Académique Documents
Professionnel Documents
Culture Documents
Lecture No.1
After the advent of green revolution, more emphasis is laid on the quality of the product
along with the quantity of production to meet the ever- growing food requirements. Both these
demands can be met when the environment for the plant growth is suitably controlled. The need
to protect the crops against unfavourable environmental conditions led to the development of
protected agriculture. Greenhouse is the most practical method of achieving the objectives of
protected agriculture, where the natural environment is modified by using sound engineering
principles to achieve optimum plant growth and yields.
1.1 History
A greenhouse is a framed or an inflated structure covered with a transparent or
translucent material in which crops could be grown under the conditions of at least partially
controlled environment and which is large enough to permit persons to work within it to carry
out cultural operations.
The growing of off - season cucumbers under transparent stone for Emperor Tiberius in
the 1st century, is the earliest reported protected agriculture. The technology was rarely
employed during the next 1500 years. In the 16th century, glass lanterns, bell jars and hot beds
covered with glass were used to protect horticultural crops against cold. In the 17th century, low
portable wooden frames covered with an oiled translucent paper were used to warm the plant
environment.
In Japan, primitive methods using oil -paper and straw mats to protect crops from the
severe natural environment were used as long ago the early 1960s. Greenhouses in France and
England during the same century were heated by manure and covered with glass panes. The first
greenhouse in the 1700s used glass on one side only as a sloping roof. Later in the century, glass
was used on both sides. Glasshouses were used for fruit crops such as melons, grapes, peaches
and strawberries, and rarely for vegetable production.
Protected agriculture was fully established with the introduction of polyethylene after the
World war II. The first use of polyethylene as a greenhouse cover was in 1948, when professor
Emery Myers Emmert, at the University of Kentucky, used the less expensive material in place
of more expensive glass.
The total area of glasshouses in the world (1987) was estimated to be 30,000 ha and most
of these were found in North- Western Europe. In contrast to glasshouses, more than half of the
world area of plastic green houses is in Asia, in which China has the largest area. According to
1999 estimates, an area of 6, 82,050 ha were under plastic greenhouses (Table 1.1). In most of
the countries, green houses are made of plastic and glass; the majority is plastic.
Glasshouses and rigid plastic houses are longer-life structures, and therefore are most
located in cold regions where these structures can be used throughout the year. In Japan, year-
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round use of greenhouses is becoming predominant, but in moderate and warm climate regions,
they are still provisional and are only used in winter.
In India, the cultivation in the plastic greenhouses is of recent origin. As per 1994-95
estimates, approximately 100 ha of India are under greenhouse cultivation.
Table 1. Estimated world use of plastic greenhouses (1999)
Region Area (ha)
Europe 1,80,000
Africa and the Middle East 55,000
America 22,350
Asia 4,50,000
China - 3,80,000
Japan – 51,042
Korea – 2,200
World Total 6,82,050
Since 1960, the greenhouse has evolved into more than a plant protector. It is now better
understood as a system of controlled environment agriculture (CEA), with precise control of air
and root temperature, water, humidity, plant nutrition, carbon dioxide and light. The greenhouses
of today can be considered as plant or vegetable factories. Almost every aspect of the production
system is automated, with the artificial environment and growing system under nearly total
computer control.
1. Throughout the year four to five crops can be grown in a green house due to availability
of required plant environmental conditions.
2. The productivity of the crop is increased considerably.
3. Superior quality produce can be obtained as they are grown under suitably controlled
environment.
4. Gadgets for efficient use of various inputs like water, fertilizers, seeds and plant
protection chemicals can be well maintained in a green house.
5. Effective control of pests and diseases is possible as the growing area is enclosed.
6. Percentage of germination of seeds is high in greenhouses.
7. The acclimatization of plantlets of tissue culture technique can be carried out in a green
house.
8. Agricultural and horticultural crop production schedules can be planned to take
advantage of the market needs.
9. Different types of growing medium like peat mass, vermiculate, rice hulls and compost
that are used in intensive agriculture can be effectively utilized in the greenhouse.
10. Export quality produce of international standards can be produced in a green house.
11. When the crops are not grown, drying and related operations of the harvested produce
can be taken up utilizing the entrapped heat.
12. Greenhouses are suitable for automation of irrigation, application of other inputs and
environmental controls by using computers and artificial intelligence techniques.
13. Self-employment for educated youth on farm can be increased.
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Lecture No.2
Brief description of types of green houses - greenhouses based on shape, utility, construction,
covering materials and cost, shade nets.
Greenhouse structures of various types are used successfully for crop production. Although there
are advantages in each type for a particular application, in general there is no single type
greenhouse, which can be considered as the best. Different types of greenhouses are designed to
meet the specific needs.
The even-span is the standard type and full-size structure, the two roof slopes are of equal pitch
and width (Fig.1). This design is used for the greenhouse of small size, and it is constructed on
level ground. It is attached to a house at one gable end. It can accommodate 2 or 3 rows of plant
benches. The cost of an even-span greenhouse is more than the cost of a lean-to type, but it has
greater flexibility in design and provides for more plants. Because of its size and greater amount
of exposed glass area, the even-span will cost more to heat. The design has a better shape than a
lean-to type for air circulation to maintain uniform temperatures during the winter heating
season. A separate heating system is necessary unless the structure is very close to a heated
building. It will house 2 side benches, 2 walks, and a wide center bench. Several single and
multiple span types are available for use in various regions of India. For single span type the
span in general, varies from 5 to 9 m, whereas the length is around 24 m. The height varies from
2.5 to 4.3 m.
specifications of these greenhouses since the snow cannot slide off the roofs as in case of
individual free standing greenhouses, but melts away. In spite of snow loads, ridge and furrow
greenhouses are effectively used in northern countries of Europe and in Canada and are well
suited to the Indian conditions.
is commonly used as it is inexpensive and possesses the required strength. Timber locally
available, with good strength, durability and machinability also can be used for the construction.
Shade nettings are designed to protect the crops and plants from UV radiation, but they
also provide protection from climate conditions, such as temperature variation, intensive rain and
winds. Better growth conditions can be achieved for the crop due to the controlled micro-climate
conditions “created” in the covered area, with shade netting, which results in higher crop yields.
All nettings are UV stabilized to fulfill expected lifetime at the area of exposure. They are
characterized of high tear resistance, low weight for easy and quick installation with a 30-90%
shade value range. A wide range of shading nets are available in the market which are defined on
the basis of the percentage of shade they deliver to the plant growing under them.
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Lecture No.3
Plant response to greenhouse environments - light, temperature, relative humidity, ventilation
and carbon dioxide and environmental requirement of agriculture and horticulture crops inside
green houses.
The productivity of a crop is influenced not only by its heredity but also by the microclimate
around it. The components of crop microclimate are light, temperature, air compositions and the
nature of the root medium. In open fields, only manipulation of nature of the root medium by
tillage, irrigation and fertilizer application is possible. The closed boundaries in greenhouse
permit control of any one or more of the components of the micro climate.
3.1 Light
The visible light of the solar radiation is a source of energy for plants. Light energy, carbon
dioxide (Co2) and water all enter in to the process of photosynthesis through which
carbohydrates are formed. The production of carbohydrates from carbon dioxide and water in the
presence of chlorophyll, using light energy is responsible for plant growth and reproduction. The
rate of photosynthesis is governed by available fertilizer elements, water, carbon dioxide, light
and temperature.
The photosynthesis reaction can be represented as follows
Chlorophyll
Co2 + water+ light energy ------------ carbohydrates + oxygen
Plant nutrients
Considerable energy is required to reduce the carbon that is combined with oxygen in CO2 gas to
the state in which it exists in the carbohydrate. The light energy thus utilized is trapped in the
carbohydrate. If the light intensity is diminished, photosynthesis slows down and hence the
growth. If higher than optimal light intensities are provided, growth again slows down because of
the injury to the chloroplasts.
The light intensity is measured by the international unit known as Lux. It is direct
illumination on the surrounding surface that is one meter from a uniform point source of 1
international candle. Green house crops are subjected to light intensities varying from 129.6klux
on clear summer days to 3.2 Klux on cloudy winter days. For most crops, neither condition is
ideal. Many crops become light saturated, in other words, photosynthesis does not increase at
light intensities higher than 32.2klux. Rose and carnation plants will grow well under summer
light intensities. In general, for most other crops foliage is deeper green if the greenhouse is
shaded to the extent of about 40% from mid spring (May) to mid fall (August and September).
Thus, it is apparent that light intensity requirements of photosynthesis are vary considerably from
crop to crop.
Light is classified according to its wave length in nanometers (nm). Not all light useful in
photosynthesis process. UV light is available in the shorter wavelength range, i.e less than
400nm. Large of quantities of it is harmful to the plants. Glass screens are opaque to the most
UV light and light below the range of 325nm. Visible and white light has wavelength of 400 to
700nm.Far red light (700 to 750nm) affects plants, besides causing photosynthesis. Infrared rays
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of longer wavelengths are not involved in the plant process. It is primarily, the visible spectrum
of light that is used in photosynthesis. In the blue and red bands, the photosynthesis activity is
higher, when the blue light (shorter wavelength) alone is supplied to plants, the growth is
retarded, and the plant becomes hard and dark in colour. When the plants are grown under red
light (longer wavelength), growth is soft and internodes are long, resulting in tall plants. Visible
light of all wavelengths is readily utilized in photosynthesis.
3.2 Temperature
Temperature is a measure of level of the heat present. All crops have temperature range in which
they can grow well. Below this range, the plant life process stop due to ice formation within the
tissue and cells are possibly punctured by ice crystals. At the upper extreme, enzymes become
inactive, and again process essential for life cease. Enzymes are biological reaction catalyst and
are heat sensitive. All biochemical reactions in the plant are controlled by the enzymes. The rate
of reactions controlled by the enzyme often double or triple for each rise of temperature by 10 0C,
until optimum temperature is reached. Further, increase in temperature begins to suppress the
reaction and finally stop it.
As a general rule, green house crops are grown at a day temperature, which are 3 to 60C
higher than the night temperature on cloudy days and 80C higher on clear days. The night
temperature of green house crops is generally in the range of 7 to 210C. Primula, mathiola incana
and calceolaria grow best at 70C, carnation and cineraria at 100C, rose at 160C, chrysanthemum
and poinsettia at 17 to 180C and African violet at 21 to 220C.
3.4 Ventilation
A green house is ventilated for either reducing the temperature of the green house air or for
replenishing carbon dioxide supply or for moderating the relative humidity of the air. Air
temperatures above 350C are generally not suited for the crops in green house. It is quite possible
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to bring the green house air temperature below this upper limit during spring and autumn seasons
simply by providing adequate ventilation to the green house. The ventilation in a green house can
either be natural or forced. In case of small green houses (less than 6m wide) natural ventilation
can be quite effective during spring and autumn seasons. However, fan ventilation is essential to
have precise control over the air temperature, humidity and carbon dioxide levels.
3.5 Carbon dioxide
Carbon is an essential plant nutrient and is present in the plant in greater quantity than any other
nutrient. About 40% of the dry matter of the plant is composed of carbon. Under normal
conditions, carbon dioxide (CO2) exits as a gas in the atmosphere slightly above 0.03% or
345ppm. During the day, when photosynthesis occurs under natural light, the plants in a green
house draw down the level of Co2 to below 200ppm. Under these circumstances, infiltration or
ventilation increases carbon dioxide levels, when the outside air is brought in, to maintain the
ambient levels of CO2. If the level of CO2 is less than ambient levels, CO2 may retard the plant
growth. In cold climates, maintaining ambient levels of CO2 by providing ventilation may be un-
economical, due to the necessity of heating the incoming air in order to maintain proper growing
temperatures. In such regions, enrichment of the green house with CO2 is followed. The exact
CO2 level needed for a given crop will vary, since it must be correlated with other variables in
greenhouse production such as light, temperature, nutrient levels, cultivar and degree of maturity.
Most crops will respond favorably to Co2 at 1000 to 1200 ppm.
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Lecture No.4
Equipment required for controlling green house environment – summer cooling and winter
cooling, natural ventilation, forced ventilation and computers.
suspended in air while they are evaporating. Fog is dispersed throughout the green house,
cooling the air everywhere. As this system does not wet the foliage, there is less scope for
disease and pest attack. The plants stay dry throughout the process. This system is equally useful
for seed germination and propagation since it eliminates the need for a mist system.
Both types of summer evaporative cooling system can reduce the greenhouse air
temperature. The fan-and pad system can lower the temperature of incoming air by about 80% of
the difference between the dry and wet bulb temperatures while the fog cooling system can lower
the temperature by nearly 100% difference. This is, due to the fact that complete evaporation of
the water is not taking place because of bigger droplet size in fad and pad, whereas in the fog
cooling system, there will be complete evaporation because of the minute size of the water
droplets. Thus lesser the dryness of the air, greater evaporative cooling is possible.
inside air cools the green house in the winter. Two active winter cooling systems commonly
employed are convection tube cooling and horizontal air flow (HAF) fan cooling systems.
work of HAF fans and to complete the cycle, proper quantity of air is let out through the exhaust
fans. The combined action of louvered inlet, HAF fans and the exhaust fans distribute the cold
air throughout the greenhouse.
Similarly to the convection tubes, the HAF fans can be used to distribute heat in the
green house When neither cooling nor heating is required, the HAF fans or convection tube can
be used to bring warm air down from the upper level of the gable and to provide uniform
temperature in the plant zone. It is possible to integrate summer and winter cooling systems with
heating arrangements inside a green house for the complete temperature control requirements for
certain days of the season.
10% of the total roof area. During winter cooling phase, the south roof ventilator was opened in
stages to meet cooling needs. When greater cooling was required, the north ventilator was
opened in addition to the south ventilator. In summer cooling phase, the south ventilator was
opened first, followed by the north ventilator. As the incoming air moved across the greenhouse,
it was warmed by sunlight and by mixing with the warmer greenhouse air. With the increase in
temperature, the incoming air becomes lighter and rises up and flows out through the roof
ventilators. This sets up a chimney effect (Fig. 7), which in turn draws in more air from the side
ventilators creating a continuous cycle. This system did not adequately cool the greenhouse. On
hot days, the interior walls and floor were frequently injected with water to help cooling.
ventilation, low pressure, medium volume propeller blade fans, both directly connected and belt
driven are used for greenhouse ventilation. They are placed at the end of the green house
opposite to the air intake, which is normally covered by gravity or motorized louvers. The fans
vents, or louvers, should be motorized, with their action controlled by fan operation. Motorized
louvers prevent the wind from opening the louvers, especially when heat is being supplied to the
green house. Wall vents should be placed continuously across the end of the greenhouse to avoid
hot areas in the crop zone.
Evaporative cooling in combination with the fans is called as fan-and-pad cooling
system. The fans and pads are usually arranged on opposite walls of the greenhouse (Fig.8). The
common types of cooling pads are made of excelsior (wood fiber), aluminum fiber, glass fiber,
plastic fiber and cross-fluted cellulose material. Evaporative cooling systems are especially
efficient in low humidity environments. There is growing interest in building greenhouses
combining both passive (natural) and active (forced) systems of ventilation. Passive ventilation is
utilized as the first stage of cooling, and the fan-pad evaporative cooling takes over when the
passive system is not providing the needed cooling. At this stage, the vents for natural ventilation
are closed. When both options for cooling are designed in greenhouse construction, initial costs
of installation will be more. But the operational costs are minimized in the long run, since natural
ventilation will, most often meet the needed ventilation requirements.
Fogging systems is an alternative to evaporative pad cooling. They depend on
absolutely clean water, Free of any soluble salts, in order to prevent plugging of the mist nozzles.
Such cooling systems are not as common as evaporative cooling pads, but when they become
more cost competitive, they will be adopted widely. Fogging systems are the second stage of
cooling when passive systems are inadequate.
4.3.3 Microprocessors
Dedicated microprocessors can be considered as simple computers. A typical microprocessor
will have a keypad and a two or three line liquid crystal display of, sometimes, 80-character
length for programming. They generally do not have a floppy disk drive. They have more output
connections and can control up to 20 devices. With this number of devices, it is cheaper to use a
microprocessor. They can receive signals of several types, such as, temperature, light intensity,
rain and wind speed. They permit integration of the diverse range of devices, which is not
possible with thermostats. The accuracy of the microprocessor for temperature control is quite
good. Unlike a thermostat, which is limited to a bimetallic strip or metallic tube for temperature
sensing and its mechanical displacement for activation, the microprocessor often uses a
thermistor. The bimetallic strip sensor has less reproducibility and a greater range between the
ON and OFF steps. Microprocessors can be made to operate various devices, for instance, a
microprocessor can operate the ventilators based on the information from the sensor for the wind
direction and speed. Similarly a rain sensor can also activate the ventilators to prevent the
moisture sensitive crop from getting wet. A microprocessor can be set to activate the CO 2
generator when the light intensity exceeds a given set point, a minimum level for
photosynthesis.
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4.3.4 Computers
Now-a-days, computer control systems are common in greenhouse installation throughout
Europe, Japan and the United States. Computer systems can provide fully integrated control of
temperature, humidity, irrigation and fertilization, CO2, light and shade levels for virtually any
size growing facility. Precise control over a growing operation enables growers to realize saving
of 15 to 50% in energy, water, chemical and pesticide applications. Computer controls normally
help to achieve greater plant consistency, on-schedule production, higher overall plant quality
and environmental purity.
A computer can control hundreds of devices within a green house (vents, heaters, fans, hot
water mixing valves, irrigation valves, curtains and lights) by utilizing dozens of input
parameters, such as outside and inside temperatures, humidity, outside wind direction and
velocity, CO2 levels and even the time of the day or night. Computer systems receive signals
from all sensors, evaluate all conditions and send appropriate commands every minute to each
piece of equipment in the greenhouse range thus maintaining ideal conditions in each of the
various independent greenhouse zones defined by the grower (Fig.9). Computers collect and
record data provided by greenhouse production managers. Such a data acquisition system will
enable the grower to gain a comprehensive knowledge of all factors affecting the quality and
timeliness of the product. A computer produces graphs of past and current environmental
conditions both inside and outside the greenhouse complex. Using a data printout option,
growers can produce reports and summaries of environmental conditions such as temperature,
humidity and the CO2 status for the given day, or over a longer period of time for current or later
use.
As more environmental factor in the greenhouse is controlled, there comes a stage when
individual controls cannot be coordinated to prevent system overlap. An example is the
greenhouse thermostat calling for heating while the exhaust fans are still running. With proper
software program, which uses the environmental parameters as input from different sensors, can
effectively coordinate all the equipment without overlap and precisely control all parameters
affecting plant development as desired. Despite the attraction of the computer systems, it should
be remembered that the success of any production system is totally dependent on the grower‟s
knowledge of the system and the crop management. Computers can only assist by adding
precision to the overall greenhouse production practice, and they are only as effective as the
software it runs and the effectively of the operator. The advantages and disadvantages of
computerized control system are as follows:
Advantages
1. The computer always knows what all systems are doing and, if programmed properly, can
coordinate these systems without overlap to provide the optimum environment.
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2. The computer can record the environmental data, which can be displayed to show current
conditions or stored and processed ones to provide a history of the cropping period, and if
desired it may also be displayed in table or graph form.
3. A high-speed computer with networking facility can control several remotely located
greenhouses, by placing the computer in a central area and the results can be monitored
frequently by the management.
4. With proper programming and sensing systems, the computer can anticipate weather changes
and make adjustments in heating and ventilation systems, thus saving the energy.
5. The computer can be programmed to sound an alarm if conditions become unacceptable to and
to detect sensor and equipment failure.
Disadvantages
1. High initial cost investment.
2. Requires qualified operators.
3. High maintenance, care and precautions are required.
4. Not economical for small scale and seasonal production.
Lecture No.5
Planning of green house facility - site selection and orientation, structural design and
covering materials.
A greenhouse, is basically the purpose of providing and maintaining a growing environment that
will result in optimum production at maximum yield. The agriculture in the controlled
environment is possible in all the regions irrespective of climate and weather.
It is an enclosing structure for growing plants, greenhouse must admit the visible light
portion of solar radiation for the plant photosynthesis and, there fore, must be transparent. At the
same time, to protect the plants, a greenhouse must be ventilated or cooled during the day
because of the heat load from the radiation. The structure must also be heated or insulated during
cold nights. A greenhouse acts as a barrier between the plant production areas and the external or
the general environment.
Loads in designing the greenhouse structures include the weight of the structure itself
and, if supported by the structure, loads of the equipment for the heating and ventilation and
water lines. Greenhouse structures should be designed to resist a 130 km/h wind velocity. The
actual load depends on wind angle, greenhouse shape and size, and the presence or absence of
openings and wind breaks.
The ideal greenhouse selective covering material should have the following properties:
(i) It should transmit the visible light portion of the solar radiation which is utilized by plants for
photosynthesis.
(ii) It should absorb the small amount of UV in the radiation and convert a portion of it to
fluoresce into visible light, useful for plants.
(iii) It should reflect or absorb IR radiation which are not useful to plants and which causes
greenhouse interiors to overheat.
(iv) Should be of minimum cost.
(v) Should have usable life of 10 to 20 years.
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Lecture No.6
Materials for construction of green houses - wood, galvanized iron, glass, polyethylene film,
poly vinyl chloride film, Tefzel T2 film, fiberglass reinforced plastic rigid panel and acrylic
and polycarbonate rigid panel.
The following materials commonly used to build frames for greenhouse are (i) Wood, (ii)
Bamboo, (iii) Steel, (iv) Galvanized iron pipe, (v) Aluminum and (vi) Reinforced concrete
(RCC). The selection of above materials was based on their Specific physical properties,
requirements of design strength, life expectancy and cost of construction materials.
6.1 Wood
Wood and bamboo are generally used for low cost polyhouses. In low cost polyhouses, the wood
is used for making frames consisting of side posts and columns, over which the polythene sheet
is fixed. The commonly used woods are pine and casuarina, which are strong and less expensive.
In pipe-framed polyhouses, wooden battens can be used as end frames for fixing the covering
material. In tropical areas, bamboo is often used to form the gable roof of a greenhouse structure.
Wood must be painted with white colour paint to improve light conditions within the
greenhouse. Care should be taken to select a paint that will prevent the growth of mold. Wood
must be treated for protection against decay. Chromated copper arsenate and ammonical copper
arsenate are water based preservatives that are applied to the wood that may come into contact
with the soil. Red wood or cypress (natural decay resistance woods) can be used in desert or
tropical regions, but they are expensive.
6.2 Galvanised iron (GI), aluminum, steel and reinforced cement concrete
GI pipes, tubular steel and angle iron are generally used for side posts, columns and purlins in
greenhouse structure, as wood is becoming scarce and more expensive. In galvanising operation,
the surface of iron or steel is coated with a thin layer of zinc to protect it against corrosion. The
commonly followed processes to protect against corrosion are:
(i) Hot dip galvanising (hot process) process: The cleaned member is dipped in molten zinc,
which produces a skin of zinc alloy to the steel.
(ii) Electro-galvanising (cold process) process: The cleaned member is zinc plated similar to
other forms of electro-plating
The galvanising process makes the iron rust proof, to eliminate the problem of rusting of
structural members. Aluminum and hot dipped GI are comparatively maintenance free. In
tropical areas, double dipping of steel is required, as single dip galvanising process does not give
a complete cover of even thickness to the steel. Aluminum and steel must be protected by
painting with bitumen tar, to protect these materials from corrosion, while these materials contact
with the ground. Now-a-days, the greenhouse construction is of metal type, which is more
permanent. RCC is generally limited to foundations and low walls. In permanent bigger
greenhouses, floors and benches for growing the crops are made of concrete.
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6.3 Glass
Glass has been traditional glazing material all over the world. Widely used glass for greenhouse
are: (i) Single drawn or float glass and (ii) Hammered and tempered glass. Single drawn or float
glass has the uniform thickness of 3 to 4 mm. Hammered and tempered glass has a thickness of
4 mm. Single drawn glass is made in the traditional way by simply pulling the molten glass
either by hand or by mechanical equipment. Float glass is made in modern way by allowing the
molten glass to float on the molten tin. Coating with metal oxide with a low emissivity is used
for saving of energy with adequate light transmittance. Hammered glass is a cast glass with one
face (exterior) smooth and the other one (interior) rough. It is designed to enhance light
diffusion. This glass is not transparent, but translucent. Tempered glass is the glass, which is
quickly cooled after manufacture, adopting a procedure similar to that used for steel. This kind of
processing gives higher impact resistance to the glass, which is generally caused by hail. Glass
used as a covering material of greenhouses, is expected to be subjected to rather severe wind
loading, snow and hail loading conditions. The strength mainly depends on the length/width
ratio of the panel and on the thickness of the panel, but the most widely used thickness is 4 mm.
within the greenhouse. To avoid this problem, anti-fog surfactant, which discourages
condensation, is built into the film or panel. Warm objects, such as plants, the greenhouse frame
and soil radiate IR energy to colder bodies at night, which result in loss of heat in greenhouse.
Since polyethylene is a poor barrier to radiant heat, it is formulated with IR-blocking chemicals
into it during manufacture, will stop about half of the radiant heat loss. On cold and clear nights,
as much as 25% of the total heat loss of a greenhouse can be prevented in this way and on cloudy
nights only 15% is prevented. UV-stabilised polyethylene, on an average, transmits about 87% of
photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) into the greenhouse. IR absorbing polyethylene,
reduces radiant heat loss, transmits about 82% of photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) into
the greenhouse. The amount of light passing through two layers of a greenhouse covering is
approximately the square of the decimal fraction of the amount passing through one layer. Eg.
When 87% passes through one layer of UV-inhibited polyethylene, only 76% (0.87 x 0.87)
passes through two layers. Similarlly, when 82% passes through one layer of IR-absorbing
polyethylene, only 67% (0.82 x 0.82) passes through two layers.
polyethylene film and they required much more time to install. Now-a-days, PVC rigid panels
are not in use.
Lecture No.7
Design criteria and constructional details of greenhouses - construction of pipe framed
greenhouses, material requirement, preparation of materials and procedure of erection.
The term greenhouse refers to a structure covered with a transparent material for the purpose of
admitting natural light for plant growth. Two or more greenhouses in one location are referred to
as a greenhouse range. A building associated with the greenhouses that is used for storage or for
operations in support of growing of plants, is referred to as a service building or head house.
greenhouses are primarily of the truss frame type. Truss frame greenhouses are best suited for
prefabrication.
All-metal greenhouses proved cheaper to maintain since they required no painting. At
present, virtually all glass greenhouse construction is of the metal type. The structural members
of the glass greenhouse cast shadows that reduce plant growth during the dark months of the
year. Aluminum sash bars are stronger than wooden ones; hence wider panels of glass can be
used with aluminum bars. The reduction in materials and the reflectance of aluminum have given
these metal greenhouses a great advantage over wooden greenhouses in terms of higher interior
light intensity.
Glass greenhouse construction of today can be categorized as high profile or low profile.
The low profile greenhouse is most popular in the Netherlands and is known as the Venlo
greenhouse. The low profile greenhouses uses single panels of glass extend from eave to ridge.
The low profile greenhouse slightly reduces exposed surface area, thereby reducing the heating
cost, but more expensive to cool. The high profile greenhouses require more than single panel to
cover the eave to ridge. A problem with this design is the unsealed junction between pieces of
glass in the inner layer. Moisture and dust may enter between the layers and reduce light
transmission.
The following materials are required for a greenhouse having 4m 20 m floor area:
(i) GI pipe class A ( 25 mm diameter, 85 cm long, 30 m total length)
(ii) GI pipe class B ( 15 mm diameter, 6.0 m long, 21 No.s)
(iii) GI sheet ( 20 gauge, size 90 24 cm, 4 sheets)
(iv) MS flat ( 25 3 mm size, 4 m length)
(v) Lateral support to end frames (10 mm diameter rod, 10 m length)
(vi) Cement concrete ( 1: 3: 6 mix, 1.0 m3)
(vii) UV- stabilized LDPE film (single layer 800 gauge, 5.4 m2/kg, 154 m2)
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(viii) Polygrip ( channel 2000 3.5 4 cm, 2 No.s; Angle 2000 2 2 cm, 2 No.s; both made from
the procured 20 gauge GI sheet, key 6 mm diameter, 56 mm length)
(ix) Wooden end frames (5 5 cm wood, 0.15 m3)
(x) Nuts and bolts 9 6 mm diameter, 35 mm long, 70 sets)
(xi) Miscellaneous items like nails, hinges and latches as per requirement
(8). Pour cement concrete mix of 1: 3 : 6 around foundation pipes in such a way that the lower
15 cm to 20 cm ends are covered in concrete. The concrete is compacted around the foundation
pipes with the help of the crowbar and is allowed to cure for 2-3 days.
(9) After curing, fill the soil around the foundation pipes to the ground level and compact it well.
(10). Position end frames on the two ends. Mark the position of legs and dug holes for fixing of
legs. Now install both the end frames.
(11). Put the ringside of lateral support members on adjacent foundation pipe to the corner, and
other side is hooked to the end frame.
(12). Put all the hoops in the foundation pipes in such away that straight portion of hoop is
inserted into the foundation and rests on the bolt used for fixing of polygrip channel .
(13). Take a 20 m long ridge line by spacing 15 mm diameter pipes together. Put the 20m long
pipe at the ridge line of the hoops.
(14) Use cross connectors on the ridge line pipe, in such a way that one half of it remains on the
one side of the hoop and the other half on the other side.
(15) Put two bolts of 6 mm diameter in the holes provided in the ends of cross-connector. Tie a
few of them with the help of nuts.
(16) Repeat the same procedure for joining all the hoops with ridge line pipe.
31
(17) While forming cross-connectors, the distance between the cross-connectors or hoops should
be maintained 1.25 m center to center. This poly grip mechanism will provide a firm grip of the
ridge line pipe and hoops at right angles without allowing for slippage.
(18) Spread polyethylene film over the structure from one end to the other end without wrinkles
and keeping the edges together.
(19) Place polyethylene film between the polygrip channel and right angle strip and secure them
under pressure with the help of iron rods. The film is stretched gently and fixed on the other
parallel side by polygrip. This way the polyethylene is secured on both the longer sides.
(20) On the other two remaining ends, polyethylene is nailed to the end frames using wooden
battens and nails.
(21) The remaining portion of the end frames is covered with polyethylene film, which is secured
with wooden battens and nails.
(22) Mechanical ventilation, heating and cooling equipment is installed on the frames as per the
crop requirement.
Lecture No.8
Greenhouse heating and distribution systems. Greenhouse utilization - off-season drying of
agricultural produce. Economic analysis of greenhouse production - capital requirement,
economics of production and conditions influencing returns.
The northern parts of our country experience cold winters, where heating system need to
be employed in the greenhouses along with cooling systems for summer. Whereas the southern
region greenhouses need only cooling systems since the winter cold effect is not that severe.
Greenhouse heating is required in cold weather conditions, if the entrapped heat is not sufficient
during the nights. The heat is always lost from the greenhouse when the surroundings are
relatively cooler. Heat must be supplied to a greenhouse at the same rate with which it is lost in
order to maintain a desired temperature: Heat losses can occur in three different modes of heat
transfer, namely conduction, convection, and radiation. Maintenance of desired higher
temperature, compared with the surroundings needs heating systems and heat distribution
systems. For the purpose of greenhouse heating, apart from conventional systems, solar energy
can also be used and the heat can be stored using water and rock storage. Different heat
conservation practices are available to effectively utilize the heat energy.
radiant energy, whereas polyethylene is not. Polyethylene, greenhouses can lose considerable
amounts of heat through radiation to colder objects outside, unless a film of moisture forms on
the polyethylene to provide a barrier.
running through the length of the greenhouse. Heat escapes from the tube through holes on
either side of the tube in small jet streams, which rapidly mix with the surrounding air and set up
a circulation pattern to minimize temperature gradients.
The second method of heat distribution is horizontal airflow. In this system, the
greenhouse may be visualized as a large box containing air, and it uses small horizontal fans for
moving the air mass. The fans are located above plant height and are spaced about 15 m (50 ft)
apart in two rows. Their arrangement is tha, the heat originating at one corner of the greenhouse
is directed from one side of the greenhouse to the opposite end and then back along the other side
of the greenhouse. Proper arrangement of fans is necessary for effective distribution in
horizontal airflow system for various greenhouse sizes. Both of these distribution systems can
also be used for general circulation of air and for introducing cold outside air during winter
cooling.
into the hot water coil within a unit heater. Although the solar heated water will be cooler than
the thermostat setting on the boiler, heat can be saved, since the temperature of this water need
be raised as high as to reach the output temperature of water or steam from the boiler. A
temperature rise of 17oC above the ambient condition is expected during the daytime in solar
storage units. Each kilogram of water can supply 71.1 kJ of heat, and each kilogram of rock can
supply14.2 kJ of heat, as it cools by 17oC.
A rock storage bed can be used with an air-collector and forced air heating system. In this
case, heated air form the collector, along with air excessively heated inside the greenhouse
during the day, is forced through a bed of rocks (Fig. 12). The rocks absorb much of the heat.
The rock bed may be located beneath the floor of the greenhouse or outside the greenhouse, and
it should be well insulated against heat loss. During the night, when heat is required in the
greenhouse, cool air from inside the greenhouse is forced through the rocks, where it is warmed
and the passed back into the greenhouse. A clear polyethylene tube with holes along either side
serves well to distribute the warm air uniformly along the length of the greenhouse.
Conventional convection tubes can be used for distributing solar heated air. The water or rock
storage unit occupies a large amount of space and a considerable amount of insulation is
provided if the unit is placed outside. Placing it inside the greenhouse offers an advantage in that
escaping heat is beneficial during heating periods, but it is detrimental when heating is not
required. Rock beds can pose a problem in that they must remain relatively dry. Water
evaporating from these beds will remove considerable heat.
protected agricultural systems as compared with open field agriculture. The cost and returns of
protected agriculture vary greatly, depending on the system used, the location and the crop
grown. By design, all protected agricultural systems of cropping are intensive in use of land,
labour, and capital. Greenhouse agriculture is the most intensive system of all. The intensity of
land use is greatly dependent upon the system of protected agriculture. Year-round greenhouse
crop production is therefore much more intensive than seasonal use of mulches and row covers.
Coinciding with intensity are yields, which are normally far greater per ha from year round than
from seasonal systems. The normal benefit of higher yields of CEA over the open field
agriculture depends on the system used and the region of production.
patterns and government incentives. The size of any system of protected agriculture will depend
on the market objectives of the farmer. Most protected agricultural endeavors are family
operated. Often the products are retailed directly to the consumer through a road side market at
the farm site. In the developed world, greenhouse operations tend to be a size that can be
operated by one family (0.4 to 0.8 ha).A unit of 0.4 ha can be operated by two to three labourers,
with additional help at periods of peak activity. The labour wages can usually be provided by the
owner and his family. Moreover, the owner will pay close attention to management, which is the
most important factor. Labour costs may rise significantly if it is necessary to recruit labour from
outside the family. Green house owners who hire a highly qualified manager may have to operate
a larger greenhouse than family size greenhouses in order to offset the additional salary paid.
Total Cost
The green house system economy can be improved with increased size when:
1. There is a unique opportunity to mechanize certain operations.
2. Labour can be more efficiently utilized.
3. Low cost capital is available.
4. There are economics in the purchase of packaging materials and in marketing.
5. Some special management skills are available.
The physical facilities and location of the green house influence the economics. Another variable
that influence the profits from the green house is intensity of production, which is determined by
the structures with complete environmental control system facilities year round production and
early harvest, thus enabling the grower to realize higher profits. Year –round production offers
year round employment to the laborers. It is found that the environmentally controlled green
house produced only one- third more revenue than high tunnel structure. With the improved
transportation facilities, the new areas of production in combination with the following factors
contribute to the lower costs.
1. High sun light intensity undiminished by air pollution.
2. Mild winter temperatures.
3. Infrequent violent weather conditions.
4. Low humidity during the summer for cooling.
5. Availability of water with low salinity levels.
Cropping pattern will have bearing on the green house structure. A high –tunnel structure or any
structure not fitted with environmental controlled equipment for heating and cooling will be used
only on a seasonal basis. It is common to switch over from green house vegetable production to
flower production, especially in structures with more elaborate environmental control systems.
Growers through out the world are currently experimenting with alternative crops, such as herbs.
As eating habits change, with times and as the consumers are becoming increasingly conscious
of diet and the nutritional value of fruits and vegetables, growers must continually look for
alternative to existing cropping patterns. Government policies also influence the financial returns
from the crops. Government may provide grants or low interest loans, subsidies towards
construction costs, fuels, and use of plastics, such as drip irrigation systems, mulches, row covers
and covering materials. Such incentives from the Government encourage the growers and
stimulate the green house industry.
scarce. Solar energy can be an alternative source for drying of food and solar dryers are
employed for the purpose. The use of the greenhouse as a dryer is the latest development. The
drying capabilities of the greenhouse can be utilized for curing tobacco leaves, while guarding
the harvest from rain damage.
Lecture No.9
Irrigation system used in greenhouses-rules of watering, hand watering, perimeter watering,
overhead sprinklers, boom watering and drip irrigation.
A well-designed irrigation system will supply the precise amount of water needed each day
throughout the year. The quantity of water needed would depend on the growing area, the crop,
weather conditions, the time of year and whether the heating or ventilation system is operating.
Water needs are also dependent on the type of soil or soil mix and the size and type of the
container or bed. Watering in the green house most frequently accounts for loss in crop quality.
Though the operation appears to be the simple, proper decision should be taken on how, when
and what quantity to be given to the plants after continuous inspection and assessment .Since
under watering (less frequent) and over watering (more frequent) will be injurious to the crops,
the rules of watering should be strictly adhered to. Several irrigation water application systems,
such as hand writing, perimeter watering, overhead sprinklers, boom watering and drip irrigation,
over sprinklers, boom watering and drip irrigation which are currently in use.
great risk of applying too little water or of waiting too long between waterings. Hand watering
requires considerable time and is very boring. It is usually performed by inexperienced
employees, who may be tempted to speed up the job or put it off to another time. Automatic
watering is rapid and easy and is performed by the grower it self. Where hand watering is
practiced, a water breaker should be used on the end of the hose. Such a device breaks the force
of the water, permitting a higher flow rate without washing the root substrate out of the bench or
pot. It also lessens the risk of disrupting the structure of the substrate surface.
periodically to a height well above the final height of the crop (Fig.14). A total height of 0.6 m is
sufficient for bedding plants flats and 1.8 m for fresh flowers. A nozzle is installed at the top of
each riser. Nozzles vary from those that throw a 360° pattern continuously to types that rotate
around a 360° circle. Trays are sometimes placed under pots to collect water that would
otherwise fall on the ground between pots and wasted. Each tray is square and meets the adjacent
tray. In this way nearly all water is intercepted. Each tray has a depression to accommodate the
pot and is then angled upward from the pot toward the tray perimeter. The trays also have drain
holes, which allow drainage of excess water and store certain quantity, which is subsequently
absorbed by the substrate.
required by surface irrigation. Basic equipment for irrigation consists of a pump, a main line,
delivery pipes, manifold, and drip tape laterals or emitters as shown in figure 15:
The head, between the pump and the pipeline network, usually consists of control valves,
couplings, filters, time clocks, fertilizer injectors, pressure regulators, flow meters, and gauges.
Since the water passes through very small outlets in emitters, it is an absolute necessity that it
should be screened, filtered, or both, before it is distributed in the pipe system. The initial field
positioning and layout of a drip system is influenced by the topography of the land and the cost
of various system configurations.
44
Lecture No.10
Threshing - types of threshers, parts, threshers for different crops, terminology, different types
of cylinders used in threshers, care and maintenance.
Agricultural development has two major aspects: production and post harvest processing. Until
now, we have concentrated on agricultural production and neglected processing of farm crops
and animal products.
India is the world‟s second largest producer of food next to china. It is estimated that
10% of food grains produced in India are lost in processing and storage. Some estimates
indicated that, in developing countries, as much as 1/4th to 1/3rd of total crop may be lost as a
result of inefficient post harvest systems. About 11-12% in paddy, 8-9% in wheat, 10-11% in
gram, 10-17% in rapeseed and mustard are lost during production in India due to usage of old
and outdated methods of milling, improper and inefficient methods of storage, transportation and
handling. An estimate of post harvest losses in paddy in South East Asia is given in Table 2:
Table 2. An estimate of post harvest losses in paddy in South East Asia
Operation Range of losses (%)
Harvesting 1-3
Threshing 2-6
Drying 1-5
Handling 2-7
Milling 2-10
Storing 2-6
Total 10-37
Also, 10-30% of vegetables and fruits (approximately 20 crores worth) are lost every year due to
lack of proper methods of processing and storage.
Post harvest processing technology or Post harvest technology of agricultural products
refers to the processes and treatments carried out on agricultural products after it is harvested. It
starts from the selection of proper harvest and ends with marketing. The following operations
such as threshing, drying, storage, parboiling, milling, sorting, grading, oil extraction, juice
extraction, ginning, cold storage, packing, transport, marketing etc., included under this term.
The purpose of post harvest processing is to maintain or enhance quality of the products and
make it marketable.
fortification, converting low grade food and organic waste into nutritive cattle feed. It has
potential to create rural agro industries.
10.2 Threshing
Threshing is the process of removal of grain from the plant by striking, treading or rubbing.
Common methods of threshing are threshing by manual labour, threshing by animals, and
threshing by machines
Principles of threshing
Removal of grains from the plant stalk is done by rotating cylinders, whose threshing action
depends primarily upon impact. “Hold-on” and “Throw-in” are the two major types of threshers
are available in India.
“Hold-On” thresher: The plant stalks are held in bundles against the rotating cylinder and the
grains are stripped off and collected. Eg. Pedal operated paddy thresher
“Throw-in” thresher: Plant stalks are fed into the machine continuously which produces grain
and threshed straw in the respective outlets. Eg. Power thresher or all crop thresher.
Threshing cylinder
The cylinder is usually available in two sizes. One size is about 450 mm in length when one man
operates thresher. The other size is 700 mm in length when it is to be operated by two persons.
The threshing cylinder is made with iron or wood and suitably reinforced at its center for proper
rigidity. The cylinder is usually made with wooden, to make the thresher light in weight. The
cylinder is provided with a series of threshing teeth in the shape of loops fixed on wooden slats
all round its circumference. The diameter of the cylinder used on common threshers is about 43
cm but its width may vary from 40 to 76 cm. The cylinder is supported by two ball bearings on
the frame.
Drive mechanism
The drive of the pedal operated thresher is of eccentric type. Drive consists of a crank, one end of
which is connected to a spur gear. The other end of the crank is connected suitably to the pedal
frame fulcrum, which is welded to the pedal frame. The normal operating speed is about 400
revolutions per minute.
Gear housing
Gear housing made of cast iron. It consists of two spur gears provide an over-all ratio of 1:4
speed gain from a pedal, to achieve a cylinder speed of 400 rpm.
47
Supporting frame
The body frame of the thresher consists of the base, the side frame, the front grain shield and rear
grain shield.
Base: The base is made of mild steel angle section or wood. It is suitably fixed to the side frame
of the body.
Side frame: The side frames are made of mild steel angle section. The side frame support side
boards, which are usually made of mild steel sheet.
Front grain shield: The front grain shield is made of wooden plank of about 12 mm thick and is
fitted suitably to the side frame.
Lecture No.11
Terminology related to threshers, components, working, care and maintenance
It .is a machine operated by a prime mover such as electric motor, engine, tractor or power tiller,
used for threshing.
Removal of grains from the ear heads is done by rotating cylinders, whose threshing action
depends primarily upon impact. When a slow moving material comes in contact with the high
speed cylinder, the heads or pods are shattered and the grains are separated from straw. Further
threshing is done when the material passes through the restricted clearance space between the
cylinder and the concave portion of the unit. Output is 200-500 kg grains per hour.
stripping action between the teeth. Peripheral speed of the cylinder is about 1500-1800 m3/min
(Fig.18).
11.2 Concave
It is a concave shaped metal grating, partly surrounding the cylinder against which the cylinder
rubs the grain from the plant or ear heads and through which the grains fall on the sieve.
the cylinder, cylinder-concave clearance, type of crop, moisture content of crop, weather
condition and feed rate. Various crops can be threshed by changing the speed of the cylinder, are
given in Table 3.
11.4.3 Adjustments
(i) The beater, straw rack and fan must be driven at a relatively constant speed regardless of
cylinder rpm. Therefore, it is essential to change the V-belt drive pulley on the cylinder shaft for
the crops requiring different cylinder speeds.
(ii) Cylinder concave clearance may be adjusted to raise or lower the cylinder and concave unit.
Clearance should be as great as can be used with satisfactory threshing.
(iii) Cylinder speeds may be changed by changing sheaves and sprockets.
12. After continuous working for 8 to 10 hours, the machine should be given some rest before it
is put into operation again.
13. After threshing season, all the belts should be removed and the machine should be kept in a
covered place.
Threshing efficiency : The threshed grain received from all outlets with respect to total grain
input expressed as percentage by mass.
Blower loss: The percentage of grains blown by blower along with bhusa with respect to total
grain input in the thresher by weight is called blower loss.
Sieve loss: The percentage of healthy grains, dropped from sieve with respect to healthy grains,
received from main outlet by weight is known as sieve loss.
Cylinder loss: The percentage of un-threshed grains from all outlets with respect to total grain
input in the thresher by weight is called cylinder loss.
Visible damage loss: The percentage of broken or cracked grains from all outlets with respect to
total grain input in the thresher by weight is known as visible damage loss.
56
Lecture No.12
Winnowing - manual and power operated winnowers, care and maintenance.
Winnowing is the process of separating grain from a mixture of grain, chaff and other impurities
in an air stream from a natural or artificial source. The winnowing operation is very common in
India. It is done on the threshing floor where the entire harvested crop is threshed. Usually one or
more persons pour the threshed material with a basket from slightly above their own height. For
more effective cleaning, they shake the basket while pouring the mixture against the effective
direction of air stream. Before the winnowing is started, the threshing floor is thoroughly cleaned
and sometimes plastered with cow dung, so that the soil may not mixed with the grain.
Winnowing of crops like paddy, in which chaff is very small fraction is accomplished in one
operation only. But the second winnowing becomes necessary for cops like wheat, barely, gram
etc, in which bhusa (chaff) constitutes about 1/2 to 2/3 of the total weight of the mixture.
1. Winnowing basket
2. Winnowing fan
3. Winnower
Blades
12.2.3 Winnower
The winnower consists of wooden or angle iron frame, housing, blower, feed hopper, feed and
purity adjustment mechanisms, grain outlet, immature grain outlet, chaff and dust outlets and
blower hand wheel with gears and pulley arrangement (Fig.25). Walls of the feed hopper taper
towards inside from all sides and ensures gravity flow. Flow of the mixture is regulated by the
feed rate adjustment mechanism, which makes the mixture to fall as a thin stream perpendicular
to the air current, is essentially a gate obstructing the flow below the feed hopper. Blower
consists of four curved blades mounted horizontally on a shaft with two ball bearings. The shaft
58
carries a small gear (pinion) at its one end that meshes with a bigger gear. The bigger gear is
rotated by handle provided at its periphery. On the other end of the shaft, a V-belt pulley is
attached for possible mechanized operation and also it acts as a flywheel. Ring gear has 66 teeth
and the pinion has 20 teeth giving a speed ratio of 3.3: 1 or 4:1 i.e., the diameter of big gear is
3.3 or 4 times bigger than the pinion. For one revolution of bigger gear will give four revolutions
to the blower. Thus, if the handle is turned at a speed of 50 revolutions per minute (rpm) , the
blower will rotate at a speed of 165 or 200 rpm. The sieve is placed in front of the fan at the
lower end of the winnower. A set of sieves are supplied with machine to suit the different sizes
of grains. These sieves have holes of 12, 8, 6, 4, 3 and 2 mm diameter. The sieve is reciprocated
by an eccentric roller which gets its motion from the axle of the blower. The reciprocating action
of the sieve permits the grains and dirt particles to fall down, while the straw is blown out.
Lecture No.13
Groundnut decorticators - hand and power operated decorticators, principle of working, care
and maintenance.
Groundnut is the 13th most important food crop of the world. It is the world's 4th most important
source of edible oil and 3rd most important source of vegetable protein. Groundnut seeds contain
high quality edible oil (50%), easily digestible protein (25%) and carbohydrates (20%). It is
grown on 26.4 million ha worldwide with a total production of 36.1 million metric tons, and an
average productivity of 1.4 metric tons/ ha (FAO, 2004). Groundnut is grown in nearly 100
countries. Major groundnut producers in the world are: China, India, Nigeria, USA, Indonesia
and Sudan. In India, groundnut is grown on 5.7 million ha with a production of 4.7 million
metric tons, with an average productivity of 0.8 metric tons/ ha during the rainy season and in the
post-rainy season it is grown on 0.9 million ha with a production of 1.5 million metric ton, and
an average productivity of 1.6 metric tons/ ha.
In Andhra Pradesh, it is grown on 1.6 million ha during the rainy season with a
production of 1.6 million tons, and during the post rainy season it is grown on 0.3 million ha
with an production of 0.4 million tons. Anantapur district in the state is the largest producer of
groundnut with 0.74 million ha of area under cultivation. Globally, 50% of groundnut produce is
used for oil extraction, 37% for confectionery use and 12 % for seed purpose. In India, 80% of
the total produce is used for oil extraction, 11% as seed, 8% for direct food uses and 1% is
exported. Groundnut is one of the major farm crop of the Southern and Western states of India.
However, with the establishment of “Technical Mission on Oil” seeds in India, the spread of
groundnut has reached in the non traditional regions namely Orissa, Bihar, Assam and U.P. also.
It is number one oil seed crop of the country.
Both digging and shelling of groundnuts present a great problem in making the product
ready for market. The process of obtaining kernels from the stripped groundnut pods is known as
decortication. Mostly decortication is usually done by breaking the shell by hand pressure under
the thumb. Manual decortication by hand is laborious, expensive and less productive. But now,
the commercial hand and power operated groundnut decorticators are being used in the country.
Both these machines work on the same principles. The main difference lies in their capabilities.
After decortication, separation of grain from a mixture of grain and split shells is done in an air
stream. The separation is achieved by allowing the air stream created artificially or naturally and
passing the mixture vertically down, perpendicular to the air blast. The grain being heavier gets
collected almost at the place of dropping, whereas the lighter material (split shells) is blown
away to a greater distance. The hand operated one has a capacity of about 200 kg/h and the
mechanical decorticator has 500 kg/h capacity.
The groundnut decorticators are classified into two types based on source of power:
(1) Manual type
(2) Power operated
Manual type groundnut decorticators are further classified into:
(a) Hand operated rotary decorticator
(b) Pedal operated rotary decorticator.
(c ) Hand operated ‟‟ rocking type‟‟ decorticator.
Lecture No.14
Castor and maize shelling - manual and power operated shellers, principle of working, care
and maintenance.
Shelling operation usually follows threshing of harvested crops. In shelling, the beans or kernels
are extracted from the protective coat known as shell, hull or husk. Though the operations are
known by different names such as shelling, dehusking, milling and decortication, they are
thought to be synonymous and are specific to the crop handled. These operations essentially
produce the same out put, which can be directly utilized or processed further. In shelling, the
input to the machine being the whole pods and the output is the kernels, whereas in threshing the
input is whole crop. For shelling of some crops, the principle of threshing can be used but for
others a variety of mechanisms are to be sorted for, based on the crop characteristics. It is a
common practice to dry the input material on an appropriate level for a efficient shelling. The
output obtained from sheller is cleaned by winnowing or aspiration methods.
feeding end is 40 mm diameter and outlet end is 30 mm diameter, which means that cobs more
than 40 mm stalk diameter will get choked during operation and cobs less than 30mm diameter
will come out without getting shelled.
Lecture No.15
Drying – types, grain dryers.
Drying is the universal method of conditioning grain by removing moisture to a moisture content
level that is in equilibrium with normal atmospheric air in order to preserve its quality and
nutritive value for food and feed and its viability for seed. Generally, drying refers to the removal
of relatively small amount of moisture from a solid or nearly solid material by evaporation.
Therefore, drying involves both heat and mass transfer operations simultaneously. Two major
moisture removal methods are drying (or dehydration) to produce a solid product and
evaporation to produce a more concentrated liquid. Drying refers to removal of moisture from
grains and other products to a predetermined level, whereas dehydration means removal of
moisture to very low levels usually to bone dry condition.
Wm = Weight of moisture
Wd = Weight of bone dry material
Moisture content, dry basis
Wm m
M *100 *100................(2)
Wd 100 m
The moisture content on dry basis is more simple to use in calculation as the quantity of
moisture present at any time is directly proportional to the moisture content on dry basis. Use of
the wet basis measurement is common in the grain industry. However, use of the wet basis has
one clear disadvantage is that, the total mass changes as moisture is removed. Since the total
mass is the reference base for the moisture content, the reference condition is changing as the
moisture content changes. On the other hand, the amount of dry matter does not change. For a
given product, the moisture content dry basis is always higher than the wet basis moisture
content.
Problem : The moisture content of grain is 25% on w.b. and is equal to -----% on d.b.
M= 25/75= 33.3 % d.b.
67
c) At a given RH and moisture content, the drying rate is proportional to the difference between
the dry bulb temperatures of air in equilibrium with the grain.
d) The rate of drying is proportional to the difference between the vapour pressure of moisture in
the grain and vapour pressure of moisture in the drying air.
The drying rate in a bin varies from layer to layer from time to time and depends upon the
characters of grains and the air used for drying.
A sack drier (Fig. 31) consists of a large floor in a building with openings over which the
sacks of grain are placed. The openings are covered with a perforated material to support the
sacks. A blower is connected to an air chamber beneath the floor to supply the air. A sack dryer
is best suited for drying a small quantity of grain. It eliminates the problem of mixing various
paddy varieties. This type of dryer requires high labour cost. Usually air temperature of 450C is
used with air flow rate of 4 m3/min per bag of 60 kg for fast drying. The sacks are turned over
once during the drying operation.
This is continuous flow non-mixing type of dryer. This dryer was developed at Rice Processing
Engineering Centre (RPEC), IIT, Khargpur. It consists of two concentric circular cylinders made
72
of perforated sheets of 20 gauge (Fig.34). The cylinders are set about 20 cm apart, to move the
grain downward. These two cylinders are supported on four channel sections. A bucket elevator
of suitable capacity is provided to feed and recirculate the grain into the dryer. A centrifugal
blower blows the hot air into the inner cylinder which acts as a plenum. The hot air from the
plenum passing the grain moving downward by gravity and comes out of the perforated cylinder.
A torch burner is employed to supply the necessary heat with kerosene oil as fuel. RPEC dryers
are made for half, one and two tones holding capacities.
There are several types of continuous flow mixing type dryers. The most popular type in India
and USA is the LSU type. The main advantages of continuous flow dryers are:
1. A shorter drying period, which is necessary with less danger of spoilage during wet season.
2. Larger volumes of paddy can be dried in less time.
3. Drying losses are less
4. Drying is more uniform as there is mixing of grain with air
5. The milling quality of paddy is better
6. Higher air flow rates could be obtained
7. The drying parameters can be controlled and therefore, also the drying rate.
This is a continuous flow mixing type of grain dryer. The main advantage with the dryer is
uniformly dried product is obtained.
73
Construction
The baffle dryer consists of; (1) grain receiving bin, (2) drying chamber fitted with baffles,
(3) plenum fitted with hot air inlet, (4) grain discharge control devices and (5) hopper bottom. A
number of baffles are fitted with the drying chamber to divert the flow and affect certain degree
of mixing of grain. The dryer is made of mild steel sheets.
Grain is fed at the top receiving bin and allowed to move downward in a zigzag path
through the drying chamber where it encounters a cross flow of hot air. A bucket elevator can
recirculate the grain till it is dried to the desired moisture level. This design helps in mixing of
dried and undried grains.
This is a continuous flow-mixing type of grain dryer which is popular in India and the U.S.A. It
was developed at Louisiana State University Baton Rouge, USA in 1949.
Construction:
It consists of :(1) a rectangular drying chamber fitted with air ports and the holding bin, (2) an air
blower with duct, (3) grain discharging mechanism with a hopper bottom, and (4) an air heating
system (Fig.36).
(1) Rectangular bin: Usually the following top square sections of the bin are used for the design
of LSU dryers:
(i) 1.2m x 1.2 m, (ii) 1.5 m x 1.5 m,
(iii) 1.8 m x 1.8 m and (iv) 2.1 m x 2.1 m.
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The rectangular bin can be divided into two sections, namely, top holding bin and bottom
drying chamber.
(2) Air Distribution system: Layers of inverted trough or V- shaped channels (called inverted
V-ports) are installed in the drying chamber.
Alternate rows of these ports are opened on the blower and closed on the exhaust end. These
are called inlet ports Hot air enters the drying chamber through these ports. The other
(a) (b)
Fig. 36. (a) LSU type dryer and (b) flow pattern in LSU dryer
alternative rows of ports are closed on the blower end and are opened on the exhaust end.
These are called outlet or exhaust ports as the drying air goes out through these ports. The inlet
and outlet ports are of uniform sizes and equal in number with equal spacing in between them.
Usually the inlet ports are given in 3 columns and outlet ports in 4 columns ( 2 column of full
size ports and 2 columns of half-size ports). The number of ports containing a dryer varies
widely depending on the size of the dryer. The inlet and outlet ports are arranged one below the
other in a zig-zag path, so that when paddy flows down between these ports, it takes a zig-zag
path. Hot air enters the inlet ports from the blower end. Since these ports are closed on exhaust
end, the hot air from these channels or ports flows down through the paddy and enter the outlet
ports and leave the drying chamber through exhaust side. Some degree of mixing of hot air and
paddy occurs in this chamber while air is flowing across it in zig-zag path and paddy flowing
downwards. Three fluted rolls are attached at the bottom, which are rotated at a slow speed.
The discharge of the paddy is regulated with these fluted rolls. To provide hot air for drying,
fuel is burnt to raise the ambient air temperature. Heat may be supplied by the direct fired
burners or direct or indirect heat exchangers.
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In general, the capacity of the dryer varies from 2 to 12 tonnes of grain, but sometimes dryers
of higher capacities are also installed. Accordingly power requirement varies widely.
Recommended air flow rate is 70 m3/min/tonne of dry paddy and optimum air temperatures are
60-70O C and 85O C for raw and parboiled paddy respectively. A series of dryers can also be
installed. In continuous flow dryers, drying air temperature may be as high as 700C, where as
for batch dryers, this temperature seldom exceeds 450C. Following are some recommendations
for the drying operation with particular reference to the operation of an LSU Dryer:
a) A drying cycle chart in the control room will be a great help and to guide the operator.
b) The dryer should not be operated until it is filled completely with grain.
c) The recommended drying air temperature is 60O C and the air flow rate is 70 cu m/min./ ton
of holding capacity of dryer.
d) Tempering in between drying process is recommended to reduce the total drying time.
Normally, this tempering period is of 8 hour duration.
e) Feed roll clearance should be the same for all the fluted rolls for uniform drying.
f) The grain temperature during drying should not exceed 40O C.
g) The burner should be started only after the blower has been started.
h) There should be appropriate controls to put the flame off in case of blower failure due to
either power or mechanical failure. An automatic fuel cut-off valve is recommended for this
purpose.
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Lecture No.16
Storage - grain storage, types, bag storage, cylindrical grain bin, metal bin, rectangular
grain bin, pusa bin.
There has been a spectacular increase in food grain production in India. The annual production
was 208.6 million tones in 2005-06. However, there has only been a marginal increase in the
structure for grain storage. This has resulted in losses both in quality and quantity of the
harvested grain.
The qualitative loss may be due to chemical changes in the protein, carbohydrate and fat
and by the contamination of micotoxins, pesticide residues, insect fragments, excreta of rodents
and birds and their bodies. The quantitative loss in storage may be on account of the activities of
the birds, rodent, insects, enzyme activity of micro organisms etc. The losses in quantity also
occur in threshing yards, processing plants and during handling.
It is roughly estimated that about 2/3rd of the total grain produced is retained by the
farmers for their food and seeds. The remaining 1/3rd quantity is considered as marketable
surplus. The total storage capacity available with various agencies of the Government is of the
order of about 10 per cent. It is obviously quite in adequate and needs to be increased
considerably in order to reduce losses.
The main factors responsible for the losses in quality and quantity of grain are insects,
rodents and dampness. Damage by insect pests results in the food grain becoming weevilled,
causing losses not only in weight but also in food value. Leakage of water through roof, and
dampness in the structure through floors and side walls make the grain deteriorate in many ways.
One of the several effects is excessive oxidation which causes a rise in temperature of the grain,
including its heating and cake formation. Moisture also encourages fungus, mould and termite
growth, at times rendering the entire grain stock unfit for human consumption. Beside this, rats
cause serious loss by eating or breaking the grains into pieces.
These structures are generally used for the storage of 25 to 500 tonnes of grain. The length of the
structure is about twice the width or greater than that. The structure should be large enough to
store the required capacity and make the sides, floor and roof, moisture proof. Each of the
structures are provided with two large size doors of 2.4 x 2.4 m and top ventilators. Each door is
provided with a light over-hanging hood of 3.6 m, long and 2.4 m wide. A ground ventilator
having an opening of 30 x 30 cm is provided below each corresponding top ventilators. The top
of the ventilator is kept at a height of 60 cm above the floor level. It is also provided with iron
rods, wire netting and a shutter. Besides this, a sun shade is provided on both the top and the
ground ventilators (Fig. 37).
In order to ensure that the floor is damp-proof, it is made of different materials in six layers as
stated below (Fig.37):
1. 15 cm thick layer of gravel and sand, well rammed at the bottom.
2. 12.5 cm thick layer of stone or brick ballast or double layer brick.
3. 10 cm thick layer of cement concrete (1:4:8) mixed with broken glass.
4. 1.25 cm thick layer of bitumen mixed with sand.
5. 4 cm thick layer of cement concrete (1:2:4).
6. 2.5 cm thick layer of cement concrete (1: 11/2 :3 ).
The walls are made of bricks or stones laid either in lime mortar (1:2) or cement mortar (1:6).
The wall thickness is restricted to a minimum of 37.5 cm or maximum of 45 cm. The roof is
either gabled or flat. The gable roof is covered with corrugated metal sheet with maximum
precautions taken to make it leak proof. However, a flat roof is more durable as it is made of
either reinforced brick or reinforced concrete of about 10 to 12.5 cm thickness. The terracing on
the roof is made of brick ballast, surkhi and lime in the proportion of 31/2 :1:1 respectively.
Before putting up the terracing, a thin layer of bitumen is applied over the concrete roof.
Constructional features
A platform of suitable size is made with un-burnt bricks on the hard floor (Fig. 40).
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A black LDPE film of 700 gauge is spread over the platform with at least 6 inch extension on all
the four sides of the platform. Above the polyethylene film, another platform of the same size is
made with un-burnt bricks. Later the wall is constructed on all the four sides to the required
height. The wall inside is mud plastered. A wooden frame with arrangement for manhole (50 ×
50 cm) is made and put on the top of the walls to act as support to the roof of the bin. By using
the similar LDPE sheet, a cover in the form of mosquito net is made, which is sufficient to cover
upto bottom of the walls and put on the walls. Later, it is heat sealed from all sides and laid on
the floor layers of the bricks. The LDPE sheet, at the place of manhole is cut to the size and
removed. A round hole of about 15 cm diameter is left at the bottom of the front wall for
withdrawing the grain. Finally, an outer wall with single layer of bricks is constructed on all the
sides in such a way that the polythene film put on the inner walls is sandwiched between the two
walls. A mud slab of 5 cm thick is placed on the top, leaving out the portion of the manhole. The
structure is plastered on the top as well as on all the four sides and allowed to dry well before
use. Dried and cooled grain is loaded into the bin for storage. For better performance, it is
necessary that the bin is completely filled with grain or with minimum unfilled space. In the
event of shortage of grain, it is advised to fill the space above the grain with straw or bhusa.
Finally, the bin is sealed at the manhole and also at the outlet hole. After the storage period, the
manhole is opened to draw the stored grain for use.
81
Problem: Design a bag storage structure for storing 250 T of paddy. Assume reasonable
data wherever necessary.
Solution:
Assumptions:
(iii) Stack consists of 12 bags in length, 10 bags in width and 10 bags in height.
250000
No. of bags in bag storage structure (or godown) = = 3333.33
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3333.33
No. of stacks in godown = = 2.77 3
12 10 10
Stack dimensions:
Godown dimensions:
0.8 2m 2m 0.8
m m
The dimensions of 250 T capacity bag storage structure are: 23.6 m × 11.6 m× 4.6 m
82
References
1. Chakraborthy, A., and De, D. S. 1981. Post Harvest Technology of Cereals and Pulses.
Oxford & IBH Publishing Co., New Delhi.
2. Tiwari, G. N. and Goyal, R. K. 1998. Greenhouse Technology. Narosa Publishing House,
New Delhi.
3. Radha Manohar, K., and Igathinathane, C. 2000. Greenhouse Technology and
Management. BS Publications, Hyderabad.
4. Kennard, S., and Nelson, B. A. 1977. Greenhouse Management for Flowers and Plant
Production. International Printers and Publishers Inc., Illinois.
5. Langhans, R. W. 1978. A Growth Chamber - Manual Environmental Control for Plants.
Contock Publishing Associates, Cornell University Press, London.
6. Jagdishwar Sahay. 2006. Elements of Agricultural Engineering. Standard Publishers and
Distributors, New Delhi.
7. Michal, A. M., and Ojha, T. P. 2008. Principles of Agricultural Engineering, Vol. I. Jain
Brothers, New Delhi.
8. Igathinathane, C., Daniel smith, Prasad, B.V.S., and Venkataramaiah, K. 2002. Practical
manual on post harvest technology-processing and equipment. CAE, Bapatla.