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Jaroslav Adam
Version 2
Minimum energy W to be transferred from the incident particle to create at least one ion pair
Quantified as average energy loss to create the pair
Given by the least tightly bound shell, W = 10 - 25 eV
Non-ionizing energy loss (excitation) makes number of pairs lower
Fully stopped 1 MeV particle produces 30 000 ion pairs
Number of pairs is important for resolution
Suppose two metallic electrodes at distance D covering volume of a gas or noble liquid
Voltage V applied to anode (thousands of kV)
Number of electrons n− given by the number of minimum-ionizing-particles (mip)
n dE
n− = Dρ (1)
W dx
Electrostatic force moves the charges, positive ions opposite to electrons and negative ions
Drift of electrons characterized by drift velocity in electric field E = V /D
dx µe V µe
vd (e) = = E= (2)
dt p pD
Electron mobility µe given in unit of bar cm2 V−1 s−1 , p is the gas pressure
Mobility of ions is about 1000 less than of electrons
Description with mobility provides calculation of readout times
ms for ions, µs for electrons
No increase in drift velocity after reaching it’s maximum, only in some gases
Hydrocarbons, argon-hydrocarbon mixtures
In non-saturation gases, E/p proportionality holds up to high fields
√
σ= 2Dt (3)
Electron transfer from neutral gas molecule to positive ion in mutual collision
Significant in mixtures, net positive charge transfered to species with lowest ionization energy
Negative ion can be formed by capturing of free electron (oxygen)
dn+ dn−
= = −αn+ n− (4)
dt dt
Imbalance in steady-state situation supposing uniform production of ions within the chamber
Larger concentration of positive ions close to cathode, opposite for electrons close to anode
Gradient in concentration formed, diffusion opposite to drift
Perturbation in measured current in planar chamber given by
∆I kT
− = (5)
I eV
close to one for ions, but much larger, several hundreds for electrons
Minimized by high voltage
Columnar recombination not fully eliminated
Separate measurements of ionization current as a function of voltage
1/I as a function of 1/V to determine true saturation current
No special requirement on gas since negative charge can be collected as free electrons as
well as negative ions
Only recombination could affect the amount of charge, suppressed by high enough voltage
Few centimeters and tens of hundreds of volts sufficient to reach saturation
Air for gamma-ray exposure, denser gases like Argon to increase ionization density
Pressure about 1 atmosphere, higher to increase sensitivity
Reduces space requirements for higher gamma-rays energies, wall thickness less than 1 cm
Exposure rate given by saturation current Is and mass M in active volume
Is
R= (6)
M
Radiation monitoring
Saturation current in closed volume of several cm3
Dose measured by charge integration
Initial charge on the chamber, drop in voltage measures total integrated ionization charge
Calibration for gamma-ray sources, ionization current for small displacement of the source
Ēαe
I= (7)
W
Principle of smoke detectors where ionization current from internal alpha source decreases
due to presence of the smoke in sampled air
Positive and negative ions in the air survive for minutes before recombination
Flow of air is transported to a chamber outside the source of radiation
LRAD - Long Range Alpha Detector:
Sample of alpha-contaminated material in container, air flowing though it
Positive and negative ions carried into an ion chamber
dV V
C =I= (8)
dt R
1 1
CV02 = n0 eEv + t + n0 eEv − t + CVch 2
(10)
2 2
Vch V0
V0 + Vch ' 2V0 and ' (11)
d d
n0 e +
VR = (v + v − )t (12)
dC
n0 e +
VR = (v )t (13)
dC
n0 e
VR = [(d − x) + x] (14)
dC
n0 e
VR = (15)
C
n0 e
Vmax = (16)
C
n0 e x
V |elec = · (17)
C d
With RC larger than electron collection time and grid-anode spacing d, signal on load resistor
is
n0 e −
VR = v t (18)
dC
Maximum voltage is
n0 e
Vmax = (19)
C
Ed
n0 = = 1.83 × 105 ion pairs (20)
W
2.35σn0 W
R= = 0.123% (24)
Ed
Fisch grid ionization chamber filled by argon allows to separate two uranium isotopes
dn
= αdx (25)
n
Field with anode wire radius a, cathode inner radius b and applied voltage V is
V
E(r ) = (27)
r ln(b/a)
Single electron response by avalanche created by one electron outside multiplication region
Total charge by n0 original pairs with gas multiplication factor M is
Q = n0 eM (28)
In cylindrical geometry, Townsend coefficient α depends on the radius (and on the field)
Z rc
ln M = dr α(r ) (29)
a
Fractional standard deviation of the peak (FWHM/2.35), P-10 gas at 1 atm pressure
Open circles: standard tungsten anode
Full circles: improved uniformity
Derivation of pulse shape utilizes energy conservation of charge moving across the capacitor
Most of the pulse amplitude from positive ion drift
Collection time of all ions long, hundreds ms, but large fraction of signal developed early of
ion drift, fraction of µs
Spread in electron drift times (ionizations along radius) makes spread in rise time of output
pulse
Solid curve represents initial ionization at fixed radius (constant drift time)
Dashed line is for uniform ionization along the radius
Rise time minimized by high electric field in drift region and gases with high electron drift
velocity
Sauli, Principles of operation of multiwire proportional and drift chambers, CERN 77-09 (1977)
Jaroslav Adam (CTU, Prague) DPD_03, Ionization chambers Version 2 74 / 130
Electron drift velocity
Pulse shaping with short time constant removes slow component of rise time
Amplitude less than of full collection, effect of balistic deficit
Shape of pulse would vary with radial position of original ion pairs
Minimized by shaping time larger than variation in rise time
Can be used to separate signal α events from electron background
Heavy charged particles which would impose radiation damage to solid state detectors
Parallel plate electrodes, proportional gas at low pressure
Particle species separation by specific energy loss
For gap of 1 mm, fast component from electrons in ns with high field, time resolution 160 ps
Field by equidistant grid of anode wires between two parallel cathode plates
High field region only in immediate vicinity of the anodes
Sauli, Principles of operation of multiwire proportional and drift chambers, CERN 77-09 (1977)
Jaroslav Adam (CTU, Prague) DPD_03, Ionization chambers Version 2 90 / 130
Readout of MWPC
Ionization in fill gas between anodes and drift plane, avalanches by electrons close to anode
Most of signal generated by drift of positive ions away from the anode
Jaroslav Adam (CTU, Prague) DPD_03, Ionization chambers Version 2 100 / 130
Resistive Plate Chamber (RPC)
Jaroslav Adam (CTU, Prague) DPD_03, Ionization chambers Version 2 101 / 130
Construction of RPC
Spacers between plates each 10 cm against electrostatic attraction (constant gap size)
Jaroslav Adam (CTU, Prague) DPD_03, Ionization chambers Version 2 102 / 130
Readout of position sensitive RPC
Jaroslav Adam (CTU, Prague) DPD_03, Ionization chambers Version 2 103 / 130
Time Projection Chamber (TPC) of the ALICE experiment
3D position and dE/dx using volume of 90 m3 of Ne/CO2 /N2 (90/10/5) divided into two
sectors of 2.5 m
Voltage 100 kV on central electrode, drift field 400 V m−1
Electron drift velocity 2.7 cm µs−1 , maximum drift time 92 µs
Readout by MWPC with cathode pad readout mounted in trapezoidal sectors at each end
plate, active area of 32.5 m2
Jaroslav Adam (CTU, Prague) DPD_03, Ionization chambers Version 2 104 / 130
MWPC readout of ALICE TPC, cross sectional view along the wires
Grid of anode wires above pad plane, cathode wire plane and gating grid
Wire geometry and pad size dependent on radial track density, 560 000 readout pads
Anode to cathode distance 2 and 3 mm, gain up to 20 000
Gate opens for electrons from the drift volume by the collision trigger (6.5 µs after the
collision) for the duration of drift time, 92 µs, prevents the space charge of positive ions from
drifting back from multiplication region
Jaroslav Adam (CTU, Prague) DPD_03, Ionization chambers Version 2 105 / 130
MWPC readout, cross sectional view perpendicular to the wires
Jaroslav Adam (CTU, Prague) DPD_03, Ionization chambers Version 2 106 / 130
Particle identification by dE/dx in TPC
Expected rate 50 kHz of Pb-Pb, 5 interactions within maximal electron drift time, 10 events
superimposed from past+future time window
Untriggered readout without use of gating grid
Readout by GEM foils instead of MWPC, field 50 kV/cm in the hole
Suppression of back flowing ions
One side segmented to reduce total charge on the foil, segments coupled by resistors
Jaroslav Adam (CTU, Prague) DPD_03, Ionization chambers Version 2 108 / 130
Geiger-Mueller Counters
Jaroslav Adam (CTU, Prague) DPD_03, Ionization chambers Version 2 109 / 130
G-M counter
Jaroslav Adam (CTU, Prague) DPD_03, Ionization chambers Version 2 110 / 130
Geiger discharge
Excited molecules of neutral gas in Townsend avalanche, together with positive ions
They emit visible or UV light, may be absorbed by photoeffect at any place of the tube, new
free electron created
Or free electron created by absorption at cathode
New avalanche from the free electron after reaching the multiplication region around anode
Subcritical proportional tube: n00 p 1 with n00 number of excited molecules in typical
avalanche and p the probability of photoabsorption
Geiger discharge with single avalanche multiplication 106 - 100 has n00 bigger, criticality
achieved as n00 p ≥ 1
Jaroslav Adam (CTU, Prague) DPD_03, Ionization chambers Version 2 111 / 130
G-M region
Jaroslav Adam (CTU, Prague) DPD_03, Ionization chambers Version 2 112 / 130
Geiger discharge propagation
New avalanches created close to the original one, new electrons have to reach anode region
Spread of Geiger discharge along the anode wire with propagation velocity 2 − 4 cm µs−1
over entire length of anode, few µs after initiating event
Avalanches at random positions around anode, electrons collected by anode, secondary
positive ions around the multiplication region
Field reduced by space charge of the ions, multiplication reduced, Geiger discharge
terminated
Amount of needed space charge independent of initial ionization, the reason for same pulse
amplitude
Jaroslav Adam (CTU, Prague) DPD_03, Ionization chambers Version 2 113 / 130
Amplitude of Geiger discharge
Jaroslav Adam (CTU, Prague) DPD_03, Ionization chambers Version 2 114 / 130
Fill gases
Same requirements as for proportional counters since charge multiplication is needed (no
negative ions...)
Noble gases, helium, argon, quenching component
n00 increases with E/p (electric field to gas pressure), G-M as sealed tube with pressure less
than atmospheric
Voltage 500 - 2000 V for anode of 0.1 mm diameter
Jaroslav Adam (CTU, Prague) DPD_03, Ionization chambers Version 2 115 / 130
Quenching
Slow drift of positive ions after Geiger discharge termination to the cathode, neutralization
with electron from cathode surface
Energy needed = sum of gas ionization energy and energy to extract the electron from
cathode (work function)
If (gas ionization energy) = 2 × (work function), another free electron emerges from the
cathode surface
At least one free electron from cathode with large amount of positive ions
Will drift towards anode to make new Geiger discharge
Cycle would repeat, continues output of multiple pulses
No problem for proportional counters, number of ions smaller, only spurious pulses
Jaroslav Adam (CTU, Prague) DPD_03, Ionization chambers Version 2 116 / 130
External quenching
Jaroslav Adam (CTU, Prague) DPD_03, Ionization chambers Version 2 117 / 130
Internal quenching
Jaroslav Adam (CTU, Prague) DPD_03, Ionization chambers Version 2 118 / 130
Shape of the output pulse
Jaroslav Adam (CTU, Prague) DPD_03, Ionization chambers Version 2 120 / 130
Dead time behavior
Jaroslav Adam (CTU, Prague) DPD_03, Ionization chambers Version 2 121 / 130
Geiger counting plateau
Dependence of measured counting rate on voltage with constant rate from radiation source
Counter threshold Hd , no pulses if amplitude is below
Jaroslav Adam (CTU, Prague) DPD_03, Ionization chambers Version 2 122 / 130
Onset of continues discharge
Jaroslav Adam (CTU, Prague) DPD_03, Ionization chambers Version 2 123 / 130
End-window Geiger tube
Fine anode wire, less requirements on uniformity of the wire and of the electric field
Cylindrical cathode of metal or glass with metallized inner surface
Thin window for short-range particles, differential pressure
More robust window for beta or gamma
Jaroslav Adam (CTU, Prague) DPD_03, Ionization chambers Version 2 124 / 130
Other design of Geiger tube
Jaroslav Adam (CTU, Prague) DPD_03, Ionization chambers Version 2 125 / 130
Counting electronics
Jaroslav Adam (CTU, Prague) DPD_03, Ionization chambers Version 2 126 / 130
Counting efficiency for charged particles
100 % for any charged particle entering the active volume since a single ion pair triggers full
Geiger discharge
Effective efficiency given by the window of the tube, absorption or backscattering
For alpha counting window with 1.5 mg/cm2
Jaroslav Adam (CTU, Prague) DPD_03, Ionization chambers Version 2 127 / 130
Efficiency for neutrons
Jaroslav Adam (CTU, Prague) DPD_03, Ionization chambers Version 2 128 / 130
Counting efficiency for gamma rays
Interaction in solid wall of the counter, secondary electron needs just to emerge into active
volume
1 - 2 mm of innermost layer of the wall
Efficiency increased with high-Z material of the cathode (bismuth Z = 83)
Low-energy gamma may interact with fill gas, xenon and krypton (high-Z) enhance the
efficiency up to 100 % for photon energies 10 keV
Jaroslav Adam (CTU, Prague) DPD_03, Ionization chambers Version 2 129 / 130
Counting efficiency for gamma rays
Jaroslav Adam (CTU, Prague) DPD_03, Ionization chambers Version 2 130 / 130