduction of Steel
Steel:
Steel is an alloy that is mainly composed of iron and carbon. Additional elements may be
present in steel like manganese, phosphorus, sulpher, silicon, and traces of oxygen, nitrogen
aluminum, nickel, chromium, molybdenum, boron, titanium, vanadium and niobium etc.
Forms of steel bars:

1. Hot rolled steel bars:
These are the steel bars which are manufactured in red hot state by using the rollers. These
are of two types.
 Plain steel bars
 Deformed steel bars
2. Cold worked or cold twisted or torr steel bars:

These are the steel bars which are deformed or twisted in cold form, i.e. at room temperature
are called cold worked of twisted or tor steel bars. Bars of this type have more strength than
the same diameter hot rolled steel bars.
Ores of Iron:
Magnetite Fe3O4 70% - 75%
Hematite Fe2O3 70%
Iron Pyrite FeS2 47%
Siderite FeCO3 40% - 45%
Types of Iron:
Pig iron:
Pig iron is an intermediate product of a steel plant which is cast in a pig casting machine
from hot metal (liquid iron) produced during smelting of iron ore in a blast furnace or in a
smelting reduction furnace.
Cast iron:
The term ‘cast iron’ represents a large family of ferrous alloys. Cast irons are multi-component
ferrous alloys, which solidify with a eutectic. The major elements of cast irons are iron, carbon (2
% or more), silicon (1 % to 3 %), minor elements (less than 0.1 %), and often alloying elements
(less than 0.1%). Cast iron has higher carbon and silicon contents than steel. The structure of cast
iron displays a richer carbon phase than that of steel because of its higher carbon content. Cast iron
can solidify according to the thermodynamically metastable Fe-Fe3C (iron carbide) system or the
stable iron-graphite system depending principally on composition, cooling rate, and melt treatment.
Manufacturing process of steel:

Manufacturing process of steel involves two steps.
i) Reduction/ extraction process:
The pig-iron is produced in a blast-furnace which typically consists of a cylindrical steel hull
and a refractory lining on the inside. The lower part of the furnace (crucible) has openings
(tuyeres) through which hot air is injected. Two openings closer to the bottom are used to tap the
iron and an opening above that is used to tap the slag. To tap the iron the refractory clay plug is
pulled out of the hole. The raw materials are charged through two openings. The blast-furnace
gas is released through another opening.
Inside the furnace layers of coke and iron ore with flux follow each other subsequently. The flux
converts the impurities in the iron to easily melt-able slag. The limestone for example combines
with the silicates in the iron ore and forms melt-able calcium silicate. Calcium silicate forms slag
which collects on top of the molten iron. The air which is injected through the tuyeres (wind) is
pre-warmed to about 800°C – 1 200°C and injected with slight pressure (more than 1.6 bars or
160 kPa). Coke releases carbon monoxide when it is burned:
C + O2 -> CO2 and
CO2 + C -> 2 CO.
These reactions increase the temperature in the lower part of the furnace to about 1600°C. The
hot carbon monoxide rises into the iron ore layer above and reduces the contained iron oxide to
metallic iron. This chemical reaction can be represented by the following equation:
Fe2O3 + 3 CO -> 3 CO2 + 2 Fe.
In the following coke layer the carbon dioxide is re-converted to carbon monoxide: CO2 + C ->
2 CO which can react to reduce the iron oxide in the next layer of iron ore. In the higher and
cooled layers the carbon monoxide partly decays to carbon dioxide and carbon – this equilibrium
reaction is called Boudouard reaction.
The produced carbon also reduces iron oxide to metallic iron. In addition the carbon dissolves in
the iron which reduces the melting point to about 1 100 to 1 200°C (pure iron 1 539°C).The
“cooler” metal drips through the coke and collects at the bottom of the furnace, below the liquid
slag.
The carbon monoxide/carbon dioxide mixture (blast furnace gas) pre-warms the fresh raw
materials in the upper part of the furnace and escapes through the openings. Then it is cleaned
and re-used for other industrial purposes.
A blast-furnace always works continuously. The raw material is refilled in small amounts every
ten to fifteen minutes. Slag is removed approximately every two hours and the pig-iron is tapped
about five times a day. To tap the pig-iron the refractory clay plug is removed from one of the
openings in the crucible. The liquid metal flows through a clay channeling and a skimmer which
separates the slag from the iron, into a basin with refractory lining, for example on a railcar.
Some of these basins can hold up to 100 tons of metal. The pig-iron is then brought to the steel
mill either in liquid form or as cast iron slabs
Overall we can say that, in this process ores of iron are purified and pig iron is manufactured.
This iron is brittle in nature due to the high percentage of carbon.
Oxides of iron (ores) + flux Pig iron + water
ii) Steel manufacturing from pig iron:

Mild steel is manufactured from that pig iron by removing the carbon content using any of the
process, the reaction would be as following.
Pig iron + admixtures Steel molten form
Steel molten form Billets (ingots)
The iron oxide is reduced either directly by the oxide combining with carbon to form iron and
carbon monoxide, or indirectly by combining with this newly formed carbon monoxide to
form iron and carbon dioxide. In this state the material is known as pig or cast iron. The pig iron
must be further refined to reduce the carbon content and the other unwanted elements before the
material can be categorized as a particular steel.
After this process there is always some carbon left in the solid iron formed amounting to about
4% by weight. The high carbon content of cast iron results in a material which is brittle and
cannot take large tensile stresses. In addition there is a total of about 6% of other unwanted
elements, including silicon, manganese, sulpher and phosphorous in unmeasured quantities.
Refining iron into steel requires the re-melting of the iron in a steelmaking furnace with a large
oxygen input.
In steel making the impurities in the melt have to be removed before the correct composition can
be achieved. These include phosphorous and silicon (which make steel hard and induce
brittleness), and sulpher (which can cause cracking in poured castings and welds). A fundamental
distinguishing property of steel is its great strength which depends partly upon the carbon
content.
Most steels have carbon contents far lower than 2.11%. This figure marks the critical maximum
where in the processing of the material, at 900° C, a complete phase change can occur. Above
this level of carbon content, an iron-carbon alloy becomes more brittle taking on the type of
performance associated with cast irons. The manipulation of the carbon content is carried out by
controlled removal by oxidation.
Classification of steel:
Types of steel Carbon content (%)

Low carbon steel 0.05-0.29
Medium carbon steel 0.30-0.59
High carbon steel 0.60-0.99
Ultra high carbon steel 1.00-2.00
Mild steel 0.16-0.29
In the manufacturing of steel bars, mild steel is used.
Mild steel:
Mild steel has the carbon content between 0.16-0.29%. Steel used in industry is mild steel. It
generally has the following composition.
Carbon 0.29%
Phosphorus 0.06%
Sulpher 0.06%
Various ingredients in steel and their functions:
Ingredients Functions
Ni and Mn Increase the tensile strength of steel
Cr Increases hardness and melting point of steel if it present more than 10.5% than resist
corrosion
V Increases hardness and reduces metal fatigue
Effect of change of carbon content on the mechanical properties of steel:

Graph represents the relationship between the mechanical properties of steel w.r.t Brinell No.,
Brinell no increases with increases in carbon content. So ultimate strength and hardness values
increases while % elongation and % reduction in area decreases significantly with increases in
carbon content. Elastic limit increases but at a reduced rate.
This graph shows that with the increase in carbon content, strength of material increases while
ductility decreases. But modulus of elasticity remains constant.
Advantages of steel as a structural material:
Disadvantages of steel as a structural material:
Tensile strength of different steel:

Reinforce steel sizes:
Iron-Carbon graph:
Lab 2: To perform tension test on following specimen:

i) Hot Rolled Deformed Steel Bar (ASTM 615/615M)
ii) Cold Twisted Deformed Steel Bar
iii) Cast Iron Specimen
iv) Mild Steel Specimen
Objective:
 To study the stress strain behavior of Different Specimens.
 To determine the different mechanical properties of steel for example yield strength, tensile
strength, modulus of elasticity, ductility etc.
 To check the adequacy of specimen as per ASTM 615M.
Apparatus:
 Universal testing machine
 Vernier caliper
 Steel specimen
 Gauge Marking Tool
Related Theory
Steel
Steel is an alloy with major component as iron, with carbon content as iron, with carbon
between 0.2 and 2.1% by weight
Properties of Steel
Tensile Strength : Maximum axial stress that a material can withstand before failure
Hardness : Resistance to bending, scratching, abrasion or cutting
Types of Hardness
1. Scratch Hardness
2. Indentation Hardness
3. Rebound Hardness
Ductility
It is a mechanical properties defining the extent to which material can be deformed plastically
without fracture. Ductility gives the warning before failure. The plastic behavior (ductility) in case
of steel is due to valence shell electrons also called “dancing electrons”.
Two parameters indicating ductility are
1. %age Elongation
2. %age reduction in area
Types of Steel based on Manufacturing Process

1. Hot rolled
i) Hot rolled Plain steel bar
These bars were previously used in construction.
i) Hot rolled Deformed steel bar
Hot rolled deformed steel bars having ribs / Protrusions on the surface are most commonly
used in R.C.C now a days.
2. Cold Twisted / Cold worked / Torr Steel
By applying a pre calculated twist to the hot rolled hot rolled deformed bars, yielding portion is
eliminated from the stress strain curve. There is a permanent set in steel, after the twisting at normal
temperature, that is why it is called cold twisted steel. Commercial name is Torr Steel.
Advantages: We can utilize the full strength of the material.
Disadvantages: Ductility/Warning before failure is decreased, as the yielding zone is eliminated.
Cast Iron
Main difference from steel is that of carbon content. For steel max carbon content is 2.0%,
but for cast iron carbon content is 2% – 4.5%.
Physical Properties:
1. It’s structure is coarse and crystalline.
2. It is brittle.
3. It carbon welded at normal temperature.
4. It does not rust.
Uses:
1. Not used as reinforcing material in construction industry.
2. Used for rain water pipes, gratings, manhole covers.
Iron ore:
Magnetite Fe3O4 70% - 75%
Hematite Fe2O3 70%
Iron Pyrite FeS2 47%
Siderite FeCO3 40% - 45%
Classification of Steel:
i) Low Carbon steel (Dead Mild Steel) C.C. < 0.29%
ii) Medium Carbon steel C.C. = 0.29% – 0.6%
iii) High Carbon steel C.C. = 0.6% – 1%
C.C. of 1% – 2% for tool making.
C.C. of 0.2% – 1% for Construction steel (Re-bars).
C.C. of 2.0% for tool machinery.
The strength of steel increases with the increase in carbon content. Lesser the carbon content, more
will be the ductility.
Stress-Strain Curve
Load and elongation data obtained from a tension test plotted on a graph with the ordinate
represent the load is called as stress-strain curve. It is an important graph from which we can
determine the mechanical properties of sample.
The stress strain diagram consists of four stages:
1. Elasticity
2. Yielding
3. Hardening
4. Necking
From yielding stage permanent plastic deformation occurs.
Components of Stress Strain Diagram:

Proportional Limit: (P.L)
Maximum stress that may be developed during a simple tension test such that the stress is
linear function of strain. Brittle materials have no proportional limit. Upto Proportional limit, the
relationship between stress and strain linear and elastic.
Elastic Limit: (E.L)
Maximum stress that may be developed during a simple tension test such that there is no
permanent set or residual deformation when the load is entirely removed. In the elastic limit Hooks
Law is valid. Numerical values of elastic limit and plastic limit are usually identical.
Hooks Law:
It states that stress and strain are directly proportional to each other if load applied is within
the elastic limit. Mathematically
𝛿 ∝∈
Elastic Range:
Region of the stress strain diagram extended from the origin to the elastic limit is called as
elastic range.
If the material is unloaded within the elastic range the material comes back to its original
shape without any permanent plastic deformation.
Plastic Range:
The region extended from plastic limit to the point of fracture or failure is called as plastic
range.
Tensile or Ultimate Strength:
Maximum or highest ordinate (stress) on the stress-strain diagram is called as the tesile or
ultimate strength of the sample. It is generally considered as the maximum strength of the material.
Rupture / Fracture / Breaking Strength:
Rupture or breaking strength is the stress at failure. Rupture strength is always less than the
ultimate strength. For brittle materials, the ultimate and rupture strength are almost the same.
Strain Hardening Zone:
If a ductile material can be stressed considerably beyond the yielding point without failure,
the material is said to be strain harden. It is a zone after yielding when the particles rearrange
themselves and start taking load again, so load starts increasing. This is true for many structural
materials.
Necking :
Localized decreased in cross sectional area of the sample after the ultimate strength is called
necking. This continues upto rupture or failure.
Due to necking (cup cone formation) the cross sectional area is reduced and hence actual rupture
strength can be obtained by dividing the rupture load with actual rupture area. So the point of actual
rupture strength will obviously be higher than the rupture strength on the stress strain diagram
because the rupture area is less than the original cross sectional area of the sample.
Modulus of Elasticity: (E)
It is the ratio of the unit stress to the unit strain and it is
determined as the slope of the staright line from zero to
proportional limit of the stress strain diagram.
The stress strain linear relationship was discovered by
Robert Hook in 1676 and is known as Hooks law. It is
mathematically represented by the following equation
𝛿= E∈
were E is termed as the Modulus of Elasticity or
Young’s Modulus with units of stress. For mild steel
E ≈ 200 GPa (29 × 106 𝑝𝑠𝑖)
Yield point & Yielding

A point on the stress strain curve after which there is an increase in strain with no significant increase
in stress is called yield point and phenomenon is called yielding. The stress corresponding to yield
point is known as yielding
strength of the material, which
if represented in ksi represents
the grade of steel. The stress
may actually decrease
momentarily, resulting in
upper and lower yield points.
Proof stress
It is stress corresponding to
the yield point of the materials
having no clear indication of
the yield point and their point
is got from graphical solution
of stress strain curve
Method of finding the yield point

Following four methods can be used for finding the yield point.
i) Offset Method
Foe the materials that don’t have well defined yield point, yield strength is determined by
offset method . This consists of drawing a line parallel at 0.2% strain.
ii) Specific Strain Method

Yielding occurs at a specific strain value and this is 0.5% i.e. yielding stress is the stress
corresponding to 0.5% strain.
iii) Halting of Machine Method or Drop of beam

Method
To access the yielding of material, when machine
halts, it is the indication of yielding . This is valid for
machines where there is needle. In other cases, when
the beam of the machine drops/dips, it’s the
identification of yielding. These methods are valid
only for hot rolled mild steel.
iv) Luder’s Line Method

This method is named after a british researcher.
“When the specimen yields, a pattern of fine lines
appears on the polished surface, they roughly interact
at right angle to each other and at 45o approximately
to the longitudinal axis of bar.
If the rod is not painted, then the metallurgical coating
formed over the rod’s surface during manufacturing
drops down indicating yielding.
Resilience
The ability of a material to absorb energy in the elastic range (without permanent deformation) is
called resilience.
Modulus of Resilience (M.O.R)

Modulus of resilience is the amount of work done on a unit volume of material as a sample’s
tensile force is increased from zero to proportional limit (P.L). It is calculated as the total area
under the stress strain diagram from zero to proportional limit (P.L).
Units : Psi or MPa
Mathematically
1 1 𝛿𝑃.𝐿 2
𝑈𝑟 = 𝛿𝑃.𝐿 . ∈𝑃.𝐿 =
2 2 E
Toughness
The ability of a material to absorb energy in the plastic range (permanent deformation) is
called toughness.
Modulus of toughness (M.O.T)
Modulus of toughness is the
amount of work done on a unit volume of
material as a sample’s tensile force is
increased from zero to the failure of the
specimen. It is calculated as the total area
under the stress strain diagram.
Units : Psi or MPa
It is denoted by Ut and it can be
measured by integration, plotting on
Autocad, Applying mathematical rules or
counting no. of boxes and multiplying by
area of one box.
Residual Strain
When material is loaded beyond the elastic limit then after unloading the material does not
come back to its original position and there is a permanent set in the specimen, which is called
“Residual Strain”. So these are the strains corresponding to produced set or permanent change in
shape. These strains reside in the member.
Specific Strength
Ratio of ultimate tensile strength to the specific weight (weight per unit volume) is called as
specific strength. Its units are of length.
Specific Modulus
Ratio of Modulus of Elasticity/Young’s Modulus to the specific weight is called as specific
modulus. Its units are also that of length.
Elasticity
The ability of a material to regain its original shape and size after the removal of load. The
elastic strain is the reversible change in the dimensions of the body.
Plasticity
The property of material by which it retains the shape given to it. Plastic strain is deformation or
change in dimensions which is irreversible and remain in after the load has been removed
Gauge Length
It is the length between two marks on the bar. It’s a reference length for the determination of
elongation
 For mild steel 𝐺. 𝐿 = 5 × 𝐷
Where D is the nominal diameter
 For Torr steel 𝐺. 𝐿 = 5.65√𝑆𝑜
Where So is the cross sectional area (actual)
 For Cast Iron the gauge length = 50 mm
𝐺.𝐿
The marked Guge length on the bar = 2
Percentage Elongation
The change in length per unit original length expressed in percentage
𝐿𝑓 − 𝐿𝑜
%𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = × 100
𝐿𝑜
Where 𝐿𝑜 = original length of sample
𝐿𝑓 = final length of sample
Percentage reduction in Area
Reduction in cross sectional area per unit original area expressed in percentage
𝐴𝑜 − 𝐿𝑜
%𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝑋 − 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 = × 100
𝐿𝑜
Where 𝐴𝑜 = original X-Area
𝐴𝑓 = Actual rupture area (X-Area at failure)
ASTM
Minimum Grade 40 Grade 60 Grade 75
𝛿𝑢𝑙𝑡 Psi (MPa) 70,000 (500) 90,000 (620) 100,000 (690)

𝛿𝑦 Psi (MPa) 40,000 (300) 60,000 (420) 75,000 (520)
Bar Dia Min % Elongation

′′
#3 = 3⁄8 ∅ 11 % 9%
#4, #5 12 % 9%
#6 12 % 8% 7%
#7,#8 7% 7%
#9, #10, #11 7% 6%
*Minimum bar length required for a tension test specimen = 0.5 m

 For proper gripping
 For true representation of material
Ductile & Brittle Material

Ductile Materials
Material having a
relative large tensile strain
upto the point of rupture or
failure are called as ductile
materials e.g. Structural
Steel, Aluminium etc.
Brittle Materials
The materials having
a relatively small tensile
strain up to the point of
rupture are called as brittle
materials e.g. Cast Iron,
Concrete
Measurement of Ductility
Ductility is a qualitative,
subjective property of
material. In general,
measurements of ductility are
of interest in three ways
which are given as:
1. To indicate the extent

to which a metal can
be deformed without
fracture in metal
working operations
such as rolling and
extrusion.
2. To indicate to the
designer, in a way, the
ability of metal to flow plastically before fracture. A high ductility indicates that the material
is “forgiving” and likely to deform locally without fracture.
3. To serve as an indicator of changes in impurity level or processing conditions. Ductility
measurements may be specified to access material quality even though no direct relationship
exists between the ductility measurement and performance in service.
The conventional measures of ductility that are obtained from the tension test are the strain at
fracture (usually called the elongation) and the reduction of area at fracture. Both of these properties
are obtained after fracture by putting the specimen back together and taking measurements of length
and cross sectional area.
Because an appreciable fracture of the plastic deformation will be concentrated in the necked
region of the tension specimen, the value of rupture strain (elongation) will depend upon the gauge
length over which the measurement was taken. The smaller the gauge length, over which the
measurement was taken. The smaller the gauge length, the greater would be the contribution to the
overall elongation from the necked region and the higher will be the value of rupture strain.
Therefore, when reporting values of percentage elongation, the gauge length Lo always should be
given.
Failure Patterns
1. Mild Steel Failure in Tension Test
As Mild Steel is a ductile material which is weak in shear as compared to tension so it should
fail in shear. As maximum shearing stress is developed at 45o, the failure plane in Mild Steel
occurs at 45o with the longitudinal axis.
2. Cast Iron Failure in Tension Test
Cast Iron is brittle material which is weak in tension as compared to shear so it should fail in
tension. As maximum tensile stress due to tensile loading develops at 90o, hence Cast Iron
fails at 90o with the longitudinal axis.
Procedure:
 Take a sample of mild steel and clean it.
 Measure the diameter of specimen at three different locations by vernier caliper and take
average of three readings.
 The tension test specimen shall be gauge marked with a center punch with an 50mm gauge
length. The purpose of the gauge mark is to provide reference points for determination of
the percent of elongation. Punch marks shall be light, sharp, and accurately spaced.
 Now place the specimen in UTM and start applying load. The essential requirement is that
the load shall be transmitted axially. Gripping the specimen shall be restricted to the section
outside the gage length. The speed of the testing shall not be greater than that at which the
load and behavior of the specimen can be properly observed.
 Record the maximum load.
 Observe the decrease in load and neck formation on the specimen.
 Record the load at fracture and put off the machine.
 Remove the specimen. Observe the cup and cone formation at the fracture point.
 Rejoin the two pieces, measure the final gauge length and the reduced diameter.
Observations and Calculations

Hot rolled deformed bar
Weight =
Length = Diameter =
Area =
Gauge Length =
Load Extension Strain % Nominal

Sr Extensometer (mm) Stress (Mpa)
Remarks
no. Reading R ΔL = Load/
kN (ΔL/L)×100
R×L.C Nominal Area
Failure Load =
Reduced Diameter =
Reduced Area =
%age Reduction in area =
Gauge
Sr. No. Deformed Length Elongation %age Elongation
length
L to R R to L L to R R to L L to R R to L
mm mm mm mm mm
Cold Form / Tor Bar

Weight =
Length = Diameter =
Area =
Gauge Length =

Remarks
kN (ΔL/L)×100
R×L.C Nominal Area
Failure Load =
Reduced Diameter =
Reduced Area =
Gauge
length
mm mm mm mm mm
Mild Steel
Weight =
Length = Diameter =
Area =
Gauge Length =
Extension Strain % Nominal

Load
Remarks
kN (ΔL/L)×100
R×L.C Nominal Area
Failure Load =
Reduced Diameter =
Reduced Area =
Gauge
length
mm mm mm mm mm
Cast Iron
Weight =
Length = Diameter =
Area =
Gauge Length =

Remarks
kN (ΔL/L)×100
R×L.C Nominal Area
Failure Load =
Reduced Diameter =
Reduced Area =
Gauge
length
mm mm mm mm mm
Comments:
Lab 3 : To Determine of shear center of a channel section cantilever

beam
Purpose:
To compare the experimentally determine shear center with the theoretical one.
Apparatus:
 Channel section cantilever beam model
 Vernier caliper
 Measuring tape
 Deflection and dial gauges
 Hanging weights and hangers
Related theory:
Shear Force:
The force which tears or slides one part of cross-section with respect to the other part.
Shear stress:
It is the internal resistance offered by the section to resist the sliding of two
portions against each other. These stresses are tangential to the plane on which they act.
VA′ Y ′
τ=
Ib
Shear flow:
If shear stress (τ ) is multiplied by the width (b) a quantity q known as shear flow is
obtained.
Shear flow represents the shear (longitudinal) force per unit length transmitted across
the section at any level (layer).
q= τ∗b
VA′ Y ′
q=
I
Shear center:
The point at which if load is applied then only pure bending is produce without any
torsion or twisting is known as shear center. It is denoted by “e”.
Shear center of Channel Section:
Procedure
1. Measure the dimensions of web and flange by using Vernier Caliper.
2. Then hang the weights with the help of hanger at -12.5mm position. Observe both dial
gauge readings for different magnitudes of load.
3. Repeat the above step by hanging the weights at other positions.
Observation and Calculation
Distance between G1 and G2 = B = 116.9 mm

Deflection ∆2 − ∆1 ∆2 + ∆1 𝑃𝑎2
Setting Load 𝜃= ∆𝑎𝑣𝑔 = ∆𝑡ℎ = (3𝑙 − 𝑎)
G1 Δ1 G2 Δ2 𝐵 2 6𝐸𝐼
z (mm)
(N) (mm) (mm) Degrees (mm) (mm)
0 326 0 252 0 0 0 0
5.022 305 0.21 226 0.26 0.000428 0.235 0.000238

-7.5
14.8 251 0.75 172 0.8 0.000428 0.775 0.00070
24.6 200 1.26 122 1.3 0.000342 1.28 0.00116
0 326 0 252 0 0 0 0
5.022 305 0.21 225 0.27 0.000513 0.24 0.000238

-2.5
14.8 250 0.76 172 0.8 0.000342 0.78 0.00070
24.6 200 1.26 121 1.31 0.000428 1.285 0.00116
0 326 0 252 0 0 0 0
5.022 304 0.22 226 0.26 0.000342 0.24 0.000238

12.5
14.8 248 0.78 173 0.79 0.000085 0.785 0.00070
24.6 199 1.27 124 1.28 0.000085 1.275 0.00116
0 326 0 252 0 0 0 0
5.022 305 0.21 225 0.27 0.000513 0.24 0.000238

27.5
14.8 249 0.77 173 0.79 0.000171 0.78 0.00070
24.6 195 1.31 124 1.28 -0.00026 1.295 0.00116
0 326 0 252 0 0 0 0
5.022 304 0.22 227 0.25 0.000257 0.235 0.000238

87.5
14.8 242 0.84 179 0.73 -0.00094 0.785 0.00070
24.6 180 1.46 130 1.22 -0.00205 1.34 0.00116

Graphs:-
θ Vs Distance (z)
Load Vs Deflection
Results: -
From graph the value of z is
I. 250 mm
II. 30 mm
III. 10 mm
Now the average value is 96.6 mm and centroid is 94.84 mm
From Theoretical calculation

𝑏2 ∗ℎ2 ∗𝑡
Z=
4𝐼
I = 4537610.5 mm4
(𝟓𝟏.𝟏)𝟐 ∗(𝟏𝟎𝟎.𝟑𝟖)𝟐 ∗(𝟏.𝟕𝟔)
Z=
𝟒 (𝟒𝟓𝟑𝟕𝟔𝟏𝟎.𝟓)
Z= 2.55 mm
Comments
 The internal shear flow in a C–Channel section is shown in figure. The shear flow in the C-
Channel section flows from point A to point E. If the load is not applied on the shear center
with the eccentricity, e, the C-Channel section tends to twist to the right due to the internal
shear flow. This happens as there is no force applied to balance and maintain the
equilibrium condition of the C-Channel section.
 From the experimental results obtained from the graph in is located 94.84 mm to the left-
hand side of the section along the axis of symmetry. On the other hand, the theoretical
shear center calculated is 2.55 mm to the left-hand side of the section along the axis of
symmetry.
 Comparing both these theoretical and experimental shear center found, the percentage
error is calculated by using the equation below
Percentage error = 36.19%
 The C-Channel section has biggest percentage error. This can be due to the misalignment
of the parallel flanges of the C-Channel section as the flanges are assumed to be perfectly
aligned and when calculating the theoretical shear center. Therefore, there are difference
in the location of the shear center obtained through experimental value and the theoretical
value.
 Besides that, there are other few factors that might affect the results obtained during the
experiment. Firstly, the dial gauge readings are presented in analog. The presence of human
parallax error might occur while obtaining the readings. Secondly, the depth of the dial
gauge plunger may vary as the axis of the dial gauge plunger is adjustable. This will cause
some inconsistency towards the readings obtained.
 Furthermore, the grip of the section on the specimen is not completely fixed as assumed in
the experiment. The sections might have undergone fatigue after several years of usage.
Lastly, during the experiment while moving the load to different notches, the load might
have oscillated slightly. All these factors can cause the inaccuracy of readings obtained for
the experiment.
Lab 4 : To Study the Bending Behavior of an Unsymmetric Section

Purpose:
To confirm the theory that loading a beam along its principal axis always produces
symmetrical bending.
Apparatus:
 Z-section cantilever beam model
 Vernier caliper
 Deflection Dial Gauges
 Weights and weight hanger
Related theory:
Axis of Symmetry:
The axis about which the section is symmetric i.e. by cutting the section at that axis will
result in sections that are mirror image of each other.
Type of Section No. of Axis of Symmetry
Square 4
Rectangle 2
T-section 1
C-section 1
Equal Leg Angle section 1
Unequal Leg Angle section 0
Symmetrical Sections:
The sections that have at least 1 axis of symmetry are known as symmetrical sections e.g. T-
sections, I-sections etc.
Principle Axis:
The axis about which the second moment of area is max or min but the product moment of
inertia is zero is known as principle axis.
Second Moment of Area:

Resistance of any structural member against bending is called second moment of area.
Neutral Axis:
The axis at which the flexural stresses are zero and the shear stresses are maximum is known
as neutral axis. On one side of this axis we have compression and on the other side we have tension.
Principle Plane:
The plane passing through the principle axis is known as principle plane. If loads acts in
these planes then we have maximum normal stresses.
Biaxial Bending:
The bending that takes place along two axis is known as biaxial bending.
Symmetrical Bending:
The type of bending in which the bending along both axis is same is known as symmetrical
bending.
Unsymmetrical Bending:
The type of bending in which the bending along two axis i.e. z and y axis, is different is
known as unsymmetrical bending.
Flexural Formula:
My
σ=
I
Moment of inertia due to inclined axis:
Iz + Iy Iz − Iy
Iz ′ = + sec2θ
2 2
Iz + Iy Iz − Iy
Iy ′ = − sec2θ
2 2
Orientation of Principle Axis:
−2Izy
tan2θp =
Iz − Iy
Procedure
4. Measure the dimensions of web and flange by using Vernier Caliper.
5. Then by keeping the web vertical apply loads of different magnitude and observe both
horizontal and vertical dial gauge readings for each value of load.
6. Then rotate the section in such a way that the minor principle axis becomes vertical.
7. Then apply loads of different magnitude, vertically and observe both horizontal and vertical
dial gauge readings for each value of load.

Setup 1:
Iz = __________________ mm4
Iy = __________________ mm4
Ixy = __________________ mm4
Experimental Deflections
Load(N) 0
For ΔH
HDGR(loading)
HDGR(un loading)
Avg HDGR
ΔH
ΔH(mm)
ForΔV
VDGR(loading)
VDGR(un loading)
Avg VDGR
ΔV
ΔV(mm)
Stresses Table
Points A B C D E F G H I J
y(mm)
z(mm)
For ______ N
Mz'
My'
σx’ (Mpa)
For ______N
Mz'
My'
σx’ (Mpa)
For _____N
Mz'
My'
σx’ (Mpa)
Theoretical Deflections
Load(N) ΔY' ΔZ' Φ’ ΔV(mm) ΔH(mm) ΔR(mm) Φ
0 0 0 - 0 0 0 -
Graphs Setup 1
Load Vs ΔH (Exp and Theoretical)
Load Vs ΔV (Exp and Theoretical)

Setup 2:
θp = ________________
Iz’ = ________________ mm4
Iy’ = ________________ mm4
Experimental Deflections
Load(N) 0
For ΔH
HDGR(loading)
HDGR(un loading)
Avg HDGR
ΔH
ΔH(mm)
ForΔV
VDGR(loading)
VDGR(un loading)
Avg VDGR
ΔV
ΔV(mm)
Stresses Table
Points A B C D E F G H I J
y(mm)
z(mm)
For ______ N
Mz'
My'
σx’ (Mpa)
For ______N
Mz'
My'
σx’ (Mpa)
For _____N
Mz'
My'
σx’ (Mpa)
Theoretical Deflections
Load(N) ΔY' ΔZ' Φ’ ΔV(mm) ΔH(mm) ΔR(mm) Φ
0 0 0 - 0 0 0 -
Graphs Setup 2
Load Vs ΔH (Exp and Theoretical)
Load Vs ΔV (Exp and Theoretical)

Comments
Lab 5: To Determine the Torsion Strength of Mild Steel Specimen

Purpose:
 To study the shear stress and shear strain behavior of the specimen
 To study the failure pattern of these materials in torsion
 To determine the mechanical properties of samples e.g. Modulus of elasticity, Modulus of
rigidity, shear strength, shear strain and ductility in torsion
Apparatus:
 Torsion testing machine
 Steel scale
 Vernier Caliper or micrometer
Relative Theory
Torque:
The twisting effect of a force or couple is called as torque. Its units are Nm. It is denoted by
double headed arrow.
Torsion:
It is the angular deformation about the longitudinal axis.
Difference between torque and moment:
The major difference is of the plane of application i.e. torque is applied along a plane
which is perpendicular to the longitudinal axis whereas moment is applied about any of the cross-
sectional axis and not about the longitudinal axis.
Twisting Moment:
The summation of torque either left or right of the section is twisting moment.
Bending theory:
The stresses caused by bending moment are known as bending or flexure stresses, and the
relation between these stresses and the bending moment is expressed by the bending theory i.e.
𝑴 𝝈 𝑬
= =
𝑰 𝒚 𝑹
Assumptions:
In derivation of bending theory, following assumptions are made:
 The plane section of beams remain plane.
 The material in the beam is homogenous and obeys Hook’s law.
 The modulus of elasticity for tension and compression are equal.
 The beam is initially straight and of constant cross-section.
 The plane of loading must contain a principle axis of the beam cross-section and the
loads must be perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the beam.
Torsion Theory:
The relationship between twisting moment, shear stresses and the resulted angular deformation is
given by torsion theory i.e.
𝝉 𝑻 𝑮𝜽
= =
𝑹 𝑱 𝑳
Where,
τ = Shearing stress in MPa
R = Radius of the shaft in mm
T = Twisting moment
J = Polar moment of inertia
G = Modulus of rigidity
θ = Angle of twist
L = Length of the specimen / shaft
Assumptions:
 Material is homogenous.
 Circular sections remain circular and do not warp.
 A plane section of a material perpendicular to its longitudinal axis remains plane and do not
warp after the torque is applied.
 Shaft is loaded by a couple or torque in a plane perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the
plane.
 Shear stress is proportional to shear strain, it means that Hook’s law is applicable.
 In circular shafts subjected to torque, the shearing stress varies linearly.
Polar moment of inertia (J):

The geometric rigidity of the cross-section is termed as polar moment of inertia or polar
second moment of area. It is the resistance against twisting or sum of second moment of area about
X-axis.
‘J’ for circular section:
𝜋
As 𝐼𝑥𝑥 = 𝐼𝑦𝑦 = 𝐷4 for a circular section
64
𝜋 4 𝜋 4
𝐽 = 𝐼𝑥𝑥 + 𝐼𝑦𝑦 = 𝐷 + 𝐷
64 64
𝝅 𝟒
𝑱= 𝑫
𝟑𝟐
‘J’ for hollow shaft:
𝝅
𝑱= (𝑫𝒐 𝟒 − 𝑫𝒊 𝟒 )
𝟑𝟐
Expression for shear stress for a circular section:
𝑇𝑅 𝑇 𝐷⁄2 𝑇 ∗ 16
𝜏= = 𝜋 =
𝐽 4 𝜋𝐷3
32 𝐷
𝟏𝟔𝑻
𝝉=
𝝅𝑫𝟑
Torsional rigidity/Modulus of rigidity:

When material is subjected to pure twist loading, the slope of the shear stress verses shear
strain curve is termed as modulus of rigidity or modulus of elasticity in shear or torsional rigidity.
It is denoted by ‘G’.
The relationship between modulus of elasticity and modulus of rigidity is as given below
E = 2G (1+ν)
Where ν is the poison’s ratio.
Poison’s Ratio:
The ratio of lateral strain to longitudinal strain when material is subjected to axial loading
and it is always less than 1.
ν = Lateral strain/Axial strain <1
For isotropic materials ν = 0.25-0.4
For mild steel ν = 0.3-0.35 (usually a value of 0.3 is taken)
For concrete ν = 0.15
Relation between yield strength in tension to torsion for mild steel:

The relationship between yield stress in simple tension and that in pure shear can be found
from VON MISES yield criteria i.e.
𝟔𝒚
𝝉= (𝜏 = 0.577𝜎𝑦)
√𝟑
Torsional strength:
It is the ultimate strength of a material subjected to a torsional loading. It is the maximum
torsional stress that a material sustains before rupture. It is similar to tensile strength in tension
test.
Torsional Deformation:
It is the angular displacement of specimen caused by specified torque in torsion test. It is
equal to the angle of twist in radians divided by gauge length or effective length.
Torsional strain, ϒ:
Strain corresponding to specified torque in torsion test. It is equal to torsional deformation
multiplied by the radius of the shaft. Its units are radians.
𝜽
𝜸= 𝒓 (Radians)
𝑮.𝑳
Torsional stress (τ):

Shear stress developed in a material subjected to a specified torque in torsion test. For a
circular shaft it can be calculated using the following expression:
𝟏𝟔𝑻
𝝉=
𝝅𝑫𝟑
Expected failure for Mild steel and Cast Iron specimens in torsion and reasoning:
Following points should be kept in mind about the failure pattern:
 Mild steel is weak in shear and strong in tension so it will fail due to shearing stress.
 Cast iron is weak in tension and strong in shear so it will fail due to tensile stress.
 Shearing stresses are maximum on a plane at an angle of 45° to the direction of action of
force.
 Tensile stresses are maximum on a plane perpendicular to the direction of action of force.
Twisting is a helical type of phenomenon and keep on changing in direction so the failure
plane is also helical.
The failure pattern is explained in the adjoining figures.
Procedure
1. Place the Specimen between the rotating jaws of torsion testing machine.
2. Switch on the machine.
3. Slowly rotate the handle of machine until the fixed end touches the load cell.
4. Just when the fixed end touches the load cell and value of torque is still zero, set the angle to
zero.
5. Now start applying the load and record the value of angle on each increment of torque.
6. Keep on applying the load until the specimen breaks.
7. Also not the angle at the point when specimen breaks.
8. Be careful when the specimen is near to break.
9. Compute the results
Precautions
 Measure the dimensions of the specimen carefully.
 Measure the angle of twist accurately for the corresponding value of torque.
Observations and Calculations:
Gauge length of the specimen (l) = ___________________________________
Diameter of the specimen (d) = ___________________________________
𝜋
Polar moment of inertia (𝐽 = 𝑑4 ) = _____________________________________
32
Table 9.1: Observations and Calculations
Torque Twisting Modulus of
Angle of twist (θ) Shear Stress
(T) Moment (T) rigidity ( G )
Nm Degrees Radians Nm MPa N/mm2
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
Results
 Modulus of rigidity of mild steel rod is ____________________ N / mm2
Graph
Comments
Lab 6 : To Study the Deflection of an Eccentrically Loaded Column

Purpose:
To confirm the theory that loading a beam along its principal axis always produces
symmetrical bending.
Apparatus:
 Eccentrically Loaded Column Apparatus
 Deflection Dial Gauges
 Weights and weight hanger
Related theory:
Column:
A column is a line element subjected to axial compression. The term is frequently used to
describe a vertical member.
Types of Columns
Based on eccentricity of load:
Concentric loaded column:
A Column in which load is acting exactly at the centroid.
Eccentrically loaded column:
A Column in which load is acting at some eccentricity from the centroid.
Based on Slenderness ratio:
Column Type Slenderness Ratio Mode of Failure
𝑘𝑙
Short < 30 Crushing
𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑘𝑙 May be due to Buckling or
Intermediate 30 < < 100
𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛 Crushing
𝑘𝑙
Long/Slender > 100 Buckling
𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛
Buckling:
Buckling is characterized by a sudden sideways failure of a structural member subjected to
high compressive stress, where the compressive stress at the point of failure is less than the ultimate
compressive stress that the material is capable of withstanding.
Buckling is categorized as:
1. Overall Buckling
2. Local Buckling
3. Lateral Torsional Buckling
Overall Buckling:
The maximum compressive load which can be carried before failure occurs by excessive
deflection in the plane of greatest slenderness.
Local Buckling:
The cross sections of steel shapes tend to consist of an assembly of thin plates. When the cross section of
a steel shape is subjected to large compressive stresses, the thin plates that make up the cross section may
buckle before the full strength of the member is attained if the thin plates are too slender. When a cross
sectional element fails in buckling, then the member capacity is reached. Consequently, local buckling
becomes a limit state for the strength of steel shapes subjected to compressive stress.
Lateral Torsional Buckling:
Lateral torsional buckling may occur in an unrestrained beam. A beam is considered to be
unrestrained when its compression flange is free to displace laterally and rotate. When an applied
load causes both lateral displacement and twisting of a member lateral torsional buckling will occur.
Slenderness ratio:
Slenderness ratio is the ratio of the effective length of a column (Le) and the least radius of
gyration (rmin) of its cross section.
𝐿𝑒
𝑆𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 =
𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛
Critical Load:
The maximum axial load at which the column starts buckling.
𝜋 2 𝐸𝐼
𝑃𝑐𝑟 =
(𝑘𝑙)2
K value for different end conditions
Formula for Deflection:
𝑃𝐿
𝑦𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑒 [𝑠𝑒𝑐 (√ ) − 1]
𝐸𝐼 2
𝜋 𝑃
𝑦𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑒 [𝑠𝑒𝑐 ( √ ) − 1]
2 𝑃𝑐𝑟
Formula for Stress:

P 𝑒𝑐 𝑘𝐿
σ𝑚𝑎𝑥 = [1 + 2 𝑠𝑒𝑐 ]
A 𝑟 2
P 𝑒𝑐 𝜋 𝑃
σ𝑚𝑎𝑥 = [1 + 2 𝑠𝑒𝑐 √ ]
A 𝑟 2 𝑃𝑐𝑟
Where c = Distance of neutral Axis from extreme fiber

𝜋 2 𝐸𝐼
and Euler critical Load = 𝑃𝑐𝑟 = 2
𝐿
Procedure
1. Measure the dimensions of column.
2. Setup deflection dial gauge at the center.
3. Apply small load at some eccentricity and measure the deflection.
4. Add more load and again measure the deflection.
5. Change the point of loading and repeat the process.
6. Perform the calculations and draw graph.

Length of Column = L = 876.3 mm
Width of Column = b = 25.49 mm
Thickness of Column = h = 4.26 mm
Moment of Inertia = I = 164.2 mm4
Sr. Deflection %age

No. Eccentricity Load Moment Stress
(mm) Difference
Mm N N.mm N/mm2 Measured Calculated
1 0 0 0 0 0 0
2 19.82 1823.44 24.5 2.52 2.67 5.6
3 29.62 2725.04 37.1 3.74 4.04 7.4

92
4 39.43 3627.56 50.4 5.13 5.44 5.6
5 49.24 4530.08 63.6 6.11 6.8 10
6 59.05 5432.6 77.4 7.34 8.35 12
1 0 0 0 0 0 0
2 19.82 2021.64 27.1 3.1 2.9 6.4
3 29.62 3021.24 41.2 4.17 4.4 5.2

102
4 39.43 4021.86 55.9 5.47 6 8.3
5 49.24 5022.48 70.4 6.73 7.6 11
6 59.05 6023.1 85.7 8.03 9.2 12

1 0 0 0 0 0 0
2 19.82 2279.3 30.6 3.23 3.3 2.1
3 29.62 3406..3 46.4 4.55 5 9

115
4 39.43 4534.45 62.9 5.9 6.8 13
5 49.24 5662.6 79.4 7.38 8.5 13.1
6 59.05 6790.7 96.6 8.96 10.4 13.8
1 0 0 0 0 0 0
2 19.82 2576.6 34.5 3.57 3.7 3.5
3 29.62 3850.6 52.4 4.97 5.7 12

130
4 39.43 5125.9 71.1 6.47 7.6 14.8
5 49.24 6401.2 89.7 8.14 9.7 16
6 59.05 7676.5 109.2 9.74 11.8 17.4
Graph
Load Vs Deflection (measured)
Load VS Deflection (mm)

70
60
50
Load (N)
40 Series2
30 Series1
Series3
20
Series4
10
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Deflection (mm)
Load Vs Deflection (Calculated)
Load VS calculated deflection

70
60
50
Load (N)
40 Series1
Series2
30
Series3
20 Series4
10
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
Deflection calculated (mm)
Comments
 Generally, the column strength is reduced with existing the load eccentricity, and significant
losses in strength occurred when the load eccentricity changed
 Applying load eccentricity about both axis, that is biaxial bending condition has more effect
and dangerous compared with eccentricity about major axis, that is uniaxial bending
condition.
 Increase in the eccentric load increases the axial load and the moment acting on the column.
This makes the column to bend additional increasing the bending of column.
 There main error was due to ill conditioned test samples and poorly calibrated equipment.
The samples had experienced buckling many times previous to this test, and the clamps were
not aligned to place the force parallel along the beam
Lab 7 : To Study the Stresses on Thin Cylinder

Purpose:
To compare the measured and calculated strain in thin cylinder
To find stresses in thin cylinder.
Apparatus:
 Thin cylinder apparatus
Related theory:
Thin Cylinder:
These are the cylinders which has diameter more than 20 times of the thickness of the wall
(or shell).
Assumption of Thin Cylinders:
1. The ratio between inside diameter (d) and thickness (t) is more than 20.
𝑑 𝑟
> 20 𝑜𝑟 > 10
𝑡 𝑡
𝑑 𝑟
𝑡< 𝑜𝑟 𝑡<
20 10
2. For above condition the stresses between the inner and outer surfaces of the wall vary by less
than 5% for larger radius this error is even more less.
3. The magnitude of the radial stress is so small in comparison with Hoop and Longitudinal
stress that it can be ignored.
4. The stresses (Hoop and Longitudinal) are uniformly
distributed through the thickness of wall.
5. The ends of the cylinders are not supported from the sides.
6. The weight of the cylinder and fluid contained inside are not
taken into account.
7. The atmosphere pressure is taken as the reference pressure.
1. Radial Stress (σr):

Radial Stress is tangential at any point of the wall thickness of
the cylinder and always equal and opposite to the internal pressure pi.
𝜎𝑟 = −𝑝𝑖
2. Longitudinal Stress (σL):
Assuming any cutting section along the length, the resisting force acting at cutting wall
section must be equal to the force produced by the bursting pressure at the cylinder wall
𝑝𝑑
𝜎𝐿 =
4𝑡
3. Hoop Stress or Transversal Stress (σH):

These are also called the circumferential stresses. Assuming a cutting section along/parallel
to the cylinder length from the center. Transversal force at cutting section must be balanced by the
vertical component of the force induced by the internal pressure.
𝑝𝑑
𝜎𝐻 =
2𝑡
a) Change in Length:
1
𝛿𝐿 = (𝜎 − 𝜈𝜎𝐻 ) × 𝐿
𝐸 𝐿
1 𝑝𝑑 𝑝𝑑
𝛿𝐿 = ( − 𝜈 ) × 𝐿
𝐸 4𝑡 2𝑡
𝑝𝑑
𝛿𝐿 = (1 − 2𝜈) × 𝐿
4𝑡𝐸
b) Change in Diameter:
1
𝛿𝑑 = (𝜎 − 𝜈𝜎𝐿 ) × 𝑑
𝐸 𝐻
1 𝑝𝑑 𝑝𝑑
𝛿𝑑 = ( − 𝜈 ) × 𝑑
𝐸 2𝑡 4𝑡
𝑝𝑑
𝛿𝑑 = (2 − 𝜈) × 𝑑
4𝑡𝐸
c) Change in Volume:
𝜖𝑉 = 2𝜖𝑑 + 𝜖𝐿
𝑝𝑑 𝑝𝑑
𝜖𝑉 = 2 (2 − 𝜈) + (1 − 2𝜈)
4𝑡𝐸 4𝑡𝐸
𝑝𝑑
𝜖𝑉 = (4 − 2𝜈 + 1 − 2𝜈)
4𝑡𝐸
𝑝𝑑
𝜖𝑉 = (5 − 4𝜈)
4𝑡𝐸

Length of Cylinder = L = 360 mm, Outer Diameter of Cylinder = do = 80mm, Inner Diameter of Cylinder = di = 74 mm
Thickness of Cylinder = t = 6 mm, Poisson’s ratio = 𝜈 = 0.33, Modulus of Elasticity = E= 71.7 Gpa (Aluminum alloy)
Longitudinal Hoop Volumetric

Applied Hoop Longitudin Change in Change in Strain
Sr Strain Strain
Pressure Stress al Stress Length diameter
No 𝝐𝑳 𝝐𝒅 𝝐𝑽
P 𝝈𝑯 𝝈𝑳 𝜹𝑳 𝜹𝒅
Measured Calculated Measured Calculated
MPa MPa MPa mm mm mm/mm mm/mm mm/mm mm/mm mm/mm
1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
2 0.55 3.391667 1.69583333 0.00289 0.00292 0.0000189 8.04161E-06 0.0000791 3.95E-05 8.7039E-05
3 1 6.166667 3.08333333 0.00526 0.00531 0.0000355 1.46211E-05 0.0001397 7.18E-05 0.00015825
4 1.52 9.373333 4.68666667 0.008 0.00808 0.0000569 2.22241E-05 0.0002143 0.000109 0.00024054
5 1.81 11.16167 5.58083333 0.00953 0.00962 0.0000686 2.64642E-05 0.0002555 0.00013 0.00028644
6 2.05 12.64167 6.32083333 0.01079 0.01089 0.0000779 2.99733E-05 0.0002871 0.000147 0.00032442
7 2.3 14.18333 7.09166667 0.01211 0.01222 0.0000881 3.36285E-05 0.000323 0.000165 0.00036398
8 2.59 15.97167 7.98583333 0.01363 0.01376 0.0000999 3.78687E-05 0.0003632 0.000186 0.00040987
9 3.03 18.685 9.3425 0.01595 0.0161 0.0001189 4.4302E-05 0.0004271 0.000218 0.0004795
Graph
Hoop stress Vs Hoop Strain (measured and Calculated)
Hoop stress and strain

20
18
16
14
12
Stress
10
Measured
8
6 Calculated
4
2
0
0 0.00005 0.0001 0.00015 0.0002 0.00025 0.0003 0.00035 0.0004 0.00045
Strain
Longitudinal stress Vs Longitudinal Strain (measured and Calculated)
Longitudinal strain
10
9
8
7
6
stress
5
Measured
4
Calculated
3
2
1
0
0 0.00002 0.00004 0.00006 0.00008 0.0001 0.00012 0.00014
strain
Comments
 From the calculations it was prove that the hoop stress is two times the longitudinal
stress in cylindrical portion of thin cylinder
 The hoop and longitudinal stresses are equal in shell portion
 There were a few sources of error in this experiment. One source of error was due to the readings of the
indicated strain. The strain indicator values fluctuated very slowly around a central value. This was
most likely due to the need of new wiring between the strain gage and strain indicator. Another source
of error was incurred by the readings of the pressure gauge of the thin-walled cylindrical pressure vessel
apparatus. Without automation, it was difficult to bring the pressure of the vessel to an exact indicated
pressure. The error of the pressure recordings will cause a slightly skewed calculated value for the
theoretical longitudinal and hoop stresses.
 It was noted that the graphs produced for stress due to pressure, as seen in graphs generated a linear
function. It can be concluded that the pressure in the cylindrical vessel did not exceed the proportional
limit, or yield strength, of the vessel’s material. The deformation incurred by the pressure was elastic
and completely recoverable. Therefore, the use of Hooke’s law was applicable. If the plotted data had
yielded an exponential line portion, Hooke’s Law would only be applicable to the data points that occur
before the curvature.
 Hoop stress is independent of the angle
Lab 8 : To Study the Elastic Strain behavior in Bending using

Electrical Resistance Strain Gauges
Purpose:
To learn the use of strain gauges for measuring the strains in bending.
Apparatus:
 Model Beam
 Strain Gauges
 Vernier Calliper
 Steel Ruler
 Strain meter
 Connecting Wires
 D.C. Battery
 Pressure cell and hydraulic jack
 Weights and Hanger
Related theory:
Normal Strain:
Strain which are acting normal to the cross section and are produced by normal stresses
are called as normal strains.
Shear Strain:
Strain which are acting parallel to the cross section and are produced by shear stresses
are called as shear strains.
Methods of Measuring Strain

Practically it is more convenient to measure strain instead of stress because strain is
physically independent while stress is not. Therefore many techniques of strain measurement
are developed. Some are given below:
1. Mechanical Strain Gauges:
Mechanical measurement of strain is the oldest technique and a direct method to measure
strain. Because of very small deformations precise instruments are required to magnify
these small deformations e.g. dial gauges, deflection gauges, extensometers etc.
Advantages:
 These may be made demountable so that a number of gauge stations can be
handled with a single gauge and they measure strain directly.
Disadvantages:
 Only surface strain can be measured and at only accessible points.
 Automatic reading is not possible.
 Only static strain can be measured.
 Result may be unreliable due to wear and tear of instruments
2. Optical Strain Gauges:

In this type of gauges, measurement and magnification are done optically. A system of
mirrors may be used to produce large displacements on a specific scale.
Advantages:
 Suitable for measuring dynamic strains which used with a suitable photographic
recording system.
Disadvantages:
 Large size and sophisticated instruments are required so only used for research
work.
3. Vibrating Strain Gauges:

When wire is stretched between two clamps, the neutral frequency will correspondingly
change. This is the principle is used to measure strain in the vibrating wire type gauges. A
gauge containing the wire is clamped to the specimen and frequency of vibration is
measured then it is compared with a standard wire of known frequency.
Advantages:
 Stability over long period
 Easy and rapid process
 If once attached no need to access the gauge.
Disadvantages:
 Only static strain can be measured.
4. Pneumatic Gauges:
This type of gauge is widely used in engineering but does not seem to have much
application in Civil engineering. Pressure drop is directly related to amount of fluid passing
through an orifice. Any relative movement alters the effective area of the orifice. By
measuring the change in pressure, the amount of this displacement can be determined by
using calibration charts.
Advantages:
 Stability, Simplicity and a high degree of accuracy.
Disadvantages:
 Comparatively large sized.
5. Electrical Resistance Strain Gauges:

These are very fine metal wire grids having some paper base and are cemented on the
structural member to measure normal surface strain in any desired direction.
Components:
 Filament
 Paper base / carrier (plastic, Bakolite)
 Terminals / Leads
Working Principle:
Its principle is based on fact that the resistance of a wire increases with
increasing strain and decreases with decreasing strain. Consider a wire strain gage. The
wire is composed of a uniform conductor of electric resistivity r with length L and cross-
section area A. Its resistance R is a function of the geometry given by
𝐿
𝑅=𝜌
𝐴
Let ∆𝑅 be change in resistance and ∆𝐿 be change in length
So, ∆𝑅 ∝ ∆𝐿
∆𝑅 ∆𝐿
∝
𝑅 𝐿
∆𝑅
∝∈
𝑅
∆𝑅
= 𝐾𝑎 ∈
𝑅
∆𝑅
∈=
𝐾𝑎 𝑅
Where 𝐾𝑎 = Gauge Factor given by the manufacturer
Gauge Factor:
Gauge Factor or axial sensitivity of the electrical strain gauge is the ratio of
rate of change of resistance to the rate of change of length, denoted by Ka
∆𝑅⁄
𝐾𝑎 = 𝑅
∆𝐿⁄
𝐿
Advantages:
 Normal Strain can be measured in any desired direction
 Remote reading is possible
 We can measure strain where access is not possible.
 One person can measure the strain for a number of gauges.
 A strain gauge cemented to the structural component can measure the strain for
several years until and unless it is damaged or unbounded.
 Lower cost
Procedure
1. Measure the dimensions of Beam by using Vernier Caliper and steel ruler.
2. Switch on the strain meter. Check setting of each factor. Take zero load readings of
strain meter for each gauge and for proving ring.
3. Apply the loads in three equal increments over the range.
4. Unload and check the gauge zeros. If large drifts are detected repeat the experiment for
the gauge concerned.

b=
h=
tw = tf =
I=
Experimental
Load Strain Gauge 1 Strain Gauge 2 Strain Gauge 3 Strain Gauge 4 Strain Gauge 5
kg N SGR1 𝜇∈ SGR2 𝜇∈ SGR3 𝜇∈ SGR4 𝜇∈ SGR5 𝜇∈
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
20 196.2 -29 -4 -2 9 9
40 392.4 -52 -7 -3 17 25
60 588.6 -80 -10 -4 26 40
Theoretical
Load I M y1 y2 y3 y4 y5
kg N mm4 Nmm 𝜎𝑡ℎ ∈𝑡ℎ 𝜎𝑡ℎ ∈𝑡ℎ 𝜎𝑡ℎ ∈𝑡ℎ 𝜎𝑡ℎ ∈𝑡ℎ 𝜎𝑡ℎ ∈𝑡ℎ
0 0 4698718 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
20 196.2 4698718 325692 3.24048 1.62E-05 1.54848 7.74E-06 0 0 -1.5484 -7.74E-06 -3.24048 -2E-05
40 392.4 4698718 651384 6.48096 3.24E-05 3.09699 1.54E-05 0 0 -3.0969 -1.55E-05 -6.48096 -3E-05
60 588.6 4698718 977076 9.72144 4.86E-05 4.64549 2.32E-05 0 0 -4.6454 -2.32E-05 -9.72144 -5E-05
Strain Comparison
Load y1 y2 y3 y4 y5
kg N exp th %diff exp th %diff exp th %diff exp th %diff exp th %diff
20 196.2 0.000039 0.000016 58.97 0.000004 0.0000077 48.05 0.000002 0 100 0.000009 0.0000077 14.44 0.000009 0.00002 55
40 392.4 0.000052 0.000032 38.46 0.000007 0.000015 53.33 0.000003 0 100 0.000017 0.000015 11.76 0.000025 0.00003 16.66
60 588.6 0.00008 0.000048 40 0.00001 0.000023 56.52 0.000004 0 100 0.000026 0.000026 11.53 0.00004 0.00005 20
Graphs
Y vs Strain(exp & theoretical)
Load vs Strain
Comments

Advance Mech of Solid Lab Manual CE305L 10-12-16

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Advance Mechanics of Solids

Lab 1: Introduction of Steel ........................................................................................................................... 2

Lab 1: Introduction of Steel

Forms of steel bars:

2. Cold worked or cold twisted or torr steel bars:

Manufacturing process of steel:

Fe2O3 + 3 CO -> 3 CO2 + 2 Fe.

ii) Steel manufacturing from pig iron:

Types of steel Carbon content (%)

In the manufacturing of steel bars, mild steel is used.

Various ingredients in steel and their functions:

Effect of change of carbon content on the mechanical properties of steel:

Advantages of steel as a structural material:

Disadvantages of steel as a structural material:

Tensile strength of different steel:

Reinforce steel sizes:

Lab 2: To perform tension test on following specimen:

Types of Steel based on Manufacturing Process

Components of Stress Strain Diagram:

Yield point & Yielding

Method of finding the yield point

ii) Specific Strain Method

iii) Halting of Machine Method or Drop of beam

iv) Luder’s Line Method

Modulus of Resilience (M.O.R)

𝛿𝑢𝑙𝑡 Psi (MPa) 70,000 (500) 90,000 (620) 100,000 (690)

Bar Dia Min % Elongation

*Minimum bar length required for a tension test specimen = 0.5 m

Ductile & Brittle Material

1. To indicate the extent

Observations and Calculations

Load Extension Strain % Nominal

Cold Form / Tor Bar

Load Extension Strain % Nominal

Extension Strain % Nominal

Load Extension Strain % Nominal

Lab 3 : To Determine of shear center of a channel section cantilever

Shear center of Channel Section:

Observation and Calculation

Distance between G1 and G2 = B = 116.9 mm

5.022 305 0.21 226 0.26 0.000428 0.235 0.000238

24.6 200 1.26 122 1.3 0.000342 1.28 0.00116

5.022 305 0.21 225 0.27 0.000513 0.24 0.000238

24.6 200 1.26 121 1.31 0.000428 1.285 0.00116

5.022 304 0.22 226 0.26 0.000342 0.24 0.000238

24.6 199 1.27 124 1.28 0.000085 1.275 0.00116

5.022 305 0.21 225 0.27 0.000513 0.24 0.000238

24.6 195 1.31 124 1.28 -0.00026 1.295 0.00116

5.022 304 0.22 227 0.25 0.000257 0.235 0.000238

24.6 180 1.46 130 1.22 -0.00205 1.34 0.00116

From Theoretical calculation

Percentage error = 36.19%

Lab 4 : To Study the Bending Behavior of an Unsymmetric Section

Second Moment of Area:

Observation and Calculation

Load Vs ΔV (Exp and Theoretical)

Iz’ = ________________ mm4

Iy’ = ________________ mm4

Load Vs ΔV (Exp and Theoretical)

Lab 5: To Determine the Torsion Strength of Mild Steel Specimen

Polar moment of inertia (J):

Expression for shear stress for a circular section:

Torsional rigidity/Modulus of rigidity: