Q1. Write a review of various intensity scale used in measuring earthquake?

Earthquake Magnitude and Earthquake Intensity are two terms often misunderstood. Earthquake
magnitude is a measure of the size of the earthquake reflecting the elastic energy released by the
earthquake. It is referred by a certain real number on the Richter scale (such as magnitude 6.5
earthquake).
On the other hand, earthquake intensity indicates the extent of shaking experienced at a given location
due to a particular earthquake. It is referred by a Roman numeral ( such as VIII on MSK scale). Intensity
of shaking at a location depends not only on the magnitude of the earthquake, but also on the distance
of the site from the earthquake source and the geology / geography of the area.

Richter Magnitude Scale

The concept of earthquake magnitude was first developed by Richter and hence the term “Richter scale”. The
value of magnitude is obtained on the basis of recordings of earthquake ground motion on seismographs.

Richter magnitude scale is a base-10 logarithmic scale obtained by calculating the logarithm of the shaking
amplitude of the largest displacement from zero on Wood-Anderson torsion seismometer. It was developed in
1935 by Charles Richter in partnership with Beno Gutenberg, both of the California Institute of Technology.

Since in this scale, Earthquake magnitude is measured on a log scale, a small difference in earthquake recording
on the instruments leads to a much smaller error in the magnitude. An increase of 1 in the Richter magnitude,
there is a tenfold increase in the size of the waves also known as shaking amplitude. The Richter scale 5.0 is 10
times more shaking amplitude of 4.0. But there is a huge difference in energy. The energy release of an
earthquake denotes the destructive power. It scales with 3/2 power of the shaking amplitude. A difference in
magnitude of 1.0 is equivalent to a factor of 31.6.

With increase in magnitude by 1.0, the energy released by the earthquake goes up by a factor of about 31.6.
Thus, a magnitude 8.0 earthquake releases about 31 times the energy released by a magnitude 7.0 earthquake,
or about 1000 times the energy released by a magnitude 6.0 earthquake. There are no upper or lower bounds
on earthquake magnitude. In fact, magnitude of a very small earthquake can be a negative number also. Usually,
earthquakes of magnitude greater than 5.0 cause strong enough ground motion to be potentially damaging to
structures. Earthquakes of magnitude greater than 8.0 are often termed as great earthquakes

Moment Magnitude Scale

The Richter scale is denoted by ML. This scale was replaced in 1970s by the new Moment magnitude scale
which is denoted as Mw. The scale is almost same and media uses the same term “Richter Scale” for the new
MMS also. This is because medium earthquakes such as 5.0 are equal on both the scales.

The Richter scale was based on the ground motion measured by a particular type of seismometer at a distance
of 100 kilometers from the earthquake, and Richter scale has a highest measurable magnitude. The large
earthquakes have a similar magnitude of around 7.0 on Richter scale. The Richter scale measurement is also
unreliable for measurements taken at a distance of more than about 600 kilometers from the earthquake’s
epicenter. This problem is solved by the MMS (Moment magnitude scale). The Moment magnitude scale does
not uses the ground motion, but used the physical properties of the Earthquake such as seismic moment. The
scale was introduced by Thomas C. Hanks and Hiroo Kanamori in 1979. The US Geological survey uses the
Moment magnitude scale for all large earthquakes. Drawback: Moment magnitude scale deviates at the low
scale Earthquakes.

Shindo Scale
Shindo scale is also known as Japan Meteorological Agency (JMA) seismic intensity scale. It is used in Japan and
Taiwan to measure the intensity of earthquakes. It is measured in units of Shindo which literally means degree
of shaking. Unlike the moment magnitude scale, which measures the energy released by the earthquake, the
JMA scale describes the degree of shaking at a point on the Earth’s surface. Thus it is similar to Mercalli intensity
scale. The Shindo Scale ranges between Shindo-0 to Shindo-7. Shindo-0 quake is not felt by most people, while
Shindo-7 is most devastating earthquake. However, note that same earthquake has different Shindo numbers at
different places. For example, 2011 Great Earthquake of Japan registered Shindo-7 at Kurihara, Miyagi
Prefecture, while Shindo-6 at Fukushima, Ibaraki and Tochigi and Shindo-7 in Tokyo.

Medvedev-Sponheuer-Karnik scale (MSK-64)

Prior to the development of ground motion recording instruments, earthquakes were studied by recording the
description of shaking intensity. This lead to the development of intensity scales which describe the effects of
earthquake motion in qualitative terms. An intensity scale usually provides ten or twelve grades of intensity
starting with most feeble vibrations and going upto most violent (i.e., total destruction). The most commonly
used intensity scales are: Modified Mercalli (MM) Intensity Scale and the Medvedev-Sponhener-Karnik (MSK)
Intensity Scale. Both these scales are quite similar except that the MSK scale is more specific in its description of
the earthquake effects. Medvedev-Sponheuer-Karnik scale denoted by MSK or MSK-64, is a macro seismic
intensity scale which is used to evaluate the severity of ground shaking on the basis of observed effects in an
area of the earthquake occurrence. It was proposed by Sergei Medvedev (USSR), Wilhelm Sponheuer (East
Germany), and Vft Karnfk (Czechoslovakia) in 1964.

MSK-64 is used in India, Israel, Russia, and throughout the Commonwealth of Independent States. In India the
seismic zoning has been done on the basis of this scale.
 Magnitude Magnitude Distance
Equation Comments
Type Range Range
Derived from a centroid
moment tensor inversion of
MW = 2/3 * (log10(MO)
the W-phase (~50-2000 s;
- 16.1),
pass band based on size of
EQ). Computed for all M5.0
where MO is the seismic
Mww or larger earthquakes
moment.
(Moment W- ~5.0 and 1 - 90 worldwide, but generally
Note this is also unit-
phase)(generic larger degrees robust for all M5.5
dependent; the formula
notation Mw) worldwide. Provides
above is for moment in
consistent results to M~4.5
dyne-cm. If using metric
within a regional network of
units (N.m), the constant
high-quality broadband
is 9.1.
stations. Authoritative USGS
magnitude if computed.
Derived from a centroid
moment tensor inversion of
the long-period surface waves
(~100-2000 s; pass band
MW = 2/3 * (log10(MO)
based on size of EQ).
- 16.1),
Mwc ~5.5 and 20 - 180 Generally computable for all
(centroid) larger degrees M6.0 worldwide using
where MO is the seismic
primarily the Global
moment.
Seismograph Network. Only
authoritative if Mww is not
computed, not published
otherwise.
Derived from moment tensor
inversion of long-period
(~20-200 s; pass band based
on size of EQ) body-waves
MW = 2/3 * (log10(MO) (P- and SH). Generally
- 16.1), computable for all M5.5 or
Mwb ~5.5 to 30 - 90
larger events worldwide.
(body wave) ~7.0 degrees
where MO is the seismic Source complexity at larger
moment. magnitudes (~M7.5 or
greater) generally limits
applicability. Only
authoritative if Mww and
Mwc are not computed.
Based on the scalar seismic-
moment of the earthquake,
MW = 2/3 * (log10(MO)
derived from moment tensor
- 16.1),
Mwr ~4.0 to 0 - 10 inversion of the whole
(regional) ~6.5 degrees seismogram at regional
where MO is the seismic
distances (~10-100 s; pass
moment.
band based on size of EQ).
Source complexity and
 Magnitude Magnitude Distance
Equation Comments
Type Range Range
dimensions at larger
magnitudes (~M7.0 or
greater) generally limits
applicability. Authoritative
for <M5.0. Within the
continental US and south-
central Alaska where we have
a large number of high
quality broadband stations we
expect we can compute an
Mwr consistently for events
as small as M4.0. In some
areas of the country, with
relatively dense broadband
coverage, we can compute
Mwr consistently to as small
as M3.5.
A magnitude based on the
amplitude of Rayleigh surface
waves measured at a period
near 20 sec. Waveforms are
shaped to the WWSSN LP
response. Reported by NEIC,
but rarely used as
Ms20 or Ms
~5.0 to 20 - 160 MS = log10 (A/T) + authoritative, since at these
(20sec surface
~8.5 degrees 1.66 log10 (D) + 3.30 . magnitudes there is almost
wave)
always an Mw available. Ms
is primarily valuable for large
(>6), shallow events,
providing secondary
confirmation on their size.
Ms_20 tends to saturate at
about M8.3 or larger.
mb = log10(A/T) + Based on the amplitude of 1st
Q(D,h) , arriving P-waves at periods of
about 1 s. Waveforms are
where A is the amplitude shaped to the WWSSN SP
of ground motion (in response. Reported for most
mb microns); T is the M4.0-4.5 to 6.5 EQs that are
~4.0 to 15 - 100
(short-period corresponding period (in observed teleseismically.
~6.5 degrees
body wave) seconds); and Q(D,h) is Only authoritative for global
a correction factor that is seismicity for which there is
a function of distance, D no Mww, Mwc, Mwb or
(degrees), between Mwr, typically 4.0-5.5 range.
epicenter and station and Mb tends to saturate at about
focal depth, h (in M 6.5 or larger.
 Magnitude Magnitude Distance
Equation Comments
Type Range Range
kilometers), of the
earthquake.
The original magnitude
relationship defined by
Richter and Gutenberg in
1935 for local earthquakes. It
is based on the maximum
amplitude of a seismogram
recorded on a Wood-
Anderson torsion
seismograph. Although these
instruments are no longer
widely in use, ML values are
calculated using modern
instrumentation with
ML Ml, or ml ~2.0 to 0 - 600
appropriate adjustments.
(local) ~6.5 km
Reported by NEIC for all
earthquakes in the US and
Canada. Only authoritative
for smaller events, typically
M<4.0 for which there is no
mb or moment magnitude. In
the central and eastern United
States, NEIC also computes
ML, but restricts the distance
range to 0-150 km. In that
area it is only authoritative if
there is no mb_Lg as well as
no mb or moment magnitude.
A magnitude for regional
earthquakes based on the
amplitude of the Lg surface
mb_Lg, waves as recorded on short-
150 –
mb_lg, or period instruments. Only
~3.5 to 1110 km
MLg authoritative for smaller
~7.0 (10
(hort-period events in the central and
degres)
surface wave) eastern United States,
typically <4.0 for which there
is no mb or moment
magnitude.
Based on the duration of
shaking as measured by the
Md or md ~4 or 0 - 400 time decay of the amplitude
(duration) smaller km of the seismogram.
Sometimes the only
magnitude available for very
 Magnitude Magnitude Distance
Equation Comments
Type Range Range
small events, but often used
(especially in the past) to
compute magnitude from
seismograms with "clipped"
waveforms due to limited
dynamic recording range of
analog instrumentation,
which makes it impossible to
measure peak amplitudes.
Computed by NEIC but only
published when there is no
other magnitude available.
Based on an estimate of
Mi or Mwp moment calculated from the
~5.0 to
(integrated p- all integral of the displacement
~8.0
wave) of the P wave recorded on
broadband instruments.
Me = 2/3 log10E - 2.9,

where E is the energy

Based on the seismic energy
calculated by
Me ~3.5 and radiated by the earthquake as
all
(energy) larger estimated by integration of
log10E = 11.8 + 1.5MS
digital waveforms.
where energy, E, is
expressed in ergs.
FFM modeling provides a
kinematic description of
faulting including estimates
of maximum slip, area of
rupture and moment release
as a function of time. Results
are used to provide
Finite Fault ~7.0 and 30 - 90
constraints on fault
Modeling larger degrees
dimensions and slip used in
damage assessment modeling
(ShakeMap, PAGER) and to
model stress changes
(Coulomb stress modeling)
on the active fault and/or
adjacent faults.
Q2.Discuss about the Koyna Earthquake

KOYNA EARTHQUAKE

Earthquakes have been occurring in the vicinity of Koyna reservoir for the last 39 years, making it the most unique
site for reservoir-triggered seismicity (RTS) in the world. Additionally the region has another distinction of having
so far the largest and most damaging reservoir triggered earthquake of M 6.3 on 11 December (10 December
UTC) 1967 .

THE Koyna earthquake of December 11, 1967, killed about 200 people and injured a few thousand. The eipcentre
was within 5 km of the Koyna Dam (17° 23′ N., 73° 45′ E.). A magnitude of the order of 7.5 on the Richter scale
has been reported by the Indian Meteorological Department and the Central Water and Power Research Station.
The depth of focus of the earthquake has been estimated at about 30 km. The earthquake was felt over distances
up to 700 km from the epicentre.

The Koyna earthquake of December 11 1967 has a Ritcher magnitude of about 6.5, the epicentre was reported
being in or around 8 miles of the dam and the focal depth was found to be about 5 to 8 miles. The earthquake
was recorded on a strong motion accelerograph located in a gallery within a monolith near the right bank.The
fundamental period of vibration is about 0.05 seconds and it therefore appears reasonable to consider the
accelerogram to represent the ground motion of the site to suitable accuracy.

The peak acceleration recorded at the site was 0.63g for longitudinal component 049 g for the
transverse component and 0-34 g for the vertical component. Typical values for Magnitude 7 earthquakes
recorded at moderate epicentral distances in California are smaller; for example, the maximum accelerations
recorded during the El Centro (1940) and Tehachapi (1952) earthquakes were 0-33 g and 018 g respectively.

Fig. Accelerogram recorded at block 1-A of Koyna Dam.

The Koyna accelerogram has higher frequency components compared to typical accelerograms recorded in
California; for example, the number of zero crossings per second is about twice as great as for California
earthquakes. The Koyna earthquake had a strong phase of about 6 sec duration in comparison to about 24
sec for the El Centro earthquake. The response spectrum intensity of ground shaking at Koyna Dam was
about two-thirds of that at El Centro (1940),M slightly smaller than that at Taft (1952)) and probably less
than one-half of what would be expected in the vicinity of the causative fault in a great (Richter magnitude 8
or greater) earthquake.

The most important structural damage to the dam were horizontal cracks on either the upstream or the
downstream face or on both faces of a number of monoliths. The principal cracking was in the taller non-
overfiow monoliths on both sides of the spillway section around elevation KRL (Koyna Reduced Level).

Q3.Discuss about the recent Indian earthquake, its causes and seismicity

Nepal 2015
The earthquake occurred on 25 April 2015 at 11:56 am NST (06:11:26 UTC) at a depth of approximately
15 km (9.3 mi) (which is considered shallow and therefore more damaging than quakes that originate
deeper in the ground), with its epicenter approximately 34 km (21 mi) east-southeast of Lamjung,
Nepal, lasting approximately fifty seconds.[27] The earthquake was initially reported as 7.5 Mw by the
United States Geological Survey (USGS) before it was quickly upgraded to 7.8 Mw. The China
Earthquake Networks Center (CENC) reported the earthquake's magnitude to be 8.1 Ms. The India
Meteorological Department(IMD) said two powerful quakes were registered in Nepal at 06:11 UTC and
06:45 UTC. The first quake measured 7.8 Mw and its epicenter was identified at a distance of 80 km to
the northwest of Kathmandu, the capital of Nepal. Bharatpur was the nearest major city to the main
earthquake, 53 km (33 mi) from the epicenter. The second earthquake was somewhat less powerful at
6.6 Mw. It occurred 65 km (40 mi) east of Kathmandu and its seismic focus lay at a depth of 10 km (6.2
mi) below the earth's surface. Over thirty-eight aftershocks of magnitude 4.5 Mw or greater occurred
in the day following the initial earthquake, including the one of magnitude 6.8 Mw.[28]
According to the USGS, the earthquake was caused by a sudden thrust, or release of built-up stress,
along the major fault line where the Indian Plate, carrying India, is slowly diving underneath the
Eurasian Plate, carrying much of Europe and Asia.[26]Kathmandu, situated on a block of crust

Anjar earthquake
The 1956 Anjar earthquake occurred on 21 July, which caused maximum damage in town of Anjar in
Kutch, Gujarat, India. It had an estimated magnitude of 6.1. The epicenter of earthquake of 21 July 1956
was at somewhere between Anjar and Bhadresar ,very close to that of 1819 Kutch earthquake. It caused
considerable damage and casualties, especially in and around town of Anjar, India. The area of
maximum damage was of 2000 km2. The cause of earthquake was reverse faulting, similar to that which
caused the 1819 Rann of Kutch earthquake. The town of Anjar and the Taluka of Anjar were the most
affected region with 2000 houses damaged, of which half of them were in Anjar town alone. The other
towns affected were Bhuj, Kera, Bhachau, Gandhidham and port town of Kandla. At least 115 people
were reported to have died and casualties numbered to 254 as per government records. It was
estimated that more than 3,000 houses in 25 villages developed huge cracks, losses ran up to Rs 10
million. Such devastation wreaked by the quake made it one of the worst calamity to hit Kutch in the
past 100 years. More than 8,000 people migrated from the district a few days after the quake. The
earthquake was followed by heavy rains, which added to the misery of thousands living in temporary
camps.

Chile 2015
Chile experienced an 8.3-magnitude earthquake on September 17th, 2015. The quake’s
epicenter was located off the country’s coast, and 25 minutes after the initial shockwaves, a
tsunami hit the town of Tongoy. About 1 million people were evacuated in the country, and
tsunami warnings were issued in Japan, Russia, New Zealand, California, and Hawaii due to the
disaster. Chile was also the site of the strongest earthquake ever, a 9.5 -magnitude quake that
occurred in 1960.

Uttarkashi and Chamoli earthquakes

The Garhwal-Kumaun region of Western Himalayas was rocked by a moderate earthquake, measuring
6.8 on Richter scale, on March 29, 1999 at 00:35:13.4 hours IST. The epicenter was located at 30.40N,
79.410E and the focal depth has been estimated to be 21 km. The region had also experienced a
moderate earthquake in 1991 whose epicenter was located at 30.740N, 78.790 E near Uttarkashi and
the focal depth was estimated to be 19 km.
The earthquake rocked the twin cities of Chamoli and Gopeshwar and the neighbouring district of
Rudraprayag. The worst affected regions lie mostly in the Alakananda river valley. The distribution of
intensity of shaking was rather patchy and the maximum intensity on damage-based MSK scale was
noted between VII and VIII. The affected region lies in the seismic zone V of the highest risk of the Indian
standard for establishing the criteria for earthquake resistant structures. The Code anticipates an
intensity of IX or more in the seismic zone V.
The seismic activity in the Garhwal Himalayas is ascribed to northward movement of the Indian plate
against the Tibet block of Eurasian plate at a rate of about 0.05-0.06 m/year [Molnar and Tapponnir
1975], deforming the rocks to form the higher Himalayas and making the area prone to seismic activity.
The Garhwal-Kumaun region lies in a seismic gap between rupture zones of Kangra (1905) and Bihar-
Nepal (1934) earthquakes. Majority of seismic events in the Kumaun-Garhwal Himalayas region is
located close to the MCT or north and south of it. The earthquake shocks of magnitude 5 to 6 have been
recorded in the Garhwal region in 1803, 1809, 1816, 1966, 1967, 1969, 1976, 1979, 1986, and 1991.

Tripura earthquake
A magnitude 5.7 earthquake struck India 20 km east north-east of Ambassa in the state of Tripura on
January 3, 2017 with a maximum observed intensity of 6-7 EMS. The estimated depth was 32.0 km.
One person died and five others were injured in India. At least 50 houses were damaged due to
landslides that occurred in Dhalai district, while roads were blocked after trees were uprooted.
According to the Tripura State Disaster Management Authority, at least 6,727 buildings were damaged
in Tripura in the districts of Dhalai and Unakoti. Shaking was felt in many parts of north-eastern India
including as far as Kolkata. The tremor was also felt in neighboring Bangladesh, where two people died
and three others were injured. The earthquake caused liquefaction on the banks of the Manu river in
Tripura and along the Dhalai river in adjacent parts of Bangladesh, in particular in the Kamalganj area.