3rd Issue (2019) PDF

Civil Engineering 2019
3rd Issue
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3rd Issue
Contents Vol. 5, No. 3, March, 2019
 Page 505-514
Pedestrians’ Speed Analysis for Two-Stage Crossing at a Signalized Intersection
Yongqing Guo, Xiaoyuan Wang, Xinqiang Meng, Jie Wang, Yaqi Liu
 Page 515-527
The Impact of Vibration on the Accuracy of Digital Surveying Instruments
Hossam El-Din Fawzy
 Page 528-539
Punching Shear Strength Characteristics of Flat Plate Panels Reinforced with Shearhead Collars: Experimental Investigation
Maroua Mohammed Majeed, Aamer Najim Abbas
 Page 540-551
Utilization of Demolished Waste as Coarse Aggregate in Concrete
Abdulsamee M Halahla, Mohammad Akhtar, Amin H. Almasri
 Page 552-562
The Responses of an End-Bearing Pile to Adjacent Multipropped Excavation: 3D Numerical Modelling
Dildar Ali Mangnejo, Naeem Mangi, Hemu
 Page 563-575
Finite Element Modelling of RC T - Beams Reinforced Internally with GFRP Reinforcements
Balamuralikrishnan R., Saravanan J.
 Page 576-586
Evaluation of Drivers’ Affectability and Satisfaction with Black Spots Warning Application
Mirbahador Yazdani, Amir Abbas Rassafi
 Page 587-596
Performance Evaluation of Modified Bitumen with Replaced Percentage of Waste Cooking Oil & Tire Rubber with
Bagasse Ash as Modifier
Junaid Khan, Arshad Hussain, Fazal Haq, Kamran Ahmad, Kamran Mushtaq
 Page 597-607
The Effect of Low-Density Polyethylene Addition and Temperature on Creep-recovery Behavior of Hot Mix Asphalt
Mahammed Mazouz, M. Merbouh
 Page 608-615
Developing a Risk Management Framework in Construction Project Based on Agile Management Approach
Mohammed Neamah Ahmed, Sawsan Rasheed Mohammed

3rd Issue
 Page 616-623
Assessment of Change Orders Attributes in Preconstruction and Construction Phase
Ali Raza Khoso, Jam Shahzaib Khan, Rizwan Ullah Faiz, Muhammad Akram Akhund
 Page 624-635
Stabilization of Expansive Soils Using Polypropylene Fiber
Sarah Adnan Hussein, Haifaa Abd Al-Rasool Ali
 Page 636-648
Circularization Technique for Strengthening of Plain Concrete Short Square Columns Subjected to a Uniaxial
Compression Compressive Pressure
Ahmed Waad Abdulsattar, Hayder Amer Al-Baghdadi
 Page 649-661
Multi-Level Crash Prediction Models Considering Influence of Adjacent Zonal Attributes

Nemat Soltani, Mahmoud Saffarzadeh, Ali Naderan
 Page 662-678
The Effect of Lining Material on the Permeability of Clayey Soil
Arwa Ossama Shakir, Haifaa Abd Al-Rasool Ali
 Page 679-689
Study on Bond Strength of Alccofine Based Normal and High Strength Concrete
Balamuralikrishnan R., Saravanan J.
 Page 690-701
Energy Absorption Capacity of Layered Lightweight Reinforced Concrete Beams with Openings in Web
Muyasser M. Jomaah, Diyaree J. Ghaidan
 Page 702-711
Improvement of Soft Soil Using Linear Distributed Floating Stone Columns under Foundation Subjected to Static
and Cyclic Loading
Mahdi O Karkush, Anwar Jabbar
 Page 712-717
Risk Assessment of Crisis Management in Response to Natural Disasters with an Emphasis on Earthquakes
Seyed Mojtaba Hosseini, Fatemeh Dirakvand, Omidreza Safarian, Ali Ayoubian

3rd Issue
 Page 718-728
Enhancing the Behavior of One-Way Reinforced Concrete Slabs by Using Laced Reinforcement
Ali Faiq Hallawi, Ali Hussein Ali Al-Ahmed
 Page 729-749
Generalized Review on EVD and Constraints Simplex Method of Materials Properties Optimization for Civil
Engineering
Kennedy C Onyelowe, George Alaneme, Duc Bui Van, Manh Nguyen Van, Charles Ezugwu, Talal Amhadi, Felix Sosa, Francis Orji, Benjamin Ugorji
Focus and Scope
Civil Engineering Journal (C.E.J) is a multidisciplinary, an open-access, internationally double-
blind peer-reviewed journal concerned with all aspects of civil engineering, which include but
are not necessarily restricted to:
• Building Materials and Structures • Coastal and Harbor Engineering

Civil Engineering Journal
• Constructions Technology • Constructions Economy and Management
• Earthquake Engineering • Environmental Engineering

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• Surveying and Geo-Spatial Engineering • Transportation Engineering
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 Civil Engineering Journal (C.E.J) is published monthly.

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Civil Engineering Journal (C.E.J) Indexing & Abstracting
 This is an open access journal under the CC-BY license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
I
Available online at www.CivileJournal.org

Vol. 5, No. 3, March, 2019
Pedestrians’ Speed Analysis for Two-Stage Crossing at a

Signalized Intersection
Yongqing Guo a*, Xiaoyuan Wang b, Xinqiang Meng a, Jie Wang a, Yaqi Liu a
a
Shandong University of Technology, School of Transportation and Vehicle Engineering, Zibo 255000, China.
b
Qingdao University of Science & Technology, College of Electromechanical Engineering, Qingdao 266000, China.
Received 07 January 2019; Accepted 08 March 2019
Abstract
Pedestrian walking speed is an important and essential parameter for designing traffic signals at signalized intersections.
However, there is a lack of understanding of pedestrian speed characteristics in a twice crossing. This paper focuses on
analyzing the differences of pedestrians’ crossing speeds between the two stages, and identifying the major factors affecting
the speed changes. Pedestrians were classified by age, gender and group size, and pedestrians’ speed characteristics of each
group were analyzed. Besides, each age group were divided into five categories by gender and group size, and the effect
sizes of gender and group size on speed-changing at the two stages were examined. The results show significant differences
in walking speed on different gender and age groups, as well as on different group size. The young group has different
factors affecting the speed change in the two directions, and the middle-aged and old groups have same factors affecting
the speed change in the two directions. This study proposed a goal–oriented and time-driven behavior model for pedestrian
two-stage crossing at signalized intersections, where the two directions have different pedestrian signal timing. The results
also show that the proposed model is effective in simulating pedestrian speed characteristics of twice crossing. This
research provides a theoretical basis for identifying pedestrian movement intention, optimizing signal timing, and
improving pedestrian infrastructure at signalized intersections.
Keywords: Two-Stage Crossing; Pedestrian Walking Speed; Pedestrian Behavior Model; Signalized Intersection.
1. Introduction
Pedestrian two-stage crossing is an important component of urban road network, and highly affects the network
traffic operations. In a two-stage crossing, a refuge island is established at the middle of a crosswalk, which provides a
protected space for pedestrians to cross street. Pedestrian signal design is mainly based on pedestrians’ crossing speed,
so insufficient understanding of pedestrian speed would lead to undesirable consequences such as large delays and red-
light violations. Studying the speed characteristics of pedestrian twice crossing at signalized intersections is essential
for improving traffic efficiency and pedestrian safety, especially in developing countries with large pedestrian
population such as China.
1.1. Pedestrian Crossing Behavior at Signalized Intersections
Hashimoto et al. [1] proposed a probabilistic model based on the dynamic Bayesian network to recognize pedestrian
behavior and pedestrian position information at signalized intersections. Yang et al. [2] proposed four accelerated failure
time duration models to examine the significant risk factors affecting duration times for pedestrian’s waiting behaviour.
* Corresponding author: yongqing.guo@sdut.edu.cn

http://dx.doi.org/10.28991/cej-2019-03091263
 This is an open access article under the CC-BY license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
© Authors retain all copyrights.
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Civil Engineering Journal Vol. 5, No. 3, March, 2019
Jiang et al. [3] investigated the effects of mobile phone distractions on pedestrian crossing behaviour, including scanning
frequency, fixation points and fixation times toward traffic signals, and visual attention on the traffic environment. Yang
[4] built a pedestrian twice-crossing delay model, considering pedestrian arrival distribution, vehicle headway, and
pedestrian signal timing. Li [5] analyzed pedestrian walking characteristics and psychological features and proposed the
applicability of different types of twice-crossing. Wang [6] explored pedestrian path choice and analyzed the demand
factors of pedestrian twice crossing. Song et al. [7] readjusted signal timing sequence to design a new pedestrian two-
stage crossing pattern to provide additional time for pedestrians. Li et al. [8] analyzed pedestrians’ crossing behaviour
at a two-stage crossing in adverse weather conditions. Wang et al. [9] developed an improved model for predicting
pedestrian delay at signalized intersections with a two-stage crossing design. Ni et al. [10] conducted intercept survey
to explore pedestrian’s perception, and found that pedestrians are in favour of the presence of Refuge Island.
1.2. Pedestrian Crossing Speed at Signalized Intersections
Zhang et al. [11] analyzed the temporal and spatial characteristics of pedestrian speed at signalized intersections,
according to different gender, age and group size. Zhang et al. [12] analyzed the effects of age, gender, and the length
of the crosswalk on pedestrian speeds at signalized intersections. Zhao et al. [13] used video-recording technology to
extract the real pedestrian crossing trajectories, and analyzed the average speed and instantaneous speed of pedestrian
street crossing by age group. Wang [14] analyzed the speed characteristics of pedestrian crossing during yellow and
clearance intervals. Duim et al. [15] assessed the walking speed of elderly people and compared the results with the
international standards for pedestrian crossing. Muley et al. [16] presented the analysis of the three types of pedestrian
speed at signalized crosswalks: entry speed, crossing speed and exit speed. Iryo-Asano et al. [17, 18] modelled
pedestrians’ sudden speed changes when they crossed the signalized crosswalks under uncongested conditions. Onelcin
et al. [19] investigated pedestrians’ crossing speed, delay and gap perception at different signalized intersections, and
analyzed the factors effecting the crossing speed by group size, age, items carrying and gender.
Existing research has focused on analyzing the characteristics of pedestrian walking speed on a one-stage crossing at
signalized intersections. However, there have been very few studies conducted on the speed characteristics of pedestrian
two-stage crossing. This paper focuses on the speed characteristics of pedestrian twice crossing at a signalized
intersection, in different groups of gender, age and group size.
2. Definition and Model

2.1. Two Directions of Pedestrian Crossing
There is a difference in the start of green signal in both directions of pedestrian twice crossing. If the green light of
one direction started earlier than the opposite, this direction was referred to as direction A. The opposite was referred to
as direction B, as shown in Figure 1.
Figure 1. Directions A and B of pedestrian two-stage crossing
2.2. Modeling Pedestrian Twice-Crossing Behavior (Speed Analysis)

Since the green light of direction A starts earlier than that of direction B, direction A has a longer effective green
time than direction B. The relatively long green time allows pedestrians to pursue a higher level of comfort, so
pedestrians in direction A can walk at a slow pace to go after “shorter walking distance”. Because of a difference in
pedestrian signal timing in the both directions, a high-density bi-directional pedestrian flow is formed in the first stage
of direction B and the second stage of direction A. In the second stage with a density condition, pedestrians of direction
A choose to slow down to avoid conflicts with opposite pedestrians, to achieve a straightline crossing.
506
Figure 2. The goal-oriented and time-driven model of pedestrian two-stage crossing
Due to a limited green time, pedestrians in direction B have a deep desire for “faster walking speed”. In the
interspersed bi-directional pedestrian stream, pedestrians in direction B choose to detour to prevent conflicts with
opposite pedestrians, because the detour could provide uncrowded room for pedestrians to reach a high walking pace.
This would cause a significant spatial expansion of pedestrian flow in the lateral direction. Based on the above analysis,
a goal-oriented and time-driven behavior model was proposed to simulate pedestrian twice-crossing speed at signalized
intersections, as shown in Figure 2.
3. Research Method
In this study, filed data was collected at a signalized intersection with video recording technique. An unmanned
aircraft system was used to gather pedestrian flow characteristics and behavior along the street. The two-stage pedestrian
crossing (see Figure 4) at the intersection of Nanjing Road and Gongqingtuan West Road (see Figure 3) in Zibo City
was selected. Eight hours of recordings were conducted in the normal working days during morning peak hours (7:00am
to 9:00am). The pedestrian data was collected, especially of the time required by pedestrians to cross street, in order to
obtain pedestrians’ walking speeds of the two-stage crossing. It has been noted that the selected intersection is near a
school zone, so a large proportion of pedestrians were university students. The pedestrian flow followed a negative
binomial distribution, at least approximately. Figure 5 presents the framework of data collection and analysis used in
this study.
Figure 3. Location of the selected intersection (Nanjing Road and Gongqingtuan West Road)
Figure 4. Dimensions of the selected pedestrian two-stage crossing
507
Figure 5. The framework of data collection and analysis
4. Results and Discussion

4.1. Pedestrian Twice-Crossing Speed of the Both Directions
The data were collected including 447 pedestrians in direction A and 578 pedestrians in direction B. The average
speeds of pedestrian two-stage crossing in the two directions are shown in Figure 6. It was found in direction A, the
average walking speed of 1.3m/s for the first stage (FS) and 1.27 m/s for the second stage (SS). The variation of walking
speed is higher in the FS than in the SS. Statistical analysis was performed using SPSS Statistics 23.0 where the
confidence interval was set at 95%. T-test for pedestrian crossing speed shows that the speeds are not significantly
different in the FS and SS in direction A (p = 0.210>0.05). It was observed the average walking speed of 1.31m/s for
the FS and 1.59 m/s for the SS in direction B. T-test for pedestrian crossing speed shows that the speeds are significantly
different in the FS and SS in direction B (p = 0.000<0.05). The results presented above indicate:
 Direction A: Compared to the SS, the FS has a higher velocity variation, which reflects a greater diversity of
pedestrian behaviors in the FS. For example, some pedestrians chose to cross the FS quickly, and then wait in
refuge island for the green light to pass the SS. While, someones adjusted their walking paces with signal timing
accordingly, to prevent waiting in refuge island. The relatively long green time allowed pedestrians to walk at a
slow pace in the FS. Pedestrians tended to speed up to cross the SS, but their speeds remained roughly unchanged,
with the interference from the opposite pedestrians under a density condition.
 Direction B: The average walking speed of the SS is greater than that of the FS, mainly because pedestrians
conflicted with the opposite side under a high-density bidirectional flow in the FS. Without the interference from
the opposite, pedestrians’ walking speeds increased significantly in the SS. Another reason of the big increase in
speed is limited remaining green time.
2.40
2.00
1.59
1.60
1.31
Speed (m/s)
1.30 1.27
1.20
Average
0.80 SD
0.40
0.00
First Stage Second Stage First Stage Second Stage
Direction A Direction B
Figure 6. Pedestrians’ average speeds of two-stage crossing in the two directions
4.2. Pedestrian Twice-Crossing Speed by Age Group

Pedestrian age was categorized in three groups: the young group (18-35 years old), the middle-aged group (35-60
508
years old), and the old group (over 60 years old). The ANOVA analysis reveals that the young group is not statistically
different with the middle-aged group in walking speed (p = 0.127>0.05), the old group is statistically different with the
young group (p = 0.029<0.05) and with the middle-aged group (p = 0.031<0.05) in walking speed. Figure 7 shows the
average speeds of different age groups in the two directions. In order to further investigate the impact of age on walking
speed, pedestrian speed changes of the two stages for different age groups are shown in Figure 8.
2.00
1.50 1.34 1.31 1.26 1.31
1.18 1.17
1.00
Speed（m/s）
0.50
0.00
Young Middle Old Young Middle Old
0.50
1.00
1.50 1.16
1.38 1.32 1.36
2.00 1.66 1.58
First Stage Second Stage
Figure 7. Pedestrians’ average speeds by age group
1.8
1.7
1.6
1.5 Young
Speed (m/s)
1.4 Middle
1.3 Old
1.2
1.1
1
First Stage Second Stage First Stage Second Stage
Figure 8. Pedestrian speed changes of the two stages by age group
Young Group: In direction A, the SS has a slightly slower speed than the FS. In the SS, young pedestrians (mostly
university students) in direction A chose to voluntarily avoid conflicts with the opposite by slowing down, which could
cause a reduction in walking speed. In direction B, young pedestrians also faced conflicts from the opposite side when
they crossed the FS, but they were able to reach a higher speed. This was attributed to young pedestrians’ route choice:
they chose to detour near the lateral boundary lines of crosswalk to give way, which provides them more space to speed
up. Even though young pedestrians in both directions voluntarily avoided conflicts with opposite pedestrians, different
choices could lead to different speed performances.
Middle-aged Group: In direction A, the average speed remains unchanged in the two stages. The middle-aged group
has a higher average speed than the young group in the SS. The results show that when conflicting with the opposite
direction in a bi-direction stream, middle-aged pedestrians might not voluntarily give way as young pedestrians did.
Thus, their walking speeds were less affected by the opposite conflicts. In direction B, the middle-aged group has a
lower average speeds in the two stages than the young group, due to middle-age pedestrians’ route choice. They preferred
to walk along a straight path in the middle of the crosswalk. Despite involving in a relatively short walking distance, the
crowded space made pedestrians difficult to increase their speeds.
Old Group: In direction A, the average speed remains unchanged in the two stages. In the SS, facing conflicts with
the opposite side in a density flow, old pedestrians could keep their speeds unchanged. Because the opposite direction
was more likely to voluntarily give way to elderly pedestrians, elderly pedestrians’ speeds were less affected by the
conflicts. In direction B, there is a large difference in walking speed between the elderly group with the young group,
and with the middle-aged group. This might be contributed to physical frailty in elderly people.
509
4.3. Pedestrian Twice-Crossing Speed by Group Size

Figure 9 shows the average speeds of pedestrian two-stage crossing by group size in the two directions. The ANOVA
analysis reveals that the team group is statistically different with the individual group in walking speed (p = 0.027<0.05).
It was observed that the team group has a lower average speed than the individual group in the two stages in the both
directions. Especially, the significant speed difference between the two groups was found, in the SS of direction A and
the FS of direction B. Because the two segments appeared high-density bidirectional conflicts, which could result in a
larger reduction on the team group.
When two or more pedestrians cross street in a group, they show similar behavior and hence can be considered as a
whole. If each individual was considered to be a small elliptical force field, a team group could be regarded as a larger-
size force field, as shown in Figure 10. In a high-density bi-directional stream, one team group exposed to more frequent
conflicts than one individual did. To avoid the conflicts, the team groups generally spent more time to change their
behavior, which would largely reduce their crossing speeds. For example, if one pedestrian in a team group decided to
avoid the conflicts, he would have to tell his partners and then they make action together. This process took a longer
time than one individual did.
2.00
1.50 1.24 1.32 1.30

1.15
1.00
Speed （m/s)
0.50
0.00
Team Individual Team Individual
0.50
1.00
1.50 1.19
1.36 1.41
2.00 1.63
Figure 9. Pedestrians’ average speeds by group size
Figure 10. Force field demonstration of the individual and team groups
4.4. Pedestrian Twice-Crossing Speed by Gender Group

Figure 11 shows the average speeds of pedestrian two-stage crossing by gender group in the two directions. The
ANOVA analysis reveals that the male group is statistically different with the female group in walking speed (p =
0.044<0.05). The results show that the female group has a lower average speed than the male group in the two stages in
the both directions. This might be contributed to strong physical and aggressive personality of male pedestrians.
510
2.00
1.50 1.33 1.23 1.30 1.21
1.00
Speed (m/s)
0.50
0.00
Male Female Male Female
0.50
1.00
1.50 1.34 1.25
1.62 1.54
2.00
Figure 11. Pedestrians’ average speeds by gender group
4.5. Effects of Gender and Group Size on Pedestrian Twice-Crossing Speed

In order to analyze the effects of gender and group size on pedestrian twice-crossing speed in different age groups,
each age group was divided into five categories by gender and group size: a.) male individual; b.) male team; c.) female
individual; d.) female team; e.) mixed-sex. The age attribute of the team group was determined according to the age of
the oldest pedestrian in group. For each group, the changes in walking speed of the two stages are demonstrated for
direction A in Figure 12 and for direction B in Figure 13. The detailed analysis by age group are demonstrated as follows.
Young group in direction A: The average speed is reduced from the FS to the SS for each sub-group, but the rates
of speed change appear to be different. Specifically, a larger speed reduction appears in the team sub-groups than in the
individual sub-groups. In the SS with a high-density bi-directional flow, either young individual or young team could
voluntarily avoid the conflicts with the opposite. The young team spent more time to change their behavior, resulting in
a bigger drop in speed.
Middle-aged group in direction A: It was found that the walking speed decreases in the individual groups and
remains unchanged in the team groups. It indicates that when facing conflicts with the opposite pedestrians in the SS,
the middle-aged pedestrians in the team sub-groups might not voluntarily give way (as young pedestrians do), but the
middle-aged pedestrians in the individual sub-groups are more likely to do it. It was also found that the changes in
walking speed include increase, decrease and keeping unchanged. It shows the behavioural diversity of middle-aged
pedestrians crossing the two stages. In the mixed-sex sub-group, female pedestrians had to catch up with her male
partner, resulting in an increase on female pedestrian speed. This situation is not common in the young and old groups.
1.6
Male individual
1.5
1.4 Male team

Speed (m/s)
1.3
Female individual
1.2
1.1
Female team
1
0.9 Mixed-sex team
0.8
First Second First Second First Second
Stage Stage Stage Stage Stage Stage
Young Middle-aged Old
Figure 12. Pedestrian speed changes of the two stages by group in direction A
Old group in direction A: In general, there is very little change in walking speed for each sub-group in the two stages.
This might be that when facing conflicts with the opposite pedestrians in the SS, the opposite pedestrians usually
511
voluntarily gave way for elderly people. Therefore, the bi-directional conflicts put a small impact on walking speed of
elderly pedestrian. Moreover, the female sub-groups have a greater average speed than the male ones, either individual
or team. This phenomenon does not appear in the young and middle-aged groups. It might to be related to old people’s
physical and mental characteristics.
Young group in direction B: When facing high-density conflicts with the opposite in the FS, young pedestrians were
able to reach a higher speed. This might be due to young pedestrians’ route choice: they chose to walk along the edges
of crosswalk to avoid conflicts with the opposite, which provides them more space to move quickly. In the FS, the
individual sub-groups have a higher average speed than the team ones. It indicates that young individuals can find space
more easily to avoid conflicts than young pedestrians in group. Moreover, the magnitude of acceleration for the male
sub-groups is greater than the female ones, either individual or team. This might be that young men have greater physical
strength than young women.
Middle-aged group in direction B: In the two stages, a lower speed was observed for the team sub-groups than the
individual ones. In the SS, middle-aged pedestrians in group seemed not to present a strong desire to cross the street
quickly, despite they had a very limited green time left. It indicates that middle-aged pedestrians in team have a low
awareness about traffic rules, and thus they are more likely to involve in red-light violations. A significant difference in
speed was found among different sub-groups, which reflects the behavioural diversity of middle-aged pedestrians
crossing the two stages.
2
Male individual
1.8
1.6 Male team

Speed (m/s)
1.4
Female individual
1.2
1 Female team
0.8
Mixed-sex team
0.6
0.4
First Second First Second First Second
Stage Stage Stage Stage Stage Stage
Young Middle-aged Old
Figure 13. Pedestrian speed changes of the two stages by group in direction B
Old group in direction B: The female sub-groups have a greater average speed than the male, either individual or
team. This phenomenon is quite opposite in the young and middle-aged sub-groups. In the FS with a high-density bi-
directional stream, the team sub-groups have a lower average speed than the individual ones. The main reason might be
that although the opposite pedestrians (in direction A) could voluntarily slow down to avoid conflicts with elderly
pedestrians, they might not give way to elderly pedestrians. Thus, elderly pedestrians still had to change their routes to
cross the street. This causes a reduction on walking speed for seniors, especially for the elderly in the team sub-groups.
Table 1. The main factor affecting the speed change for each age group
Young Middle-aged Old Young Middle-aged Old
Main Factor Group size Group size Gender Gender Group size Gender
In Figures 12 and 13, the magnitude of the slope shows the effect size of gender and group size on walking speed.
The greater the magnitude of the slope, the larger the effect size. By analyzing the magnitude of the slope, the main
factor affecting the speed change for each age group was determined as shown in Table 1. For example, for the old group
in direction A, it was observed an increase in speed for female sub-groups and a decrease in speed for male sub-groups.
This reflects that gender has a remarkable effect on speed change for the old group in direction A. For the middle-aged
group in direction B, a steeper slope appears in the individual sub-groups than the team. This indicates that group size
has an important effect on speed change for the middle-aged group in direction B.
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5. Conclusion
This paper presents pedestrians' speed behavior for twice crossing at a signalized intersection, focusing on pedestrian
speed change in the two stages by age, gender and group size, as well as the main factors affecting speed-changing for
each group. The results show significant differences in walking speed on different gender and age groups, as well as on
different group size. The young group has different factors affecting the speed change in the two directions, and the
middle-aged and old groups have same factors affecting the speed change in the two directions. A goal-oriented and
time-driven model was proposed to analyze pedestrians’ twice-crossing speed behavior at signalized intersections, where
the two directions have different pedestrian signal timing. The results also show that the proposed model is effective in
simulating pedestrian speed behavior. The proposed model can be used in optimizing signal timing, improving
pedestrian infrastructure, and pedestrian intention recognition, to gain a better understanding of pedestrians’ two-stage
crossing behavior.
6. Funding
This work was supported by the project of Shandong University of Technology, China (#416066).
7. Conflicts of Interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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514

Vol. 5, No. 3, March, 2019
The Impact of Vibration on the Accuracy of Digital Surveying

Instruments
Hossam El-Din Fawzy a*

a
Associate Professor, Civil Engineering Department, Faculty of Engineering, Kafr El-Sheikh University, Kafr El-Sheikh, Egypt.
Received 25 December 2018; Accepted 27 February 2019
Abstract
A digital surveying instrument has a crucial and effective role in civil engineering. These digital surveying instruments
have contributed to providing quick and simplified solutions to solve many surveying problems: particularly accuracy,
saving time, and effort .Therefore, the main objective of this research is the study of the vibrations effect on digital devices
efficiency during the observation process, which occur frequently especially when the devices occupy the bridges during
observation or when the occupation of the device is set nearby the railways, as well as in construction sites with heavy
equipment movement. Although most digital surveying instruments contain a compensator device, this research find out
through the experimental test that the effect of vibration on the accuracy of observation results and the noticed errors may
extend to many centimeters. In case of using the digital level devices (SOKKIA SDL-30) under exposure to vibration (up
to 20 KHZ/Sec), the average error of elevation was 36.9 mm in 80 m distance and the maximum standard deviation
elevation error was 18.26 mm. But in the case of using the reflector-less total station (SOKKIA SET330RK) under exposure
to vibration (from 7.5 to 15 KHZ/Sec), the average error of positioning was 79.95 mm in 85 m distance and the maximum
standard deviation positioning error was 43.41 mm.
Keywords: Accuracy; Digital Instruments; Vibration; Collimation Error; Arduino.
1. Introduction
The advancement of surveying instruments and the contrivance of digital electronic instruments lead to exceptional
progress in the surveying field and avert many errors in optical instruments such as inaccuracy due to the manual method
that takes a long time to write down the observation process results which, in turn leads to more fallible outputs of the
surveying process. However, these digital devices are not efficient in reducing errors significantly because they are
affected by the conditions surrounding the observation process. As a general rule, a civil structure is exposed to shifting
ecological and operational conditions, for example, traffic, moisture, wind, sun oriented radiation and temperature [1]
The last decade witnesses a lot of researches conducted to the Digital Level, and Total station's accuracy. The effect
of Sun, and battery capacity have been measured and estimated by Ashraf A.A. Beshr, and Islam M. Abo Elnaga [2].
The authors concluded that the leveling process has been enhanced by (10-15) %. Moreover, Reda el al [3] studied the
effects of angle incidence and targets with different colors on distance measurement about the total station refrectorless,
and The accuracy of reflectorless distance measurement is also investigated, In addition to that, comparison was made
for manual and automatic target recognition measurement. The results showed that the error in the distance increased as
the incident angle in the target increases.
* Corresponding author: hossameldinfawzy@yahoo.com

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Regarding to previous mentioned studies, there is no research investigates the effect of the vibration on the
performance of the Digital level and Total station which caused by observing nearby railway, observing on bridges or
in construction sites having heavy equipment causing high vibrations. In this research, the vibration was measured by
SW-420 vibration sensor. The experiment carried out by examining some digital level devices (SOKKIA SDL- 30) and
total station (SOKKIA SET330RK) which contain an automatic compensators device that can maintain the device's
horizontal plane. This compensator works to correct the optical path depending on the gravitational property and the
optical pathway to its horizontal plane but this compensator works within a very small field (a few minutes of the arc).
Therefore, some errors remain even after correction. Although it helps reduce the impact of vibration effect but it does
not completely eliminate it.
A simulation test was carried out to measure these vibrations, using connecting 3 DC motors (24 volt) on leg of the
tripod which acted as a generator of vibrations for three stages (0.0 to 7500 Hz/Sec., 7500 to 15000 Hz/Sec. and 15000
to 20000 Hz/Sec.). This research investigates the accuracy of observation from digital level and total station devices
under exposed to vibration. It investigates also the ability and distance limitation to using these digital devices under
exposed to vibration. Precision comparison for the observation before and after exposed to vibration is also presented.
The results of the practical measurements, calculations and analysis of results are presented.
However, it is important to begin by presenting the technical specifications of the digital level devices (SOKKIA
SDL- 30), the total station (SOKKIA SET330RK) and defining vibration and how to measure it before explaining the
experimental as follows:
2. The Technical Specifications of the Digital Level Devices (SOKKIA SDL-30) and the Total
Station (SOKKIA SET330RK)
Digital automatic levels are a precise instruments used for precise leveling. Operation of digital levels is based on the
digital processing of video indications of a coded staff [4]. Operation of digital levels is based on the digital processing
of video indications of a coded staff [5]. To determine the height difference, it is necessary to bring the line of sight to
the horizontal position. Horizontality of the line of sight is achieved by the compensator [6]. This device virtually
eliminates reading errors and automates the collection of data. Also, fieldwork is conducted more quickly with digital
reading than with conventional methods [7]. The geometric leveling was conducted with a SOKKIA power level SDL
30, which provides data acquisition (by estimation) up to 2 decimals when measuring mode is tracking. The Sokkia
power level SDL 30 was used as shown in Figure 1. The “Power Level SDL 30” makes measurement quick, easy, and
accurate. Moreover, it makes the function of measuring the height and distance in all types of environments. This device
also gives satisfying measurements in tunnels and high levels of temperature [8].
General specification of the SDL30:
 Accurate under contrary illumination and environmental changes.
 4 main measuring types: single-fine, repeat-fine, average, and tracking.
 Water proof and resist to shock.
The technical specifications of the digital level devices (electronic SOKKIA SDL-30) are mentioned in Table 1 [8, 9].
Table 1. Technical Specifications of the Digital Level Devices [8]
Accuracy of Height 1 mm
Accuracy of Distance [<10m = +/-10mm] [10m to 50m = +/-.1%xD] [>50m = .2%xD]
Resolution of Display .0001 / .001m
observing Range 1.6 to 100m
Zoom in 32 time
Compensator Pendulum compensator with magnetic damping system
Operation limit no less than 8.5 h.
The total Station is an electronic surveying instrument that combines Electronic Distance Measuring Equipment
(EDM) with an electronic theodelite and a computer. The EDM measures the distance (slope distance) to a directed
prism to which it is pointed, while set on-board [10]. The electronic theodelite simply measures obliquity episodes within
two planes, the X-Y plane (horizontal plane) the X-Z plane (vertical plane). The computer stores and manipulates a large
number of values resulting from these three measurements [11]. The used total station device is SOKKIA SET330RK
as illustrated in Figure 2. The technical specifications of the SOKKIA SET330RK total station are given in Table 2 [12].
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Table 2. Technical Specifications of the SOKKIA SET330RK Total Station [12]
Minimal Display 1 sec

Accuracy 3 sec
with Prism Up to 5 km
Sheet prism 1.3 up to 300 m
Reflector-less White colour 0.3 up to 200m
With Prism Fine-Measurement 2 mm ± 2 mm/km
Sheet prism Fine-Measurement 3 mm ± 2 mm/km
3 mm ± 2 mm/km (0.3 to 100m)
Reflector-less White colour Fine-Measurement
5 mm ± 10 mm/km (over 100 to 200m)
Figure 1. The SOKKIA Power Level SDL30 Figure 2. SOKKIA SET330RK Total Station
3. Vibration
As for vibration, it is defined as a direct physical effect that appears frequently in our daily lives. These vibrations
result from different sources such as noise, wind, and mechanical vibrations, which are formed nearby bridges and trains,
as regular movements around a certain place for several times. It is known as frequency in Hz unit [13]. Evaluating and
measuring the vibration has a lot of variations and possible technologies. Piezoelectric, resonance, and magnetic can be
used to measure the vibration values [14]. It is now easy to measure these vibrations through a remarkable development
in technology that produces, digital devices, including vibration sensors. For instance, SW-420 is a vibration sensor as
shown in Figure 3 [15].
Figure 3. SW-420 Sensor
The SW-420 vibration sensor uses Arduino program-software to measure Vibration. It is a cheap device that does not
require great effort or a large number of electronics. It can also detect slight vibrations and re-record them on a digital
image with the help of the specified software. Arduino is an electronics company that develops software and electronic
devices which are easy to handle. We adopt Arduino as the base of the Middle-Device since the difficulty of operating
the hardware is abstracted, programming is easy for a beginner, and the Arduino has more extensibility[16, 17]. All
researchers and students use Arduino programs because its cost is reasonable and one can apply tests using this program
easily. In this research, Arduino products have been used to carry out the suggested experiment. Arduino Uno is a
microcontroller board which can be connected to a computer a Universal Serial Bus (USB) as indicated in Figure 4. Uno
dimensions are (68.61 x 53.40) mm, weighs (25) gram. It has (ATmega328 8-bit) microcontroller [16]. The Arduino
Uno ("Uno" means one in Italian) is a microcontroller board based on the ATmega328. It has 14 digital input/output pins
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(of which 6 can be used as PWM outputs), 6 analog inputs, a 16 MHz ceramic resonator, a USB connection, a power
jack, an ICSP (In circuit serial programming) header, and a reset button. It contains everything needed to support the
microcontroller; simply connect it to a computer with a USB cable or power it with AC-to-DC adapter or battery to get
started. Also an advantage of using the Uno is that the chip used in it can be replaced for relatively cheap cost. UNO
board is the very first of the Arduino boards and even though there are some advanced boards available; for this project,
the UNO board will be enough [18, 19].
Figure 4. Arduino Uno Board Figure 5. Arduino Uno Board Connected to SW-420
Vibration Sensor
Then, the Uno board is connected to a USB to a computer USB to display the results on the Arduino program using
the vibration sensor and wires to measure vibration using the code shown in Figure 6. Then, the result of vibration in
Hertz unit is shown in Figure 7.
Figure 6. Vibration Code in Arduino Program
Figure 7. Result in Arduino Program by Hertz Per Second
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4. Experimental Test Field

It was so difficult for the researchers to carry out the observation nearby a railway or a bridge because of
overcrowding, passing vehicles and surrounding circumstances. In general, the magnitude of a vibration acceleration
signal in a structure can be represented by its peak value [20]. We found that the vibration was up to 12000 Hz per
second. Consequently, a simulation test was conducted to measure these vibrations, using connecting 3 DC motors (24
volt) on each leg of the tripod of the electronic instruments which acted as a generator of vibrations for three stages until
we reached a certain value of vibrations 20000 Hz. These values were measured by the SW-420 vibration sensor that
was connected to an Arduino program. Therefore, the research project passed through three levels of vibration values:
(1) generating vibration in a domain of 0.0 to 7500 Hz per second; (2) vibration from 7500 to 15000 Hz per second; and
(3) Vibration from 15000 to 20000 Hz per second. Figure 8 shows the research methodology.
Figure 8. the research methodology
The first test was run using Sokkia power level SDL30. The test was carried out with fully charged battery during
daytime under natural light and temperature of 20º C. It was adjusted horizontally and recorded the average of 25 staff
reading without vibration at equal divided distances every 5 meters up to 100 meters, then the level device was exposed
to three stages of vibrations as was mentioned before. In each interval, the 25 staff readings were recorded. The absolute
maximum error, absolute minimum error, absolute average error and standard deviation error of elevation observations
were calculated using the following equations [21, 22]:
𝑉𝑖 (𝑖=1,2,…..,𝑛) = |𝑋𝑖 − 𝑋 \ |
𝑚𝑎𝑥. (𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑣.)𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = 𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚(𝑉𝑖 ), 𝑚𝑖𝑛. (𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑣.)𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = 𝑀𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚(𝑉𝑖 ) (1)

∑𝑛
𝑖=1 𝑉𝑖 ∑𝑛 2
𝑖=1 𝑣𝑖
𝑎𝑣𝑔.(𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑣.)𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = , 𝜎𝑥 = ± √
𝑛 𝑛−1
Where:
𝑉𝑖 (𝑖=1,2,…..,𝑛) = the absolute error of elevation on staff reading after exposure to vibrations
n = the number of staff readings (25 times).
𝑋𝑖 = the staff reading after exposure to vibrations
𝑋 \ = the average staff reading (before exposure to vibrations)
𝑚𝑎𝑥. (𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑣.)𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = The absolute maximum error of elevation.
𝑚𝑖𝑛. (𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑣.)𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = The absolute minimum error of elevation.
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𝑎𝑣𝑔.(𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑣.)𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = The absolute average error of elevation.

𝜎𝑥 = the standard deviation error of elevation observations.
The second test was run using SOKKIA SET330RK total station. The test was carried out with fully charged battery
during daytime under natural light and temperature of 20º C. It was adjusted horizontally and recorded the positioning
(positioning without vibration). The total station was used in several tests:
a. Observing the coordinates of an ordinary prism with vertical angle equal to zero, with equal distances (50 m) of
reach to 1000 meters. In each interval, the 25 observations were recorded once without vibration and were
recorded a second time with three levels of vibrations.
b. Observing the coordinates of an ordinary sheet prism with vertical angle equal to zero, with equal distances (10
m) of reach to 200 meters. In each interval, the 25 observations were recorded once without vibration and were
recorded a second time with three levels of vibrations.
c. Observing the coordinates with reflector-less prism using white paper as a target with vertical angle equal to zero,
with equal distances (5 m) of reach to 100 meters. In each interval, the 25 observations were recorded once
without vibration and were recorded a second time with three levels of vibrations.
The absolute average positioning error and standard deviation error of positioning were calculated for each case using
the following equations [21, 22]:
𝑉𝑖 (𝑖=1,2,…,𝑛) = √(𝑋𝑖 − 𝑋 \ )2 + (𝑌𝑖 − 𝑌 \ )2 + (𝑍𝑖 − 𝑍 \ )2

(2)
∑𝑛
𝑖=1 𝑉𝑖 ∑𝑛 2
𝑖=1 𝑣𝑖
𝑎𝑣𝑔. (𝑃𝑜𝑠.)𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = , 𝜎𝑃𝑜𝑠. = ± √
𝑛 𝑛−1
Where:
𝑉𝑖 (𝑖=1,2,…..,𝑛) = the error of positioning on observation after exposure to vibrations
n = the number of observation (25 times).
𝑋𝑖 , 𝑌𝑖 & 𝑍𝑖 = the Easting, Northing and Elevation of observation after exposure to vibrations
𝑋 \ , 𝑌 \ & 𝑍 \ = the average Easting, Northing and Elevation of observation (before exposure to vibrations)
𝑎𝑣𝑔.(𝑃𝑜𝑠.)𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = The absolute average error of positioning.
𝜎𝑃𝑜𝑠. = the standard deviation error of positioning observations.

The absolute maximum error of elevation, the absolute minimum error of elevation, the absolute average error of
elevation and the standard deviation error of elevation observations were calculated using the Equation 1. It was
calculated for Digital Level Devices (Electronic Sokkia SDL- 30). The average error in positioning and the standard
deviation in positioning were calculated using the Equation 2. It was calculated for total station (SOKKIA SET330RK).
5.1. Digital Level Devices

The absolute maximum/minimum error, the absolute average error and the standard deviation error of elevation
observations were calculated as given in Table 3. The average error in elevation was presented for the three domains of
vibration levels mentioned earlier in Figure 9. The standard deviation in elevation was also displayed for the same three
domains of vibration shown in Figure 10. In the second domain of vibration (from 7500 to 15000 Hz/sec.), the Digital
Level Devices (Electronic Sokkia SDL- 30) observation is limited with 90 m and in the third domain of vibration (from
15000 to 20000 Hz/sec.) 80 m is the limit.
As shown in Figures 9 and 10, the relationship between both the average and standard deviation elevation error against
the distance are almost linear. As the levels of vibrations accumulate, the average and standard deviation errors increased
rabidly, especially at far distances.
520
40
Vib. From 0 to 7500 HZ/Sec.
35
Average Elevation Error (mm)

30 Vib. From15000 to 20000 HZ/Sec.
25
20
15
10
0
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100
Distance (m)
Figure 9. Average Error in Elevation (mm) Using Digital Level Devices (Electronic Sokkia SDL- 30)
25
Standard Deviatin Elevation Error (mm)

20
Vib. From15000 to 20000 HZ/Sec.
15
10
0
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100
Distance (m)
Figure 10. Standard Deviation in Elevation (mm) Using Digital Level Devices (Electronic Sokkia SDL- 30)
Table 3 illustrates the accurate values of the experimental tests conducted to Digital Level Device, in which the trend
of the values refers to an obvious increase in errors. The reasons of the errors can be referred to the hesitation of the
sight line that can read more than one point on the barcode staff.
Table 3. Average Error in Elevation (mm) and Standard Deviation in Elevation (mm) Using Digital Level Devices
(Electronic Sokkia SDL- 30)
Elevation observation error

Distance Vibration from 0.0 to 7500 Hz per Vibration from 7500 to 15000 Hz per Vibration from 15000 to 20000 Hz per
(m) second second second
max min avg Std max min avg Std max min Avg Std
5 9 3 5.13 1.74 12 4 6.83 2.54 14 5 8.63 3.14
10 10 4 5.63 2.05 12 5 7.27 2.72 15 6 8.84 3.54
15 10 4 6.34 2.54 13 5 8.34 3.16 15 6 9.94 3.82
20 11 4 7.54 2.61 14 5 9.76 3.42 16 7 11.76 4.05
25 11 5 7.63 2.72 15 6 9.98 3.61 18 7 12.06 4.42
30 12 5 8.06 2.79 16 7 10.56 3.80 19 8 12.72 4.88
35 14 6 8.67 3.76 18 8 11.29 4.73 21 9 13.61 5.51
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40 14 7 9.38 4.88 18 9 12.37 6.46 22 11 14.84 7.68

45 15 8 10.35 4.92 19 11 13.59 6.82 23 13 17.51 8.34
50 16 9 12.12 5.36 22 11 15.67 7.03 26 14 18.91 8.60
55 19 10 13.64 6.23 24 13 17.38 8.19 28 16 22.60 9.72
60 19 13 15.69 7.26 25 16 20.69 9.42 30 20 23.87 11.24
65 20 14 17.61 8.62 27 17 22.82 11.36 32 21 27.27 13.46
70 22 15 18.54 8.96 29 19 24.06 11.87 35 22 28.91 14.15
75 25 17 21.01 9.89 32 23 27.54 12.93 38 27 32.47 16.34
80 29 19 24.43 11.69 37 25 30.99 15.06 44 30 36.89 18.26
85 31 23 26.35 13.54 40 30 34.23 17.38 ----- ----- ----- -----
90 34 26 28.13 14.64 43 34 36.38 19.28 ----- ----- ----- -----
95 36 27 30.27 15.37 ----- ----- ----- ----- ----- ----- ----- -----
100 39 28 31.15 17.13 ----- ----- ----- ----- ----- ----- ----- -----
5.2. Total Station Devices

Figure 11 shows the average positioning errors against observed distances using total station with ordinary prism
when exposed to three domains of vibration levels (from 0.0 to 7500, from 7500 to 15000, and from 15000 to 20000)
Hz/sec, while Figure 12 illustrates the effect of previous mentioned domains on the standard deviation positioning error.
As is observed, the increase in vibration levels effect the accuracy of observation besides the observed distances.
7
6
Average Positioning Error (mm)
2
1 Vib. From 7500 to 15000 HZ/Sec.

0
50 150 250 350 450 550 650 750 850 950
Distance (m)
Figure 11. Average Error in Positioning (mm) Using Ordinary Prism Total Station (SOKKIA SET330RK)
4.5
Standard Deviatin Positioning Error
3.5
2.5
(mm)
1.5

0.5
0
50 150 250 350 450 550 650 750 850 950
Distance (m)
Figure 12. Standard Deviation Error in Positioning (mm) Using Ordinary Prism Total Station (SOKKIA SET330RK)
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Positioning average error and positioning Standard Deviation for total station with ordinary prism when goes under
variable domains of vibrations at different distances from (50 to 1000) m with step 50 m is tabulated in Table 4. The
maximum observed distance in case of (from 0.0 to 7500, from 7500 to 15000, and from 15000 to 20000) HZ/sec.
signified (1000, 850, and 750) m with standard deviation (3.68, 4.13, and 4.02) mm, respectively.
Table 4. Average Error in Positioning (mm) and Standard Deviation in Positioning (mm) Using Ordinary Prism Total
Positioning Observation Error Using Ordinary Prism (Mm)

Distance from
Instrument to Vibration from 0.0 to 7500 Hz per Vibration from 7500 to 15000 Hz per Vibration from 15000 to 20000 Hz
Target (m) second second per second
avg. Std. avg. Std. avg. Std.
50 0.15 0.07 2.13 1.34 3.12 1.62
100 0.28 0.14 2.35 1.42 3.36 1.84
150 0.76 0.43 2.65 1.55 3.51 1.93
200 0.84 0.49 2.98 1.64 3.87 2.12
250 0.98 0.54 3.14 1.77 4.24 2.36
300 1.21 0.71 3.64 1.95 4.39 2.59
350 1.56 0.83 3.96 2.31 4.59 2.89
400 1.87 0.94 4.14 2.54 4.89 3.03
450 2.05 1.09 4.35 2.67 5.04 3.14
500 2.34 1.35 4.65 2.8 5.34 3.24
550 2.67 1.47 4.96 3.01 5.62 3.51
600 3.11 1.59 5.12 3.09 5.96 3.69
650 3.51 1.83 5.34 3.24 6.12 3.79
700 3.87 2.24 5.87 3.62 6.37 3.91
750 4.15 2.38 5.91 3.83 6.45 4.02
800 4.55 2.57 6.21 4.05 ------ ------
850 4.67 2.81 6.34 4.13 ------ ------
900 5.05 3.05 ------ ------ ------ ------
950 5.64 3.24 ------ ------ ------ ------
1000 6.04 3.68 ------ ------ ------ ------
Table 5 illustrates the average error in Positioning and standard deviation in Positioning in the case of total station
with sheet prism. In case of applying total station with sheet prism (the average error and standard deviation) in
positioning increased although the observed distance decreased when compared to the total station with ordinary prism
at the same domains of vibration levels (from 0.0 to 7500, from 7500 to 15000, and from 15000 to 20000) in which the
maximum distances were (200, 180, and 140) m with standard deviation (4.87, 5.87, and 5.16) mm, respectively.
Table 5. Average Error in Positioning (mm) and Standard Deviation in Positioning (mm) Using Sheet Prism Total
Positioning Observation Error Using Sheet Prism (mm)

Distance from
Instrument to Vibration from 0.0 to 7500 Hz per Vibration from 7500 to 15000 Hz per Vibration from 15000 to 20000 Hz per
Target (m) second second second
10 0.48 0.26 1.31 0.75 2.34 1.11
20 0.69 0.47 1.84 0.98 2.86 1.87
30 1.23 0.66 2.12 1.14 3.27 1.99
40 1.51 0.84 2.67 1.65 3.89 2.17
50 1.67 1.05 2.99 1.84 4.12 2.55
60 1.97 1.09 3.61 2.01 4.68 2.91
70 2.35 1.27 3.92 2.27 5.01 3.51
80 2.87 1.34 4.36 2.57 5.58 3.78
90 3.46 1.71 4.57 2.85 5.83 3.84
100 3.78 1.87 5.12 3.14 6.31 4.04
110 3.91 2.03 5.62 3.64 6.87 4.28
523
120 4.15 2.31 5.89 3.89 7.12 4.61

130 4.63 2.64 6.13 4.11 7.54 4.92
140 5.31 2.95 6.87 4.5 7.96 5.16
150 5.67 3.24 7.32 4.83 ------ ------
160 6.02 3.64 7.75 5.08 ------ ------
170 6.47 3.79 8.21 5.61 ------ ------
180 7.05 4.08 8.73 5.87 ------ ------
190 7.76 4.51 ------ ------ ------ ------
200 8.35 4.87 ------ ------ ------ ------
Figures 13 and 14 show the average positioning error and standard deviation error with respect to observed distances
in case of applying the mentioned domains of vibration levels on the total station with sheet prism, from which we can
deduce that the observed distance decreases rapidly when applying the vibrations.
10
9
3
2
1
0
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180 190 200
Distance (m)
Figure 13. Average Error in Positioning (mm) Using Sheet Prism Total Station (SOKKIA SET330RK)
7
Standard Deviatin Positioning Error (mm)

5
0
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180 190 200
Distance (m)
Figure 14. Standard Deviation Error in Positioning (mm) Using Sheet Prism Total Station (SOKKIA SET330RK)
Table 6 shows the values of (average error standard deviation) in Positioning in cased of Total Station with reflector-
less prism, which record maximum values (79.95, and 43.41) mm at observed distance 85 m at vibration domain
(from7500 to 15000) Hz/sec. when the maximum observed distances (100, 85, and 60) m at the same domains of
vibration levels (from 0.0 to 7500, from 7500 to 15000, and from 15000 to 20000), respectively.
524
Table 6. Average Error in Positioning (mm) and Standard Deviation in Positioning (mm) Using Reflector-less Total
Positioning Observation Error Using Reflector-less Prism (mm)

Distance from
Instrument to Vibration from 0.0 to 7500 Hz per Vibration from 7500 to 15000 Hz per Vibration from 15000 to 20000 Hz
Target (m) second second per second
5 2.35 1.16 6.37 3.69 9.36 5.31
10 7.38 3.12 12.67 7.12 14.89 8.34
15 12.87 7.36 16.87 9.31 19.67 11.21
20 18.64 11.39 21.35 12.35 26.34 14.87
25 22.54 13.61 28.67 16.53 37.64 19.87
30 27.89 15.64 33.54 18.04 41.27 22.54
35 28.67 17.35 39.24 21.64 46.71 24.57
40 33.57 20.31 44.87 23.61 53.87 28.61
45 38.62 23.61 49.69 28.12 60.46 32.54
50 40.36 27.34 53.48 30.05 64.97 36.54
55 44.38 29.38 58.6 32.51 70.05 38.57
60 48.75 31.08 60.37 34.38 77.98 41.54
65 51.68 34.02 66.51 36.04 ------ ------
70 54.89 36.35 70.01 38.62 ------ ------
75 57.89 38.27 74.39 39.25 ------ ------
80 60.57 40.05 77.62 41.06 ------ ------
85 63.54 43.64 79.95 43.41 ------ ------
90 66.87 45.05 ------ ------ ------ ------
95 69.34 46.37 ------ ------ ------ ------
100 70.87 48.08 ------ ------ ------ ------
Figures 15 and 16 show the variation of (average error standard deviation) in Positioning in cased of Total Station
with reflector-less prism in which the changes in both average error and standard deviations in observed distances from
5 to 35 m are approx. close. while the average error standard deviation recorded their highest levels in case of applying
vibration domain (from7500 to 15000) Hz/sec.
90
80
70
60
50
40
30

10
0
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100
Distance (m)
Figure 15. Average Error in Positioning (mm) Using Reflector-less Total Station (SOKKIA SET330RK)
525
60
Standard Deviatin Positioning Error (mm)

50
40
30
20

0
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100
Distance (m)
Figure 16. Standard Deviation Error in Positioning (mm) Using Reflector-less Total Station (SOKKIA SET330RK)
6. Conclusions
 The higher the vibration levels the higher average errors and standard deviation of observations of both Digital
level and Total Station.
 The maximum distances from Digital level to bar code staff with applying (i.e. from 0.0 to 7500, from 7500 to
15000, and from 15000 to 20000) Hz/sec levels of vibrations were (100,90, and 80) m, respectively.
 The maximum, average, and standard deviation error in elevation signified (44, 36.89, and 18.26) mm with 80 m
between the instrument and bar code staff when applying the Digital level at vibration levels (from 15000 to
20000) Hz/sec of vibration all at distance 80 m.
 The influences of vibration on the Total Station in case of reflector-less is more than the ordinary prism or sheet
prism.
 The maximum distances measured by the Total station with ordinary reflector prism, sheet prism, and reflector-
less prism were (i.e. 750, 140, and 60) m with standard deviation (i.e. 4.02, 5.16, and 41.51) mm when applying
vibrations (from 15000 to 20000) Hz/sec, respectively.
8. References
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[2] Beshr, Ashraf A.A., and Islam M. Abo Elnaga. “Investigating the Accuracy of Digital Levels and Reflectorless Total Stations for
Purposes of Geodetic Engineering.” Alexandria Engineering Journal 50, no. 4 (December 2011): 399–405.
doi:10.1016/j.aej.2011.12.004.
[3] Reda Adinew, Amezene, and Bekele Bedada Damtie. "Accuracy analysis and Calibration of Total Station based on the
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International Conference on Computer, Control, Electrical, and Electronics Engineering (ICCCEEE) (August 2018).
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[6] Gučević, Jelena, Stefan Miljković, Siniša Delčev, and Vukan Ogrizović. “Effects of Low Temperatures in the Line of Sight of
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[7] Łabuz, Tomasz A. “A Review of Field Methods to Survey Coastal Dunes—experience Based on Research from South Baltic
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[8] SOKKIA. “SOKKIA Digital Level.” SOKKIA SLD30. https://www.topconpositioningmea.com/s-digital-levels. Published 2018.
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[10] Michael Christiaan Kamps. “THE EFFECT OF THE RESOLUTION OF TOPOGRAPHY DESCRIPTION ON 2-D
MODELLING OF RIVER HABITAT.” the Faculty of Engineering and the Built Environment, University of the Witwatersrand,
Johannesburg, Msc (2018): 300.
[11] Safrel, Ispen, Eko Nugroho Julianto, and Nur Qudus Usman. “Accuracy Comparison Between GPS Real Time Kinematic (RTK)
Method and Total Station to Determine The Coordinate of An Area.” Jurnal Teknik Sipil Dan Perencanaan 20, no. 2 (November 30,
2018): 123–130. doi:10.15294/jtsp.v20i2.16284.
[12] SOKKIA. “SOKKIA Total Station.” SOKKIA SET330RK. https://www.topconpositioningmea.com/s-brand-totalstations.
Published 2018.
[13] Li, Lin, Luyang Tan, Lin Kong, Dong Wang, and Hongbo Yang. “The Influence of Flywheel Micro Vibration on Space Camera
and Vibration Suppression.” Mechanical Systems and Signal Processing 100 (February 2018): 360–370.
doi:10.1016/j.ymssp.2017.07.029.
[14] Kim, Jungyeol, Soonwook Kwon, Seunghee Park, and Youngsuk Kim. “A MEMS-Based Commutation Module with Vibration
Sensor for Wireless Sensor Network-Based Tunnel-Blasting Monitoring.” KSCE Journal of Civil Engineering 17, no. 7 (October 24,
2013): 1644–1653. doi:10.1007/s12205-013-0108-4.
[15] Hjort A. “Department of Physics and Astronomy Measuring mechanical vibrations using an Arduino as a slave I / O to an EPICS
control system as a slave I / O to an EPICS control system.” Department of Physics and Astronomy Uppsala University 4 (2015).
[16] Yadesh, V., and K. Venkatachalam. “GSM Based Industrial Appliances Control Using Arduino Processor.” International Journal
of Science and Research (IJSR) 5, no. 3 (March 5, 2016): 1680–1682. doi:10.21275/v5i3.nov162287.
[17] Nasution, Tigor Hamonangan, Muhammad Anggia Muchtar, Ikhsan Siregar, Ulfi Andayani, Esra Christian, and Emerson
Pascawira Sinulingga. “Electrical Appliances Control Prototype by Using GSM Module and Arduino.” 2017 4th International
Conference on Industrial Engineering and Applications (ICIEA) (April 2017). doi:10.1109/iea.2017.7939237.
[18] Patel, Viral K., and Maitri N. Patel. "Development of smart sensing unit for vibration measurement by embedding accelerometer
with the Arduino microcontroller." Int. J. Instrum. Sci 7 (2017): 1-7.
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International Conference on Education, Management, Arts, Economics and Social Science (ICEMAESS 2018) (2018).
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Railway Bridge Considering the Bridge-Train Interaction and Travel Speed.” KSCE Journal of Civil Engineering 20, no. 2 (January
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[22] Teunissen, P. J. G., and A. R. Amiri-Simkooei. “Least-Squares Variance Component Estimation.” Journal of Geodesy 82, no. 2
(May 8, 2007): 65–82. doi:10.1007/s00190-007-0157-x.
527

Vol. 5, No. 3, March, 2019
Punching Shear Strength Characteristics of Flat Plate Panels Reinforced

with Shearhead Collars: Experimental Investigation
Maroua Mohammed Majeed a*, Aamer Najim Abbas b

a
MSc Student, Civil Engineering Department, College of Engineering, Al-Mustansiryah University, Baghdad, Iraq.
b
Assistant Professor, Civil Engineering Department, College of Engineering, Al-Mustansiriyah University, Baghdad, Iraq.
Received 28 December 2018; Accepted 09 March 2019
Abstract
This paper presents an experimental investigation on the punching shear strength of reinforced concrete flat plate slabs
with shearhead collars. Eight reinforced concrete slab specimens were casted and tested under static load test, the load was
applied at the center of slab by 100x100 mm steel column. The effect of the shapes, diameter and number of stiffeners has
been discovered for shearheads through studying its effect on the load-deflection behavior, ultimate capacity, cracking
load, failure mode, stiffness, ductility and energy absorption of tested specimens. The experimental results indicates that
using square shearhead had achieved a slight increase in punching shear strength about 3% over that circular shearhead
using the same surface area. Also, utilize 550 mm shearhead diameter will contribute to increase the punching shear
strength about 14.5%. The increase in the number of stiffeners in specimen (CS4) had reduced the ultimate punching shear
capacity by 20.3% over reference specimen. The first crack was decreased from 12.5kN to 7.5kN, when increases the
number of stiffeners from one to two. The cracking load was increased with the increase of the diameter of circular
shearhead from 10kN to 15Kn in specimens of 336mm and 550mm respectively. The specimen with 336mm diameter and
30mm height circular shearhead achieved 427 kN.m energy absorption, it is higher than the energy absorption of reference
specimen by 2.6%. Also, using two stiffeners improved the energy absorption by 110.2% higher than the specimen with
one stiffener.
Keywords: Punching Shear; Shearhead; Flat Plate; Stiffeners; Stiffness and Ductility.
1. Introduction
Slabs are two-dimensional structural elements that can be defined as a flat pieces of concrete supported by beams,
columns or walls, and these are made of reinforced concrete, steel or building stones. One-way action of slabs obtains
when the bending occurs in direction perpendicular to the supported edges. Two-way action of slabs obtains when the
bending occurs in two directions [1].
In slab-column system, there are two main types of shear failures: the first type is one-way type and referred to “beam
type”; the crack in this type of shear failure is often appear along whole width of the concrete slab. The second type is
two-way shear failure and commonly known as “punching”; its common pattern. The occurrence of punching is
generally either as a result of applying concentrated loads or due to the presence of columns. In flat plate slabs, punching
shear at slab-column connection is the govern design criterion, which is a complex three dimension stress state [2].
* Corresponding author: maroua.8770@gmail.com

528
The shape of punching failure surface at slab-column joint is similar to a truncated cone shape. The brittleness nature
of this failure type, and hence sudden loading redistribution to surrounding columns is occurred, the collapse becomes
a high dangerous possibility [2].
The arrangement of events happened in concrete slab under monotonically increasing in central load that can be
briefly described as follows:
 Creation of a roughly circular crack around the column boundary on the tension side of the slab;
 Creation of new lateral and diagonal flexural cracks;
 Beginning of shear cracks at mid-depth of the slab at approximately (50-70) % of the ultimate load [2].
Shearhead can be formed using I- or wide flange- sections beams that cut and welded at the crossing point with
ensuring that the arms extend through the column. There are two major advantages for utilizing shearheads; firstly, to
widen the effective perimeter of shear critical section (bo); secondly, to enhance the negative bending strength of the
slab. The steel rods bottom end near the shearhead, top rods (negative reinforcement) extend up over the structural steel.
The main reinforcement column continues at column corners vertically [3].
Different types of shearhead reinforcement are available; however, each type has its own pros and cons regarding
issues such as anchorage effectiveness, ease of placement and detailing, and finally total cost. Nevertheless, it is
worthwhile mentioning that lots of available types of reinforcement enhance both of shear and flexural strength forces.
It should be noticed that the increasing of flexural capacity could leads to failure in the brittle-nature when seismic loads
are highly expected [4].
Typical types of shearheads used in different countries includes [5]:
 Two couples or single crossed channel or wide flange steel sections.
 Collars from steel channels (Giellinger shearheads).
 Steel plate.
Conventional shearhead systems, such as the ACI-type [6], are “fully integrated” in the sense that the shearhead is
entirely cast into the slab. Recent research [7] and [8] into fully integrated shearheads has focused on increasing shear
capacity under static gravity loading through improved composite action achieved by means of shear studs and anchor
plates. These systems typically have high punching capacities but low ductility since failure is through punching in the
concrete. The assemblages consisted of four I-shaped steel profiles with various lengths welded to the four faces of the
rectangular columns. They showed improved punching shear strengths in comparison with conventional RC flat slabs
[9]. Tests were also reported on shear-head systems that improve the ductility of the connection under cyclic loading in
which, the behavior of the slab was controlled by the strength and stiffness of the shearhead.
The Geilinger collar closely related development in Europe in the field of punching shear strengthening. It consists
of steel channel sections creating a rectangle larger than the column size, the load transfers from the slab to the collar
and from there to the column by thick steel plates welded to the channels. Since the bearing stress under these plates is
excessive, so an additional horizontal steel plate is required.
The Geilinger collars have many problems; first, there are concentration of stresses at corners of shearhead, second,
the collar may conflict with the longitudinal reinforcement of the column and may be hard to place. Third, the depth of
the structural steel sections must be significantly smaller than the slab thickness, usually there are two layers of
reinforcement bars to be placed above and below the structural steel sections [10].
In the present investigation, the collars from steel channels (Giellinger shearheads) is used as punching shear
reinforcement, this type of shearhead needs some modifications such as make a shearhead in circular shape to avoid the
concentration of stresses on concrete at the corners of the shearhead. Abdu AL-Rahman, 2010 [11] investigated the
effect of embedded shearhead steel plate as shear reinforcement in normal and steel fiber reinforced concrete. This
investigation studied the effect of this shearhead and the quantity of steel fiber on reinforced concrete slab specimens
behavior in punching case. Test results show for models with fiber contents of (0.25% and 0.75%), the ultimate load
capacity at failure increases by (17.1% and 28.6%) respectively. Ultimate load capacity in specimens without steel fiber
increase by (20%) for specimens with square steel plate, and by (31.4%) with cross-shape steel plate in comparison with
reference slab. Better results can be obtain by using both steel fibers and steel plate as shear reinforcement by about
(32.8% and 65.7%) to improve deformation characteristics in slab-column connections. Bompa et al. 2016 [12]
investigated the structural behavior of hybrid members consisting of six reinforced concrete flat slabs with and without
shear reinforcement .Fully integrated shearhead were used in the slab-steel column joint area. The isolated members
were made of a closed section steel column stub that had four shearheads welded directly to it and fully embedded in
the concrete flat slab. The study concluded that the addition of continuity plate surrounding column contributed to the
increase punching shear strength from (1655 to 1830) kN. The structural form developed incrementally over the course
529
of the research [13] and [9] during which time three types of shearhead were tested. The initial tests were carried out on
a pair of hybrid flat slab specimens with fully embedded ACI type shearheads, which were tested to failure under gravity
and combined gravity and cyclic lateral loading. They failed in punching shear and exhibited relatively little ductility
under cyclic lateral loading. The tests with this arrangement [9] demonstrated the validity of the shearhead concept but
the performance was impaired by localised concrete failure around the edge of the shearhead. Therefore, the circular
shearhead mentioned in this study may be adopted as a solution for local concrete failure at shearhead edges. Chana and
Birjandi also carried out an extensive testing programme on typical cruciform systems having various arrangements of
steel beams, including a closed-type system provided with edge beams [14].
2. Experimental Work
2.1. Specimens Details
The experimental work of this study is based on three tested groups; group one (G1) contains four specimens that
studied the shape effect of collar shearhead, group two (G2) contains two specimens that studied the number effect of
stiffeners and group three (G3) contains two specimens that studied the diameter effect of collar shearhead. Simply
supported panels having 80 mm thickness and 1000×1000 mm sides dimensions. The c/c span between supports was
900 mm in both directions. Also, the flexural reinforcement was considered constant. The load was applied centrally
by a steel column having dimensions 100×100 mm. The specifications and details of these slabs are listed in Table 1.
Table 1. Characteristics of the tested slabs
Group No. Specimens Type of Shearhead Dimensions of Shearhead (mm) No. of Stiffener in Each Direction
So ― ― ―
SS1 Square 300×300×30 1
G1
SS2 Square 400×400×30 1
100 CS1 circular 336 mm diameter with height 30 mm 1
100 CS3 circular 450 mm diameter with height 30 mm 1
G2
CS4 circular 450 mm diameter with height 30 mm 2
80
G3
80
2.2. Materials and Methods
2.2.1. 60
Cement
60 investigation type-I ordinary Portland cement was used, it was kept in a dry
In this condition. The chemical and
Percentage Passing
physical properties of this cement are conform to the ASTM C-150 [15].
Percentage Passing
Iraqi Specification
2.2.2. Coarse Aggregate
40
A coarse aggregate of maximum size 12 mm and with 2.58 specific gravity, see FigureIraqi1.Specification
The coarse aggregate was
40
crushed and elongated to ensure the durability of concrete. The grading of coarse aggregate is conforming to the BS882
[16].
20 100
20
80
0
60
0 0 2 4 6 8 10
Percentage Passing 12 14 16
Iraqi Specification
0 240 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
20
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
Figure 1. Grading curve for coarse aggregate
530
2.2.3. Fine Aggregate

A fine aggregate of maximum size 5 mm and with 2.7 specific gravity, see Figure 2. The grading of sand is
conforming to the BS882 [16].
100
80
60 Percentage Passing
Iraqi Specification
40
20
0
0 1 2 3 4 5
Figure 2. Grading curve for fine aggregate with grading limits in zone 2
2.2.4. Concrete Mix Proportions

The mixing procedure was performed according to ACI committee 211.1-09 [17]. The fine and coarse aggregates
were whished and dried, then the large particles was removed and the weights were prepared, then the compounds were
mixed for 6-8 minute by drum mixer.
2.2.5. Testing Procedure and Instrumentation
After ending curing period of all cast specimens, specimens were kept in dry place for few hours for attaining surface
dry condition. Thereafter, test was carried out in a hydraulic compression testing machine of capacity 3000 kN. All slabs
are tested under eccentric load applied at the top of the specimen until failure. Vertical deflections were measured using
dial gauges within the accuracy of 0.01 mm.

3.1. Load-deflection Relationships of Group Ӏ
The load–deflection histories of group one are shown in Figure 3. it was observed that the deflection at the center of
the reference slab (So) was larger than that of strengthen specimens SS1 ,CS1 and SS2. These curves show that the
load–deflection curves were initially linear which represent the load–deflection elastic relationship, and have a specific
slop different than the slop of the straight line which appeared after crack stage. Next linear stage represents the
relationship between load and deflection, this stage starts at first crack load until yielding of reinforcement steel, the
slabs appeared large deformations due to propagation of cracks towards the slab edges and weakness of bond between
concrete and reinforcing steel bars. In post–yielding stage (failure stage) produces non-linear relationship between load
and deflection. The deflection was increased significantly and the cracks increased in its dimensions length and width,
until failure of tested specimens. The load-deflection curves give an indication on the stiffness degradation of tested slab
under loading.
Slab (SS2) slab( So) Slab (SS1) Slab (CS1)

80
70
60
Load (kN)
50
40
30
20
10
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
Deflection (mm)
Figure 3. Load–deflection curves for group one
531
3.2. Load-deflection Relationships of Group ӀӀ

Figure 4 shows the load–deflection curves comparison for reference panel (CS3) with panel (CS4) that have one
stiffener and two stiffers respectively. Typically the specimen behavior passes through three stages; stage one, its linear
elastic stage, starts at load applying and extend until appearance of first crack, the specimens recorded good response to
load, and there is a convergence in load-deflection curves of two specimens. The second stage (elasto-plastic stage)
starts after appearance of first crack until yielding of reinforcing steel, this stage characterized by appearance new cracks
extend to the outer edges of the slab. The post-cracking stage characterized by increasing the deformations increments
corresponding to the load increments. The later stage starts after yielding reinforcing steel until failure of the specimens.
The last part of load–deflection curve characterized by large deflections increments through loading. At the same load
level, it is significantly noticed that the specimen CS4 with double stiffeners have deflection larger than the deflection
of slab CS3 with single stiffeners. It may be attributed to creation two cracks starts at the free ends of flange through the
confined concrete between flanges. The concrete contribution between flanges was reduced to resist the applied stresses
due to the separation from the concrete outside the stiffeners, as shown in Figure 5.
80
Slab (CS4) slab(CS3)
70
60
Load (kN)
50
40
30
20
10
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Deflection (mm)
Figure 4. Load–deflection curves for group two
Figure 5. Creation of crack in specimen (CS4)
3.3. Load-deflection Relationships of Group ӀӀI

In group three, the diameter of shearhead effect toward reducing the deflection of the specimen, i.e., the deflection
decreased by using larger shearhead collar diameter. As shown in Figure 6, three stages can be distinguished through
observation of load–deflection curves; first linear stage, represent the elastic rang of the member, other linear stage
represent the elasto-plastic behavior and third stage (failure stage) can be seen in post-yielding stage. At the same level
of loading, the specimen CS2 with small diameter has large deflection than specimen CS5 with large diameter
respectively.
532
Slab (CS5) slab CS2

90
80
70
60
Load (kN) 50
40
30
20
10
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Deflection (mm)
Figure 6. Load–deflection curves for group three
3.4. Ultimate Punching Shear Capacity

The main aim of this study is to determine the ultimate punching shear capacity of specimen with proposed shearhead
reinforcement and make comparison with reference slab (without shearhead). The observed load capacities of the tested
slabs are shown in Table 2. The experimental results indicate that the slab in group (1) SS1, SS2 and CS1 give an
increase in ultimate load capacities over that the reference specimen (So) by about 21.8%, 25.5% and 54.2%. The
specimen CS1, SS1 and SS2 were reinforced with circular shearhead (336mm diameter), square shearhead 300×300 mm
and square shearhead 400×400 mm respectively. The shearheads of these specimens is enough to resist the punching
stress, and the punching shear stresses is low due to the increasing in loaded area.
For group two, experimental results showed that the increase in the number of stiffeners in specimen CS4 reduced
the ultimate punching shear capacity by about 20.3% over reference specimen CS3; specimen CS3 contains one stiffener
and specimen CS4 contains two stiffeners.
Finally, the ultimate load was increased about 14.5% when increasing the diameter of shearheads from 336 mm to
550 mm in specimens CS2 and CS5 respectively.
Table 2. The load capacity and first crack of the tested slabs
Improvement of Pcr Ultimate Load Improvement of Pu Pcr/Pu

Group No. Specimen First Crack Mode of failure
(%) (Pu) (%) %
So 13 R 47 R 27.6 flexure
CS1 6.5 50* 57.25 21.8 11.3 flexure
G1
SS1 7.5 42.3* 59 25.5 12.7 punching
SS2 11.5 11.5* 72.5 54.2 15.8 punching
CS3 12.5 R 73.75 R 16.9 combined
G2
CS4 7.5 40* 58.75 20.3* 12.7 combined
CS2 10 R 68.75 R 14.5 combined
G3
CS5 15 50 78.75 14.5 19 flexure
* Decrease of improvement and R is the reference specimen of each group.
3.5. Cracking Load

The experimental results of tested slabs with first crack load are mentioned in Table 2, the crack opened when the
applied stress reached to the tensile strength of concrete. For group one, the first crack was opened at 6.5, 7.5 and 11.5
kN for specimens CS1, SS1 and SS2 respectively. While the reference specimen achieved first crack at load 13 kN. The
decrease in first crack load of specimens CS1, SS1 and SS2 is may be due to weak of bonding between concrete and
steel shearhead.
The group two includes two specimens CS3 and CS4 the first crack was deceased from 12.5 to 7.5 kN when increase
the number of stiffener from one to two stiffeners.
533
In group three, the cracking load was increased with increase the diameter of circular shearhead from 10 to 15 kN in
specimens CS2 and CS5 respectively; specimens CS2 and CS5 have diameter 336 and 550 mm respectively.
3.6. Mechanical Behavior of Slabs

3.6.1. Group One
Four specimens were tested concentrically under static load; two of tested specimens failed in flexural mode;
reference specimen So and CS1. While other two specimens SS1 and SS2 failed in punching shear mode. A punching
failure was attained when a cone of concrete completely punching out of the slab, see Figures 7, 8, 9 and 10. The failure
was brittle with no prior warning; the suddenness of the failure can be concluded from load–deflection curve. On the
other hand, the flexural failures of specimen So and CS1 was characterized by ductility more than other specimens, the
specimen can absorb a large part of energy at the advanced stage of loading.
Figure 7. Crack pattern of reference specimen (So) Figure 8. Crack pattern of specimen (CS1)
Figure 9. Crack pattern of specimen (SS1) Figure 10. Crack pattern of specimen (SS2)
3.6.2. Group Two

Two specimens were tested under static load. The failure mode of two specimens may be considered as flexural-
punching shear failure (combined failure) in which both flexural and punching shear crack were observed at tension face
of the slabs. The failure of specimens was moderately ductile failure and the formation of complete failure was gradual.
See Figures 11 and 12.
534
Figure 11. Crack pattern of specimen (CS3) Figure 12. Crack pattern of specimen (CS4)
3.6.3. Group Three

Two specimens were tested under static load with shearhead diameters 336 and 550 mm for specimen CS2 and CS5
respectively. The failure of specimen CS5 was flexural failure mode, the flexural crack clearly observed at the tension
face of the slab, several cracks were extended to the compression face. Figures 13 and 14 shows other specimens with
small diameter were failed by flexural-punching shear failure, in which the flexural and punching cracks were appeared
at the tension face of the slab.
Figure 13. Crack pattern of Specimen (CS2) Figure 14. Crack pattern of specimen (CS5)
3.7. Crack Pattern and Failure Modes

3.7.1. Group One
The first crack of all the tested specimens in group one was observed at the tension face of the slab near the column
stub in case of unreinforced panel (without punching shearhead reinforcement), while the first crack of the specimen
with punching shear reinforcement was observed at the tension face of the slab near the shearhead edges.
At the initial stage of loading cracks extended along the tension reinforcement in two directions. These cracks extend
gradually to the slab edges accompanied with increasing its width, a new cracks appeared in the diagonal axis of the
panel and extended to the corners. The first flexural cracks initiated at 27.6% of the ultimate load as shown in Table 2.
At this stage, the tensile stresses of concrete in specimen equal to the applied stresses. At advanced stage of loading, the
reference specimen failed by flexural mode as a result of increasing the crack width interestingly. The slab with circular
shearhead have first crack load 11.3% of ultimate load, the cracks appeared at the tension face of the slab approximately
under shearhead edges. These cracks extended with the same direction of flexural reinforcement. With loading, the
diagonal cracks extend toward the slab corners. At the advanced stage of loading, secondary cracks speared from the
primary crack with direction perpendicular to the main crack and create a punching zone pulled out from the slab.
535
The square shearhead slabs achieved cracks load at 12.7% of ultimate load in specimen SS1 and 15.8% in specimen
SS2 of ultimate load. By the same way, the first crack appeared at the tension face of the slab near shearhead edges and
extended with the same direction of flexural reinforcement. With loading, new cracks appeared between the later cracks
approximately at the shearhead edges cause failure of slabs by punching shear.
3.7.2. Group Two
The tested results of crack and ultimate loads of tested slab in group three were mentioned in Table 2, the first crack
of specimen CS3 was create at 16.9% of ultimate load. The first crack was appeared around the edges of shearhead
collar on the tension face of the slab panel. The crack was propagated parallel to the flexural reinforcement toward the
slab edges until appearing secondary cracks connect the flexural cracks together, these secondary cracks positioned
around the shearhead edges and continue to increase in width until failure of the specimens by flexural and punching
shear cracks (combined action of flexural and punching shear failure). The failure was moderate in the progressive
collapse.
On the other hand, the specimen CS4 which strengthened by shearhead with two stiffener in each direction, the first
cracks appeared around the edges of shearhead at 12.7% of ultimate load. The cracks extend gradually to the outer edge
of the slab parallel the flexural reinforcement in addition to create new cracks extend diagonally to the slab corners. At
the advanced stage of loading, the slab failed in ductile mode by flexural and punching shear cracks.
3.7.3. Group Three
The first crack appeared at about 14.5% and 19% of ultimate load for specimens CS2 and CS5 respectively. The
specimen CS2 failed by combined failure of punching and flexural, while specimen CS5 failed by flexural failure.
3.8. Energy Absorption

The use of shearhead as punching shear reinforcement in slabs increasing the energy absorption of tested specimens,
the amount of improvement in energy absorption of specimen SS1 (square shearhead with 300×300×30 mm dimensions)
almost negligible (about 0.4%) over the reference specimen So. For specimen SS2 (square shearhead with 400×400×30
mm dimensions), the amount of improvement in energy absorption reached 274.2% as compared with reference
specimen So. The specimen CS1 (circular shearhead with 336 mm diameter ×30 mm height of shearhead) achieved an
energy absorption 427 kN.mm higher than the reference specimen So by about 2.6%, see Table 3.
Table 3. The energy observation of tested slabs
Energy absorption Percentage (%) Improvement of energy

Specimen
(kN.mm) absorption
So 415.9 R*
SS1 417.6 0.4
SS2 1556.3 274.2
CS1 427 2.6
CS3 355 R*
CS4 746.5 110.2
CS2 1163.6 R*
CS5 1363.5 17.1
*R: is the reference specimen of each group.
The energy absorption of specimen with two stiffeners more than that specimen of one stiffeners by about 110.2%,
this improvement in the amount of energy absorption is may be attributed to increase the elasticity of the shearhead in
specimen of one stiffener, the specimen with two stiffeners have more rigidity, the specimen with one stiffener failed
with large displacement in comparison with specimen of two stiffeners.
The increase in the shearhead diameter gives a beneficial effect in increasing the energy absorption of the tested
specimens; the specimen CS5 and CS5 of diameter 450mm and 550mm respectively gives largest energy absorption
than specimen CS2 and CS2 of dimensions (336mm), large diameter gives high load capacity with small deflection
made the area under the load-deflection curves increased accordingly.
3.9. Ductility
Ductility could be calculated from the ratio of the maximum deflection at ultimate load to the deflection at yielding
load [18]. Table 4 shows the deflection readings at ultimate carrying capacity and at yield load in addition to the ductility
536
index for each specimen. For group one the reference specimen recorded minimum ductility in comparison with
specimens has shearhead reinforcement.
All types of shearhead were not recorded largely different in ductility index; slight decrease in ductility of square
shearhead SS2 was observed.
Slight increases in ductility for group two when increasing the number of stiffeners may be neglected. The ductility
of slabs of group three was decreased with increasing of shearhead diameter; 20%, the amount of decreasing in ductility
of specimen CS5 with respect to reference specimens CS2.
Table 4. The ductility of tested slabs
∆u (Deflection at Failure) ∆y (Deflection at Yield) Ductility % Increase in

Specimen
(mm) (mm) Index Ductility Index
Group one
So 11.5 4.6 2.5 R
SS1 9.25 2.4 3.8 52
SS2 8 2.95 2.7 8
CS1 9.75 2.9 3.3 32
Group two
CS3 7.75 4.1 1.8 R
CS4 9.5 4.75 2 11.1
Group three
CS2 8.6 3.35 2.5 R
CS5 7 3.4 2 20
*R: is the reference specimen of each group.
3.10. Stiffness
The stiffness of each tested slab is shown in Figure 15 and Table 5, it is significantly appeared that the initial stiffness
of references slab (So) is lower than the strengthened specimen CS1, SS1 and SS2.
The amount of reduction in stiffness in the references slab So between 25 and 50% of the ultimate load was 38%. In
contract, the reduction in the stiffness of strengthened specimen SS1, SS2 and CS1 was 45.1, 49.6 and 36.6%
respectively. The rate of degradation in stiffness of slabs with square shearhead is higher than that of the reference slab.
On the other hand, the rate of degradation in stiffness of slab with circular shearhead is less than the reference specimen,
also, it is noticed that the references panel slab (So) suffers large deterioration as result of punching shear and flexural
cracks.
At 75% of ultimate load the specimen (So) recorded 8.81 kN/mm stiffness. At this stage, the specimen lacked 66.2%
of its initial stiffness. At the failure, the reference specimen lacked about 83.9% of its initial stiffness.
In specimen SS1, the stiffness at 25% of ultimate load reached to 44.7kN/mm, so it is larger than the stiffness of
references specimen at the same loading level. At loading level 50% of the ultimate load, the specimen recorded 45.1%
reduction in its stiffness in comparison with the state of specimen at 25% loading level. The reduction of stiffness of
specimen SS1 at 75% of ultimate load reached to 65.8% with respect to its stiffness at 25% of ultimate load. At failure,
the reduction of stiffness reached 85.7% of its stiffness at 25% of ultimate load. It is significantly noticed that the initial
stiffness of references specimen is smaller than the stiffness of the specimen with shearhead. But, the amount of
reduction in the stiffness of shearhead specimen was larger than that of reference specimen. This large deterioration may
be attributed to concentration of stresses at corners of shearhead to make the cracks propagation faster than that of
references specimen, this leads to significant reduction in stiffness through loading.
A similar behavior can be observed in specimen CS1 related to the degradation in its stiffness; at 50% of ultimate
load, the stiffness reduction was about 36.6% in comparison with specimen stiffness at 25% of ultimate load, in
consequence, the specimen CS1 recorded stiffness reduction about 61.2% with respect to its stiffness at 25% of ultimate
load. Finally, 83% of stiffness reduction was achieved at ultimate failure load when increasing the dimensions of
shearhead in specimen SS2. The behavior did not significantly differ in comparison with the same type of shearhead;
49.6, 73.1 and 83%, amount of stiffness reduction at 50, 75 and 100% of ultimate capacity respectively.
In group two, increasing the number of stiffeners didn't affect clearly on the rate of the stiffness loss of the tested
slabs. The specimen CS3 lost 42.8% from its stiffness at 50% of ultimate load, 62.3% at 75% of ultimate load and
67.4% at 100% of ultimate load in comparison with specimen stiffness at 25% of ultimate load. While the specimen
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CS4 achieved a decrease in its stiffness about 33.4% , 54.5% and 68.5% at 50% ,75% and 100% of ultimate load
respectively in comparison with its stiffness at 25% of ultimate load .
In group three, a comparison between two specimens has different circular shearhead diameters (336 and 550 mm).
The specimen CS5 lost about 41.7% from its stiffness at 50% of ultimate load. At 75% of ultimate load, the specimen
lost about 58.2% of its stiffness at 25% of ultimate load. At failure (100% of ultimate load), the specimen lost about
71.3% of its stiffness at 25% of ultimate load. Briefly, the specimen has large diameter tend to loss it's stiffness faster
than that of the specimen with small shearhead diameter.
Table 5. The stiffness of tested slabs
Stiffness at Stiffness at % Decrease Stiffness at % Decrease Stiffness at % Decrease

Specimen
25% (1) 50% (2) between (1) and (2) 75% (3) between (1) and (3) 100% (4) between (1) and (4)
Group one
So 26.11 16.2 38% 8.81 66.2% 4.2 83.9%
SS1 44.7 24.5 45.1% 15.25 65.8% 6.37 85.7%
SS2 53.3 26.85 49.6% 14.3 73% 9.06 83%
CS1 32.52 20.59 36.6% 12.6 61.2% 5.87 82%
Group two
CS3 29.2 16.7 42.8% 11 62.3% 9.5 67.4%
CS4 20.9 13.9 33.4% 9.5 54.5% 6.18 68.5%
Group Three
CS2 25.6 14.9 41.7% 10.7 58.2% 8 68.7%
CS5 39.2 28.12 28.2% 21 46.4% 11.25 71.3%
Stifness at 25% Stiffness at 50% Stiffness at 75 % Stiffness at 100%
60
50
40
Stiffness
30
20
10
0
So SS1 SS2 CS1 CS3 CS4 CS2 CS5
Specimens
Figure 15. Stiffness of tested slab at different levels
6. Conclusions
 Both square and circular shearheads increased the punching shear strength of tested flat plate panels, punching
shear strength of panels have circular shearhead and square shearhead is found to increase by about 83.5% and
54.2% over reference specimen.
 The first crack load value is found by decrease about 50% for circular shearhead and about 11.5% for square
shearhead in comparison with reference specimen.
 Number of stiffeners is found to decrease the punching shear strength and first crack load by about 20.3% of
ultimate load and 40% of first crack load respectively.
 Punching shear strength and first crack load were increased as the diameter of shear head increased by about 50%
and 14.5% respectively.
 In general, there is an increase in ductility due to the use of shearhead reinforcement.
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 Curvature ductility decreases as the diameter of shearhead increases by about 20% when increase the shearhead
diameter from 336mm to 550mm.
 In general there is an increase in stiffness due to the use of shearhead reinforcement.
 Curvature stiffness was increased as the diameter of shearhead increased.
7. Funding
This work was supported by University of Mustansiriyah, Iraq.
9. References
[1] McCormac, Jack C., and Russell H. Brown. Design of reinforced concrete. John Wiley & Sons, 9th Edition." (2014).
[2] Moreno, Carlos L., and Ana M. Sarmento. “Punching Shear Analysis of Slab‐column Connections.” Edited by Helena Barros.
Engineering Computations 30, no. 6 (August 16, 2013): 802–814. doi:10.1108/ec-jun-2012-0122.
[3] Nilson, A. H., Darwin, D. and Dolan, C. W. "Design of Concrete Structures, 14th edition." (2013). ISBN-13: 0073293490.
[4] Pilakoutas, Kypros, and Xiaopeng Li. "Alternative shear reinforcement for reinforced concrete flat slabs." Journal of Structural
Engineering 129, no. 9 (2003): 1164-1172. doi: 10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9445(2003)129:9(1164).
[5] Al-Maiaahei A. N. "Experimental Study of Flat Plate Construction with Special Embedded Shearhead." (2006). M.Sc. Thesis. Al-
Mustansiriya University. Baghdad. Iraq.
[6] ACI (American Concrete Institute). "ACI 318-08: Building code requirements for structural concrete." (2008).
[7] Piel, Wolfgang, and Gerhard Hanswille. “Composite Shear Head Systems for Improved Punching Shear Resistance of Flat Slabs.”
Composite Construction in Steel and Concrete V (February 3, 2006). doi:10.1061/40826(186)22.
[8] Fastabend, Michael, Norbert Sauerborn, Till Neubauer, and Norbert Doering. "Concepts of composite constructions for high
punching loads-basic principles and application." Beton-Und Stahlbetonbau 103, no. 11 (2008): 735-740.
[9] Eder M, Elghazouli AY and Vollum RL, Strength and Ductility of Connections between Tubular Columns and Flat Slabs under
Monotonic and Cyclic Loading Conditions, CIDECT Programme 4F, Final Report, Imperial College London, June 2010.
[10] Seible, Frieder, Amin Ghali, and Walter H. Dilger. "Preassembled shear reinforcing units for flat plates." In Journal Proceedings,
vol. 77, no. 1, pp. 28-35. 1980.
[11] Abdu AL-Rahman, S., "Experimental Study of Embedded Steel Plate as Shearheads Reinforcement with Steel Fiber in Flat
Plate-Column Connection", M.Sc. Thesis, Al- Mustansiriya University, 2010.
[12] Bompa, D.V., and A.Y. Elghazouli. “Structural Performance of RC Flat Slabs Connected to Steel Columns with Shear Heads.”
Engineering Structures 117 (June 2016): 161–183. doi:10.1016/j.engstruct.2016.03.022.
[13] Eder, M.A., R.L. Vollum, A.Y. Elghazouli, and T. Abdel-Fattah. “Modelling and Experimental Assessment of Punching Shear
in Flat Slabs with Shearheads.” Engineering Structures 32, no. 12 (December 2010): 3911–3924. doi:10.1016/j.engstruct.2010.09.004.
[14] Chana, P. S., and F. K. Birjandi. "Design guidance on structural steel shearheads in concrete." Project report for Reinforced
Concrete Council and Department of the Environment, CRIC CLIENT REPORT CRIC95/001/F, Imperial College London (1996).
[15] ASTM C-150. 2015. “Standard specification for Portland cement.” ASTM International,
[16] BS882. 1992.”specification for aggregate from nurture source for concrete”, (December 1992).
[17] Dixon, Donald E., Jack R. Prestrera, George RU Burg, Subcommittee A. Chairman, Edward A. Abdun-Nur, Stanley G. Barton,
Leonard W. Bell et al. "Standard Practice for Selecting Proportions for Normal, Heavyweight, and Mass Concrete (ACI 211.1-91)."
(1991).
[18] Priestley, M. J. N., and M. J. Kowalsky. "Aspects of drift and ductility capacity of rectangular cantilever structural walls."
Bulletin of the New Zealand National Society for Earthquake Engineering 31, no. 2 (1998): 73-85.
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Vol. 5, No. 3, March, 2019
Utilization of Demolished Waste as Coarse Aggregate in Concrete
Abdulsamee M. Halahla a*, Mohammad Akhtar b, Amin H. Almasri c

a
Assistant Professor, Dept. of Civil Engineering, Fahad Bin Sultan University, P.O. Box 15700, Tabuk, Saudi Arabia.
b
Lecturer, Dept. of Civil Engineering, Fahad Bin Sultan University, P.O. Box 15700, Tabuk, Saudi Arabia.
c
Associate Professor, Dept. of Civil Engineering, Jordan University of Science and Technology, Irbid, Jordan.
Received 07 November 2018; Accepted 20 February 2019
Abstract
Demolishing concrete building usually produces huge amounts of remains and wastes worldwide that have promising
possibilities to be utilized as coarse aggregate for new mixes of concrete. High numbers of structures around the world
currently need to be removed for several reasons, such as reaching the end of the expected life, to be replaced by new
investments, or were not built by the local and international standards. Maintaining or removal of such structures leads to
large quantities of concrete ruins. Reusing these concrete wastes will help in saving landfill spaces in addition to more
sustainability in natural resources. The objective of this study is to investigate the possibility of using old recycled concrete
as coarse aggregate to make new concrete mixes, and its effect on the evolution of the compressive strength of the new
concrete mixes. Core samples for demolished concrete were tested to determine its compressive strength. The core test
results can be thought of as aggregate properties for the new concrete. Then, the compressive strength and splitting tensile
strength of the new recycled aggregate concrete (RAC) were determined experimentally by casting a cubes and cylinders,
respectively. It was found that the evolution of compressive strength of recycled aggregate concrete is similar in behavior
to the concrete with natural aggregate, except that it is about 10% lower in values. It was also seen that water absorption
for recycled aggregate is noticeably higher than that for natural aggregate, and should be substituted for in the mix design.
Keywords: Natural Aggregate; Compressive Strength; Recycled Aggregate; Concrete Waste; Tensile Strength.
1. Introduction
Recycling building concrete wastes as aggregates to make new concrete mixes is a modern trend for limiting
ecological pollution by minimizing concrete waste and reducing the need for natural aggregates. Many studies
investigated the feasibility of the use of demolished concrete as coarse aggregates [1–6]. The reuse of buildings waste is
gaining more and more interest around the world, considering the production of significant quantities of buildings
remains and the considerable changes in the applied environmental regulations [7]. The world consumes around ten to
eleven billion tons of natural aggregate each year [8]. European Union countries consume about two billion tons of
aggregates each year [9]. This puts huge pressure on the natural sources of good aggregates, which causes the reserves
to considerably decline around the world. The goal of this study is to investigate the possibility of utilizing old concrete
remains as a replacement for natural aggregates in new concrete mixes. Destructed concrete buildings generate huge
amount of wastes worldwide, which can be used as a replacement for coarse aggregate for new concrete mixes. High
numbers of structures around the world currently need to be removed for several reasons, such as reaching the end of
the expected life, replacement by new investments, no more compliance to the local and international standards. For
example, in Saudi Arabia, many buildings were demolished by the government for the expansion of two holy mosques,
* Corresponding author: ahalahla@fbsu.edu.sa

540
resulting in large amount of demolished waste concrete. The use of recycled concrete will not only contribute to the
solution of waste disposal, but also to the conservation of natural resources, which are scarce in some regions, in addition
to reducing the cost of newly constructed concrete.
Many concrete structures are demolished for various reasons, generating millions of tons of demolished wastes every
year. Recent reports show that destructed concrete every year in European countries and United States is around 50 and
60 million tons, respectively [10]. Wardeh et. al. [11] studied fresh and hardened properties of concrete made with
recycled aggregate. The results show that the tensile strength and the elastic modulus decrease while the compression
peak strain increases in the new concrete mixes. In several states, different techniques for reusing old concrete wastes
have been developed, and some recycling standards have even been set [12-14]. As a result of this process, various types
of secondary materials are generated. Akhtar and Akhtar [15] carried out a study to investigate the effect of adding fibers
and Class ‘C’ fly ash on the mechanical properties of concrete. Akhtar et al. [16] showed that behavior of recycled
demolished concrete with partial replacement of cement by recycled remains is almost similar to that of conventional
concrete. Recycling will not only preserve the natural resources, but will also obtain more economic use of such concrete,
which is a good step toward sustainability around the world. Huda and Alam [17] discussed the use of recycled coarse
aggregate in concrete, and investigated the fresh and hardened properties of sustainable concrete. Kubissa et al. [18]
carried out a study to test the possibility of using aggregate obtained from crushed old concrete pavements in concrete
manufacturing with addition of supplementary cementitious materials (SCM). They replaced 2 to 16 mm natural coarse
aggregate with Recycled Concrete Aggregate (RCA) made of the low-quality old concrete pavement plates, and obtained
concrete with similar strength values. The study investigated the different type of properties of recycled concrete with
high percentages of RCA and crushed clay brick (CCB). High percentages of water absorption are noticed for CCB
samples compared to RCA and natural aggregate samples. Zhou and Chen [19] studied the mechanical properties of
recycled concrete prepared with two different types of coarse aggregate. The results indicate that different types of
(RCA) cause considerable deviation in concrete properties. Changing in content of CCB (0-50%) affects physical and
mechanical properties of concrete significantly, especially compressive and cylinder splitting strengths [20]. The
recycled aggregates obtained from waste concrete are more angular and have higher absorption and specific gravity than
natural coarse aggregates, and it results in increased strength and improved load carrying capacity [21]. This paper
presents an experimental study on the mechanical properties of concrete containing recycled concrete used as aggregates,
including compressive strength, stress-strain curve, elastic modulus, and Poisson’s ratio. Many researchers around the
world had conducted similar researches about this subject, but this will eventually lead to wider knowledge about it, and
to establish international standards about concrete recycling.
2. Source of Materials
In present study, recycled concrete will be collected from old building remains in Tabuk city in Saudi Arabia, and
crushed in the material lab at Fahad Bin Sultan University. This crushed concrete will be used as a coarse aggregate to
produce new concrete, which will be compared with natural aggregate concrete. The target is to produce 30 MPa concrete
compressive strength at 28 days. Natural sand is used as fine aggregate in the mixes of both natural concrete and recycled
aggregate concrete. No recycled fine aggregate was used in this study. Recycled concrete was collected from demolished
buildings in Tabuk city in Saudi Arabia. Any impurities were removed by screening, sieving, and washing of the crushed
concrete. Recycled materials were sieved to discard particles with diameter less than 5 mm. The production process of
recycled concrete is depicted in Figure 1. The coarse aggregates used throughout this experiment come from locally
available crushed stone aggregate, with 19 mm maximum size.
541
Figure 1. Preparation of recycled coarse aggregate
3. Materials and Properties

3.1. Aggregates
Sieve analysis test was conducted to determine the grain size distribution of coarse aggregates according to (ASTM
C136 / C136M – 14) [22]. From sieve analysis, fineness modulus F.M, maximum aggregate size (MAS) and nominal
maximum aggregate size (NMAS) were obtained. Table 1 shows typical values of F.M, MAS and NAMS from the sieve
analysis conducted on the natural and recycled aggregate. Figure 2 shows the gradation chart of natural and recycled
aggregate.
Figure 2. Grain size distribution for natural and recycled coarse aggregate
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In order to confirm the use of demolished waste as coarse aggregates in concrete in newly constructed project, the
mechanical properties for the recycle aggregate were determined, including specific gravity, water absorption, abrasion
resistance, Aggregate Crushing Value (ACV), and Aggregate Impact Value (AIV). The results of these tests are
summarized and compared with the results of the natural aggregates as shown in Table 1. It is seen that specific gravity
and bulk density are almost identical, which means that the new concrete will have almost the same weight as the one
with the natural aggregates. Abrasion resistance is higher in recycled aggregate, which is considered as an advantage.
However, the water absorption is almost doubled in recycled aggregate, which should be substituted for in the mix
design. In present study, a natural aggregate concrete (NAC) and recycled aggregate concrete (RAC) design mix were
prepared on the basis of the absolute volume method. The design compressive strength was decided to be 30 MPa.
Moreover, only coarse aggregates were replaced by demolished ones with full volumetric replacement sizes being
respectively 9.5 mm, 12.5 mm and 19 mm (ratio 1:2:3). As mentioned in Table 1, water absorption is about 5 % higher
in recycled aggregate. For maintaining the same slump, about 5 % extra water was used in the concrete made with
recycled aggregate. This increase in water content has an effect on the strength. Table 2 below gives the mix proportion
for design mix of the present study.
Table 1. Physical properties of used aggregates
Properties Natural aggregates Recycled aggregates Difference (%)
fineness modulus (FM) 7.68 7.88 2.6
maximum aggregate size (MAS) (mm) 19 37.5 N/A
maximum aggregate size (MAS) used in the mix (mm) 19 19 -
nominal maximum aggregate size (NMAS) (mm) 19 19 -
Specific gravity 2.806 2.695 -3.96
Water absorption (%) 0.958% 1.955 % 104.07
Bulk Density (Mg/m3) 2.833 2.748 -3.00
Crushing Value 8 9 12.50
Abrasion Resistance 17.10 22.20 29.82
Table 2. Mixture proportions of concretes made of 100% of natural and recycled aggregates
Ingredients Weight (kg/m3)
Water/cement 0.445
Water, kg 219
Cement, kg 460
Fine aggregate , kg 762
Coarse recycled aggregate, kg 1056
Superplasticizer, % by weight of cement 0.4 litter / 100 kg of cement
The preliminary strength of the original concrete (used to obtain the recycled aggregates) was measured by six cored
samples. The samples were cured in water at 23 degree Celsius for 48 hours, and then capped by sulphur mortar (Sulphur
Capping) before testing. The core tests results usually depend on many factors, like the designed compressive strength
of the concrete, ambient temperature and moisture, admixtures, compaction of concrete, and the strength developing
process. Practically, it is usually assumed that core strengths are generally 85% of the standard-cured cylinder strengths.
However, the acceptance criteria for core strength are to be set by the tester. ACI 318 provides core strength acceptance
criteria for new construction. The tests were conducted according to (ASTM C 42/C 42M-04) [23]. The average
compressive strength was found to be 25.73 MPa, and with standard deviation of 3.4 MPa Figure 3, shows the general
procedure for sampling and testing the cored samples. The details of cored samples and results are shown in Table 3.
543
Figure 3. Cored test preparation for the demolished material
Table 3. Results of cored samples

Cross Sectional
Average Stress
Length before
Length after
Area (mm2)
Aspect ratio
Sample No
Correction
Deviation
Standard
diameter
Average
capping
capping
(MPa)
(MPa)
Stress
factor
(mm)
(mm)
(mm)
Load
(kN)
1 89 92.2 69.00 0.74 0.944 3739 124.2 31.40

2 97 100 69.00 0.69 0.956 3739 87.82 23.48
3 95 98 69.00 0.7 0.953 3739 86.70 23.20
25.73 3.4
4 96 99 69.00 0.69 0.955 3739 96.15 24.60
5 93 97 69.00 0.71 0.952 3739 91.51 23.30
6 90 93 69.00 0.74 0.945 3739 112.2 28.40
3.2. Cement
In this work, ordinary Portland cement type 1 brand obtained from a single batch was used. The chemical and physical
properties of the cement are listed in Table 4 and Table 5, respectively. The cement satisfies the requirement of the gulf
standard specification (GSO: 1914-2009) [24], commonly used in the Arabian Gulf area.
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Table 4. Chemical properties of ordinary Portland cement type 1
Component Content (%) Requirements of GSO 1914/2009

SiO2 20.13 Limit Not Specified
Al2 O3 5.21 Limit Not Specified
Fe2 O3 3.74 Limit Not Specified
CaO 62.16 Limit Not Specified
MgO 2.75 Maximum 5.0 %
SO3 2.55 Maximum 3.5 %
Loss on Ignition LOI 1.70 Maximum 3.0%
Insoluble Residue IR 1.40 Maximum 1.5%
Lime Saturation Factor LSF 0.93 0.66-1.02
Tricalcium Aluminate C3 A 7.47 Limit Not Specified
Table 5. Physical properties of ordinary P ortland cement type 1
Properties Value Requirements of GSO 1914/2009

Fineness (cm2 /g) 3207 Minimum 2800
Initial setting time 128 Minimum 45
Final setting time 258 Maximum 737
Soundness
Le Chatelier 1.00 Maximum 10
Autoclave 0.08 Maximum 0.8
3 d compressive strength 24 Minimum 12
4. Experimental Results
4.1. Results for Compressive Strength
For this study, standard cubes of 100×100×100 mm. were casted with natural aggregates and recycled aggregates. A
24 cubes specimens were tested in order to evaluate the strength of concrete with natural and recycled aggregate at 3
days, 7 days, 14 days, and 28 days after casting. The concrete mix design is done in accordance with ASTM C39/C39M
standard. [25]. The results of the tests are shown in Table 6 and Figure 4. It can be seen that natural aggregate concrete
gained strength at a higher pace compared with recycled aggregate concrete, especially at the early ages, where it was
more that 8% higher in strength. However, at late stage, the difference between the two concretes reduces to about 3%,
where natural aggregate concrete is still higher in strength. The average com pressive strength for the core tests was
found to be 26.7 MPa. It can be considered acceptable compared to a strength of 33.5 MPa for natural aggregate concrete
and 32.6 MPa for recycled aggregate concrete standard cylinder specimens as shown in Figure 6.
Table 6. Concrete average compressive strength with natural and recycled aggregate
Natural aggregates Standard Recycled aggregates Standard Percent difference
Test age
concrete strength (MPa) deviation concrete strength (MPa) deviation (%)
3 days 12.6 2.05 11.5 1.09 8.73
7 days 23.8 2.02 21.8 2.35 8.40
14 days 25.2 1.75 24.4 1.65 3.17
28 days 33.5 1.45 32.6 1.48 2.69
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Figure 4. Compressive strength in function of curing days
Figure 5. Comparison of compressive strength of: natural aggregate concrete, recycled aggregate concrete, and core test
4.1.1. Crack Patterns

The failure of the cubes depends up on the various aspect even the way it has been tested is also important. The
sampling for the cube is also very important. In addition the failure of cube pattern must be decided in consideration of
all parameters before reaching any final decision. Pre-cracking in a concrete cube under compression test is usually
caused by local failure between the coarse aggregate surface and the cement paste. The average compressive stress
where the first cracks initiate is governed by the properties of the aggregates. It can be seen in the Figure 6, the failure
mode at the age of 28 days of NAC and RAC Cube is columnar type. In NAC cubes cone & shear failures were also
observed in some samples but in RAC almost all samples have been failed in columnar mode only.
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(a) Natural Aggregate Failure (b) Recycle Aggregate Failure
Figure 6. The failure modes of natural aggregate concrete (NAC), and recycled aggregate concrete (RAC)
4.2. Stress-Strain Curve

In addition, measurements of axial force versus elongation for uniaxial compressive tests were taken in accordance
to (ASTM C469 / C469M – 14) [26], to obtain the full stress-strain curve for the two types of concrete considered here
at 28 days age. Standard three cylindrical specimens of 75 mm in diameter and 150 mm in length were cast and cured
for 3, 7 and 28 days, for both natural aggregate and recycled aggregate concrete see Figure 7 and transverse stress strain
diagrams are drawn in Figures 8, 9 and 10 respectively.
Figure 7. Compressive strength test for stress-strain curve
14 14
12 12
10 10
Stress ( MPa)
8 8
6 6
4 4
Crushed Aggregate Crushed Aggregate
2 2
Natural Aggregate Natural Aggregate
0 0
0 0.0005 0.001 0.0015 0.002 0.0025 -0.00025 -0.0002 -0.00015 -0.0001 -0.00005 0
Axial Strain
Figure 8. Axial and transverse stress-strain curves for of natural and recycled aggregate at 3-days
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25 25
20 20
Stress ( MPa)
15 15
10 10
5 Crushed Aggregate Crushed Agg 5
Natural Aggregate Natural Aggregate
0 0
0 0.001 0.002 0.003 0.004 0.005 -0.0005 -0.0004 -0.0003 -0.0002 -0.0001 0
Axial Strain
Figure 9. Axial and transverse stress-strain curve for natural and recycled concrete at 7-days
35 35
30 30
25 25
Stress ( MPa)
20 20
15 15
10 10
Crushed Aggregate
Crushed Aggregate
5 5
Natural Aggregate
Natural Aggregate
0 0
0 0.001 0.002 0.003 0.004 0.005 0.006 -0.0006 -0.0005 -0.0004 -0.0003 -0.0002 -0.0001 0
Axial Strain
Figure 10. Axial and transverse stress-strain curve for natural and recycled concrete at 28-days
4.3. Modulus of Elasticity and Poisson’s Ratio

Static modulus of elasticity, and Poisson's ratio were determined from compression stress-strain diagram on
cylindrical specimens (150 mm high with a diameter of 75 mm) according to ASTM C469 / C469M – 14, [26]. The
mean values obtained after 28 days are reported in Table 6, it can be noticed that natural aggregate and recycled aggregate
concretes achieved almost the same ultimate compressive stress (31.5 and 30.2 MPa, respectively). However, recycled
aggregate concrete showed slightly lower failure strain and stress, which can be attributed to the higher bond surface
between cement and concrete in recycled mix, which is where failure cracks usually initiate . Similar behavior can be
seen in transverse strain as shown in Figure 10. Poisson’s ratio is found from axial and transverse stress strain diagrams
to be around 2.9 and 3 for natural aggregate concrete and recycled aggregate concrete, respectively. Modulus of elasticity
is found to be around 23.9 GPa for recycled aggregate concrete, which is lower than the corresponding one of natural
aggregate concrete (around 26.5 GPa). This suggests that the American Concrete Institute (ACI) formula for calculating
concrete modulus of elasticity in Equation1 should be adjusted when recycled aggregate is used. According to the current
research, a modified formula in Equation2 can be suggested for recycled aggregate concrete. Table 7 shows the modulus
of elasticity and Poisson’s ratio of recycled coarse aggregate concrete and natural coarse aggregate concrete. Concrete
with recycled aggregate has lower modulus of elasticity by about 10%, while the Poisson’s ratio is almost the same.
Many researchers have suggested relationships between the elastic modulus (MPa) and the cube specimen
compressive strength (fcu, MPa) of recycled-aggregate concrete, and some of them are given in Equations 3 to 6. The
result of these equation are shown in Table 8. The modulus of elasticity obtained in this research of fcu = 32.6 MPa is
E=23.9 GPa, which is close to those obtained by other researchers.
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E  4700 f c' (1)
E  4200 f c' (2)
Dillmann [27]:
Ec  634.43. fcu  3057.6 (3)
Ravindrarajah and Tam [28]:
Ec  7770. fcu0.33 (4)
Mellmann [29]:
Ec  378. fcu  8242 (5)
Dhir et al. [30]:
Ec  370. fcu  13100 (6)
Where;
E is the modulus of elasticity in MPa
f’c is the compressive strength of concrete in MPa
fcu is the cube compressive strength in MPa
Table 7. Mechanical properties of concrete with different aggregate types at 28- days
Compressive Static modulus of Modulus of elasticity Strain at

Standard Poisson’s
Concrete specimen strength ( MPa) elasticity (GPa) (GPa)( ACI) peak stress
deviations ratio
Mean Value Mean Value 4700√f’c (mm/mm)
Concrete of Natural Aggregate 31.5 1.34 26.5 26.36 0.004 0.29
Concrete of Crushed Aggregate 30.2 1.32 23.9 25.8 0.0035 0.3
Table 8. Modulus of elasticity from literature
Researcher Modulus of elasticity (MPa)
Dillmann [27] 23740

Ravindrarajah and Tam [28] 24534
Mellmann [29] 20564.8
Dhir et al. [30]: 25162
4.4. Splitting Tensile Strength

The splitting tensile strength test for cylinder of 150 mm in diameter and 300 mm high at age of 28 days was carried
out. The average splitting tensile strength of three natural aggregate concrete samples was found to be 2.96 MPa, and
with standard deviation of 1.26 MPa while it was found to be 2.85 MPa for recycled aggregate concrete, and with
standard deviation of 1.06 MPa. This difference, which is about 4%, can be due to higher porosity and degraded quality
of crushed recycled aggregate.
5. Conclusion
In this research, old concrete was crushed and used as recycled aggregates to obtain new concrete. Different
mechanical tests were carried out to measure and characterize the new recycled aggregate concrete. All mechanical tests
showed that recycled aggregate concrete has slightly lower values of ultimate compressive strength, initial elastic
modulus, and splitting tensile strength, compared to natural aggregate concrete. However, the differences can be
considered negligible, where it did not exceed 5%, except for the initial tangent elastic modulus, where the difference
was about 10%. A modification to the ACI formula to calculate elastic modulus for recycled aggregate concrete is
suggested. On the other hand, recycled aggregate concrete showed higher failure strain than natural aggregate concrete,
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which could be attributed to the higher cement content in its sample that come from recycled aggregate. Overall, it is
believed that crushed old concrete can be a good alternative, to be used as a new aggregate in new concrete. It is believed
that further future tests under different loading and environmental conditions can enhance and support these results and
conclusions.
6. Acknowledgement
The authors gratefully acknowledge the help of the staff at the structural engineering laboratory at Fahad Bin Sultan
University in conducting the experiments.
8. References
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Waste Experienced to Thermal Treatment.” Construction and Building Materials 22, no. 8 (August 2008): 1723–1729.
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[17] Huda, Sumaiya Binte, and M. Shahria Alam. “Mechanical Behavior of Three Generations of 100% Repeated Recycled Coarse
Aggregate Concrete.” Construction and Building Materials 65 (August 2014): 574–582. doi:10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2014.05.010.
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Aggregate.” Periodica Polytechnica Civil Engineering 60, no. 4 (August 31, 2016): 583–590. doi:10.3311/ppci.8614.
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[27] Dillmann R. “Concrete with Recycled Concrete Aggregate.” Proceedings of International Symposium on Sustainable
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Vol. 5, No. 3, March, 2019
The Responses of an End-Bearing Pile to Adjacent Multipropped

Excavation: 3D Numerical Modelling
Dildar Ali Mangenjo a*, Naeem Mangi b

a
Department of Civil Engineering, Mehran University of Engineering and Technology, Shaheed Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto Campus, Khairpur
Mir’s, Sindh, Pakistan.
b
Department of Civil Engineering, Quaid-e-Awam University of Engineering, Science and Technology, Nawabshah, Sindh, Pakistan.
Abstract
It is well recognised that superstructure load is transferred to surrounding soil through piled foundation. Consequently, the
high stress regime (stress bulb) is generated surrounding of the pile. On the other hand, the excavation in the ground
inevitably results in the ground movement due to induced-stress release. These excavations are sometimes inevitable to be
constructed adjacent to existing piled foundations. This condition leads to a big challenge for engineers to assess and
protect the integrity of piled foundation. This research presents three-dimensional coupled consolidation analyses (using
clay hypoplastic constitutive model which takes account of small-strain stiffness) to investigate the responses of an end-
bearing pile due to adjacent excavation at different depths in soft clay. The effects of excavation depths (i.e., formation
level) relative to pile were investigated by simulating the excavation near the pile shaft (i.e., case S) and next to (case T).
It was revealed that the maximum induced bending moment in the pile after completion of excavation in all the cases is
much less than the pile bending moment capacity (i.e. 800 kNm). Comparing the induced deflection of the end-bearing
pile in the case T, the pile deflection in case S is higher. Moreover the piles in cases of S and T were subjected to significant
dragload due to negative skin friction.
Keywords: Excavation; End-Bearing Pile; 3D Coupled Consolidation; Soft Clay.
1. Introduction
It is well recognised that a pile foundation transfers the load of superstructure to surrounding soil which is adjacent
to pile shaft as well as underneath the piled foundation. Consequently, the high stress regime (stress bulb) is generated
surrounding of the pile [1]. On the other hand, the excavation in the ground inevitably results in the ground movement
due to induced-stress release [2]. To cope with transportation problems in congested cities in the world like Hong Kong,
Shanghai, London etc, underground transportation systems (involving tunnels for metros, excavations of metro stations
and basement to facilitate inhabitants in the buildings for parking) have been developed. These excavations are
sometimes inevitable to be constructed adjacent to existing piled foundations. This condition leads to a big challenge for
a geotechnical engineer to assess and protect the integrity of piled foundation.
Finno et al. [1] and Goh et al. [2] reported case studies in granular soil and Alluvium residual soil respectively. They
demonstrated that lateral soil movements due to excavation can be detrimental to adjacent piles. In both the reported
case studies, piles toe level was much deeper than the excavation level and they reported only the lateral behaviour of
piles. Apart from field monitoring, a number of centrifuge tests were also conducted to investigate the response of single
* Corresponding author: dildarali72@gmail.com

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pile (Ong et al. [23]) and pile group in soft Kaolin clay (Ong et al. [24]). They concluded that the induced bending
moment and lateral deflection of piles were highly influenced by distance from wall and pile head condition. In studies,
lateral response of end bearing piles without initial applied load was reported. In reality, piled foundation in soft clay
behave as floating pile group and subjected to initial applied load from superstructure. In the presence of initial applied
load, soil surrounding the pile foundation experience higher stress level before the commencement of adjacent
excavation. Leung et al. [10-12] conducted centrifuge tests to investigate the effects of an un-propped excavation on the
behaviours of nearby single piles and pile groups in dry dense Toyoura sand. It was found that the distance from the pile
to the retaining wall and pile head conditions had a large influence on the induced pile bending moment and lateral
deflection. Ng et al. [21] reported the results of three centrifuge tests which were carried out to study the effects of a
multi-propped deep excavation in-flight on the behaviour of single piles in dry Toyoura sand. Piles were laterally
restrained in terms of rotation and deflection right at or above ground surface in the three different tests. It was concluded
that lateral restraints imposed on the pile head have a significant influence on induced pile bending moment. Induced
bending moment due to excavation can exceed the pile bending capacity. Poulos and Chen [25] developed design charts
to compute the lateral behaviour of a single pile adjacent to deep excavation in soft ground. They performed two staged
analysis considering plane strain conditions and linear elastic soil model. Similar work was conducted by
Liyanapathirana and Nishanthan [14] using finite element method. In both these studies lateral response of single pile
was investigated.
The settlement behaviour of pile and development of excess pore water pressure and consolidation settlement were
not investigated. Korff et al [8] proposed an analytical method to investigate reduction of capacity and increase in
settlement of a nearby pile during excavation. It was reported that pile settlement due to excavation depends on the
percentages of end bearing and shaft friction of the pile, the soil movement pattern, and the distribution of the maximum
shaft friction with depth. However, shaft resistance in these methods is calculated on the assumption that horizontal
stress acting on the piles does not change during excavation. This assumption may not be valid and the pile settlement
may be underestimated using the preceding methods, leading to a non-conservative prediction. Shakeel and Ng [28]
carried out three-dimensional coupled consolidation analysis is conducted to gain insight into the response of a (2×2)
floating pile group adjacent to deep excavation in soft clay. By using a validated finite element model, the influence of
the excavation depth, pile length, pile group location from excavation, the supporting system stiffness, soil state and
permeability, and working load are systematically studied. The analysis revealed that the maximum settlement occurs
when the pile group is founded at the excavation level and at a distance of 0.75 times the excavation depth, although the
induced bending moment is insignificant. In contrast to pile group settlement, tilting is significant when it gets closer to
the wall and minimum at a distance of 0.75 times the excavation depth. Zhang et al. [27] carried out the finite element
analyses considering soil of the hardening small strain (HSS) constitutive model to establish the excavation-induced pile
behaviors by varying the depth of excavation, pile diameter, pile length, pile distance away from the excavation, pile-
head fixity, unsupported depth of excavation and axial loadings exerted on the pile head. Soomro et al [26] conducted
parametric study to investigate the responses of floating pile to adjacent excavation at different depths. They concluded
that the pile responses to excavation depend upon formation level of the excavation as well as the embedded depth of
the wall. With different wall depth in each case, the induced settlement, lateral displacement and bending moment in the
pile at the same stage of the excavation was different in the three cases.
Most of previous studies focused on lateral response of the piled foundation to excavation. Besides this, the location
of an excavation depth relative to a pile foundation has not been studied systematically. The effects of excavation on the
behaviour of piles (i.e., induced settlement and axial forces along the pile length) were rarely reported.
It is well understood that the stress-strain relationship of soils is highly nonlinear even at very small strain. The
stiffness of most soils decreases as strain increases and depends on the recent stress or strain history of the soil [2, 3].
Owing to non-linear soil behaviour, an excavation can cause reduction in the stiffness of the ground. To obtain a
satisfactory numerical model of single pile responses to excavation-induced stress relief, the analysis needs to take
account of the small strain non-linearity of soil.
This study aims at systematically investigating the effects of different excavation depths on a floating and an end-
bearing pile. A three-dimensional coupled consolidation numerical parametric study was carried out to analyse the
responses of the single piles to the excavations. Lateral displacement, bending moment, induced lateral forces and axial
load distribution along the pile and stress changes during excavation are reported and discussed.
2. Research Methodology
Three-dimensional finite element analysis was carried out to investigate the responses of an end-bearing pile to
excavation-induced stress release. Figure 1 shows the flow chart which illustrates the step by step methodology adopted
in this study.
With the prime objective of investigating the effects of the different excavation depths relative to an end-bearing pile,
a three-dimensional coupled consolidation numerical parametric study was carried out. Two different final excavation
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depths (He) relative to the pile length (Lp) namely near the pile shaft (Case S), adjacent to the pile toe (Case T)) are taken
in this parametric study. The final depth of the excavation (He) has been adopted as 12 m and 18 m in cases of S and T,
respectively. The embedded length (Lp) and diameter (dp) of the pile are 18 m and 0.8 m, respectively. The modelled
pile represents a cylindrical reinforced concrete (grade 40, reinforcement ratio = 1) with a bending moment capacity of
800 kNm.
Figure 1. Configuration of a typical numerical run representing case of S; (a) elevation view (b) plan view
Figure 2(a) shows the elevation view of the configuration of numerical simulation in case of S. The clear distance
between diaphragm wall and the pile is 3.0 m. The excavation was supported by 0.6 m thick diaphragm wall.
Working load
(720 kN)
Ground water table

Prop 1 (1.0 m)
Soft clay
3.0 m 50m
Prop 2 (4.0 m) 6m
Existing single pile
0.6 m thick diaphragm wall
Plane of symmetry
Embedded length = 18 m Prop

Prop 3 (7.0 m) Diameter = 0.8 m Existing single pile
Prop 4 (10.0 m) 10m 20m

Formation level
(12.0 m)
Prop Monitoring section
Plane of symmetry
Diaphragm wall
Thickness = 0.6 m
Depth = 18.0 m
(a) (b)
Figure 2. Configuration of a typical numerical run representing case of S; (a) elevation view (b) plan view
The ratio of wall penetration depth to excavation depth is typically 0.5-2 in engineering practice [6, 7], and thus a
value of 0.5 is adopted in this study. The props are used to support the diaphragm wall with a vertical spacing of 3 m.
The props are modelled as soft with axial rigidity of 81 × 10 3 kNm [7]. Horizontal spacing of props is 10 m.
It is worth noting that, in reality, high-rise buildings are unlikely to be built on a single pile. This hypothesised study
is a more virtual case [4-6]. This simplification is made to understand the settlement and load transfer mechanism clearly.
Figure. 1(b) illustrates the plan view of the configuration of the numerical simulation. The length of the excavation is
12 m. Due to symmetry, only half of the excavation was simulated. A monitoring section was selected at the transverse
centreline of the excavation. Table 1 summarises numerical simulations conducted in this study.
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Table 1. Summary of numerical simulations
Numerical simulation ID Excavation depth; He (m) Diaphragm wall depth (m) Remarks
S 12.0 18.0 Formation level near pile shaft

T 180 24.0 Formation level next to pile toe
2.1. Finite Element Mesh And Boundary Conditions

The finite element program Abaqus will be used in this study. The size of the mesh for each numerical runs will be
taken as 50× 20×40 m as shown in Figure 3. Eight-noded hexahedral brick elements are used to model the soil, the pile
and the diaphragm wall, while two-noded truss elements are adopted to model the props.
Roller and pin supports are applied to the vertical sides and the base of the mesh, respectively. Therefore, movements
normal to the vertical boundaries and in all directions of the base are restrained. The water table is assumed to be at
ground surface. Initially, the pore water pressure distribution is assumed to be hydrostatic. Free drainage is allowed at
the top boundary of the mesh.
The pile-soil and wall-soil interface is modelled as zero thickness by using duplicate nodes. The interface is modelled
by the Coulomb friction law, in which the interface friction coefficient ( ) and limiting displacement (lim) are required
as input parameters. A limiting shear displacement of 5 mm is assumed to achieve full mobilization of the interface
friction equal to ×p', where p' is the normal effective stress between two contact surfaces and a typical value of for a
bored pile of 0.35 is used in all analyses [9]. The excavation process will be simulated by deactivating soil elements
inside excavation zone. In the meantime, the truss elements representing the props will be activated.
Single pile 20 m
Diaphragm wall
Props
Formation level
40 m
Figure 3. Finite element mesh and boundary conditions of a typical numerical analysis (i.e. S)
2.2. Constitutive Model And Model Parameters Used In Finite Element Analyze
The unique feature of basic hypoplastic model is to capture nonlinear behaviour within range of strain level of
medium to large (due to monotonic loading) of granular material [15, 16]. The basic model consists of five
parameters (𝑁,  ,  , 𝑐 and 𝑟 ). The position and the slope of normal compression line in the space of ln(1 + 𝑒) versus
ln 𝑝 ′ (where 𝑒 is the void ratio, and 𝑝′ is the mean effective stress) is representing by the parameters 𝑁 and  ,
respectively. The parameter  represents the slope of the isotropic unloading line in the same plane. 𝑐 is the friction
angle at critical state, and the parameter 𝑟 controls the large strain shear modulus. Mašín [17] further implemented the
concept of intergranular strain to improve the basic hypoplastic model. To take into consideration of the strain and path
dependency of soil stiffness, five additional parameters (required by intergranular strain) were included into the basic
model. These five additional parameters are 𝑅, 𝑟 , , 𝑚 𝑇 and 𝑚𝑅 in which R is elastic range and 𝑟 and  determine
the rate of stiffness degradation. The remaining parameters 𝑚 𝑇 and 𝑚𝑅 regulate the initial shear modulus, respectively.
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The hypoplastic clay model [15] with small strain stiffness has been implemented in the commercial finite element
software package Abaqus through a user-defined subroutine.
The parameters (i. e. , 𝑁,  ,  and 𝑐 ) for kaolin clay have been widely reported in the literature. Based on these
four known parameters, the parameters which are r (i.e., controlling soil stiffness at medium to large-strain levels) and
at small-strain levels (i.e, R, r , , mT and mR ) were calibrated against existing experimental data of kaolin clay. The
model parameters at small- strain and large-strain ranges are calibrated against the measured stress–strain relationships
and the measured stiffness degradation curves in kaolin clay, respectively.
The coefficient of lateral earth pressure at rest, Ko is estimated by Jáky [14]'s equation:
𝐾0 = (1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜑 ′ ) (1)
All model parameters for soft clay are summarised in Table 2.
Table 2. Model parameters of kaolin clay adopted in the parametric study
Description Parameter
Effective angle of shearing resistance at critical state: ’ 22o
Parameter controlling the slope of the isotropic normal compression line in the ln(1 + e) versus lnp plane, * 0.11
Parameter controlling the slope of the isotropic normal compression line in the ln(1 + e) versus lnp plane, * 0.026
Parameter controlling the position of the isotropic normal compression line in the ln(1 +e)–lnp plane, N 1.36
Parameter controlling the shear stiffness at medium- to large- strain levels, r 0.65
Parameter controlling initial shear modulus upon 180 strain path reversal, mR 14
Parameter controlling initial shear modulus upon 90 strain path reversal, mT 11
Size of elastic range, R 1×10-5
Parameter controlling the rate of degradation of the stiffness with strainr 0.1
Parameter controlling degradation rate of stiffness with strain 0.7
Initial void ratio, e 1.05
Dry density (kg/m3) 1136
Coefficient of permeability, k (m/s) 1×10-9
Since end-bearing piles are resting on hard stratum (i.e. rock). The rock was modelled as an elastic material. The
modulus of elasticity and Poisson’s ration of rock were taken as 70 GPa and 0.3, respectively [21].
The concrete pile, the diaphragm wall and the props were assumed to be linear elastic with Young's modulus of 35
GPa and Poisson's ratio of 0.25. The unit weight of concrete was assumed to be 24 kN/m 3. The parameters for the rock
and the piles and the diaphragm wall are summarised in Table 3.
Table 2. Model parameters of kaolin clay adopted in the parametric study
Mechanical properties Rock Concrete

Young's Modulus, E (GPa) 70 35
Poisson's ratio,  0.3 0.3
Density,  kg/m 3
2560 2400
2.3. Constitutive Model And Model Numerical Modelling Procedure

The numerical analysis modelling procedure for a typical case (i.e. case S) is summarized as follows:
Step 1: Set up the initial boundary and initial stress conditions (i.e., static stress conditions with varying K 0 =0.63).
Step 2: Activate the brick elements representing single pile (modeled as “wished-in-place”).
Step 3: Apply the working load (determined from numerical pile load test) on the pile.
Step 4: Allow excess pore pressure, which generated in result of application of working load on the pile, to dissipate.
Step 5: Activate the brick elements representing the diaphragm wall.
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3. Interpretation of Computed Results

3.1. Induced Lateral Displacement in the Pile Due to Excavation
Figure 4 shows the lateral pile displacement induced due to excavation in both case S and T. The positive values of
the pile deflection indicate the lateral movement of the pile towards excavation side. It can be seen from the figure that
the pile head displaced away laterally from the excavation side in each case. Because the toe of the end-bearing pile is
resting on the hard stratum, negligible movement of the pile toe of the end-bearing toe was induced due to excavation.
Comparing the induced deflection of the end-bearing pile in the case T, the pile displacement in case S is higher than
that in case T. This result can be ascribed to soil displacement due to excavation-induced stress release. The horizontal
component of soil displacement vectors towards excavation in case S is slightly higher than that of case T. The maximum
deflection induced at the pile head is approximately 15 mm (2.0% dp) in both cases. In contrast to end-bearing pile,
Soomro et al [26] reported that the pile toe of the friction pile deflected towards the excavation side and the pile head
displaced away from the excavation in both the cases. Furthermore the excavation-induced deflection profile reveals
that the pile has rotated counter-clockwise about an axis perpendicular to the plane of the figure. The centre of rotation
is approximately at Z/Lp=0.25 in both the cases. This is because of excavation-induced stress release and soil
displacement (flow) towards excavation. The soil displaced towards excavation near the toe of the friction pile resulting
in the movement of the toe in both cases. A similar pile deflection profile during an adjacent excavation of the friction
pile was observed by Liyanapathirana and Nishanthan (2016). The maximum deflection of the pile after the completion
of the excavation was computed as 40 (5.0% dp) and 32 mm (4.0% dp) in cases of S and T, respectively.
Figure 4. Induced pile lateral displacement due to excavation
3.2. Induced Bending Moment Profile along the Pile

Figure 5 illustrates bending moment profile along the pile length induced after completion of the excavation in each
of case S and case T. A positive bending moment indicates that the pile side facing the excavation is subjected to
compressive stresses.
It can be observed from the figure that there was no any bending moment observed at the head of the pile because of
no any constraint at the pile head. However, significant bending moment could be induced at the head of the end-bearing
pile if large pile head deflection induced due to excavation (discussed in previous section) is constrained. In case of S,
the negative bending moment was induced along the upper portion of the pile (Z/Lp < 0.9). However, the portion of the
pile near the pile toe was subjected to positive bending moment. This is because the pile was subjected to lateral force
due to soil movement towards excavation and the constraint of movement of the pile toe (i.e. no any pile toe deflection
as shown in Figure 3) in the hard stratum. The maximum negative and positive bending moment of 260 kNm and 350
kNm were computed at Z/Lp = 0.64 and the pile toe, respectively.
In case of T, the induced bending moment profile is similar to that in case of S. However, the maximum bending
moment (of magnitude 125 kNm) induced at Z/Lp = 0.55 is smaller than that in case of T. This is because of the vertical
component of displacement vector of soil due to deeper excavation in case of T is slightly higher than that in case of S.
557
Comparing the induced bending moments of floating reported by Soomro et al [26] and end-bearing piles in case of S,
negative bending moment was induced along the entire pile length of both types of piles in case T. Moreover, the bending
moment reduces as excavation became deeper in case of T (i.e. formation level He = 18 m). The reason for this bending
profile of both the piles can be attributed to the embedded depth of the wall which makes the vertical component of the
soil displacement vector higher than that of horizontal component in case of S. The maximum bending moment induced
of 42 kNm at Z/Lp = 0.7 in floating pile.
It can be seen that the maximum induced bending moment of pile after completion of excavation in all the cases is
much less than the pile bending moment capacity (i.e. 800 kNm). Therefore, the most critical issue to be considered in
excavation-soil-pile problem is relatively large lateral displacement of the pile. This conclusion may not be applicable
to scenarios in which the ground conditions or stiffness of excavation system (i.e. wall and prop stiffness) are different
from those adopted in this study.
Induced bending moment: kNm

-300 -200 -100 0 100 200 300 400
0.0
Case S
End-bearing pile
0.1
Case T
End-bearing pile
0.2
Normalised pile depth (Z/Lp)
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.0
Figure 5. Induced bending moment in the pile due to excavation
3.3. Computed Ground Deformation Mechanism and Deviatoric Strain

Figure 6 (a) and (b) illustrates the excavation-induced soil displacement in the ground in cases of S and T,
respectively. In addition, excavation-induced shear strain contours are also superimposed in the figure.
(%) (%)
E x cav at i o n
30 mm 30 mm
E x cav at i o n
Kaolin clay Kaolin clay
Hard stratum
Hard stratum
(a) (b)
Figure 6. Computed soil displacement vectors and incremental deviatoric strain contours in the pile (a) Case S; (b) Case T
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It can be seen from the figure that the direction of soil displacement in retained side is towards excavation. As a result
the upper part of the piles in both cases displaced towards excavation side (see Figure 3). Moreover, soil heave at
excavation side in case of S. However, no heave is observed on excavation side in case of T. Consequently, the induced
lateral deflection and bending moment in end-bearing pile profiles in case of T were similar to that in case of S but lesser
magnitude.
3.4. Load Transfer Mechanism along the Pile Due to Excavation

To explore load transfer mechanism along the piles due to adjacent excavation, the changes in axial load distribution
and mobilised shaft resistance along the pile length are discussed in this section
3.4.1. Load Transfer Mechanism Along the Pile Due to Excavation

Figure 7 shows the axial load distribution along the normalised pile length (i.e. Z/Lp) below the ground surface after
excavation in case of S and T. For reference, axial load distribution after application of the working load (before
excavation) is included. Because of the toe of the end-bearing pile on hard stratum, 100% of the working load transferred
to the toe of end-bearing pile. This means that zero shaft resistance were mobilised along the end-pile length.
It can be seen from the figure that on the completion of the excavation, axial load distribution in the pile due to
excavation altered significantly in each case. The axial load increased along the entire pile length. By inspecting the
load distribution after excavation, it can be seen that negative shaft resistance along the entire pile length was mobilised
in each case. This is because of the significant ground movement due to excavation (see Figure 5) and the pile toe resting
on the hard stratum (due to which no any settlement induced). This suggests that the pile was subjected to “dragload”
by the surrounding soil. This led to increase the end-bearing resistance increased significantly. Owing to the excavation,
the en-bearing resistance increased to 42% and 57% in case of S and T, respectively. In contrast to changes in axial load
distribution in floating piles due to excavation reported by Soomro et al [26], the load distribution along the end-bearing
piles altered significantly in each case. The axial load increased along the entire pile length. By inspecting the load
distribution after excavation, it can be seen that negative shaft resistance along the entire pile length was mobilised in
each case. This is because of the significant ground movement due to excavation (see Fig. 8) and the pile toe resting on
the hard stratum (due to which no any settlement induced). This suggests that the pile was subjected to “dragload” by
the surrounding soil. This led to increase the end-bearing resistance increased significantly. Owing to the excavation,
the en-bearing resistance increased to 42% and 57% in case of S and T, respectively.
Axial load: kN
700 750 800 850 900 950 1000 1050 1100 1150 1200
0.0
At working load
0.1 Case S
End-bearing pile
Case T
End-bearing pile
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.0
Figure 7. Axial load distribution in the pile before and after excavation
3.4.2. Load Mobilised Shaft Resistance on Completion of Excavation

To substantiate the discussion in the previous section, the mobilised shaft resistance in the end-bearing piles after the
application of the working load (i.e., before excavation) and excavation in cases of S and T is shown in Figure 8. In the
559
figure, the depth below the ground surface (Z) is normalised by the pile length (Lp). The computed average mobilised
unit shaft resistance f(Z) at various depths was calculated based on the following equation:
∆𝑄(𝑍)
𝑓(𝑍) = (2)
𝑠. ∆𝑍
Where ΔQ is the difference between the computed axial loads at two consecutive depths, ΔZ is the vertical distance
between the two consecutive depths, and s is the perimeter of the pile.
It is seen that after applying a load, zero shaft resistance mobilised in the pile, as expected. Inspecting the mobilised
shaft resistance changes in the due to excavation, it can be seen that the soil movement due to excavation caused negative
skin friction (NSF) mobilization along the entire pile length in each of cases (i.e. S and T). This implies that the pile is
‘dragged’ down by the surrounding soil which settles due to excavation. This observation is because of the end-bearing
pile resting on the hard stratum stopping to settle. However, the induced ground movement surrounding the pile dragged
the pile down resulting NSF. This led to increase end-bearing resistance (see Figure 6) to maintain equilibrium of the
pile after excavation. The maximum negative shaft resistance of 12.4 kPa was induced at the mid of the end-bearing pile
(Z/Lp =0.5).
Mobilised shaft resistance: kPa

-20 -18 -16 -14 -12 -10 -8 -6 -4 -2 0 2
0.0
At working load
0.1
Case S
End-bearing pile
0.2 Case T
End-bearing pile
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.0
Figure 8. Mobilised shaft resistance along the pile before and after excavation
4. Conclusions
This study investigate the responses of a end-bearing pile due to different excavation depths in saturated soft Kaolin
clay using 3D coupled consolidation analysis. The effects of excavation depths relative to pile were investigated by
simulating the excavation near the pile shaft (i.e. case S) and next to toe (i.e. case T). Based on ground conditions,
different configurations and method of excavation modelled, the following conclusions can be drawn
 Negligible movement of the pile toe of the end-bearing toe was induced due to excavation. Because the toe of the
pile is resting on the hard stratum. Comparing the induced deflection of the end-bearing pile in the case T, the pile
deflection in case S is higher.
 The negative bending moment was induced along the entire pile length of both types of piles in case T). The
maximum induced bending moment in both types of piles after completion of excavation in all the cases is much
less than the pile bending moment capacity (i.e. 800 kNm).
 On the completion of the excavation, piles were subjected to significant dragload. The downward load transfer
mechanism was observed in end-bearing pile resulting in the end-bearing resistance increment of 42% and 57% in
case of S and T, respectively.
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6. Acknowledgement
The authors would like to thank Mehran University of Engineering & Technology and Quaid-e-Awam University of
Engineering, Science & Technology for the support.
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562

Vol. 5, No. 3, March, 2019
Finite Element Modelling of RC T - Beams Reinforced Internally with

GFRP Reinforcements
Balamuralikrishnan R. a*, Saravanan J. b

a
Asst. professor, Department of BNE, College of Engineering, National University of Science and Technology, Muscat, PO Box:2322,
CPO Seeb 111, Sultanate of Oman.
b
Department of Civil and Structural Engineering, Annamalai University, Pin:608001,Tamilnadu, India.
Abstract
Fibre reinforced polymers (FRP) are being used extensively in the rehabilitation and retrofitting of existing structures as
an external reinforcement because of their properties like high strength to weight and stiffness to weight ratios, corrosion
resistance, light weight and high durability. They are especially used in the reinforced concrete structure like bridges,
chimney, high rise building etc. At present FRP reinforcements are available in the form of reinforcing bars and are used
in the structures in place of steel, mainly the structures are constructed near the coastal areas or in the aggressive
environments. The main advantage of FRP rebar is its corrosion resistance, light weight, durability and easy handing. The
FRP rebars are being used worldwide for many structures including bridge structures as well, but not well explored because
of its availability. The main objective of this thesis work is to assess the static load behaviour of RC T-beams reinforced
internally with GFRP reinforcements using finite element analysis software ANSYS. Totally twelve numbers of specimens
were considered in this study with varying parameters such as type of reinforcements, reinforcements ratio and concrete
grade. Modelling of the T- beams were done with ANSYS using solid 65 and link 8 element and the same were analyzed
under static loading conditions. The results obtained from the ANSYS were compared with the theoretical and experimental
analysis. Based on the comparison suitable conclusions and recommendations are made in this research work.
Keywords: Highway Black Spots; Speed Study; Warning; Satisfaction; Affectability.
1. Introduction
Concrete structure reinforced with conventional steel reinforcements cause a concern in aggressive environmental
conditions due to accelerating problem of corrosion. The down fall results in costly maintenance or replacement of the
existing structure. Glass Fibre Reinforcement Polymer (GFRP) bars is becoming the wave of the future due to their
resistance to corrosion, high strength to weight ratios and the ability to handle the material with such simplicity. Glass
Fibre - reinforced polymers (GFRP) are non - metallic reinforcement utilizing high performance hybrid, the surfaces of
the rods are treated with undulations to provide mechanical interlock with concrete. Their application is seen primarily
as a means to avoid corrosion problems encountered in concrete structures when using conventional steel as
reinforcements. Keeping this in mind, the present research was planned to study the behaviour of GFRP reinforcements
for beam - column applications.
* Corresponding author: balamuralikrishnan@nu.edu.om

563
1.2. Fibre Reinforced Polymer

FRP composite is defined as a polymer matrix, whether thermosetting (e.g., polyester, vinyl ester, epoxy, phenolic)
or thermoplastic (e.g., nylon, PET) which is reinforced by fibre (e.g., aramid, carbon, glass). Specific definition used
within the report also include glass fibre reinforced polymer (GFRP), carbon fibre reinforced polymer (CFRP) and
related abbreviation. FRP material is currently used as reinforced for concrete structure in which corrosion protection is
a primary concern. FRP material is corrosion resistant and exhibit several properties that make suitable as structural
reinforcement.
Now a days, all these fibres under tensile loading exhibit a linear elastic behaviour up to failure [1, 2, 3] without
showing yielding. Carbon and aramid fibres are anisotropic with different values of mechanical and thermal properties
in the main directions whereas glass fibres are isotropic materials in nature [4, 5]. Glass fibres are transparent to radio
frequency radiation and are used in radar antenna applications [6]. Reinforcement materials can be designed with unique
fibre architectures and are preformed or shaped depending on the product requirements and manufacturing process.
Some of the FRP reinforcements that are commercially available in different forms. Carbon fibres, stress corrosion is
not a problem. But as graphite conducts electrical current when makes contact with steel, it may result in galvanic
corrosion problems. Carbon fibres possess a negative or very low [coefficient of thermal expansion in their longitudinal
direction and have an excellent dimensional stability [7]. Resistance to higher temperature is low for aramid fibres as
compared to glass and carbon fibres. Aramid fibres also possess high tensile stress over a long period of time [8].
Thermoplastics are polymers, which do not develop cross-links.
They are capable of being reshaped and repeatedly softened and hardened when exposed to some temperature values
above their forming temperature. Thermosetting resins are easy for processing and low in cost. The most common
thermosetting resins are epoxy, polyesters, vinyl ester, etc. Epoxy resins are prepared by the ring opening polymerization
of compounds containing an average of more than one epoxy group per molecule. The main advantages of epoxy resins
are good mechanical properties, easy processing and lower shrinkage during curing which lead to good bond
characteristics.
Moreover epoxy resins have a wide range of stiffness. Polyester matrices are made by using ethylene glycol with
either orthophthalic or isophtalic acid as the saturated diacid and numeric as the unsaturated diacid. Polyester resins
have good UV resistance and are used in outdoor applications especially where corrosion resistance is required. Vinyl
ester matrices are resins based on methacrylate and acrylate and are more flexible a have higher fracture toughness, good
wet out and good adhesion with glass fibres. It has the combination of all the good properties of epoxy resins and
polyesters and make them preferred choice in the production of glass fibre reinforced composites. Besides, vinyl ester
resins are highly resistant to acids, alkalis, solvents and peroxides.
The flexural behaviour of concrete filled steel tube beams under two point loading system and results are verified
with the finite element analysis using ANSYS in the FE model. The FE analysis result and EC4 standard codes show
that the experimental investigation of yield conservative prediction behaviour of CFTS beams [9]. The finite element
analysis of steel and laminated composite rail way tie under static and dynamic loads for the FEA analysis of steel and
laminated composite tie[10]. In hybrid GFRP/steel reinforced concrete beams, the steel reinforcement improved the
beam stiffness, ductility and load resistance after cracking. The higher the amount of GFRP reinforcement, the less the
rate of increase of the ultimate capacity of the concrete beam [11].
Hybrid GFRP-steel reinforced concrete beams had good bond performance when installing the GFRP bars as near
as possible to the outer surface of the concrete element, which is beneficial in term of structural performance of the
reinforcing bars [12]. The deflection of FRP beams significantly decreased compared to reinforced concrete beams while
the ultimate loads were increased [13]. The behavior of concrete beams were strengthened with GFRP unidirectional
composite laminates behaves better than the RCC beam [14].
The ANSYS16.2 FEA models are more effective to analyze reinforced concrete beams in combination with
steel and GFRP bars and the results obtained from FEA are very close to results observed in the experiments [15,16].
The steel bars increased the ductility of hybrid GFRP-steel reinforced concrete beams [17]. Compared with conventional
RC beams, concrete beams reinforced with steel-FRP stirrups successfully showed a considerable increase in the beam
shear strength and deformability [18].
1.2. Types of FRP Reinforcements
FRP rods are a typical product produced by the pultrusion process. A secondary process occurs to add surface
deformations if required for adequate bond properties. Geometrical shape and surface texture can also be manipulated.
A helical fibre over-winding, protruding ribs, or a sand coating can be added to the smooth outer layer of resin. FRP
reinforcing bars are available as smooth, braided, spiral wound, sand coated and as a twisted rod strand. While these
surface characteristics are beneficial, one must be aware that by simply increasing bar diameter can decrease its ultimate
strength.
564
In reduced cross-sections, increasing fiber volume can increase strength properties. The various types of FRP
reinforcements available in the market are shown in Figure1. Steel and FRP rods samples in this study is shown in
Figure 2 and different sizes of FRP reinforcement bars are shown in Figure 3.
The objectives and scope of this present study is,
 To determine the mechanical properties of concrete, steel and GFRP reinforcements.
 To analyze the results obtained from the experiments of the T-beam reinforced with GFRP reinforcement.
 To model the RC-T beams using ANSYS 12 [19].
 Finite elements analysis will be carried out only using ANSYS 12.
Figure 1. Various types of FRP reinforcement
Figure 2. Steel and FRP rods samples rod in the study Figure 3. Different sizes of FRP reinforcement bars
2. Theoretical Analysis
2.1. Test specimens
Totally twelve number of test specimens were cast by considering three different reinforcement ratios, two different
grades of concrete in each category. Of which three of them are control specimens reinforced with conventional steel
bars and other three are reinforced with GFRP bars (balanced, under and over reinforced). The specimens were designed
and reinforced in such way that under, balanced and over reinforced flanged concrete beam. The specimen consists
flange of size 450 × 75 mm and web of 125 × 175 mm reinforced with conventional steel and the length of the beam is
3200 mm. Main reinforcements of flanged beam were made up of high yield strength deformed steel bars of 12 mm
diameter for control specimens and GFRP bars of same diameters used for GFRP specimens.
The reinforcement for under reinforced, balanced and over reinforced beams with 2 Nos. of 12 mm diameter at top
and bottom, 2 Nos. of 12 mm diameter at top and 3 Nos. of 12mm diameter at bottom, 2 Nos. of 12 mm diameter at top
and 5 Nos. of 12mm diameter at bottom respectively. Stirrups 8mm diameter at 150 mm c/c. The same quantity of
conventional reinforcement replaced with GFRP bars including stirrups. For better bonding the GFRP bars are made
with threaded surface. The reinforcement details are shown in Fig. 4, 5 and 6.
Y8 - 150c/c Y8 - 150c/c
450 (Y8 - 4 Nos.) 450 (Y8 - 4 Nos.)
75 75
250 Y12 - 2 Nos. 175 250
Y12 - 2 Nos 175
Y8 @ 150 c/c Y8 @ 150 c/c
125 Y12 - 2 Nos. Y12 - 3 Nos.
125
All dimensions are in mm All dimensions are in mm
Cross Section Cross Section
Figure 4. Cross section of under reinforced flanged beam Figure 5. Cross section of balanced flanged beam
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Y8 - 150c/c
450 (Y8 - 4 Nos.)
75
Y12 - 2 Nos. 175 250
Y8 @ 150 c/c
125 Y12 - 5 Nos.
All dimensions are in mm

Cross Section
Figure 6. Cross section of over reinforced flanged beam
2.2. Reinforcement Ratio Details

Table 1 shows the number of the test specimens for the analysis was derived based on the varying parameters
considered in the study.
Table 1. Details of the test specimens
Grade of concrete M20 Grade of concrete M30

Reinforcement
ρ1 ρ2 ρ3 Total ρ1 ρ2 ρ3 Total
Steel 1 1 1 3 1 1 1 3
GFRP 1 1 1 3 1 1 1 3
Total 12 Beams
ρ1 - Bottom Two Rod, ρ2 - Bottom Three Rod, ρ3 - Bottom Five Rod.
2.3. Theoretical Moment Curvature Relationship for T-Beam (Figure 7)

The analytical moment curvature for a reinforced section can be determined under the following assumptions
 Perfect bond between concrete and reinforcement
 Plane and sections remain plane under loading
 Simplifications of the stress-strain relationship for the constituent materials
Y8 - 150c/c
450 (Y8 - 4 Nos.)
75
Y12 - 2 Nos. 175 250
Y8 @ 150 c/c
125 Y12 - 3 Nos.
All dimensions are in mm

Cross Section
Figure 7. Cross section of flanged concrete beam
2.4. Theoretical Calculation Result
Theoretical results were calculated for all the cases say Bm1Feρ1, Bm1Feρ2, Bm1Feρ3, Bm2Feρ1, Bm2Feρ2, Bm2Feρ3, Bm1FTρ1,
Bm1FTρ2, Bm1FTρ3, Bm2FTρ1, Bm2FTρ2, and Bm2FTρ3. The theoretical results for sample results one in each case are presented in
Table 2 to 5.
Table 2. Theoretical value for Bm1Feρ1

Mcr (Nmm) ∅cr (rad/mm) Load (N) Deflection (mm)
0 0 0 0
448514.04 8.57E-07 0.896 0.934427
2143416.12 1E-06 40.86 13.798
20428158.6 1.3E-05 147.7 27.03
73857224.4 2.33E-05 191.1 31.014
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Table 3. Theoretical value for Bm2Feρ1

M cr (Nmm) ∅ cr (rad/mm) Load (N) Deflection (mm)
0 0 0 0
554737.442 8.57E 07 -
1.1094 0.9345
2518763.33 1.01E 06 -
41.366 12.82
20683403.9 1.17E 05 -
215.282 26.05
107641356 2.24E-05 292.18 30.42
Table 4. Theoretical value for Bm1FTρ1

0 0 0 0
438310.05 8.57E 07 -
0.87662 0.934427
1760828.13 1.03E 06 -
176.72 44.895
88368004.4 4.15E 05 -
192.9 50.402
96455691.4 4.7E 05
-
199.18 51.507
Table 5. Theoretical values for Bm2FTρ1

544531.211 8.57E 07 -
0 0
2151663.1 6 1.03E 06 -
1.088 0.934565
136884385 4.15E 05 -
273.76 45.37511
149412427 4.7E 05
-
298.82 50.805
154270082 4.98E 05 -
308.54 51.91
2.5. Theoretical Result

The values obtained from the theoretical analysis for all the cases are produced in the form of moment - curvature
and load - deflection curves. For sample of few cases only are shown in Figures 8 and 9.
120000000
100000000
Moment in N.mm
80000000
60000000
40000000
20000000
0
0 0.000005 0.00001 0.000015 0.00002 0.000025 0.00003 0.000035
Curvature in rad /mm
Figure 8. M- Ф curve for specimen Bm1Feρ1
250
200
Load in N
150
100
50
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Deflection in mm
Figure 9. Load - deflection for specimen Bm1 F eρ1
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3. Finite Element Modeling

3.1. Compressive Behaviour of Concrete
The nonlinear response of concrete is inelastic. The concrete stress-strain relation exhibits nearly linear elastic
response up to about 30% of the compressive strength. This is followed by gradual softening up to the concrete
compressive strength, when the material stiffness drops to zero. Beyond the compressive strength the concrete stress-
strain relation exhibits strain softening until failure takes place by crushing.
3.2. Tensile Behaviour of Concrete
In this study, the file behaviour is assumed as an elastic brittle process and the cracks are formed in the direction of
-
tensile force after concrete strength reduces abruptly to zero. In his paper, it has not been not interested in the tensile
strength of concrete, but the influence of the cracked concrete zone on the structural behaviour. A simplified averaging
procedure, which figures that cracks are distributed across a region of the finite element. In this model, cracked concrete
is supposed to remain continuum and the material properties are the modified to account for the damage induced in the
material. After the first crack has occurred, the concrete becomes orthotropic with the material directions of cracking.
3.3. Behaviour FRP Reinforcements in Tension
Glass fibre reinforcement FRP bars, the most common commercially available from a number of manufactures. These
bars are either a sand coated external layer, a moulded a deformation layer, to create a bond between concrete and FRP
surface. FRP bars are typically elastic and brittle. Such that a stress strain relation in axial tension is linear elastic to
failure. Ductile steel like failure does not occur and hence it is fundamentally different from conventional steel [20].
3.4. Finite Element Software (ANSYS 2012)
ANSYS a suite of powerful engineering simulation programs, based on the finite element method, which can solve
problems ranging from relatively simple linear analyses to the most challenging nonlinear simulations. In a nonlinear
analysis ANSYS automatically chooses appropriate load increments and convergence tolerances. The description and
properties of the modelling elements are studied in this Phase.
3.5. Properties of Materials
3.5.1. Tensile Strength
FRB bars are anisotropic, with the longitudinal axis being the strong axis. The mechanical properties of FRP
composites vary significantly from one product to another. Factors such as volume and type of fiber and resin, fiber
orientation, dimensional effects, and during manufacture, play a major role in establishing product characteristics. The
stress-strain curve for HYSD bars and FRP rebar are found out by carrying tens ion test experimentally and the curves
are shown in Figures 10 (a) to (c).
FRP bars and tendons reach their ultimate tensile strength without exhibiting any material yielding. The mechanical
properties of FRP reported here are measured in the longitudinal (i.e. strong) direction. The tensile strength of FRP bars
is a function of bar diameter. This phenomenon results in reduced strength and efficiency in larger diameter bars. For
example, for GFRP reinforcement produced by one U.S. manufacturer the tensile strength ranges from nearly 480 MPa
for 28.7 mm bars to 890 MPa for 9.5 mm bars.
(a)
568
(b)
(c)
Figure 10. (a) Tensile testing of GFRP reinforcements, (b) Stress -Strain curve for HYSD bar, (c) Stress-Strain curve for
GFRP rods
3.5.2. Specific Gravity

FRP bars have a specific gravity ranging from 1.5 to 2.0 as they are nearly four times lighter than steel. The reduced
weight leads to lower transportation and storage costs and decreased handling and installation time on the job site as
compared to steel reinforcing bars. This is an advantage that should be included in ANSYS analysis for product selection.
3.5.3. Thermal Expansion
Reinforced concrete itself is a composite material, where the reinforcement acts as the strengthening medium and the
concrete as the matrix. It is therefore imperative that behaviour under thermal stresses for the two materials be similar
so that the differential deformations of concrete and the reinforcement are minimized. Depending on mix proportions,
the linear coefficient of thermal expansion for concrete varies from 6 to 11 × 10-6 /°C (4 to 6 × 10-6/ °F) are the coefficients
of thermal expansion for typical FRP rebars 9.9×10-6 per C (5.5×10-6/°F).
3.5.4. Tensile Elastic Modulus
The longitudinal modulus of elasticity of GFRP bars is approximately 25 percent that of steel. The modulus for GFRP
bars found from the stress-strain obtained from the tension test as similar to the steel bars. The elastic modulus of GFRP
rebars were found that it ranges from 0.4 to 0.6 x 10 5 MPa.
3.4.5. Fatigue
FRP bars exhibit good fatigue resistance. Most research in this regard "has been on high-modulus fibers (e.g., aramid
and carbon), which were subjected to large cycles of tension-tension loading in aerospace applications. In tests where
the loading was repeated for 10 million cycles, it was concluded that carbon-epoxy composites have better fatigue
strength than steel, while the fatigue strength of glass composites is lower than steel at a low stress ratio.
3.6. Modelling Basics
3.6.1. Element Types
The element types for this model are shown in Table 14. The Solid65 element was used to model the concrete. This
element has eight nodes with three degrees of freedom at each node translations in the nodal x, y, and z directions. This
element is capable of plastic deformation, cracking in three orthogonal directions, and crushing. A schematic of element
is shown in Figure 11.
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Figure 11. Solid 65 elements
Table 14. Element Types for working model

Material Type ANSYS Element
Concrete Solid65
GFRP Link8
Steel Reinforcement Link8
A Link 8 element was used to model steel reinforcement. This element is a 3D spar it and it has two nodes with three
degrees of freedom - translations in the nodal x, y and z directions. This element is also capable of plastic deformation.
It is shown in Figure 12.
Figure 12. LINK 8 Element
3.7. Material Property

 Beam size 250 mm × 450 mm, length 3200 mm.
 Material for concrete – 1, Concrete (Linear Isotropic, Concrete):
Density = 24000 N/mm2, E= 2.86×104 N/mm2, and= 0.15
 Material for GFRP – 3, GFRP (Linear Isotropic):
Density = 1600 gr/cm3, E = 0.47×105 N/mm2, and = 0.30
 Material for steel – 2, Steel (Linear Isotropic):
Density = 7810 kgf/m3, Yield Stress = 432 N/mm2, E = 2.1×105 N/mm2, and = 0.30
 Reinforcement:
Top: 2 Nos. – Y12
Bottom: 2, 3, 5 Nos. – Y12
Stirrups: R8@150 mm c/c
Cover: 25 mm @ top & 25 mm @ bottom
 Element types used: Solid 65 for Concrete
 Link 8 for Reinforcement (Table 15)
Table 15. Link 8 for Reinforcement
Description Diameter of Bar (mm) Area (m2)

Stirrups 8 50.2655×10-6
Flange Reinforcement 12 113.097 × 10-6
Bottom Reinforcement 12 113.097 × 10-6
570
 C3D8R
The ELEMENT option deals with the element-nodal connectivity list. The element type is specified using the TYPE
parameter. The choice of element type is as important as any aspect of a finite element analysis. In this model the element
used is C3D8R- 8 - node linear brick element (Figure 13). In this C response continuum, D represents displacement and
H represents Hybrid.
Figure 13. Continuum solid element

 Rebar
Rebar is used to define layers of uniaxial reinforcement in solid elements. Such layers are as a smeared layer with a
constant thickness equal to the area of each reinforcing bar divided by the reinforcing bar spacing (Figure 14).
Figure 14. Rebar model in 3D element

3.8. Modelling of T-beams
In order to compare the performance of the T-beam the specimens were modelled and analyzed using a finite element
software ANSYS 12 using the above said element types and the material properties are shown in Figures 15 to 20 and
the deflected profile for few cases are shown in Figures 21 and 22.
Figure 15. Nodes-ANASYS Model Figure 16. Solid 65 Elements for Concrete
571
Figure 17. Link 8 Element for Reinforcements Figure 18. Model with Loading Conditions
Figure 19. Model showing Support conditions Figure 20. Cross sections of the T-beam modelling with
node numbers
Figure 21. Typical deflected shape of the T beam reinforced Figure 22 .Typical deflected shape of the T beam reinforced
with steel with GFRP
3.9. Results of Analytical Results (ANSYS)

The load - deflection behavior of T- beam from ANSYS results are shown in Figures 23 and 24.
572
65000
60000
55000 Ansys
50000
45000
40000
Load in N
35000
30000
25000
20000
15000
10000
5000
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17
Deflection in mm
Figure 23. Load-Deflection Curve of Bm1Feρ1
60000
55000
Ansys
50000
45000
40000
35000
Load in N
30000
25000
20000
15000
10000
5000
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
Deflection in mm
Figure 24. Load- Deflection for fiber specimen Bm1Ftρ1
4. Comparison of ANSYS Results with Experimental Results

Totally three series of specimen were cast with three different reinforcement ratio and two mix ratios. The different
reinforcement ratios were (i) Two rods at the bottom (ii) Three rods at the bottom iii) Five rods at the bottom. The mix
ratios were (i) M20 grade concrete (ii) M30 grade concrete. The series of the specimens were named as (i) Beam
reinforced with conventional steel reinforcement (BmFeρ) ii) Beam reinforced with Grooved type GFRP reinforcements
(BmFtρ). Among these series GFRP reinforced beam was high performance than the conventional steel reinforced beam.
The results of the experimental study already carried out were considered for the comparison of analytical results. The
analytical and experimental results are presented in the form of load – deflection graphs is shown in Figure 25.
60000
55000 Exper
50000 Ansys
45000
40000
Load in N
35000
30000
25000
20000
15000
10000
5000
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
Deflection in mm
Figure 25. Load - Deflection for steel specimen Bm1Feρ1
573
4.1. Discussion
 From the load-deflection curves it is observed that identical results are obtained.
 Test specimens with GFRP reinforcements load carrying capacity is 5% lower than the steel reinforced specimens
almost for all the test specimens.
 Increase of concrete grade is increasing the load carrying capacity of the test specimens invariably for all the
specimens by 5% to 20%.
 The deflection of the higher concrete grade M30 is lower than the M20 grade by 10%
 The deflection is higher for the GFRP reinforced specimens than the steel reinforced specimens in all the cases and
varies from 5% to 15%.
 Larger crack widths are observed in the experimental results but it is not so in the case of ANSYS. But numbers of
cracks are more for the GFRP specimens.
5. Conclusions
Based on the experimental and numerical results the following conclusions are drawn:
 The Modulus of Elasticity of GFRP bars are lesser than that of steel bars which is experimentally observed. Since
the GFRP reinforcement having lower modulus of elasticity, resulted in higher deflection than the steel reinforced
specimens.
 The ultimate moment carrying capacity of the GFRP reinforced beam is higher than the conventional steel reinforced
beam.
 The FRP reinforced beams exhibit a brittle behaviour before failure, as seen from stress strain curves. However the
predominant failure mode is by compression of concrete.
 The load carrying capacity of the GFRP reinforced beam is almost equal with the conventional steel reinforced
beam.
 The GFRP reinforced beam was higher residual deflection value than the conventional steel reinforced beam.
 The first crack developed for the conventional reinforced specimens at 3 tons whereas for the GFRP specimens
crack developed at the 5 tons but the performance of the flanged beam is only 10 to 20% variation for the steel and
GFRP specimen respectively.
 The experimental results of the flanged beams holds very good agreements with the analytical results for the both
flanged beam reinforced with steel and GFRP reinforcements. The performance of the flanged beam predicted by
the analytical tool ANSYS is almost equal to the experimental values.
6. Conflict of Interest
7. References
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Excellence on Intelligent Sensing for Innovative Structures, ISIS Canada, University of Winnipeg, Manitoba (2007) .
[4] ACI Committee 440. “Guide for the design and construction of concrete reinforced with FRP bars”. ACI 440.1R-06, American
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[5] CAN / CSA S806 -11. Design and construction of building components with fibre reinforced polymers. Canadian Standards
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[7] ACI Committee 440. Guide Test Methods for Fiber Reinforced Polymers (FRPs) for Reinforcing or Strengthening Concrete
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Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, Michigan (2008).
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Steel Tube Beams”. Journal of Structural Engineering 20 (1) (2010): 88-94.
[10] Gueroui, Djelailia, Badouna Baha-Eddine, and Fadel Djamel. “Landscape Approaches as a Strategic Tool in the Environmental
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575

Vol. 5, No. 3, March, 2019
Evaluation of Drivers’ Affectability and Satisfaction with Black

Spots Warning Application
Mirbahador Yazdani a*, Amir Abbas Rassafi a

a
Faculty of Engineering, Imam Khomeini International University, Qazvin, Iran.
Received 30 October 2018; Accepted 23 January 2019
Abstract
Since a significant percentage of crashes occur at black spots, different methods have been proposed to prioritize the
modification of these spots and prevent crashes. One of these prevention methods in transportation is the hazard warning
systems. The purpose of this study is to evaluate the satisfaction of drivers and their affectability from a map-based warning
application is evaluated. To this end, black spots were identified on one of the two-way two-lane highways in the North-
West of Iran and 32 male drivers were tested in the intervention group (warning state) and the control group (non-warning
state). The evaluation of the warning application was done in two steps. In the first stage, drivers’ affectability between the
two groups was compared, where average speed and number of speed limit violations were studied in warning and non-
warning states. In the second stage, drivers' satisfaction with application features was examined using questionnaires. The
findings showed that the difference in mean speeds at black spots between warning and non-warning states was significant
with 95% confidence level and the use of warning application was effective in reducing the number of drivers with speed
limit violations at black spots. Most drivers were highly content with the warning from car speakers, advisory warnings
and warning distance from black spot, and did not have enough satisfaction with visual warnings, the application
installation procedure, and warnings from smartphone speakers. Additionally, the results of the questionnaire revealed that
not only warnings did not cause distraction for the drivers, they were effective in increasing their caution. These findings
can be used to eliminate the shortcomings of the hazard warning application.
Keywords: Highway Black Spots; Speed Study; Warning; Satisfaction; Affectability.
1. Introduction
Traffic crashes are inevitable accidents that occur due to various reasons. In addition to being a threat to society’s
safety and health, these crashes entail a high amount of costs, such as financial losses, delays in traffic and depletion of
national resources. According to the World Health Organization, the damage inflicted on developing countries because
of these crashes equals more than 1% of their gross national product (GNP); this value is more than 3% in Iran [34].
Iran, with a population of close to 77 million people and 25,000 annual traffic-related deaths, is one of the most
dangerous countries regarding traffic accidents in the world [1] and, as a result, Iranian road safety specialists have
recently conducted studies on road and vehicle safety performance [9, 17, 23, 37].
Since the majority of crashes occur at black spots, numerous methods have been employed to prioritize the
modification of these spots and prevent crashes [16, 35]. One of these prevention methods is the hazard warning system.
The driver is warned before reaching the black spot so that he/she can be more cautious to be able to prevent crashes.
Some of these systems are map-based warning systems that drivers install on their smartphones, which warn the drivers
* Corresponding author: bahadoryazdani1990@gmail.com

576
before reaching specific spots [22, 33, 38]. Other systems can detect obstacles in front of and at the side of the vehicle
and also while exiting the lane, using radar technology or vehicle-mounted cameras, and warn the driver [4, 5, 10, 25,
27]. The most commonly used systems include Forward Collision Warning (FCW), Side Blind Zone Alert (SBZA) and
Lane Departure Warning (LDW).
In recent years, many studies have been conducted on warning systems and their impact on driver performance.
Various criteria have been considered for measuring drivers' performance including speed, driver behavior and braking
reaction time. Some studies have also focused on the acceptance of advanced driver assistance systems (ADAS) and
driver satisfaction with them. The studies on the affectability and satisfaction of warning systems are presented in the
following.
The effect of hazard warning systems on the performance of drivers in two test groups has been evaluated by driving
simulators and tests on real roads. Studies conducted in driving simulators have reported reduced rate of collision and
reaction time when the warning system was active [3, 12, 15, 18, 28, 32]. On the other hand, research on real roads has
shown lower speed and faster braking by the drivers at the time of warning announcements [2, 6, 21, 22, 38].
A group of researchers took into account factors such as usefulness, ease of use, efficiency, affordability and social
acceptance for assessing drivers' acceptance and satisfaction with the use of ADAS, and others prepared checklists to
compare drivers' satisfaction with new assistant programs and other vehicle systems [14, 20, 29]. A study in 2008
evaluated drivers' acceptance of various audio and visual warnings for front and side collision warning systems. In their
work, the timing of warnings (three different times) and the sound of alarms with and without separate speakers were
compared and driver satisfaction and affectability were reported [24].
Studies have also compared different individuals in the acceptance and satisfaction of ADAS. The results of a study
showed that older drivers are more satisfied with these systems than young drivers, and are willing to hear warning
messages [8, 19, 26, 31]. A study in 2013 evaluated the satisfaction of different drivers with warning systems at
intersections and the results showed that all the older drivers were satisfied with the warnings and 60% of the novice
drivers did not have enough satisfaction for reasons such as anxiety and lack of proper response upon warning, [36]. A
study in 2000 also found that using ADAS was more satisfactory for drivers in foggy conditions compared to normal
conditions [30]. Another study focused on the effect of the warning system on young and novice drivers reported that
the system improved their turning and inter-lane movements but increased performance near the black spots [11].
Cicchino et al. investigated the effect of audio and visual warnings on reduction of crash rates and reported a 20%
decrease in rear-end crashes as a result of these systems [7]. In another study, the effect of audio warning on the drivers’
braking reaction was investigated and it was seen that the reaction time of younger drivers is lower than that of older
drivers in the speed range of 40 to 60 mph [13].
The black spots warning systems are categorized under the map-based systems that identify the locations on the road
that have higher chances of crash and warn the driver before reaching them. While the other warning systems use radar
technology or vehicle-mounted cameras to warn about the absolute danger, black spots warning systems announce the
high potential of the upcoming danger. Therefore, the investigation of drivers' satisfaction and affectability can be of
great importance for this application.
Firstly, some explanation about the black spots warning application and how it works on rural roads is presented.
Then, evaluation of drivers’ satisfaction with the different features of the application and drivers' affectability are
investigated. The flowchart of the study is shown in Figure 1.
Figure 1. The steps followed in conducting the research
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The study was performed in five stages. In the first two, crash data were acquired to identify the black spots (the
method is explained in the next section). For the third stage, the program for the black spots warning system was written
and designed for an Android-running environment. Ultimately, the last two stages involved the assessment of
effectiveness and drivers’ satisfaction of the program by testing it while driving in a two-way road in Iran.
2.1. Black Spots Warning Application Description
Using the data corresponding to the crashes recorded over the past 5 years (2012-2016), black spots were identified
on a two-way highway in the North-West of Iran. This highway is 91 km long, and is one of the roads with the highest
crash rates in Iran. Crash frequency (CF), crash rate (CR) and kernel density estimation (KDE) were applied to identify
black spots. Eight black spots were selected for this highway, and traffic police experts conducted field analyses to
identify the precise coordinates of these eight spots. In the end, the coordinates were introduced into the warning system
application. Figure 2 shows the location of the black spots.
Figure 2. The location of black spots on Tabriz-Ahar highway
Since in previous studies [38, 6, 15], warnings in both audio and visual formats were reported to be effective on
drivers’ affectability, this application also used both methods. The audio warning comprised of the danger type alarm
and the visual warning involved displaying a danger sign on the monitor. Fifteen seconds or 600 meters have been
suggested as the appropriate time and distance before the danger point to alert the driver [33, 18]. In this study, warning
at 600 meters to the black spot was implemented. Figure 3 shows the application environment and the danger sign
visualization.
Figure 3. The vehicle's location and the visual warning
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2.2. Evaluation of Black Spot Warning Application

The evaluation of the application was done in two steps. The first step was the comparison of drivers' affectability in
warning and non-warning states. 32 male drivers were randomly selected and tested in the intervention group (warning
state) and the control group (non-warning state). Within two months of the test, 160 and 96 speed data points were
recorded for the intervention and control groups at the black spots, respectively. Figure 4 illustrates how a driver uses
the warning application by a smartphone.
Figure 4. Representation of how drivers use the warning application on the smartphone
The recording of instantaneous and mean speeds using the smartphone GPS was done by a computer code in the
application, which could be used to check the speed variations at the black spots with and without warning. Figure 5
shows the speed recording sample in the software memory.
120
100
80
Speed (km/h)
60
40 Speed Limit In
Black Spots
20 Driver Speed In
Black Spots
0
17:16:48 17:19:41 17:22:34 17:25:26 17:28:19 17:31:12 17:34:05 17:36:58 17:39:50 17:42:43
Time
Figure 5. Part of the speed-time diagram for a driver

For the first stage of the assessment, the mean speed in the black spot areas and the risk of exceeding the speed limit
at these spots were selected as the evaluation criteria [22, 33]. The first speed criterion is the average speed that is
recorded with and without warning in the target black spot, and the significance of the difference between these two
speeds is evaluated with 95% level of confidence. Equation 1 shows the standard deviation, and Equation 2 indicates
the equivalent standard normal distribution value of the observed difference in speeds. The second speed criterion is the
relative risk of exceeding the speed limit with and without warning in the target black spot. This criterion can also
accurately evaluate the impact of a hazard warning system. Equation 3 shows the relative risk relation used in this study,
where the intervention group is the one for which the hazard warning was activated, while the control group represents
cases without the warning.
𝑆𝐶2 𝑆𝑇2
𝑆𝑦 = √ + (1)
𝑁𝐶 𝑁𝑇
̅̅̅̅
𝑋𝐶 −𝑋̅̅̅̅
𝑇
𝑍𝑑 = (2)
𝑆𝑦
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𝑅𝑖𝑠𝑘 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝

𝑅𝑅 = (3)
𝑅𝑖𝑠𝑘 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑙 𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝
Where 𝑆𝑦 =standard deviation; 𝑆𝑐 =speed deviation in black spots in the control group; 𝑆𝑇 =speed deviation in black
spots in the intervention group; N= the sample size in each group; ̅𝑥 =the average mean speed in each group; 𝑍𝑑 = the
equivalent standard normal distribution value of observed difference in speed.
For the second step, a questionnaire for application satisfaction was used that included questions about the features
of the warning application (Table 1). The variables of the questionnaire were warning sound, warning image, warning
distance and accessibility, and satisfaction with the application. Some of the variables were in the form of one question,
while others involved multiple questions answered by the drivers. The total number of questions was eleven. At the end,
drivers were asked to provide suggestions for improving the application. Since this questionnaire was merely a survey
for the strengths and weaknesses of the warning application, the questionnaire was analyzed by simple descriptive
analysis, and the frequency of answers and percentage of satisfaction with each feature of the application were reported.
Table 1. Warning application satisfaction questionnaire
Warning system Strongly Strongly
Number
components
Question disagree 1
Disagree 2 Neutral 3 Agree 4
agree 5
Advice warning (announcing the type of

1
danger) is satisfactory.
The volume of sound coming from
2 Warning sound
smartphone speakers is satisfactory.
The volume of sound coming from car
3
speakers is satisfactory.
The danger sign in the visual warning are
4 Warning image
appropriate.
Warning The distance from warning announcement to
5
distance the black spot is appropriate.
6 Application installation is easy.

Accessibility,
The screen-turned-off mode and only using
7 installation and
warning sound is appropriate.
application
8 Online mode is available for you.
9 Warnings increase caution in your driving.
10 Satisfaction Warnings distract you.
I am generally satisfied with the warning

11
application.
12 Suggestions
3. Results
The evaluation of the black spot warning application was done in two stages. In the first stage, the drivers’
affectability from the warnings was studied. For this purpose, speed criteria were analyzed in the intervention group
(active warning) and control group (inactive warning). In the intervention group, 160 speed data points with an average
of 64.5 km/h and a standard deviation of 8.8 km/h were recorded; while in the control group, 96 speed data points with
an average of 68.2 km/h and a standard deviation of 9.3 km/h were recorded at the black spots. The standard normal
distribution value was obtained to be (𝑍𝑑 = 3.14 ≥ 1.96), which confirmed the significant difference in mean speeds
between these two groups. Another speed criterion in the first stage of evaluation was the risk of exceeding the speed
limit at black spots, which was investigated in the intervention group (warning state) and control group (non-warning
state). Among the 160 recorded speeds of the intervention group, eighteen were above the speed limit; while in the
control group, out of 96 recorded speeds, twenty exceeded the speed limit. The relative risk of this criterion was 0.54
(confidence interval 0.3 to 0.96), which indicates that danger warning in black spots had a significant effect on reducing
the number of speed limit violations.
In the second step of evaluation, in order to determine the strengths and weaknesses of the application, the responses
given for each feature (warning sound, warning image, accessibility, installation and application, warning distance and
overall satisfaction) were separately analyzed. The results are presented as descriptive charts.
Warning sound: This variable is an important and effective feature of hazard warnings. Due to the high effectiveness
of advisory warnings in previous studies [18, 22, 24], this type of warning was used for the current application. In
advisory warnings, depending on the type of danger, an appropriate warning is given to the driver, and warnings are not
580
merely simple alarms. According to the responses regarding the satisfaction of drivers with advisory warnings, the
average score obtained for this question was 3.95 out of 5, which indicates a high level of satisfaction with this type of
warning. Figure 6 shows that nearly 75% of drivers had high or very high satisfaction with this type of warning.
Q1: Advisory warning Q2: Audio warning from the smartphone

speaker
strongly disagree
agree 5% agree disagree
25% 20% 30%
neutral
20%
agree
50%
neutral
50%
Q3: Audio warning from the vehicle speaker
neutral
strongly 20%
agree
40%
agree
40%
Figure 6. Satisfaction of warning sound sources and advisory warning

For sound output, two questions were designed about the origin of the sound (phone or car speakers). The satisfaction
scores of each of them are reported in Figure 5. None of the 10 drivers who heard the warning from their phone indicated
high satisfaction, and about 80% of these drivers had a satisfaction of lower than average. On the other hand, the drivers
who heard the warning through their car speakers, reported considerable satisfaction. None of these drivers chose a
satisfaction score lower than average, and about 80% of them were very satisfied with this type of playback.
Warning image: In some studies, drivers have been warned of the danger using warning sounds, without visual
warning. But in many other studies, the impact of visual warnings has also been taken into consideration. In the current
application, the blinking warning sign appears on the screen before the driver reaches the black spot, and remains there
until he/she passes the black spot area. Question 4 in the satisfaction questionnaire was related to the warning sign
performance, which garnered only 5% high satisfaction from the drivers. More than 90% of drivers reported moderate
and lower than moderate satisfaction with the warning image. Figure 7 shows the results of the visual warning
satisfaction.
Q4: Visual warning
agree strongly
5% disagree
10%
neutral
45% disagree
40%
Figure 7. Satisfaction of danger sign in visual warning
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Warning distance: This variable is one of the features of the warning application for which, researchers have
proposed time and spatial distances. In this study, the distance of 600 meters to the black spot was considered. The
number of drivers tested for this feature was 20, among which 80% had a high and very high degree of satisfaction with
this feature. Figure 8 shows the results of the satisfaction of the warning distance.
Installation, accessibility and application of the software: Questions about this feature were asked from all 32
drivers. In these questions, the simplicity of application installation was first asked, and the next two questions were
about the application of the warning in the screen-off mode and the online application of the software. Figure 9 shows
the results of driver responses to these three questions. Nearly 80% of the drivers had moderate and lower than moderate
satisfaction with the installation procedure of the application. Regarding the phone-screen-off mode and the audio
warning, about 50% of the drivers were content to add this feature to the application, but others were not satisfied to
support this decision. For usage of the online mode, about 75% of drivers did not have trouble using the Internet on the
road.
Q5: Warning distance to the black spots
neutral
strongly 20%
agree
40%
agree
40%
Figure 8. Satisfaction of warning distance to the black spots
Q6: application installation Q7: The smartphone screen is off
strongly
agree strongly
disagree strongly
22% disagree
3% agree
12%
13%
disagree disagree
31% 19%
agree
31%
neutral neutral
44% 25%
Q8: Use online mode
disagree
strongly
6%
agree
neutral
19%
22%
agree
53%
Figure 9. Satisfaction of install, access, and use the application

Satisfaction: In this part of the questionnaire, three questions were asked from 20 drivers for whom the warning state
was active. In these questions, increased caution, increased distraction, and overall satisfaction with the intended
application were considered. The results showed that 70% of the drivers considered the warnings to be effective in
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increasing their caution. Nearly 75% of the drivers did not consider warnings as a source of distraction, and 60% of
drivers reported overall satisfaction with the warning application. Figure 10 shows the results of the drivers' satisfaction
with the warning application.
Q9: Increased driver caution Q10: Increased driver distraction
strongly disagree neutral strongly

agree 5% 25% disagree
25% neutral 35%
25%
agree disagree
45% 40%
Q11: General satisfaction of the application
strongly disagree
agree 5%
5%
neutral
35%
agree
55%
Figure 10. General satisfaction among warning application effects
4. Discussion
The findings of similar studies indicate the higher impact of audio warnings on reduction of reaction time and average
speed of drivers compared to visual warning [3, 11, 13], which is confirmed in the present study, as well. Among the
studies that investigate the effect of warning at black spots, works by Ryder et al. 2007 and Zhang et al 2009 are notable
[22, 38]. The study by Ryder et al. showed that the warnings were effective in reducing the speed of drivers before
reaching the black spots, while Zhang et al. reported that the warnings increased the caution of drivers approaching
arched bridges. Similarly, the currents study resulted in reduced vehicle speeds and lower number of speed limit
violations at black spots.
Regarding the assessment of application features, advisory warning (announcing the danger type) resulted in
significant satisfaction by drivers, as did playing the warning from car speakers. The sound of the warning from
smartphones was hardly heard due to driving on rural roads and high speeds. For the warning image, the results of the
questionnaire showed that the danger sign was not visible because of its small size, and it was decided to display a larger
danger sign on the screen. For warning distance, the choice of spatial distance was not a problem for drivers, but
according to the drivers' suggestions and for the compatibility of warning distance with speed of drivers, the time interval
mode was considered for the application, and therefore the timing of the warning emergence would depend on the
vehicle speed, and would not occur at a specific distance from the black spot.
Drivers did not report enough satisfaction with the application installation. The discontent was due to the fact that the
map and application files were separate, and arranging the map in the files of the smartphone was time-consuming. The
case for the phone-screen-off mode was also present in drivers' suggestions, which was recommended to reduce battery
consumption for long distances. The proposal for online application of the software and providing more services, such
as real-time danger warnings, was also pleasing to most drivers. Satisfaction results showed that this application
increases drivers’ caution in black spots without causing distraction.
5. Conclusion
To assess the affectability of the warning on the performance of drivers, 32 male drivers were randomly selected
and put in intervention and control groups. The results of the evaluation showed that the difference in mean speeds at
583
black spots with and without warning was significant with a 95 % confidence level. Additionally, the warning application
was effective in reducing the number of drivers violating the speed limit at black spots.
To evaluate the application in future studies, the effectiveness of warning on drivers’ speed can be assessed and
analyzed while considering behavioural and demographic characteristics of drivers, weather conditions and different
types of vehicles with larger sample sizes, and the results of changes in speed can be reported for different groups. This
assessment can also be done at black spots with different geometric characteristics, and therefore the results of different
black spots can be compared.
The results of speed criteria for different drivers can vary in different environmental and climatic conditions. For
future studies, it is recommended that speed criteria should be evaluated and analyzed in situations like day and night,
favourable and unfavourable weather conditions and peak traffic hours. In the case of significant changes in speed
criteria, different approaches for improving the warning application should be suggested.
This application can be used in any country after reviewing and correcting its weaknesses according to the country’s
road crash data. Moreover, with the participation of the car industry, it can be installed in cars or smartphones so that
everyone can have easy access to it, and use it to reduce crashes at black spots.
6. Acknowledgement and Funding

The authors thank Dr. Homayoun Sadeghi-Bazargani at the Tabriz University of Medical Sciences and Dr. Ali
Kazemi at the University of Tabriz for their contribution to this paper. This research was supported by Traffic
Knowledge Development and Road Traffic Injury Research Center. We thank our colleagues from this center who
provided insight and expertise that greatly assisted the research.
This research is a subset of the Integrated Traffic Injury Registry project, approved by MOH, Iranian Trustee for
Traffic Knowledge Development and Road Traffic Injury Research Center under number 700/1482 and ethically
approved under number IR.TBZMED.REC.1396.465 from the Regional Ethical Committee; ITIR is also supported
by World Health Organization under number 2017/742294-0.
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Vol. 5, No. 3, March, 2019
Performance Evaluation of Modified Bitumen with Replaced Percentage

of Waste Cooking Oil & Tire Rubber with Bagasse Ash as Modifier
Junaid Khan a, Arshad Hussain a, Fazal Haq a*, Kamran Ahmad a, Kamran Mushtaq a
a
Department of Transportation, National Institute of Transportation, National University of Sciences and Technology, Islamabad, Pakistan.
Abstract
Flexible pavements are the major type of pavement use in recent days. Bitumen is the main constituent’s part of flexible
pavement. Bitumen is the by-produce of petroleum. The depleting reserve of petroleum led researcher to look for
alternative binder. This research work explicitly aim at replacing certain percentage of bitumen with Tire Rubber powder
(TR), Waste Cooking Oil (WCO) in the presence of Bagasse Ash (BA) as a modifier. Physical test were performed to
determine optimum percentages of TR, WCO and BA that can be used as a percentage replacement in bitumen. Result
shows that up to 20 % of bitumen can be successfully replaced without affecting performance of bitumen. Performance
Tests such as Dynamic Shear Rheometer, Rotatory thin film oven, Pressure aging Vessel and Bending Beam Rheometer
were performed on modified samples for its physical and rheological properties. Modified bitumen showed good resistance
against rutting, skidding and low temperature cracking. The research work directly contribute in developments of
alternative binder for flexible pavement which is a leading research trend these days and environmental friendly initiative.
Keywords: Bitumen; Tire Rubber Powder; Waste Cooking Oil; Bagasse Ash.
1. Introduction
Sustainability had become the most important part of the world issue highlighted by many researchers. It includes the
rising global environment concern as well as socio-economic issue. The main objectives of sustainable development is
to use natural resources in the most optimized way so that, environmental and socio-economic issues are minimized [1].
Road Transportation is an important tool of connecting different cities with in any country. It comprises of facilities such
as bridges, highways, tunnels to ensure safe and efficient movement of people and goods within or between the countries.
A good and efficient highways network directly contributes in country’s economy by increasing GDP Growth [2].
Paved roads are either flexible or rigid type. During construction of flexible pavement bitumen is use as binder in
asphaltic concrete. Bitumen is a complex hydrocarbon obtained as residue during the process of fractional distillation of
petroleum. Petroleum is a natural resource and its reserves are depleting with the passage of time, causes increase in
price which alternatively cause rise in bitumen price as well. Moreover bitumen burns at high temperature during flexible
pavement construction produce fumes that are unhealthy to environment. These major issues led researchers to search
for alternative binder that can replace fully or partially certain percentage of bitumen without affecting its physical and
rheological properties.
* Corresponding author: fhaq.tn15@nit.nust

587
Different research studies were conducted in this effort to look for alternative binders. M. M. A.Aziz conducted
research studies on different materials and concluded that materials which are obtained from bio-oil such as waste
cooking oil, polymer, plastic and rubber can be used as alternative binder in flexible pavement [3].
Waste cooking oil, tires rubber powder and bagasse ash are waste materials, obtained from restaurants, tire industries
and sugar mills respectively. Proper disposal of these wastes requires expenditure and causes reduction in land filling
area. Disposal in an open region causes environmental degradation. Research studies conducted by S.M. Hussain Zaidi
concluded that Pakistan import 75% of its edible oil to meet its consumer demand [4]. A huge sum of money is spending
on the import of cooking oil and tire rubber, results in affecting country’s economy. Wasting the residue cooking oil is
not economically viable for a country which spent huge amount on its import. Therefore incorporating these wastes
materials into bitumen industry will not only elevate country’s economy, but will also solve the waste disposal problem
followed by minimizing environmental degradation. Previous studies shows that the addition of waste cooking oil into
bitumen bring improvement in rheological properties such as resistance against fatigue and low temperature cracking
resistance [5]. F. J. Navarro conducted research on rubber added in bitumen and concluded that rubber modified bitumen
possesses high resistance against rutting, fatigue and low temperature cracking [6]. Various type of agro-waste ash such
as rice hush ash and palm oil fuel ash had been used previously in bitumen. Bagasse Ash is an agro waste ash like Rice
Hush Ash (RHA). It possesses similar or better properties than Rice Husk Ash. The addition of rice hush ash improves
the physical and rheological properties of bitumen [7]. Based on the chemical analysis it was expected that Bagasse ash
will also improve the physical and rheological properties of bitumen.
The goal of this research work is to incorporate waste materials, which includes, waste cooking oil, tire rubber
powder and bagasse ash into bitumen industry in an effort to minimize the use of natural resourced material i.e. bitumen
resulting in minimizing environmental degradation and positively affecting country’s economy by substitution of
substantial percentage of costly material i.e. bitumen with waste material. An optimum percentage of conventional
bitumen will be replaced with the percentages of Waste cooking oil tire rubber powder and Bagasse ash, thus the use of
bitumen will be minimized which is both economically viable and environmental friendly.
2.1. Materials Selection
The virgin bitumen used in this research work were having penetration grade of 60-70. Waste Cooking Oil (WCO)
use in this research work was obtained from different local restaurants. Collected waste cooking oil contained different
impurities and suspended particles which were settled down with the help of centrifugation equipment. WCO were then
passed through 12.5 cm diameter filter paper to filter all the suspended particles. WCO having low acidic value i.e. PH
value, when used in bitumen shows better physical and Rheological properties [8-11]. PH test were performed on filtered
WCO of different restaurants. WCO showing lowest PH value were selected for further experimentation.
Tire Rubber powder (TR) was obtained from the local shop in Rawalpindi, Pakistan In the process of conversion of
tire rubber in to different shapes. The collected TR contains different sizes. Since the interaction of TR with bitumen is
physical, so in order to have good physical interaction, surface area of rubber particle should be greater. Particle smaller
in size has relatively greater surface area. for this purpose TR were passed through different sieves, and particle passing
#200 sieve were selected for further experimentation.
Bagasse ash (BA) was obtained from sugar cane industry. Sugar cane wastes were burned at high temperature. Ash
obtained as a result of burning were converted into grinded powder in ball mill, which were further passes through
different sieve to obtain smaller size particle for having better interaction with bitumen. Material passing #200 sieves
were collected for further experimentation. The average size of BA will be of the size of fine soil such as 0.0075um.
Chemical analysis of BA was conducted with the help of XRD. XRD analysis of BA shows that it contains considerable
amount of silica which is responsible for mineralogical property of BA. It is expected that BA will improve both physical
and rheological property of bitumen due to its pozolanic property.
2.2. Sample Preparation

Different trials were carried out in an effort of determining an optimum percentage of WCO, TR and BA that can be
used in bitumen without adversely affecting its physical property. Each trial consists of different sample having different
mixing ratios. Each sample was prepared in high shear mixture. For sample preparation virgin bitumen was heated
consistently for few minute in high shear reo mixture. TRP were added to virgin bitumen at varying percentage for each
sample and the temperature was increased to 150 oC and heating were continued for about 30 minutes at 900 rev/min.
After that WCO and BA were added and the temperature of the mix were reduced to 135 oC, so as to avoid the evaporation
of WCO at high temperature.
588
3. Experimental Testing
Physical and Performance testing were performed on virgin bitumen PG 60-70 and modified bitumen. Modified
bitumen was obtained through extensive physical testing by determining an optimum percentage of WCO, TR and BA
that can replace bitumen. Results of the Physical and performance testing, which include low temperature cracking,
rutting and fatigue resistance of virgin and modified bitumen were compared.
3.1. Physical Test

Physical test include penetration and softening point test. Physical test were performed to determine optimum
percentages of WCO, TR and BA that can be used as a percentage replacement in bitumen.
Penetration test is important for determining Grade of bitumen, which is further used for determining suitability of
bitumen used under different climatic conditions. It measures the hardness or consistency of bituminous material. A total
of 75 samples were prepared for penetration testing. Each sample weight 100 gm. Samples were placed in a water bath
at 25 oC for three hour. The samples were then placed in penetrometer where a needle fall down and penetrate the sample.
The penetration depth was measured as penetration in the unit of 0.1 mm.
Softening point test was performed to measure temperature susceptibility of bitumen. Hot sample of bitumen was
poured in two rings and placed in open air for 30 minutes. The rings are fixed in a metallic stand which is placed in water
containing beaker mounted on heater. Water containing beaker is heated at a rate of 5 oC/ mint. Softening point was
recorded as the average temperature at which the bitumen sample flow down and touches the bottom.
3.2. Rotational Viscosity

RV test were performed in different asphalt sample in Brookfield viscometer. The sample is poured in sample
chamber which is placed in thermoset and spindle is lower in it. The RV test was run for a 30 minutes for each sample.
RV test were conducted on 135 oC and 160 oC.
3.3. Modified Bitumen

Results from the physical tests and RV test were used as a base to select optimum percentage of WCO, TR and BA
that can be used as percentage replacement in bitumen without affecting the physical properties, we call this optimum
blend of bitumen with waste material as modified bitumen. Performance tests which includes, rutting resistance test,
fatigue resistance, resistance against low temperature cracking were conducted on virgin and modified bitumen and the
results obtained were compared.
4. Experimental Testing
4.1. Dynamic Shear Rheometer (DSR)
DSR is used to measure the viscoelastic behavior of asphalt. It measures the complex shear modulus and the phase
angle of bitumen. DSR is also used to calculate performance grade of bitumen. It can assess the performance of bitumen
against rutting and fatigue. A sample of about 8 mm or 2 mm diameter is placed in DSR main unit which oscillate
continuously and apply shear force which produce shearing action. The oscillation frequency range is between 0 HZ to
100 HZ. DSR test was conducted on both aged and un-aged sample.
4.2. Rotatory Thin Film Oven (RTFO)

Short term aging performance of bitumen is important. For this purpose RTFO is used to stimulate short term aging
in bitumen. A sample of bitumen is placed in glass a bottle which is then placed in RTFO equipment where hot air at
163 oC temperature is applied for 80 minutes.
4.3. Pressure Aging Vessel (PAV)

PAV equipment is used to simulate long term aging of asphalt i.e. 7 to 10 years by applying heat and pressure for 20
hours. A Sample of bitumen is placed in pan which is then placed in PAV equipment where high temperature and
pressure are applied to attain 7 to 10 year of asphalt aging.
RTFO and PAV aged sample were tested in DSR equipment for assessing resistance against rutting and fatigue after
short term and long term aging respectively.
589
4.4. Bending Beam Rheometer (BBR)

BBR is a device used to measure low temperature cracking in bitumen. Sample aged in PAV is poured in a BBR
mold. BBR beam formed in mold is placed in BBR assembly containing fluids. The temperature of fluid is maintained
at which the low temperature cracking has to be determined.

5.1. Physical Test Results
Physical test were conducted in order to obtain optimum quantity of WCO, TR and BA that can be used in bitumen
mix. In first trail bitumen were replaced with different percentages of WCO starting from 5 % and then increased with
an increment of 5 % subsequently as shown in Table 1. The tests results shows that with the increase in percentage of
WCO in bitumen softening point decreases and penetration increases, it is due to the fact that bitumen and WCO are
both hydrocarbon and their bonding energy decreases in a mix.
In second trial when bitumen is replaced with WCO and TR, penetration value decreases and softening point value
increases as shown in Table 2 which points to the fact that, reaction between TR and bitumen is physical and with the
use of TR, bitumen mix become a little harder. An optimum value for WCO to be replaced in bitumen was selected from
first and second trial which is 5 %. Because beyond 5 % increase in WCO percentage, higher penetration value and
lower softening point values were obtained. BA was introduced in the third trial as additive to the mix. Since the
chemical properties of BA shows that it is pozolanic material so definitely it will improve stiffness of bitumen sample.
In third trial different percentages of BA were used as additive in a bitumen mix in which WCO and tire rubber
powder were used as percentage replacement of bitumen. The results shown in Table 3 indicate that with the addition
of BA, penetration of modified bitumen decreases.
Results from third trial indicate that, sample number four shows better physical test results among all the samples in
which the optimum percentage of waste materials used are WCO of 5 %, TR 15 % and BA 8 %. It should be noted that
only WCO and TR was used as a percentage replacement of bitumen while BA was used as additive.
Table 1. Physical Tests Results of WCO replacement in Bitumen
Type of sample
Sample Code Bitumen Replaced (%) Penetration (dmm) Softening Point (oC)
(Total sample weight=200gm)
Virgin Bitumen 60-70 60-70 0 68 46
60-70 Bitumen with 5 % WCO W5 5 201 23
60-70 Bitumen with 10 % WCO W10 10 294 20.5
Table 2. Physical Tests Results of WCO & TR replacement in Bitumen
Type of sample
(Total sample weight=200gm)
Virgin Bitumen 60-70 60-70 0 68 46
60-70 Bitumen with 5 % WCO & 5 % TR W5TR5 10 136 31
Table 3. Physical Tests results of WCO and TR replacement in Bitumen in the presence of BA as modifier
Type of sample
(Total sample weight=200gm+%BA)
60-70 Bitumen with 5 % WCO, 5 % TR & 5 % BA W5TR5B5 10 117 37
60-70 Bitumen with 5 % WCO, 12 % TR & 7.5 % BA W5TR12B7.5 17 104 44
590
Figure 1. Softening Point Test Samples Figure 2. Softening Point Testing Machine
5.2. Rheological Test Results

5.2.1. Rotational Viscosity
Combinations of third trial were taken further for rotational viscosity test. Table 4 Indicate that with the increase in
percentage of TR and BA viscosity of modified bitumen increases.
Figure 3. Viscometer
Table 4. Viscosity of Samples from Third trial
Type of sample Bitumen Replaced Viscosity(C.P) Viscosity Ratio

Sample Code
(Total sample weight=200gm+%BA) (%) (135°C /160°C)
135 °C 160 °C
Virgin Bitumen 60-70 0 450 140 3.214
60-70 Bitumen with 5 % WCO, 5 % TR & 5 % BA W5TR5B5 10 493 290 1.7
60-70 Bitumen with 5 % WCO, 12 % TR & 7.5 % BA W5TR12B7.5 17 900 470 1.91
591
5.2.2. Dynamic Shear Rheometer (DSR)

a) Rutting Resistance
For determining resistance against rutting DSR test was performed on un-aged and RTFO aged sample of virgin and
modified bitumen. Rutting resistance criteria for un-aged and RTFO aged sample at maximum temperature is G* / sin
δ > 1.0 kPa and G* / sin δ > 2.2 kPa respectively. Figures 6 and 7 shows the comparison of complex modulus values of
virgin and modified bitumen at different temperatures. Rutting resistance criteria for un-aged sample of both virgin and
modified bitumen has been achieved at the temperature of 64 oC, while for aged sample, for virgin bitumen fail at 70 oC
and modified bitumen fail at 75 which point to the fact that RTFO aged modified bitumen shows better resistance against
rutting and the performance. The increase in rutting resistance can be attributed to the presence of high percentage of
rubber and Bagasse ash in modified bitumen.
Figure 4. DSR Test Sample Figure 5.DSR Test Machine
5 4.67 60-70 W5TR15B8

4.5
4
Complex Modulus (kPa)
3.5 3.29
2.5
2.08
2
1.51
1.5
0.98
1 0.723
0.5
0
58 64 70
Temperature oC
Figure 6. Comparison of Complex Modulus (kPa) of Un-aged Virgin bitumen & W5TR15BA8
592
9
7.81
8
Complex Modulas (kPa)

6
5 4.3
4 3.29
3 2.48
2 1.51 1.3
1 0.723
0
58 64 70 75
60-70 3.29 1.51 0.723 1.3
w5tr15b8 7.81 4.3 2.48
Temperature oC
Figure 7. Comparison of complex modulus of RTFO aged virgin and W5TR15BA8
b) Fatigue Resistance
PAV aged samples of virgin and modified bitumen were tested in DSR for fatigue resistance. A criterion for fatigue
resistance is that G*sin δ should not exceed the value of 5000 kPa at any particular temperature. Figure 8 shows
comparison of value of G*sin δ at different temperature. It is clear from the comparison that modified bitumen can resist
fatigue cracking up to temperature 10 oC an improvement in fatigue resistance can be attributed to the presence of Waste
cooking oil and tire rubber powder in modified bitumen. WCO can significantly improve fatigue resistance of bitumen
[9-14].
7000
6000
5000
G*sin δ (kPa)
4000
3000
2000
1000
0
22 19 16 13 10
Virgin 60-70 2710 3510 4691 6123
W5TR15B8 2384 3008 3952 4961 6161
Temperature oC
Figure 8. Comparison of G*Sin$ (kPa) value of PAV aged virgin and W5TR15BA8 sample
5.2.3. Bending Beam Rheometer/Low Temperature Cracking

PAV aged samples of virgin and modified bitumen were placed in BBR and were tested on different temperatures of
(-6, -12, -18, -22) oC to determine low temperature cracking in both the samples and the results were compared as shown
in Figures 9 and 10. Virgin bitumen resists low temperature cracking up to 6 oC, while modified sample can resist low
temperature cracking up to 22 oC. High low temperature cracking resistance of modified bitumen can be attributed to
the presence of WCO and TR. It is evident from the literature that WCO and TR both have the potential to improve
resistance against low temperature cracking.
593
250
Creep Stiffness (MPa)

200
150
100
50
0
-6 -12 -18 -22
60-70 Virgin 59.68 133.5414 205.688
W5TR15B8 56.339 74.043 111.339 208.46
Temperature oC
Figure 9. Comparison of Creep Stiffness (MPa) of Virgin and Modified bitumen
0.6
0.5
0.4
Curve Slope (m)
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
-6 -12 -18 -22
60-70 Virgin 0.5 0.32 0.2257
W5TR15B8 0.554 0.38 0.301 0.24
Temperature oC
Figure 10. Comparison of curve slope of virgin bitumen and W5TR15BA8 Sample
5.2.4. Aging affect

Aging of bitumen, substantially affect asphaltic pavement durability resulting in decreasing its ability to resist traffic
induced stress and strain. Excessive aging of bitumen, can lead to decrease adhesion between binder and aggregate
resulting in loss of material at the surface layer and initiate weakening of asphalt mixture. Therefore it is important to
assess aging of modified bitumen compare to virgin bitumen. Percentage retained penetration can be used to assess
aging in bitumen. Penetration of RTFO aged sample of both virgin and modified bitumen were determined and compared
with penetration value to that of un-aged, virgin and modified bitumen obtained. The following Table 5 shows retained
penetration values.
Table 5. Comparison of Retained penetration of virgin and W5TR15B8 sample
Penetration of RTFO aged Penetration of un-aged Retained Penetration

Type of Sample Sample Code
Sample (mm) samples (mm) (%)
Virgin bitumen 60-70 46 67 68.65
Modified bitumen W5TR15B8 72 97 74.2
594
As it can be clearly seen that modified bitumen shows high percentage of retained penetration after aging. Higher
retained penetration shows lesser tendency of bitumen to hardening after short term aging. So it can be concluded that
modified bitumen, after modification shows more resistance to hardening than virgin bitumen and so as prolong aging
time.
6. Conclusion
This research work started with an aim to reduce the percentage of virgin bitumen in flexible pavement construction
and maintenance, by replacing certain percentage of bitumen with wastes. Incorporating waste into bitumen will save
excessive use of bitumen (Natural resourced material) and will minimize environmental degradation causes by waste
disposal and excessive burning bitumen. The research work concludes the following.
 Series of physical test including penetration and softening point were done on different percentage of bitumen
replaced with WCO and TR in the presence of BA as modifier, to obtain an optimum mixing ratio.
 Optimum mixing ratio contain 5 % WCO, 15% TR used as percentage replacement in bitumen in the presence of
8 % BA as modifier (additive).
 20 % of bitumen can be successfully replaced with waste material (WCO, TR, & BA) without affecting
performance of bitumen.
 Modified bitumen obtained by incorporating waste material into bitumen shows better rheological properties than
virgin bitumen.
 Value of complex modulus (G*) of modified bitumen is higher than virgin bitumen which indicate a good resistance
against rutting.
 Modified bitumen shows less stiffness (S value) and more creep rate (m- value) value than virgin bitumen. It points
to the fact that modified bitumen poses more resistance to low temperature cracking than virgin bitumen.
 Modified bitumen shows better resistance against rutting as compared to virgin bitumen.
 Chemical analysis of modified bitumen shows that reaction of bitumen with TR and BA is physical while WCO
react chemically with bitumen.
8. References
[1] Hopwood, Bill, Mary Mellor, and Geoff O’Brien. “Sustainable Development: Mapping Different Approaches.” Sustainable
Development 13, no. 1 (2005): 38–52. doi:10.1002/sd.244.
[2] Fraumeni, Barbara. “The Contribution of Highways to GDP Growth” The National Bureau of Economic Research, (February
2009). doi:10.3386/w14736.
[3] Aziz, Md Maniruzzaman A., Md Tareq Rahman, Mohd. Rosli Hainin, and Wan Azelee Wan Abu Bakar. “An Overview on
Alternative Binders for Flexible Pavement.” Construction and Building Materials 84 (June 2015): 315–319.
[4] Zaidi, Syed Masroor Hussain. "Edible Oil Imports in Pakistan." South Asian Journal of Management 8, no. 1 (2014): 1-8.
[5] Sun, Zhaojie, Junyan Yi, Yudong Huang, Decheng Feng, and Chaoyang Guo. “Properties of Asphalt Binder Modified by Bio-
Oil Derived from Waste Cooking Oil.” Construction and Building Materials 102 (January 2016): 496–504.
[6] Navarro, F. J., P. Partal, F. Martínez-Boza, and C. Gallegos. “Influence of Crumb Rubber Concentration on the Rheological
Behavior of a Crumb Rubber Modified Bitumen.” Energy & Fuels 19, no. 5 (September 2005): 1984–1990. doi:10.1021/ef049699a.
[7] Romastarika, Raissa, Ramadhansyah Putra Jaya, Haryati Yaacob, Fadzli Mohamed Nazri, Agussabti, Ichwana, and Dewi Sri
Jayanti. “Effect of Black Rice Husk Ash on the Physical and Rheological Properties of Bitumen” (2017). doi:10.1063/1.4998383.
[8] Azahar, Wan Nur Aifa Wan, Ramadhansyah Putra Jaya, Mohd Rosli Hainin, Mastura Bujang, and Norzita Ngadi. “Chemical
Modification of Waste Cooking Oil to Improve the Physical and Rheological Properties of Asphalt Binder.” Construction and
Building Materials 126 (November 2016): 218–226. doi:10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2016.09.032.
[9] Maharaj, Rean, Vitra Ramjattan-Harry, and Nazim Mohamed. “Rutting and Fatigue Cracking Resistance of Waste Cooking Oil
Modified Trinidad Asphaltic Materials.” The Scientific World Journal 2015 (2015): 1–7. doi:10.1155/2015/385013.
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[10] Zhang, Jiu Peng, Jian Zhong Pei, and Yan Wei Li. “Research on Interaction Between Asphalt and Filler Based on DSR Test.”
Advanced Materials Research 723 (August 2013): 480–487. doi:10.4028/www.scientific.net/amr.723.480.
[11] Nurul Hidayah, M. K., Mohd Rosli Hainin, Norhidayah Abdul Hassan, and Mohd Ezree Abdullah. “Rutting Evaluation of Aged
Binder Containing Waste Engine Oil.” Advanced Materials Research 911 (March 2014): 405–409.
doi:10.4028/www.scientific.net/amr.911.405.
[12] Yusoff, N.I.Md., G.D. Airey, and M.R. Hainin. “Predictability of Complex Modulus Using Rheological Models.” Asian Journal
of Scientific Research 3, no. 1 (January 1, 2010): 18–30. doi:10.3923/ajsr.2010.18.30.
[13] Fini, Ellie H., Felix Smith Buabeng, Taher Abu-Lebdeh, and Faisal Awadallah. “Effect of Introduction of Furfural on Asphalt
Binder Ageing Characteristics.” Road Materials and Pavement Design 17, no. 3 (November 3, 2015): 638–657.
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[14] Katamine, N. M. "Physical and mechanical properties of bituminous mixtures containing oil shales." Journal of Transportation
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596

Vol. 5, No. 3, March, 2019
The Effect of Low-Density Polyethylene Addition and Temperature

on Creep-recovery Behavior of Hot Mix Asphalt
M. Mazouz a*, M. Merbouh a

a
FIMAS Laboratory, University of Tahri Mohammed, Bechar B.P 417, Bechar , 08000 Algeria.
Received 17 November 2018; Accepted 31 January 2019
Abstract
Industrial and domestic plastic waste is second harmful products to the environment. Considering the technological
development and the current way of life, this non-biodegradable waste and its enormous quantities threaten the balance of
the ecosystem and human health. The present study was an attempt to investigate the effect of Low-density polyethylene
“LDPE” plastic waste, used us asphalt additive, on creep-recovery behavior of Hot Mix Asphalt (HMA). This technique
is a contribution to the improvement of the quality and cost of HMA, for alternate materials. In this experimental study,
two mixes of asphalts were prepared, basic and modified asphalts, and tested in four points bending test at two different
temperatures, medium (20°C) and high temperature (50°C). The use of 5 % of LDPE gave a better thermo-mechanical
performance. As well as, a decrease in total deformation by 51 % and 13 % at 20°C and 50°C respectively. A clear
improvement of the resistance to the creep permanent deformation, rigidity and lasted in life. This modification serves a
powerful, economic and environmental solution for road construction of hot Saharan areas at medium and high temperature
of service.
Keywords: Creep-recovery Deformation; Hot Mix Asphalt; Plastic Waste; Modification; Temperature; Performance.
1. Introduction
Hot mix asphalt (HMA), is a type of highway flexible pavement material, formed by mixing of aggregate and bitumen
at certain ratios and compacting the resulting mixture at a certain temperature [ 1]. Researches have cited various factors
that affect flexible course performance like the component properties (binder, aggregate, as well as additive) and their
proportion in the mix [2]. Asphalt pavement is exposed to a variety of destructive factors, which lead to reduction of
their shelf life over time. Considering the high cost of pavement building operations, some necessary measures should
be taken to avoid asphalt destruction and mitigate pavement failures [3].
Given the rapid development in various activities, Today plastic is everywhere in our way of life. The use of such
non-biodegradable material show that plastic can remain unchanging for 4,500 years in the earth and has generated large
volumes of domestic and industrial plastic waste that threaten our environment and the life of humanity, flora and fauna
[4]. It is the intention of scientists and researchers, as well as people in authority, to explore waste material recycling for
environmental, economical advantages and also the possibility of solid waste reuse in road construction. Reusing waste
materials can make a significant contribution to the environment and economy from different aspects, [5, 6].
The first patent registration of asphalt modification processes with both synthetic and natural polymers date back to
1843. Furthermore, experimental projects had already commenced across Europe in the 1930s .The use of modified
* Corresponding author: mazouz_mahammed@yahoo.fr

597
asphalt was actually used first in the late 1970s in Europe. The employed contractors could give warranties and
encourage greater motivation and interest in recycling waste material in construction due to their lower costs even if the
initial expenses appeared to be higher [7]. In the modern era, however, the first serious utilization of such polymers in
fiber reinforcement started in the early 1990s [8].
The polymers utilized to modify asphalt can be classified into three main groups, namely: thermoplastic elastomers,
plastomers, and reactive polymers. The use of waste thermoplastics is currently being considered for bitumen
modification. Plastics are low-density durable, formable and low-cost materials which, owning to their properties, are
widely used in many areas, sectors and industries. There are seven types of plastics: PET (polyethylene terephthalate),
HDPE (high-density polyethylene), PVC (polyvinyl chloride), LDPE (low-density polyethylene), PP (polypropylene),
PS (polystyrene), and other types of plastics [9]. India, UK, and Ireland are the most experienced countries in looking
for new applications for plastic waste including their use in asphalt mixes [10]. The use of plastic wastes in construction
of flexible road pavement started in the year 2000. Bitumen plays the role of binding the aggregate together by coating
over the aggregate in the construction of flexible pavements. It also improves the strength and life of road pavements.
But its resistance towards water is weak. Waste plastics (polythene carry bags, etc.) soften on heating at around 130°C.
Thermo gravimetric analysis has shown that there is no gas evolution in the temperature range of 130-180°C. Softened
plastics have a binding property. Hence, it can be used as a binder for road construction. Improvement in properties like
Marshall Stability, retained stability, indirect tensile strength and rutting was observed in Plastic modified bituminous
concrete mixes [11-18]. It was observed that the stiffness increased by 10% for the chemically modified bituminous
mixtures. This improvement is attributed to an increase in the bonding forces between the aggregates and the bitumen
[19]. The coating of plastic reduces the porosity & absorption of moisture [20].
The addition of polyethylene leads to a strong increase in the rigidity of material like to a reduction of thermic
susceptibility to the high temperatures of service. The applications which are made of these properties are mainly the
use out of antiorniérant bituminous mix, and to a lesser extent in layer of reinforcement or to allow the use of materials
of weak angularity [14]. The incorporation of different waste materials improves some important properties of the
conventional bitumen. Such improvements might indicate a good behaviour at medium/high temperatures and an
increase of fatigue and rutting resistance [21]. Recycled polyethylene increases viscosity, cohesive strength and heat
resistance of bitumen [22].
The uses of plastic waste help in substantially improving the abrasion and slip resistance of flexible pavement and
also allows to obtain values of splitting tensile strength satisfied the specified limits while plastic waste content is beyond
30% by weight of mix [23] .
The waste shredded plastic of size 2 mm to 8 mm of LDPE was used to coat stone aggregates so as to make them as
polymer coated aggregate before they were mixed in hot mix plant. The use of 0.76% waste plastic by weight of
aggregate and 3% filler significantly improve the volumetric properties of bituminous mixes resulting better
performance of BC with plastic waste than control mix [24]. Use of recycled plastics composed predominantly of
polypropylene and low density polyethylene in plain bituminous concrete mixtures with increased durability and
improved fatigue life. Resistance to the deformation of the asphaltic concrete modified with polythene of low density
was improved [25, 26]. When RPE added to bitumen results in a remarkable modification of its rheological response.
In the intermediate and high in-service temperature region, RPE modification leads to an increase in the values of the
storage and loss moduli, and viscosity, as well as an apparent decrease in thermal susceptibility [27]. By using plastic
(LDPE-PP) as a coating over aggregates, the properties of aggregates improved. The plastic coated aggregate samples
are more stable than polymer modified bitumen [28]. The asphalt mix with polymer (LDPE plastic waste) presents an
increase in stability and a decrease of creep. The best formulation was obtained with adding 5 % of LDPE, which
increases the resistance by 16 % relative to witness asphalt [29].
In the present study, attempts are made to use LDPE plastic waste as an additive to improve the asphalt performances.
And reduce costs and energy consumption, for an important step towards environmental protection.
2. Materials and Methods

The materials used in this study are: aggregate, bitumen and LDPE plastic waste.
2.1. Aggregate
Three granular fractions (S: 0/3, G1: 3/8 and G2: 8/15) and filler are used in the formulation of Hot Asphalt Mix. In
Figure 1, the mix curve has been presented.
598
100
Sand 0/3
90
Gravel 3/8
80
Gravel 8/15
Tamisaed %
70 fuseau extrimeties
60 Mix curve
50 fuseau extrieties
40
30
20
10
0
Diameter (mm)
Figure 1. Granulometric curve of the mix curve
In the Table1, the intrinsic characteristics of aggregates has been presented.

Table 1. Intrinsic characteristics of aggregate
Granular class
Test 0/3 3/8 8/15
Cleanliness (%) - 1.21 0.60
Sand equivalent (%) 68.33 - -
Sand finesse module 3.03 - -
Los Angeles (%) - - 23
Micro-deval (%) - - 17.50
Aapparent volumetric mass kg/l 1.47 1.30 1.30
Absoulte volumetric mass kg/l 2.65 2.66 2.70
Flattening coefficient (%) - 23.73 15.15
Sand friability Coefficient (%) 48 - -
2.2. Bitumen
The most commonly bitumen used for road building in our region (south of Algeria) is the bitumen with classification
40/50. It has the following characteristics.
Table 2. Characteristics of pure bitumen
Description Reference standard Value

Needle penetration in 1/10 mm at 25 ° C. NFT66-004 49
Softening point (°C) NFT66-00 51
Relative density at 25 ° C NFT66-007 1.03
2.3. Plastic Waste (LDPE)

The plastic waste material used for modified asphalt mix is Low-density polyethylene “LDPE” from plastic bags
waste: obtained by shredding using blades of plastic bags (Figure 2). These are shaped casks very thin thickness ranging
from 1 to 3 mm2 (Figure 3), with a melting temperature of 130 -140 °C, and density value equal to 0.950 g/cm3.
Figure 2. Plastic bag waste (LDPE) Figure 3. Shredded Plastic bag waste
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3. Experiments and Mixing Designs

3.1. Preparation of Specimens
To prepare a modified mix, there are two main processes. In the first process, the polymer can be added directly to
the bitumen to obtain a PMB (Polymer Modified Bitumen) [30]. In parallel, some modifiers are rather added in asphalt
mixing plant as additives, at the same time as the aggregates. This is the second method. The behavior of the mixtures
therefore changes either the granular skeleton or the binder, or both. This process is used in our study. Modification of
the asphalt with 5 % plastic waste (LDPE) of bitumen weight gives the most stable optimal formulation [29] that will
be retained for the creep-recovery tests.
The preparation of test specimens has gone through several steps:
a) Mixing preparation (kneading at 160 ° C):
In this procedure, the LDPE was added directly to the mixer as an additive at the same time as the aggregates. In this
case, bitumen and polymer do not have time to obtain the morphology of a modified binder. The behavior of the mixtures
therefore changes either the granular skeleton or the binder, or both.
b) Compaction of the mix (plate compactor size 40 cm x 30 cm):
The compaction was carried out following the European standard (EN 12697-33: 2003) using the compactor (Figure
4) with a mild steel roller (it is a static compactor with a self-propelled mechanical cylinder with forward / reverse). This
plate has been sawn into several 20×20×5 cm prismatic specimens (Figure 6) according to the creep-recovery test
conditions that will be realized.
Figure 4. Plate compactor
c) Sawing the plate to prismatic test pieces (dimension 20×5×5 cm).

Each bituminous mix plate is saws into twelve (12) prismatic specimens:
Figure 5. Plate piece (40×30×5 cm) Figure 6. Prismatic test piece (20×5×5 cm)
It has been noted: B-HMA: Basic Hot Mix Asphalt (without modification)
M-HMA: Modified Hot Mix Asphalt (with modification by LDPE plastic waste)
3.2. Four Point Bending Deformation

A four-point bending deformation device is used for the creep-recovery measurements. Displacement measurement
comparator (sensibility: +/- 0,002 mm) placed in contact under the test specimen in the middle of a prismatic test piece
(Figure 7) at 20 ° C, for a loading (01 hours) for a constant load of 4 kg.
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Figure 7. A Device of Creep-recovery test
The material is subjected from t = 0 to a constant stress σ0 for a time tM, and the evolution of its deformation is
followed (Figure 8). If the deformation of the material with constant stress is a function of time, the body is said to be
flow or to show a creep phenomenon. The term flow refers more particularly to the case of a deformation which does
not resorb when the stress is canceled [31].
Where:
σ0: the imposed constraint.
tM: temps of the maximal creep strain.
ƐM: maximum or total strain.
After a time tM, the stress is abruptly reduced to zero. We continue to follow the variations of the residual deformation
as a function of time. The complete curve consists of two parts, the second part being called the recovery curve. Long
after the release of the specimen, the deformation tends to a constant value, which can be zero, and it is called permanent
deformation.
σ (t)
σ0
0 3600 t (s)
ε (t)
ε Finale
ε Totale ε Intermediaire ε Reversible

(Maximal)
ε Initiale
ε Irreversible
0 3600 7200 t (s)

Figure 8. Creep-recovery experience

4.1. Creep-recovery
In this study, we present the effect of temperature and the use of plastic waste addition on creep-recovery behavior
of Hot Mix Asphalt (HMA). In the Figure 8, the curves or creep-recovery of basic and modified mixes asphalts at 20 °C
and 50 °C are shown.
601
5,0
4,5
4,0
3,5
Deformation (%)
3,0 B-HMA 20
M-HMA 20
2,5 B-HMA 50
M-HMA 50
2,0
1,5
1,0
0,5
0,0
0 1200 2400 3600 4800 6000 7200
Temp (s)
Figure 9. Creep-recovery curves for B-HMA and M-HMA
According to the graphs (Figure 9) we show that measured strains increases with evolution of temperatures.
In the creep part, the deformation consists of three phases, at the beginning of an elastic behavior or one records an
instantaneous strain ƐEC due to the introduction of the load on the specimen. Then a viscoelastic behavior for the first
minutes of loading or asphalt mastic becomes sensitive to medium temperature because of the bitumen viscoelasticity,
which gives a parabolic curve and a significant slope. For a longer time (one hour), the mixes asphalts stabilizes and is
characterized by a viscous flow behavior (straight line Ɛ = a.t + b), until we arrived at the maximum deformation Ɛmax.
In the second part of recovery, the test piece after the sudden removal of the load tries to recover its original shape.
This part also consists of two phases. Immediately after unloading, an instantaneous strain ƐER is recorded. For this the
material takes an elastic behavior, then it recovers a part of its deformation known as reversible deformation Ɛrev. The
mix asphalt does not recover all of its deformation, which causes the appearance of permanent residual deformation Ɛres.
In this case, the M-HMA, which is modified by the LDPE, present a decrease in creep, compared with the B-HMA,
from the curves shown in Figure 9, the following parameters can be asan output (Table 3).
Table 3. Parameters of B-HMA and M-HMA at 20 °C and 50 °C
Parameters B-HMA M-HMA

Temperature 20 °C 50 °C 20 °C 50 °C
ƐEC (%) 0.2000 2.5000 0.0400 2.0000
ƐMax (%) 1.3000 4.6200 0.6400 4.0000
ƐRes (%) 1.2020 4.2800 0.1100 3.6500
Where:
ƐEC: Elastic deformation in Creep part;
ƐMax: Maximal deformation;
ƐRes: Residual (or Permanente) deformation.
According to the graphs (Figure 6) we show that measured strains increases with evolution of temperatures.
The creep part consists of three phases at the beginning of an elastic behavior or one records an instantaneous
deformation ƐEC due to the introduction of the load on the specimen. The latter deformation from 0.2% to 2.5% for 20
and 50 °C respectively. Then a viscoelastic behavior for the first minutes of loading or asphalt mastic becomes sensitive
to high temperatures because of the bitumen viscoelasticity, which gives a parabolic curve and a significant slope
especially for the temperature 50 °C. For a longer time, the mix asphalt stabilizes and is characterized by a viscous flow
behavior (straight line Ɛ = a.t + b), whose deformation speed έ increases with the evolution of the temperature until the
arrival reaches maximal deformation Ɛmax where one records a significant maximal deformation of 4.62% for 50 °C.
602
In this case, the mix asphalt modified by LDPE present a decrease in creep for all the temperatures compared with
the unmodified mix, accompanied by a stabilization of the deformation rate of the phase of viscous flow for temperature
50 °C.
4.2. Effect of Temperature
The following graphs (Figures 10 and 11) shows the influence of temperature in the basic and modified HMA.
5,0
4
4,5
4,0
3,5 3
Deformation (%)
Deformation (%)
3,0 B-HMA 20
M-HMA 50
B-HMA 50
2,5
M-HMA 20
2
2,0
1,5
1
1,0
0,5
0,0 0
0 1200 2400 3600 4800 6000 7200 0 1200 2400 3600 4800 6000 7200
Temps (s) Temps (s)
Figure 10. Effect of temperature on B-HMA Figure 11. Effect of temperature on M-HMA
For the mixes asphalts (with and without modification) the deformation increased with the evolution of the
temperature. Where it is recorded that 50% of deformation are affected by the first minutes (t <5 min).
For the 20 ° C, the parabolic part (due to the viscosity of the bitumen is not significant where a linear and rigidity
seam is observed). On the contrary, for the 50 ° C, the parabolic part becomes important and the Bitumen viscosity plays
a significant role in the behavior of bituminous mixture, the deformation increased and become more important.
As the temperature increases, the asphalt becomes softer due to the presence of softened bitumen. The binding force
between the grains is weakened and under loading consequently, the deformations increase.
4.3. Effect of Plastic Waste (LDPE) Addition

The following graphs (Figures 12 and 13) have shown the influence of plastic waste (LDPE) addition in the basic
and modified HMA.
5
1,4
1,2 4
1,0
B-HMA 20
Deformation (%)
Deformation (%)
M-HMA 20 3 B-HMA 50
0,8 M-HMA 50
0,6 2
0,4
1
0,2
0,0 0
0 1200 2400 3600 4800 6000 7200 0 1200 2400 3600 4800 6000 7200
Temps (s) Temps (s)
Figure 12. Effect of plastic waste in HMA at 20 °C Figure 13. Effect of Plastic waste in HMA at 50 °C
The mix modified by plastic bag waste have a better thermal resistance for both average temperatures of 20°C and
high of 50°C, where a decrease of the deformation curves is observed. In this case, the LDPE gives the mixture a good
rigidity and stability, which confirms the advantage of using this material to improve the performance of HMA (thermal
susceptibility and stability).
603
When the LDPE melt in the asphalt, it play the role of the binder, it increases the adhesion and the bond between the
bitumen and the aggregates. In the molten state, it fills the maximum of the voids of the granular skeleton of the mix.
The resistance to permanent deformation has been improved, thus reducing the risk of rutting, which leads to an increase
in the life of the road.
4.4. Maximal Creep Deformation (ƐMAX)
The histogram (Figure 14) shows: An increase in maximal deformation value with increasing in temperature of
modified and basic mixture. A decrease in the maximal deformation values of the modified mixes LDPE compared with
the base mix for all temperatures which reaches up to 50.76% for T = 20°C.
5
4.5
Maxmal deformation (%)
4
3.5
3 BM-ORD
B-HMA
2.5 M-HMA
BM-LDPE
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
20 50
Temperature (°C)
Figure 14. Histogram of Maximal Creep deformation (basic and modified HMA)
The asphalt mix with polymer (LDPE plastic waste) presents an increase in stability and a decrease of creep. The
best formulation was obtained with adding 5% of LDPE, which increases the resistance by 16% related to witness asphalt
[29].
The use of plastic waste improve the resistance of HMA. This improvement is attributed to an increase in the bonding
forces between the aggregates and the bitumen. The coating of plastic reduces the porosity and absorption of moisture.
4.5. Instantaneous Elastic Deformation (ƐEc)
According to the histogram (Figure 15), we observe: An Instantaneous Elastic deformation increase with evolution
of temperature for basic and modified mixture. A decrease of instantaneous creep value of the modified mix compared
with the base mix is noted for all the temperatures, which implies an increase in rigidity which reaches 87%, 11 % for
T = 20°C; and T=50°C respectively.
2.5
Instantaneous Elastic deformation
1.5
BM-ORD
B-HMA
(%)
1
BM-LDPE
M-HMA
0.5
0
20 50
Temperature (°C)
Figure 15. Histogram of Instantaneous Elastic deformation (basic and modified HMA)
The addition of polyethylene leads to a strong increase in the rigidity of material such as the reduction of thermic
susceptibility to the high temperatures of service [15].
4.6. Residual (or Permanente) Deformation
A decrease in permanent deformation for all temperatures, in particular a decrease by 90 % of the M-HMA at 20 °C.
This implies a marked improvement in the resistance to rutting and a longer life of the roadway (Figure 16).
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Use of recycled plastics composed predominantly of polypropylene and low-density polyethylene in plain
bituminous concrete mixtures with increased durability and improved fatigue life. Resist ance to the deformation of the
asphaltic concrete modified with polythene of low density was improved [25, 26].
Residual deformation (%)

4.5
4
3.5
3
Series1
B-HMA
2.5
2 Series2
M-HMA
1.5
1
0.5
0
20 50
Temperature (°C)
Figure 16. Histogram of Residual deformation (basic and modified HMA)
A comparative study between the modified and unmodified mix was discussed to confirm the advantage of using
this modification technique:
 At medium temperature, the total deformations decrease for the M-HMA of the order of 51% compared to the B-
HMA. As well as an increase in the rate of reversible deformation is estimated at 56%.
 At high temperatures, the deformation evolve slowly over time for the modified mix. The decrease of the
deformations is of the order of 13% at 50°C.
LDPE limits permanent deformations at the end of the test. Increasing the resistance to rutting by the use of LDPE
leads to a remarkable decrease in permanent deformation. The use of LDPE plastic helps significantly to improve fatigue
resistance, which improves the longevity and performance of the pavement with a marginal economy in the use of
bitumen.
5. Conclusion
In general, a better behavior, in the range of medium and high temperatures in creep was observed for the mix
modified by LDPE plastic waste. For all the temperatures, more than 50 % of the deformations measured are reached
for the first minutes of loading (t < 5 min). An increase in the thermal resistance where is noted that from the creep
curve, the modified mix is more resistant to temperature compared to the base mix. A decrease in the maximum strain
values shown of M-HMA compared with B-HMA for all the temperatures which reaches up to 50.76% for T = 20°C. A
decrease of instantaneous creep value of the modified mix compared with the base mix is noted for all the temperatures,
which implies an increase in rigidity which reaches 87%, 11 % for T = 20°C; and T=50°C respectively. The introduction
of LDPE in mix concrete bituminous increase thermo mechanical performance, as well as an increase in the stiffness of
the asphalt mix by stabilization of both viscoelastic and viscous flow phases. The increase in the life of the asphalt by
reducing permanent deformation, so the addition of LDPE seems to us a practical, economic and environmental solution.
6. Acknowledgement
The authors acknowledge the support provided by Laboratory of Fiability of Materials in Saharan Regions (FIMAS),
Tahri Mohammed University, in carrying out this research. The help from LECTO laboratory for their assistance during
the course of this research work.
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Vol. 5, No. 3, March, 2019
Developing a Risk Management Framework in Construction Project

Based on Agile Management Approach
Mohammed Neamah Ahmed a*, Sawsan Rasheed Mohammed b

a
Kerbala University, Engineering College, Kerbala, Iraq.
b
Baghdad University, Engineering College, Baghdad, Iraq.
Abstract
Construction projects in nature, carry a lot of risks, and unpredictable conditions. Thus, flexible management is required
for the purpose of efficient responding to the various changes appear during their implementation. As an attempt to deal
with risk in the construction project, this research aims at proposing a risk management framework in construction projects
that built based on Agile management concept, which is a sequence of procedure deals with the project’ primary vision to
its final delivery. The risk management framework will trace alignment and discover a contact between Agile and
traditional project management concepts and find contact points among two of the more used Agile frameworks (Scrum)
and one of the more confirmed project management framework (PMBOK®) processes. This will result in a recognition of
comparable areas between Scrum and PMBOK® processes. The goal of the framework is to assist the project managers to
adapt a more flexible approach to managing and implementing the construction project. The results proved that Agile
management process from the create prioritized project backlog, sprint planning, sprint review, to sprint retrospective
procedures and less time of the cycle, eliminate or mitigate many risks that lead to project challenges and failure.
Keywords: Agile; Scrum; PMBOK; Construction Project; Risk.
1. Introduction
Construction project’s managers must effectively manage the projects throughout its entire life-cycle. The managing
process is not an easy function as all construction projects consists of multi disciplines and involves high-risks. The
efficiency of the construction process is frequently associated with the successful risk management [1]. Risks of all
projects are conditioned by an environment, and they must be considered for aiming better results in terms of scope,
schedule, cost, and quality of the construction project [2]. The applicability of a construction project is a challenge when
there is a high degree of complexity and uncertainty. In many construction projects, there are unique products, inevitable
changing of requirements, and a necessity for actions that are highly focused on meeting client/customer needs.
To improve the challenging coordination, planning and control-work of construction projects, there is a necessity to
have efficient methods which take into consideration that the projects are often initiated under large uncertainties. Such
situations require management methodologies that are characterized by being flexible and ready to respond to the
change. Recently, Agile project management is gaining very wide global attention, and it is considered as the today’s
projects management strategy, contrasted to what is usually known as a traditional project management.
In comparison with the traditional methods, Agile management keeps in mind that it is unattainable to predict the
* Corresponding author: mohammed.niema@uokerbala.edu.iq

608
future. Agile’ supporters believe that it is possible to be more appropriate for projects management due to the fact that
it has the ability to incorporate ways to deal with all changes [3]. The traditional management consider that the future is
predictable as plans are made without taking into account occur undesirable changes. They meant that the considerations
of predictability are problematic as money, resources, time are utilized according to old plans, thus leads to waste. Due
to these dissatisfactions, project managers came up with a more flexible approach to managing projects, called “Agile
management”. In comparison with the traditional methods, the Agile methods take into account that the future is
impossible to predict.
Although there is a wide range of Agile methodologies, they all share the similar basic objectives. These objectives
can cover substituting upfront planning with incremental planning based on the most current available information,
addressing the technical risks in the process as early as possible to minimize the changing requirements impacts,
delivering regular and continuous business value to the organization, entrusting and empowering staff, encouraging
ongoing communication between business areas and project team members, as well as increasing the client’s
involvement [4]. For this research, Scrum was chosen to follow the guideline of the most applied and most popular Agile
methods.
Hence, this study aims to develop a framework for the risk management in construction projects based on Agile
management principles to reduce the impact of risk and to find a bridge between Agile project management and
traditional project management approaches.
2. Literature Review
In Agile projects, Risk management has been discussed by many researchers. Diverse techniques and many models
have been developed to effectively formulate the potential risks imposed by projects and different Agile methodologies
have been proposed to tackle the risk problems assigned to any projects. Researchers have also performed a surveys with
various objectives to recognize how project managers manage risks in Agile projects.
In (CAN/CSA S806-11) [5] focused on the use of risk management in Agile model. The results showed that using Agile
management can reduce risk in early phases of the project, which is otherwise considered during project management in
the traditional model. Moreover, it has been concluded that Agile is based on the organization requirements’ realities
rather than imaginative over-analysis. A comprehensive risks categorization that faced practitioners in managing
distributed Agile projects has been created by El-Sayed et al. [6] in addition to identifying the risk management methods,
which are often used in practice to control those risks. Leavitt’s model was used to map the risk categories of the
organizational change in order to simplify the implementation of results in the real world. Indeed, the results revealed
the risk factors that could be due to the inconsistent properties of the distributed project development.
ACI Committee 440 reported in their study the current practices in Agile project management throughout a survey
[7]. They proposed an Agile framework for managing projects, depended on two well-known approaches; Scrum and
PRINCE 2, by risk management aspects. An analysis to Agile methodology (Scrum) has been carried out in addition to
highlighting the management extent of the risk [8]. This will help in overcoming Scrum’ limitations throughout the
analysing phase of the risk. This will help in providing the association among the dominant risks as well as handling the
risks order as multiple risks can be instantaneously eliminated or decreased. An Agile Development Maintainability
Measurement (ADMM) model has been proposed by Soundararajan et al. [9]. Agile Development Maintainability
Enhancement (ADME) defined the procedure for reducing the risk of requirements change, based on (ADMM) model.
The advantages of ADMM model and ADME procedure were concretely identified Agile development maintenance
quality defects and provided correction suggestions and effectively improve Agile development maintenance quality that
can concretely handle change requirements and reducing the development risk.
Djelailia et al. studied similarities and differences between the project risk management process in Agile projects and
waterfall projects, as well as identified the strengths and weaknesses in the current practices used in Agile projects.
Interview results suggested that risk management in Agile projects was implemented in two ways [10]. One way is by
adopting implicit risk management strategies, which include communication and collaboration, shorter
iterations, frequent delivery, early feedback, and delivering complex parts first. The other way was called explicit risk
management strategies, which are relative estimates, burn down charts, SWOT analysis, and risk matrix. In Mustafa et
al. established a framework for risk management that covers the supposed risks in distributed Agile development
projects, their reasons and the managing approaches for those risks used in the industry [11]. The limited authentication
of the framework in three various companies has described eliminating most of risk aspects and/or reducing their impacts.
Smring et al., proposed an Agile-based risk rank scheme to prioritize the risk factors in Agile projects [12]. To reduce
the influence of risks, the proposed scheme offers ranking of superiority for risk factors from high to low. Results
validated the claims that the proposed Agile based risk method is significant to identify and prioritize the risk factors in
early phases project. Hind et al., presented a theoretically informed and empirically grounded model to mitigate and
assess risks for effective sharing of Agile development knowledge [13]. Indeed, a quantitative approach for Agile project
609
planning has been emphasized by Subramani and Jayalakshmi (2015) [14]. Also, a risk management model has been
introduced, which can produce risk metrics to support risk avoidance and risk mitigation. Both project simulation model
and risk metrics were utilised to correct the project factors, for instance cost, time and scope during the lifespan of the
project. In [15], the author analyzed and collected the factors of the critical quality of user stories resulting to propose a
quality measurement story model for the user. The results of applying the user story quality measurement model
enhanced the requirements quality of Agile development and reduced risks of requirement changes.
The underlying risk management model in an Agile risk tool has been described in Pathak et al. [16] in which software
agents were used to support the assessment, identification and risk monitoring. The interaction between agents’
compliance and agents has been demonstrated considering the designated rules in addition to revealing agents’ reaction
due to changes in project environment data. The result showed that agents were used for distinguishing risk and
responding dynamically to variations in the project environment, which can aid in minimizing the human effort in
managing risk. The events that affect the Agile project management practices implementation has been analyzed by
Smring et al. [17] Such events in projects are those involve the new products development within manufacturing
companies and provide some strategies to avoid, mitigate, and minimize the likelihood of becoming risks and its impact
on the customer requirements. Risk responses and were noted to align with the purpose of the Agile practices in
delivering innovative products quickly and with high-quality standards.
El-Sayed et al. (2005), a comprehensive agile model has been developed to assess and select risk based on multi-
attribute evaluation methods of construction risk [2]. For this purpose, complex Multiple Criteria Decision-Making
Approaches were used to calculate the determination values of optimality criterion. Fahmy et al. (2017) provided a model
using the Prince 2 project management framework in Scrum methodology to improve the appropriate risk management
mechanism as well as the coverage on software projects [18]. This can increase the rate of project’s success and can
improve quality of the product, provide a respectable estimation of the required time, and enhance quality parameters,
such as the flexibility, efficiency, usability, and reliability.
3. Agile Management
Agile project management is an iterative approach to plans and implements project processes [2]. It is a set of tools
and methods that are used in the development of software process, which are required for collaboration and integration
between all parties through self-organization, planning, development and early delivery of the project. It is also the
response to change [19]. Agile Manifesto reported that there are four values and twelve principals that Agile methods
are built upon them [20]. The best way to illustrate Agile management is through (Figure 1).
Figure 1. Agile values, principles, and practices [21]

The values of Agile statements have been put to the right and the values of traditional items to the left by many
supporters to Agile methods [22]. It is noteworthy to realize that these statements are values and not prioritizations, the
matters to the right side are necessary, but the left side holds greater value [23].
 Appreciate the team members and the interaction over the tools and processes they will use for work.
 Give priority to a project that work more than to have comprehensive or complete documentation.
 Give priority to deal with the customer rather than negotiating the terms of the contract.
 Preference to deal with change and interact with it to follow a specific plan.
The principles of Agile are [24-25]:
 Most priority is to the customer needs.  Projects built around the inspired team.
 Welcome changing requirements.  Face-to-face discussion.
 Deliver working frequently.  The working project is an essential proportion of progress.
610
 Business individuals and designers must  Agile approach encourages sustainable improvement.
cooperate daily.
 Continuous improvement.  Self-organizing teams.
 Simplicity  Continuous improvement.
4. Common Agile Practices

Scrum is an iterative methodology for managing projects, which is the most commonly used in Agile projects. Scrum
is appropriate for any project process and provides a structure for the project teams to identify and prioritize the
requirements, and to focus on the subset of priority items that they think that can be delivered in each two- to four-week
cycle (or “sprint”) [2]. The Scrum method is graphically demonstrated in (Figure 2).
Figure 2. The Scrum processes [26]
5. Agile Management Approach for Project Risk Management

Agile management acknowledges the risks of existence and that these risks were able to be shared with every project
stakeholder. Unlike traditional management that assumes the whole project risks beforehand, Agile deals with risks as
they appear. Accordingly Agile management advocates has the benefit of dealing with exist risks instead of probably
dealing with non-exist risks as in the case of traditional management [27].
6. Develop a Project Risk Management Framework

The proposed framework consists of three basic elements, as follows:
 Project management office: it represents the basics of the methodology of the Scrum as illustrated in Figure 1.
 Group of project management process: it represents a PMBOK guide process group (Initiation, Planning,
Executing, Monitoring and controlling, and Closing), that relate to risk management.
 Functions of project management: it represents a PMBOK knowledge area (risk management), as shown in
(Figure 3) that prepared by the researcher.
Figure 3. Agile/Traditional -Management approach
611
Risk management of projects incorporates the procedures of planning, identifying, response, analyzing, implementing
response, and monitoring the project risk. The efficiency of project risk management is to increase the impact and/or
probability of positive risks (opportunities) and to decrease the impact and/or probability of negative risks, in order to
optimize the opportunities of project success [28].
Risk management of projects comprises 7 processes. In a Scrum processes, risks are reduced, as the work being
conducted in an incremental series of deliverables, and implemented in very short cycles (Sprints). However, even in
simple projects, items can go wrong and it is important to have a policy to address and identify risks [29].
The team in the Scrum process hold existing Agile meetings and use artifacts to manage risk. Scrum team also wait
until the last responsible minute to address risk [29]. For risk management in the PMBOK® processes, inputs that can
be received from the Scrum will be determined. The input maps for each process will be graphically sketched and
facilitated in some detail. The details of the proposed framework will be prepared by the researcher based on the most
used Agile methodology (Scrum) as clarified in the following paragraphs and shown in (Figure 4).
Plan Risk Management incorporates the process of defining how to conduct project risk management activities. The
Scrum team should identify all risks that could possibly impact the project by examining from different perspectives at
the project, using a different techniques (Risk checklists are a useful tool to help confirm comprehensive identification
of the risk, learning from similar projects and prioritize sprints in the same project and investigating the uncertainties
that affected those projects and sprints, sessions where the members of the Scrum team can openly share ideas through
discussions, risk breakdown structure, and sessions of knowledge sharing).
Identification risk is implemented in Scrum processes throughout the project. It includes creating prioritized project
backlog (a list of project requirements), sprint planning (the team and the project owner meets before each sprint is
started to decide which the product backlog items should go into the sprint backlog), sprint review (this includes a
statement of work completed in the sprint and a retrospective review of the work undertaken to enable continuous
improvement), and sprint retrospective (the team, at the end of each sprint, looks back and determine if anything about
the process can be improved).
Perform qualitative analysis of risk is performed with prioritizing project risks for further analysis or action by
assessing their impact.
There are three options for dealing with high-risk requirements:
 High risk and high value: Move the requirements to the top of your sort or backlog,
 High risk and medium value: review the value again with the owner and see which way the requirement is leaning.
If the owner leans toward high value, follow option 1. If the owner leans toward low value, follow option 3.
 High risk and low value: Move the requirement to the bottom of your sort or backlog.
The risk assessment is done with regard to proximity, probability, and impact. Risk proximity refers to when the risk
might occur, while risk probability refers to the likelihood of occurring of the risks. Impact refers to the probable risk
effect on the organization or the project. To estimate the risk probability, different techniques may be used, including,
Pareto Analysis, Probability Trees, etc.
The response to each risk will rely upon the impact and probability of the risk. However, the Scrum iterative nature
with its feedback cycles and rapid turnaround time allows for early failures detection.
Risk can be responded by executing a number of plans (proactive or reactive). The project owner to implementing
agreed-upon risk response plans and reduce the risk impact or probability or both.
Monitor risk will show new risks that may be identified and assessed, thus remaining risks should be re-evaluated,
and updated on the risk Burn down chart. Tracking of risks in this procedure allows the Scrum team to recognize trends
in the exposure to risk and take suitable action, as necessary.
Risk refers to the factors that contribute to the success or failure of the project. On Agile projects management, risk
management does not have formal risk meetings and documentation. Instead, risk management is built into roles,
artifacts, and events of scrum methodology.
612
Planning Process
Project Risk Management Monitoring & Controlling Process
Perform Perform Implement

Plan risk Plan risk Monitor
Identify risk qualitative quantitative risk
management response risks
risk analysis risk analysis response
The scrum Estimate

Defining how team should probability of
to conduct risk attempt to Create lists Proactive Reactive Risk burn
risk and impact
management identify all of priorities plan risk plan risk down chart for
(Use probability response response
activities for a risks that risk all processes
project trees or pareto
impact the analysis ...etc.)
project
(Project vision)
project team consider Use risks
risk on a very high identification
level technique
Is risk
mitigating? New risk
(Project Backlog) identification
Sort the features in
Yes and assess
(Sprint
backlogs based on risk
planning)
and value
The scrum
team discuss No
risk to specific
Project
requirements
owner
and tasks in
to
the sprint
reduce
Yes Are the
Move features probabil Remaining
these have Prioritized ity or risk re-
features high risk project impact evaluated and
to the and high backlog of risk updated
top values (Sprint
review)
Manage the
No risks getting
to end of
project with
the wrong
Review product
the value Yes Are features
again have high risk
with the and medium
customer Team decide
value? to take specific
risk action
(Sprint during sprint
retrospective) to mitigate
the scrum team such risk
No discusses
issues with the
Yes past sprint and
Are the identifies
customer No Move the
feature of which of those
leans issues may be
toward high high risk
and low risks in future
value? sprint
value to the
bottom
Feedback
Figure 4. Risk Management Flow Chart Based on the Most Used Agile Methodology (Scrum)
613
7. Conclusions
Risk management benefit from Scrum method to create prioritized project backlog, sprint planning, sprint review,
and sprint retrospective procedures and less time of the cycle.
 Agile management tends to be proactive in the face of risk, as the project duration is extended, the chance of
risk is increased, so the division of the project into iterations, sprints reduces the chances of these risk.
 The best way to deal with risk is to face it as soon as possible, so it is very important to allocate the first
iterations to address and remediate the risk
 The Scrum methodology encourages members to be general specialists team and have almost the same level of
skills as anyone can share their role with anyone else, to avoid the risks associated with the absence or loss of
some members of the team.
 Risk monitoring and controlling is through risk burn down chart. It is another Agile management scheme that is
easy to understand. This chart illustrates the risks in the project from the outset and it naturally reduces these
risks by facing them early until reach the end of the project
 Agile management focuses on the speed of the work delivery because work in progress is a risk, and whenever
the faster work is done, the risk is mitigated.
The Agile principles that support risk management are:
 Most priority is to the customer needs.
 Welcome changing requirements
 Deliver working frequently
 Business individuals and designers must cooperate daily.
 The working project is an essential proportion of progress.
9. References
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[3] Loforte Ribeiro, Francisco, and Manuela Timóteo Fernandes. “Exploring Agile Methods in Construction Small and Medium
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[4] Cooke, JL.”Everything you want to know about Agile: how to get Agile results in a less-than-Agile organization”. IT Governance
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[5] Singh, Monika, and Ruhi Saxena. “Risk Management in Agile Model.” IOSR Journal of Computer Engineering 16, no. 5 (2014):
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[6] Shrivastava, Suprika V., and Urvashi Rathod. “Categorization of Risk Factors for Distributed Agile Projects.” Information and
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Computing and Network Communications (CoCoNet) (December 2015). doi:10.1109/coconet.2015.7411239.
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[11] Shrivastava, Suprika Vasudeva, and Urvashi Rathod. “A Risk Management Framework for Distributed Agile Projects.”
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[12] Agrawal, Ruchi, Deepali Singh, and Ashish Sharma. “Prioritizing and Optimizing Risk Factors in Agile Software Development.”
2016 Ninth International Conference on Contemporary Computing (IC3) (August 2016). doi:10.1109/ic3.2016.7880232.
[13] Ghobadi, Shahla, and Lars Mathiassen. “Risks to Effective Knowledge Sharing in Agile Software Teams: A Model for Assessing
and Mitigating Risks.” Information Systems Journal 27, no. 6 (August 18, 2016): 699–731. doi:10.1111/isj.12117.
[14] Ghane, Kamran. “Quantitative Planning and Risk Management of Agile Software Development.” 2017 IEEE Technology &
Engineering Management Conference (TEMSCON) (June 2017). doi:10.1109/temscon.2017.7998362.
[15] Lai, Sen-Tarng. “A User Story Quality Measurement Model for Reducing Agile Software Development Risk.” International
Journal of Software Engineering & Applications 8, no. 2 (March 31, 2017): 75–86. doi:10.5121/ijsea.2017.8205.
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2-2017.152346.
[17] Galli, Brian J., and Paola Andrea Hernandez Lopez. “Risks Management in Agile New Product Development Project
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Vol. 5, No. 3, March, 2019
Assessment of Change Orders Attributes in Preconstruction and

Construction Phase
Ali Raza Khoso a, Jam Shahzaib Khan b, Rizwan Ullah Faiz c*, Muhammad Akram Akhund d
a
Civil Engineering Department, Mehran UET, Jmashoro, 76020, Pakistan.
b
Department of Civil Engineering, QUCEST, Larkana, Sindh, Pakistan.
c
School of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81310 Skudai, Johor, Malaysia.
d
Civil Engineering Department, ISRA University, Hyderabad, 71000-313, Pakistan.
Abstract
Construction projects are very complex in nature. Each activity involves multiple varying tasks. Construction industry is
the main source of economic growth. When change order occur performance of projects momentously affected. Change
orders often have a serious impact on the quality, time and cost. Eventually it results in disputes, delays, and dissatisfactions
among stakeholders and ultimately results in failures of projects. In past several studies have been done to evaluate the
causes of change order and its effects. Attempts have been made to quantify these impacts by many researchers, but the
aim of this study is to identify the causes of change order in two different phases i.e. preconstruction and construction
stage. Views were taken from relevant experts over included factors after in-depth literature review from past researches.
A questionnaire was made and floated with different construction players from clients, consultants and contractors side.
The data was analyzed by SPSS using average index technique. The analysis of data showed that, Mistakes in
specifications, Mistakes in design and Lack of experience in selecting construction team by client are the most critical
factors during preconstruction phase. Whereas, Design modification by owner, change in scope at later stage and Delays
in payment by client are most critical factors of construction phase, responsible for change order. The extensive discussion
of these factors revealed various parameters related to Pakistan construction. This study will enable the clients, consultants
and contractors to be aware of factors which causes changes in orders and their consequences on project completion. By
the identification of possible reasons, the right decisions can be made to mark the project successful.
Keywords: Change Orders; Client; Preconstruction; Construction; Pakistan.
1. Introduction
Construction industry being one of the potent industries plays significant role in economic stability and growth of
country. Through the times of economic turmoil, it uplifts financial morbidity into a healthy wealthy state. Financial
stability triggers infrastructure and holds backs the long term survivability with change of status from developing to
developed country. Similarly, economy of United Kingdom is consisting of four sectors mainly: services, production,
construction and agriculture. Whereas, services contribute 79.3% of GDP, construction 6.1%, production 14.0% and
agriculture as 0.7% [1]. Contending the facts in developing country like Pakistan 30-35% of employment is affiliated
with the construction industry, this proves as a tool for revival of economy[2]. Consorting, almost all construction
projects up to some extent vary from original design, scope and definition depending upon the various factors; whether
* Corresponding author: rizwantn16@gmail.com

616
its small or large but it occurs in every project [3]. Thus, variation and change of orders in construction potentially
affects the construction projects and directly or indirectly impacts construction sector in whole [4]. The tenet of
amplifying mysterious changes in order or variation leads to change of award as well, this tenet may arduously arise at
any stage from design, construction to operation & maintenance varying contract to contract [5]. Conversely, within
construction industry various factors are affecting from design to demolition possessing ample impact of cost over run,
delays and surrendering quality [6]. Thus, cost variations investigated and identified 34 factors that are responsible for
the root cause of cost variations in projects of Malaysian construction tromping change order being the one of the major
cause [7].
Forthwith, suitable tools and techniques are adopted to resolve occurring issues keeping in view the type of project
and change appropriateness. It is globally accepted that change will occur in every project in the form of change orders
that has been well known part of construction project globally[8]. Assaf and Al-Hejji pointed out that most common
cause of disputes and failures of projects is the change order [6]. Change has sometime less and sometime vigorous
impact on project. It can delay the project and can increase the original cost of project. Sometime it causes disputes
between construction industry players and causes dissatisfactions among all. Hao et al. (2008) stated that effectively
managing change orders in construction processes is not trivial because change orders are a part of the contract and they
need to be strictly managed in terms of contracts [9]. Therefore, it is very important to get solutions to minimize problems
among industry and its players where most of change orders issued at the time of construction. Sometimes, change order
causes misunderstanding and no unique method is available for avoiding or managing them effectively. The core aim of
this paper is to identify critical factors leading to change orders in construction projects of Pakistan. These factors are
divided in two different phases i.e. preconstruction & construction phase. The study of such causes is very important for
both clients & contractors to understand critical causes that lead to conflicting issue of change order.
Change orders in construction often have serious impacts on performance of the project. They are difficult to manage
without knowing the actual reasons of change, however they can be reduced. Change is an event that causes in addition
of the original scope, execution time, and cost of project. Change order will lead to dissatisfaction among all involved
in construction projects. A study was conducted by Assaf and Al-Hejji (2006) on time performance of different
construction projects in Saudi Arabia; they identified 73 causes in 76 projects, where the most common cause of disputes
and failures of projects was the change order [6]. Hao et al. (2008) also stated that effectively managing change orders
in construction processes is not trivial because change orders are a part of the contract and they need to be strictly
managed in terms of contracts [9]. Various other studies have been conducted for identifying the causes of change order.
Similarly, Hanna et al (2002) conducted survey and concluded main causes of change order were ‘design errors, design
changes and addition to scope [10]. Homaid et al. (2011) identified eleven important causes’ leads to a conclusion that
the consultant is the most responsible for the change orders [11].
According to a research, change order causes the overall increase in the cost of project up to 11.3%. The research
further elaborate that the most important cause of change order was the owner requirements for change in project scope
[11]. Ross et al. (2010) presented in the research that the causes of variation and change orders in different categories
are, due to owner, consultant, contractor related and other variations. The research found various causes of variations
through study such as mistakes and modifications, ambiguous poor design, poor working and drawing details, poor
coordination, and variation in specifications by owner [3]. Alnuaimi et al., (2010) investigated the causes of change
order in construction projects of Oman; study found the top three causes those were additional work given by owner,
modifications in design by owners and un-availability of details and specifications. Study also indicated that contractor
getting more benefit from change order as from consultant and then the client [12]. Another study was carried out by
Pourrostam (2011); the study indicated that financial difficulties of contractor and construction delays by other
contractors previously are important factors of change order [13].
Ijaola et al. (2012) identified that the additional works from client and design modification are the major causes of
change order in both Nigeria and Oman [14]. The most important effects of change order are claims and disputes among
the parties in Nigeria while “delay in the project completion date and cost overruns” were the most important effects in
Oman notifying contractor as the most benefiting parties in change order [14]. Another study was conducted by Alaryan
et al. (2014) in Kuwait construction projects and identified the major causes of change order by conducting a
questionnaire survey among construction related parties such as owners, contractors and consultants. The most critical
five causes of change orders were identified as: change of plans by owner, change of project scope by owner, problems
on site, errors and omission in design, poor working drawing details [15].
Conversely, a quantitative research was conducted by Jaydeep N. Desai (2015) to evaluate effects of change order
according to this research main affects are variations in scope of work, material quantities, design errors, and unit rate
changes [16]. Later, in Jorden study was conducted by Jamal M. Assbeihat (2015). In this study, the most correspondents
agreed that factors related to the internal environment of owner, where owner wants modification to design and instructs
617
additional works are the major factors directly affecting change orders in public construction projects. Exogenous factors
like safety rules and regulations are not followed by the contractor's and his team, severe weather conditions on the
construction place and changes in laws and regulations by the government [17]. M. Gokulkrthi (2015) identified most
important factors of change order in India as owner changes that planed by substitution of materials procedures mistakes
and omissions in design, financial problems of owner, change in design by consultant [18].
Moreover, Mujahed Staiti (2016) conducted a research to identify the main causes of change occurred in construction
projects in the West Bank and also identified the serious effects of change orders on the construction industry of
Palestinian. In addition, to know the current practices of change orders management within the construction companies
in the West Bank. Main causes were financial problems of owner, changing and modification in design with owners'
requirements, errors and omissions in designs, specifications [19]. Moreover, another study capsulized the fundamental
causes of change order were lying in two distinctive areas of high complexity of project and low complexity of project
that profoundly relies on conditions occurring such as financial problems of contractor & owners, weathering conditions,
inadequate drawings, inadequate details, change in project specification, conflicts in contract documents and inadequate
design [20,21]. But the study did not pointed out the factors based on the phases of construction projects. From unfolding
of past research, it is found that the construction industry of Pakistan still need more study to investigates the major
contribution of factors responsible for the change order in the project. Moreover, it is of more interest to find the factors
from the different stages of construction varying from conceptualization to execution in various ways [21,22].
This research is concerned with the identification of root causes of change order in construction industry of Pakistan.
The root causative factors as limited important areas in which favourable results are absolutely necessary for a particular
manager to achieve goals. To approach a proper solution of this problem, a step by step methodology was adopted. The
research begins from the literature review from renowned journals of web of science, science direct and Scopus indexed.
The unfolding of the past studies from these journals revealed several factors responsible for change order. This work
separated the factors initially related to planning and designing and confined the, into pre construction stage. Secondly
the factors related to execution of projects were kept in construction stage of project life cycle.
Identifying Root Cause of Change Orders
Literature Review
Identified
Several
Factors
Planning Design Pre-Construction/Execution
Unstructured
Interviews
Data Collection
Questionnaire
Survey
Consultants
Clients Contractor
Data Analysis
Research Findings
Figure 1. Interoperable Flow Chart of Methodology
618
The identified factors were then discussed with group of experts to match their applicability for construction projects
of Pakistan. Thus after successfully conducting unstructured interviews more factors were added which are in common
in construction industry of Pakistan and irrelevant factors were omitted thereafter. Based on literature review results and
interviews a questionnaire tool was designed. To collect the data a survey was conducted among construction industry
players i.e. clients, consultants and contractors. After collecting the data, analysis was done through Statistical Packages
for Social Sciences, SPSS version 24.0. This study comes up with the critical factors affecting the change order in two
different phases of construction. Finally, the factors were discussed in the light of construction industry of Pakistan. as
given the flow chart below.
4. Data Collection and Analysis

A questionnaire was designed and administrated for the purpose of collecting data. The designed questionnaire was
divided into two parts. 1st part consisted of participant’s demographic information. The 2nd part consists of factors
which are responsible for change order in Pakistan construction industry. 75 questionnaires were distributed and 45 were
received positively that were valid for analysis. Table 1 shows the statistics of questionnaire.
Table 1. Statistics of questionnaire

Questionnaires Circulated to Participants 75
Questionnaires Received from Participants 48
Valid questionnaire 45
The respondents were selected from Client, consultants & contractor firms. Table 1 shows the respondents categories.
The respondents have diverse rich experience in the construction field. The experience of respondents is shown in Figure.
3. The respondents were requested to rank the factors which are responsible of the change order as per their importance.
The scale ranges from 1 to 5, where 1 referred the response as not important, 2 as slightly important, 3 as moderately
important, 4 shows very important and 5 shows extremely important. This was followed by Average Index Value (AI)
to identify rank of selected causes in change of order, several authors in past have used this technique for ranking factors
such as [21,22]. Statistical Software Package (SPSS) was used as tool to analysis the data. The data analysis result is
shown in Table 2 and 3 for preconstruction and construction phase respectively.
consultant contractor
23% 28%
Other
51%
others
client 23%
26%
client consultant contractor others
Figure 2. Categories of respondents
16
14
Number of participant
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
0-5 years 6-10 years 11-15 years above 15 years
Experience in years
Figure 3. Experience of respondents
619

5.1. Critical Factors of Preconstruction Phase
A construction projects is a series of several phases starting from the inception of project which normally involves
the creativity and innovative ideas by the owner. In order to shape up those ideas the planning phase is a detailed stage
to convert them into reality. The planning phase then leads to a design phase where an owner involves the concerned
team to work along. The preconstruction phase thus ends up typically with inclusion of planning and design phase. As
the phase is quite early in the delivery of a project thus here several changes are expected from owner side. This phase
involves many variations from the owner side and mainly occurs due to the several reasons. The critical factors are
illustrated in Figure 4.
From the analysis of data, the most critical cause of change order in pre-construction phase is “mistakes in
specifications”. Typically, owner involves the designer to prepare the specifications, as mentioned earlier, this is a very
early stage of project delivery thus mainly involves the mistakes. Thus this reason is very common in developing
countries like Pakistan. It is extremely important to consider because when the specifications are wrongly prescribed
than it will cause problems for contractor to execute at later stage and can cause many issues like delays in project which
influences project cost ultimately.
Table 2. Factors responsible for change orders in preconstruction construction with their ranking
S. NO Causes AI Rank
1 Mistakes in specifications 3.82 1
2 Mistakes in design 3.68 2
3 Lack of experience in selecting construction team by client 3.64 3
4 Improper scheduling by client 3.36 16
5 Insufficient use of value engineering 3.18 19
6 Poor working drawing details 3.18 19
7 Flexible nature of client in safety 3.18 19
The owner at later stage provides the updated specification to the contractor and this cause the root cause of claims
and conflicts between the parties. The contractors are not so flexible to absorb the changes as it affects their financial
part. Thus they demand for the change order from the clients. This research thus highlights the cause so that an owner
should be well awarded with this basic problem during the preconstruction phase.
Table 3. Factors responsible for change orders in construction phase with their ranking in construction phase
S. NO Causes AI Rank
1 Design modification by owner 4.18 1
2 Change in scope at later stage 3.95 2
3 Delays in payment by client 3.93 3
4 Lack of communication between parties 3.91 4
5 Contractor financial issues 3.90 5
6 Additional work from owner side 3.86 6
7 Safety rules and regulations are not followed by contractor 3.85 7
8 Construction delays by contractor 3.77 10
9 Poor site management by contractor 3.68 11
10 Delay in material delivery by supplier 3.55 13
11 Delays of project schedule 3.45 14
12 Design complexity 3.41 15
13 On site changing in material specifications 3.64 16
14 Late decision making by contractor 3.27 17
15 Lack of workmanship 3.23 18
16 Ineffective supervision by client 3.09 20
17 Bad relationships with supplier by contractor 3.00 21
18 Severe weather conditions on job site 3.00 21
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The second most important cause of change order is “mistakes in design”. Similar to the mistakes in preparing the
specification, it is very common to have serious errors in the design stage. The design is prepared by the designer on the
behalf of owner, when the planning is not clear from the owner side the scope of work is not well covered at this stage.
Thus many mistake often occurs in the designing work. The owner at the time of award of work transfer the design to
the contractors and the part is thus assumed to follow deign properly. At later stage when the owner feels there are errors
and mistakes in the design, they decides to have another better design. Here the contractor doesn’t want to put the burden
on their shoulders and demands the change orders from the client. Such change order are often very hazardous and
involves serious clashes. The client never wants to have change order due to increase in the cost and delays in the project.
Thus a critical piece of mind is necessary for a client while involving in the design phase.
Mean value and the ranks of most critical factors in pre-construction phase.
6
Flexible nature of client in safety
3.18
6
Poor working drawing details
3.18
5
Insufficient use of value engineering
3.18
Causes
4
Lack of experience in selecting construction team by client
3.36
3
Improper scheduling by client
3.64
2
Mistakes in design
3.68
1
Mistakes in specifications
3.82
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
RANK Mean Value
Figure 4. Mean value and the ranks of most critical factors in pre-construction phase.
The clients in many cases appoint his team to work throughout the project such as the project manager, designer,
contractors, quantity surveyor etc. It is observed that while choosing the partner the clients often do mistakes because
of lack of experience in the project and lacking in previous similar works. Thus this research unfold that the “Lack of
experience in selecting construction team by client” is one of the root cause responsible for the change order. This cause
has linkage with the top two factors. The mistakes in the specification and design is basically the part of the client team
but the client needs more expertise thus needs higher experience while selecting the team. Nevertheless, the client needs
to be more sharp and aware with the basic requirements of the intended projects thus keeping in mind those requirements,
a capable team selection must be the ultimate goal of the owner to avoid change orders in future. Specially the proper
selection of consultant at this stage is very important, because they are responsible for all activates during the
preconstruction phase. Apart from these causes the study investigates the other factors illustrated in Table 3 as equally
important to be considered by the clients.
5.2. Critical Factors of Construction Phase
Construction phase is most important phase of project delivery. Maximum resources are utilized in this phase
therefore most of change order occurs in construction phase. In Figure. 5 top most critical causes which are responsible
of change order in construction phase ranked by respondents are given. From the analysis of data it can be seen that top
most critical factor of change order in construction phase is “Design modification by owner”. During the preconstruction
phase particularly the design stage, when the errors and, mistakes done by the designer the clients wants their early
remedy but it affects the construction seriously.
The contractor on the other side have already worked and once such modification take place they need to demolish
and reconstruct activates which hit at contractor’s resources badly. In Pakistan, the experts believe that this is a very
common problem. At later stage client needs to enhance or reduce project scope due to many causes such as financial
cutoff. Ultimately this leads to the modification in design and become the root cause of change order. Second top most
cause is “change in scope at later stage”. Changes in project scope will cause delays and sometimes cause failure of
projects. Therefore, it is necessary that project should be such that its scope will remain for long time. But it does not
happen most of time, as mentioned the change in scope are very common in Pakistan due to financial cutoff and other
reasons.
621
Mean value and the ranks of most critical factors in construction phase
Poor site management by contractor 9

3.68
Construction delays by contractor 8
3.77
Safety rules and regulations are not followed by… 7
3.85
Additional work from owner side 6
3.86
Causes
Contractor financial issues 5

3.9
Lack of communication between parties 4
3.91
Delays in payment by client 3
3.93
Change in scope at later stage 2
3.95
Design modification by owner 1
4.18
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
RANK Mean value
Figure 5. Graphical illustration of average index of critical causes in construction phase
Irrespective of those reasons, as it is out of scope of this research, ultimately the change orders occur. Actually the
change in design is the part of change of scope or vice versa. The pinpoint to brainstorm here is to initially have a better
planning in the preconstruction phase and with the help of capable team and specially the designer such issues could be
resolved. Another critical cause is “delays in payment by client”, project execution needs resources and resources come
from budget. When client fails to have timely payment than it will cause delays in project time. These delays are
sometimes so seriously that contractor could not complete the work and at later stage require change orders from the
clients. Almost in all developing countries the finance is basis issue of the public clients. When the departments are out
of budget such delays are usually occurs. On the other hand, the contractor has to meet the project deadlines thus end
results is contractor demands for the change orders. There is thus direct link of timely payment and the change order.
The project owner must careful tackle this issues by reserving the funds for the intended projects which they wish to
have at exact time with stipulated cost and imagined best quality. In similar way “Lack of communication between
parties” is another important cause. Construction works require integration at each stage. When there is miss
communication between any parties, a lot of changing in work take places thus require such changing in contracts.
“Contractor financial issues” is also an important cause. When contractor is financially not sound, they cause trouble.
For e.g. even for small work they go for change orders, which otherwise a financially strong contractor could do without
it.
6. Conclusion
Change orders are most common part of construction works pertaining to several causes. Almost every project except
a very few require change order at later stage. Since several parties are involved during construction thus it was of
greater interest to divide the causes in two major phases i.e. preconstruction and construction phase. During
preconstruction phase, clients and consultant are involved however, contractors involved in construction phase of project
life cycle. Thus this research identifies the factors in these different phases to correlate them with the concerned parties.
The study involved in depth literature review and various unstructured interviews along with physical site visits of
various projects and their post project reviews. The study thereafter concludes critical factors in both phases. From the
results of critical factors of preconstruction, it is concluded that the client usually does several mistakes in the planning
and designing stage which later on resulted in change orders. The appointment of consultants and the monitoring of
activities is not properly done due to which mistake and errors found in the design stage. Similarly, the results of
construction stage present that critical causes are again due to the client. Here frequent changes by the client and delays
in payment by the client significantly affects the project delays and increased cost, thus resulted in demands of change
orders by the contractor. Thus construction clients are the part which is highly responsible for such change orders in
Pakistan. These clients need to be efficiently work during the planning and designing phase and further to properly
monitor the project during execution to avoid these orders. In the future this study can be extended in many directions.
As this study only focused on causes of change order, further the effects of change orders on projects can be studied.
The study can be done on disputes identification which will arise between the construction industry players due to
change order.
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Vol. 5, No. 3, March, 2019
Stabilization of Expansive Soils Using Polypropylene Fiber
Sarah A. Hussein a*, Haifaa A. Ali b

a
M.Sc. Student, Department of Civil Engineering, University of Baghdad, Baghdad, Iraq.
b
Assistant Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, University of Baghdad, Baghdad, Iraq.
Abstract
Current research main aim is to study the effect of adding polypropylene fiber (PPF) on the behavior of expansive soil to
reduce the swelling as percentage (0.5, 1 and 2%) of the weight of dry soil. Expansive soil used in this research was
prepared artificially by mixing Ca-based bentonite from geological survey and mining company with sandy soil brought
from Karbala city as percentage 80% bentonite to 20% sand of dry weight. Multiple laboratory tests have been carried are
(Unconfined Compression Test, One-Dimensional Consolidation Test, Swelling Test, Sieve Analysis and Cycle Swell
Shrink Test). A conventional odometer cell was modified to allow the study of swell- shrink cycle test to be carried out
under controlled temperatures and surcharge pressure. The results showed that the increase in percentage of (PPF) led to
decrease the swelling and to increase the unconfined compression strength. The wetting and drying results of (PPF) showed
that with continuous cycles the effect of (PPF) keeps on reducing the swelling and the 2% of (PPF) produces less ratio of
swell - shrink, which has obtained higher than 57 % in the improvement factor of swell and shrink.
Keywords: Expansive Soils; Polypropylene Fiber; Wetting and Drying Cycles; Bentonite.
1. Introduction
Expansive soil usually refers to those clay minerals that have contradictory behavior (swell and shrink) due to
changes in moisture content over time [1]. The montmorillonite clay mineral contributes mainly to this behavior. In Iraq
and other countries the expansive soil contributes to many problems which observed on the structures that are established
on the expansive soil. With increasing and decreasing of soil water content the soils will swell and shrink [2]. The
environmental change around structures usually results in severe risk subsequent after they are built, the prediction of
the heave of the light structure has likely received more attention than any other analyses associated with the expansive
soil. So, it is important to study the properties of these soils and how to treat them to overcome these problems. The goal
of most related work was to identify the swelling potential and swelling pressure that the soil may exhibit under an
extreme condition of complete flooding. In the field the state of moisture change that may occur is cycles of wetting and
drying which leads to cycles of swelling and shrinkage of the soil [3].
Residential buildings construction and other structures like highways, airports, bridges and seaports on expansive
soil in high risk situation, as these soils are subjected to the cycle of drying and wetting resulting in shrinkage and
swelling under structures foundation leading to crack into the structural. The damage average yearly cost to structures
because of shrinkage and swelling estimated 400 £ million in the UK, 15 $ billion in the United States, and many billions
dollars worldwide [4].
Therefore, the expansive soils require an amendment to meet the pre-design criteria of the application. Stabilization
* Corresponding author: haifaaali2013@yahoo.com

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of soils can be done by two main ways, chemical and mechanical techniques. Chemical techniques mainly include the
addition of chemicals such as (cement, lime and polymers) to the soil, thus altering the soil fabric into a coherent matrix
of restricted swelling [5-8]. The mechanical approach uses soil compaction with the reinforcements support. Common
reinforcements contain fibers of synthetic such as (polypropylene and nylon), natural such as (coir and palm) and other
fiber such as (plastic waste strips and shredded tires). As the global community shifted towards a more sustainable
mentality, alternative stabilization techniques that could replace or reduce the use of traditional cementitious agents were
encouraged [9].
This research investigates the ease of using (PPF) in heavy expansive clay and the main advantage is the easily
mixing of (PPF) with soil and low cost. One more advantage is that the (PPF) is a hydrophobic and chemically inert
material that makes it does not absorb or react with soil moisture [10]. Two advantages of synthetic fibers over natural
fibers can be given as follows: synthetic fibers can be produced according to required specifications. For example,
geometry of fibers can be controlled, shape of fibers and surface conditions can be altered in order to improve friction
properties of fibers. Most synthetic fibers don’t biodegrade when subjected to changing environments of moisture,
sunlight heat or cold [11, 12].
Soltani et al. (2018) showed the effect of two kinds of tape-shaped fibers, fiber-A width (2.5mm) and fiber-B width
(7mm) were used as the reinforcements for the expansive soil. It was used three contents: (0.5, 1, and 1.5%) each fiber
type have two lengths/aspect ratios (15/2.5 and 30/2.5) for fiber-A, and (15/7 and 30/7) for fiber-B. In case of constant
width for a given fiber type it was noticed that the direct function of improvement of expansive soil is fiber content and
length. The other case when increasing fiber width (decrease in aspect ratio) results in increase the total surface area of
fibers and this will cause a larger contact area between fibers and soil particles, leading to give greater swelling resistance
[9].
Priya et al. (2017) investigated that the optimum percentage of (PPF) is 1 % for stabilizing the soil, with 1% of fiber
given the highest value from (UCS) and the free swell index value of the treated soil at the optimum percentage decreases
to zero [13]. Deshpande and Puranik (2017) stated that the black cotton soil (expansive soil) blended with fly ash and
(PPF) considered a good technique especially in ground improvement and engineering projects on expansive soils. The
(UCS) increase with increasing (PPF) percentage. The optimum percentages of fly ash and (PPF) are 15 % and 1.5 %
respectively for the (UCS). This work caters to society's challenges to reduce waste volumes and to produce useful
materials from non-useful waste materials that lead to the establishment of a sustainable society [14].
Sravya and Suresh (2016) studied the effect of synthetic-fibers (polypropylene and polyester fibers) in the restricted
swelling of expansive soils. One Dimensional swell-consolidation tests were utilized to determine the behavior changes
in the soil samples. BEIt is noticed that with increasing of fibers content causes a decrease in swelling pressure and
increasing the (UCS) and CBR [15]. Dang et al. (2016) investigated the effects of (bagasse fibers and hydrated lime) on
the engineering Characteristics and behavior of expansive soils. The results of this work show that the bagasse fiber
reinforcement which mixed with hydrate lime increased the compressive strength of expansive soil with increasing the
additives percentages and curing time. Whereas the linear shrinkage of expansive soil decreased with increasing
hydrated lime, bagasse fiber percentage and curing time [16].
Malekzadeh (2012) and Viswanadham et al. (2009 a) reported that (PPF) was effective in reducing the swell potential
and swelling pressure of soils dramatically [17, 18]. Al-Akhras et al. (2008) studied the effect of two types of fibers
(natural palmyra and synthetic nylon) on the swelling properties of three clay soils by using a one-dimensional odometer
cell. The result of the test indicates that the fiber reduce swell potential and swelling pressure compared with same
untreated soil [19]. Babu et al. (2008) investigated the effect of coir fiber reinforced black cotton soil and the results
showed that the swelling decreases by approximately (40%) with increase fiber from 0.5 to 1.5% and the drop of
compression index by about (35%) at fiber content (1.5%) [20]. It can dramatically reduce the excessive settlement of
structures built above the soil. Actually, the scientific interest soil reinforcement by fiber started in the 1970s with a try
to evaluate the effect of roots of the tree on the slopes stability [21]. Punthutaecha et al. (2006) studied the effectiveness
of a collection of fly ash and polypropylene fibers in reducing swelling and shrinkage properties [22].
Note that fiber reinforcement is not only an alternative technology for improving but it can make many construction
projects effective in cost and to environmentally friendly. We can get fibers from plastic materials and used tires so that
their use will help to dispose the waste problem that occupies large amounts of landfills and otherwise these wastes can
occupy large amounts of landfills. For this, the engineering of fiber-reinforced soil has become important in civil
engineering and other related fields [23].
In this present research, an array of laboratory experiments were conducted including (Unconfined Compression
Test, One-Dimensional Consolidation Test, Swelling Test and Cycle Swell Shrink Test, on untreated and treated
expansive soil with different percentages of (PPF). The findings of this experimental investigation were analysed and
discussed for better understanding the effect of reinforcement (PPF) on the behavior of expansive soil, effect of the
wetting-drying cycle on treated and untreated soil.
625

2.1. Expansive Soil
Expansive soil used in this research was prepared artificially by mixing Ca-based bentonite from geological survey
and mining company with sandy soil from Karbala city. Several trail mixes of bentonite and sand were done till getting
80% bentonite to 20% sand of dry weight considering the plasticity index. The physical properties of the soil used are
illustrated in Table 1 and the grain size distribution of soil used show in Figure 1.
Table 1. Summary of physical properties of the soil used
Physical properties Bentonite Sand Prepared soil Specification
Specific gravity 2.80 2.68 2.77 ASTM D 854
Liquid limit (LL) 148.0 NP 99.0 ASTM D 4318
Plastic limit (PL) 45.0 NP 41.0 ASTM D 4318
Plastic index(PI) 103.0 NP 58.0 ASTM D 4318
%Clay 82 60
3.89 ASTM D 1140,
% Silt 18 22
D 422-63.
%Sand 0 96.11 18
Maximum Dry density (gm/cm ) 3
1.27 …… 1.395
ASTM D 698-12
OMC% 35 …… 27.5
Soil Symbols according to USCS CH SP CH ASTM D 2487
100
90
80
70
Passing (%)
60
50
40
30 Bintonite
20 prepared soil
10 sand
0
10 1 0.1 0.01 0.001 0.0001
Diameter )mm(
Figure 1. Grain size distribution of soils

2.2. Polypropylene Fiber
Figure 2 depicts the polypropylene fiber which is commonly used as a synthetic material because of its low cost,
hydrophobic, and chemically inert nature. Polypropylene fiber doesn’t allowed any reaction with soil moisture or
leachate. The properties of (PPF) which brought from Sika Company are as illustrated in Table 2.
Table 2. Properties of polypropylene fiber
Property Value
Colour Transparent fibers
Density 0.91 gm / cm3
Length 12 mm ±1
Dimeter 0.032 mm
Shape Straight
Tensile strength 600 -700 Mpa
Elastic modulus 3.000 – 3.500 Mpa
Elongation 20-25 %
Chemical base 100% polypropylene fiber
Melt point 160 º C
Ignition point 365 º C
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Figure 2. Polypropylene fiber (PPF) used inthe present research

2.3. Sample Preparation
In order to study the effect of (PPF) on the prepared soil, it is necessary to fix some parametric variables for soil
condition such as dry density and moisture content of prepared soil for purpose of comparison. The prepared soil firstly
passed from sieve No.4 then oven-dried with 105 0C. The dried soil mixed with the required distilled water by hand and
stored for 24 hours to obtain soil with uniform moisture distribution. While the treated soil with (PPF) at first the
prepared soil mixed with (PPF) well by hand to the degree of homogeneity. The required amount of water was added to
the formed mixture. Finally, the mixture was sealed and cured for 24 hours.
The swelling and shear strength characteristics of the sample are determined. These characteristics determined to
the sample were extruded by hydraulic jack from the mold using standard proctor compaction test, when the soil was
compacted in the mould to dry density (1.395 gm/cm3) and optimum moisture content (27.5%). The swelling
characteristics studied on the specimens were obtained by inserting consolidation ring of 50mm diameter for the samples
using compression machine. To ensure that the specimen is kept laterally confined during swelling, a disc of metal was
used, its thickness is equal to the difference in height between the consolidation ring and specimen 4mm, and the
diameter of the disc is 1mm less than the internal diameter of the ring is used [24]. The shear strength characteristics
studied on the specimens were obtained by inserting tube of 38 mm diameter, cleaned and oiled it’s walls for the samples
using compression machine. The specimens were extruded from the tube by extruder and each specimen is cut to 76mm
from its length.
2.4. Swelling Tests
2.4.1. Free Swell and Swelling Pressure
After preparing the test specimen as mentioned in section (2-3), the specimen and ring are installed into the odometer
consolidation apparatus and the setting load was placed at the top of the weigh hanger to provide stress of 7 kPa on
specimen and to allow the specimen to consolidate after 10 minutes, the first reading was recorded, then distilled water
was added, final dial gage recording was taken after 24hours or until the rate of expansive becomes less than 0.005
mm/hr (ASTM D 4829-03). The height of the specimen was recorded by using a dial gage with sensitivity of 0.002 mm
and percent of swelling is a function of the height specimen.
∆𝐻
𝑆𝑤𝑒𝑙𝑙% = × 100 (1)
𝐻
Where: ∆H is the change in sample height, D2 -D1; D2: Final dial gage reading, D1: First dial gage reading, H: Height
of the specimen.
The final swell which the specimen reaches before applying load is called swell percent, while the pressure required
to bring the specimen into its original height is defined as swelling pressure.
2.4.2. Cyclic Swell Shrink Test
The modified odometer cell was adopted to study swell-shrink cycle test. This conventional cell was modified to
allow conducting the test under controlled temperature and surcharge pressure, like the reported by [25, 26].
The device consists of conventional odometer cell which contains fixed ring with diameter 50mm and thickness
20mm between two porous stones, dial gauge with sensitivity of 0.002 mm, drainage valve and load 7Kpa placed over
the cell. All the detail of odometer cell is shown in Figure 3. The odometer cell is surrounded by thermal source
(Electrical Heater), the electrical heater comprises of coil between two flexible mica sheets with thickness of 0.6mm.
The main features of this sheet are resistant to moisture, high electrical insulation and good thermal conductivity. The
thickness of outer cover of the heater is 0.7 mm, it was coated with stainless steel layer, and the terminal of the coil was
connected to the temperature control panel. The panel controls the temperature of the test constant at 45ºC by using
627
stainless steel sensor which measures the temperature of the cell works with the temperature controller to stop the
temperature on the required degree and prevent it from increasing. Finally, the odometer cell with the heater was placed
in a container for more thermal protection as shown in Figure 4.
(a) (b)
Figure 3. (a) Odometer Cell, (b) Layout of the Odometer Cell
Figure 4. Modified Odometer Cell
After preparation the test specimen as stated in section (2-3) the specimen ring is installed on the odometer cell with
applying surcharged pressure 7 kPa and allowing the specimen to be exposed to cycles of swelling and shrinkage. In
the first stage, the specimen was submerged in distilled water and keep it for over three days for swelling process and
this period decreases by increasing the percentage of additives. In the second stage, the water was removed from the
cell by the drainage valve, the temperature controller was switched on 45 ºC to maintain constant temperature during
drying process. The amount of shrinkage was recorded after the specimen reached the full shrinkage (No change in dial
gage reading). The sample is left to cool to room temperature from 3 to 5 hours after shrinkage process. The sample
was flooded with water for next cycle. The test procedure continues until the expected equilibrium condition is activated.
2.5. The One-Dimensional Consolidation and Unconfined Compression Test
After the end of the swelling pressure test Section (2-4-1), the consolidation test was conducted according to (ASTM-
D 2435 – 96). The Unconfined Compression test was conducted according to (ASTM D-2166).
3. Results of Tests
3.1. Results of Unconfined Compression Test
In Figure 5 we can see that the adding (PPF) increases the unconfined compression strength (UCS) from (246.11 to
504.93) kPa and 2% (PPF) has given the higher (UCS) value. These values are shown in Figure 6 shows the test results
which indicate that the (UCS) of the soil increases with an increase in (PPF) percentage, this behavior is related to the
bridging effect of (PPF) that can effectively prevent the further development of failures and distortions of the soil.
Another reason for increasing the (UCS), is the (PPF) percentage increases the soil particles that become closely linked,
and because of the high connection between the soil particles the attraction between the particles increase. The shear
failure occurred after a long time from the appearance of the crack. These results similar to the results obtained by the
[15, 27, 28].
628
600
500
400
Stress (Kpa)
300
200
0% PPF 0.5 % PPF
100
1% PPF 2% PPF
0
0 2 4 6 8
Axial Strain (%)
Figure 5. Stress-Strain relationship from the unconfined compression test for soils samples with different percentages of
(PPF)
600
500
Unconfined Compression
400
Streanght (Kpa)
300
200
100
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2
PPF (%)
Figure 6. Effect of (PPF) content on unconfined compression strength

3.2. Results of Swelling and Swelling Pressure
In Figure 7, it is found that the free swell decreases from (13.47 % to 2.81%) and Figure 8 shows a decrease in
swelling pressure from (245 to 75) kPa with adding (PPF). One of the reasons for this effect is that by adding fibers to
a certain amount of soil, the non-swelling material (PPF) replaces some soil particles and thus, a decrease in soil swelling
behavior is achieved. The other reason is that because of the contact between the (PPF) and the soil particles. During
swelling the fibers are stretched and tension forces appear in the fibers that resist swelling and prevent further swelling.
Also, when the fibers are added to the expansive soil the inbuilt capacity of fibers to bind soil particles together helps
the expansive soil to reduce its swelling tendency and thereby swell pressure of the fiber reinforced soil. Similar results
were obtained by the [15, 18, 29].
16
14
12
Swell (%)
10 0% PPF
8
0.5% PPF
6
1%PPF
4
2 2% PPF
0
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000
Time (minit)
Figure 7. Time – Percent swell for the prepared soil and soil treated with (PPF)
629
300
250
Swelling presure (kpa )

200
150
100
50
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2
PPF (%)
Figure 8. Effect of (PPF) content on swelling pressure

3.3. Cyclic Behavior
The effect of wetting-drying cycles on the swelling potential are determined by Cyclic Swell-Shrink Test. Figure 9
and Figure 10 show the results of the test for the prepared and treated soil. The highest values for wetting and drying
cycles were achieved in the first cycle and then the swelling gradually decreased to a steady state value. Until this state,
shrinking in any cycle is smaller than swelling in the same cycle. Sampling heights never return to their original levels,
this behavior lies in the general cyclic behavior which reported by many authors [3, 30-35]. Also, the amount of swelling
is also greatly reduced by the addition of the (PPF) which sets the cyclic curves below the untreated curve in a uniform
manner.
Figure 9 shows that the number of cycles required to reach the steady state condition for the untreated soil and treated
soil is found to be approximately 4 and 3, respectively. This means that the addition of the (PPF) will reduce the number
of cycles to reach the state of stability and the cycles of wetting and drying did not alter the trend of the cyclic curves of
the treated samples. This indicated that the (PPF) is remained effective to reduce the swelling and the shrinkage.
In Figure 10 it is noted that in the 5th cycle of the untreated soil the value of swelling is 1.398 % and be almost equal
to the 2nd cycle when adding 1% and 2 % (PPF). This means that it can increase the number of cycles and obtain the
value approximate to the additive values with low cost.
This method is easy to implement compared with other methods and does not involve high cost by flooding these
soils with water periodically. Detailed laboratory tests should be conducted to identify appropriate duration of wetting
and drying for different expansive soils, this is similar to [25].
The results can be explained in terms of fatigue phenomenon. The soil will reach the state of fatigue after several
cycles of wetting and drying depending on the level of swell-shrink of the soil. Eventually, the soil reaches the minimum
fixed ability to swell-shrink which is the steady state. The decrease in swelling is due to the progressive destruction of
the clay structure matrix resulting from a periodic swelling. At the same time, periodic swelling leads to the
reconstruction and rearrangement of the structure of large fine aggregates by changing structural elements. This
phenomenon alters the behavior of expansive soil with increasing the number of cycles (swell- shrink), resulting from
wetting-drying cycles [36].
Wetting and drying cycle make a change in the swell potential due to the break of the bonds between clay minerals
and the amendments of the soil structure. The large inter pores reduce absorption rate of the sample along a range of
wetting paths and this effect increase with the increasing of shrinkage and vertical pressure subjected to the soil. This
can be assigned to the continuous rearrangement of soil particles during the cycles of drying and wetting that result in
more destruction of the internal clay structure, reducing the specific surface and water content [37].
630
18.5
0% PPF 0.5 % PPF 1% PPF 2 % PPF
Hight of sample (mm)

18
17.5
17
16.5
16
0 W1 D1 W2 D2 w3 D3 W4 D4 W5 D5
Wetting - Drying cycle
Figure 9. Wetting - Drying cycle for prepared and treated sample with (PPF)
16
0% PPF 0.5% PPF
14
12 1% PPF 2% PPF
Swell (%)
10
0
0 1 2 3 4 5
Weating - Drying cycle
Figure 10. Swell % versus number of cycles for prepared and treated sample with (PPF)
3.4. Improvement Factors versus Number of Cycles

The improvement factor in any cycle (𝐼𝑤 )𝑛 represents the difference between the final swell of unreinforced samples
𝑊𝑢 and the final swell of the reinforced samples (𝑊𝑟 ) divided by the final unreinforced swell, [3].
(𝑊𝑢 )𝑛 − (𝑊𝑟 )𝑛 (2)
(𝐼𝑤 )𝑛 =
(𝑊𝑢 )𝑛
Where; 𝐼𝑤 : Swell improvement factor, 𝑊𝑢 : Final swell of unreinforced sample, 𝑊𝑟 : Final swell of reinforced sample, n:
Number of cycles.
Similarly, the improvement factor for shrink is:
(𝐻𝑢 )𝑛 − (𝐻𝑟 )𝑛 (3)
(𝐼𝐻 )𝑛 =
(𝐻𝑢 )𝑛
Where: 𝐼𝐻 : Shrinkage improvement factor, 𝐻𝑢 : Final shrink of the unreinforced sample, 𝐻𝑟 : Final shrink of the
reinforced sample, 𝑛: Number of cycles.
According to Figures 11 and 12, the relationship between the number of cycles and the improvement factors for
swelling and shrinkage indicated that there are no specific trends affected by the improvement factors at the history of
wetting and drying.
The increase in the improvement factor for swell and shrink depending on the amount of the additives and the number
of cycles. By increasing the added material, the improvement factor increases and the percentage 2 % of (PPF) gives the
highest percentage of improvement factor. Also, with the increased number of cycles increases the improvement factor
and the 3rd cycle gives the highest values in the three different percentages. In general, for the first cycle, the
improvement factor of swelling (𝐼𝑤 )1 ranges between 57.3 and 79.1% based on added percentages. In steady state, the
Iw ranges from 66.11 to 81.74 %. The improvement factor for shrinkage (𝐼𝐻 )1 is 57.8 to 80.09% in the first cycle, and
62.91 to 81.25% is in the steady state. Thus, the advantage of using (PPF) remains active in swelling reduction during
the periodic life of the expansive soil.
631
100
90
Swell improvement factor

80
IW (%)
70
60
50
40
0.5% PPF 1% PPF 2% PPF
30
0 1 2 3 4 5
Number of wetting cycles
Figure 11. Relationship between the number of cycles and the improvement factors for swell
100
90
Shrink improvement ffactor
80
70
IH (%)
60
50
40
0.5% PPF 1% PPF 2% PPF
30
0 1 2 3 4 5
Number of drying cycles
Figure 12. Relationship between the number of cycles and the improvement factors for shrink
3.5. Result of Consolidation Test

The result of consolidation tests of all samples with different percentages of (PPF) are shown in Figure 13, all results
are drawn as the void ratio (e) versus the logarithm of effective stress (log σv).
Table 3 shows that the addition of (PPF) causes a reduction in Cc and Cs, this decrease is due to a decrease in the
amount of clay replaced by fiber, another reason is because the nature of the fibers, as it is not only strong in the tensile
strength, but also strong in compression strength, that’s why compression index has decreased. The reduce of
compression index by about 22% at percentage 2 % of (PPF). It can significantly reduce the excessive settlement of
structures built above the soil. Similar results were obtained by [15].
1.1
Voide ratio, e
1
0% ppf
0.9
0.5 ppf
1% ppf
0.8
2 % ppf
0.7
1 10 100 1000
Effective stress (Kpa)
Figure 13. e-log 𝝈𝒗 for Soils treated with (PPF)
632
The permeability of the soil is calculated from the following equation:

𝐾 = 𝐶𝑣 𝑚𝑣 𝛾𝑤 (4)
Where; 𝐶𝑣 = Coefficient of consolidation, 𝑚𝑣 = Coefficient of volume change, 𝛾𝑤 = Unit weight of water.
As shown in the Table 3 it is observed that the values of coefficient of permeability and initial ratio (e0) are increased
not significantly with the increase of the concentration of (PPF).
Table 3. Result of consolidation test

. Soil sample 0% PPF 0.5% PPF 1% PPF 2% PPF
Cc 0.150 0.129 void 0.124 0.117
Cr 0.022 0.020 0.019 0.017
Cv (m2/sec) 3.45E-07 3.79E-07 3.86E-07 4.32E-07
k (m/sec) 2.9E-10 4.27E-10 5.21E-10 6E-10
e0 0.964 1.014 1.075 1.140
2
mv(m /kN) 8.57E-05 0.000115 0.000137 0.000142
3.6. Micro Structural Studies

From Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM), images for the prepared soil and treated soil are with 2% (PPF). Figure
14a is similar to structure with figure 14b, it can be noted that the voids are approximately equal, this means that the
(PPF) did not alter the structure of the prepared soil. It can be seen that many clay minerals is attached to the surfaces
of the fibers which make the contribution to bond strength and friction between the fiber and soil matrix as shown
in Figure 14 (c). Figures 14 (d) and (E) show scratches and pits on the surface of (PPF) resulting from hard particles
such as sand due to the exposure to loading or mixing that lead to form these, the formation of scratches and pits increase
the bonding between the soil and (PPF), resulting in an increase in (UCS). It is found that (PPF) was not broken during
the shear test but it is extended as shown in Figure 14f. This indicates that the (PPF) is not only strong in tensile strength
but strong in compressive strength, for that reason it is shown that there is some increases in the (UCS) and decreases
in the compression index with an increase in the (PPF) Percentage. Similar results are found by [27, 38].
Figure 14. SEM images of prepared soil and treated soil with 2% (PPF): (a) prepared soil; (b) treated soil with 2%(PPF);
(c) the clay mineral on the fiber surface; (d) & (e) the scratches and pits on the surface of (PPF); (f) the extension of (PPF)
after the (UCS) test
633
4. Conclusions
This research has investigated the effect of (PPF) with percentage of (0.5, 1 and 2%) on the engineering properties,
of expansive soil. It is found that the 2% of (PPF) is the best percentage which gives the highest value of the unconfined
compression strength and lower value of swelling, the following conclusion can be drawn:
 With the increasing of the (PPF) percentage, the free swell and swelling pressure values decreased steadily, and
the lowest values were finally obtained in stabilized samples with adding 2% of (PPF), the free swell and swelling
pressure were reduced by about 79.1% and 69%, respectively.
 The addition of 2% (PPF) improved the unconfined compressive strength by approximately 51%.
 The addition of (PPF) decreased the compressibility.
 With the addition of (PPF), swell-shrink decreased with the increasing in the wetting-drying cycles. The first cycle
gives the highest value of swell-shrink and swell remained higher than shrink at the same cycle.
 (PPF) is inexpensive, economical and so it can be used to improve large areas at a lower cost. On the other hand,
it is environmental friendly as it can be used significantly to solve waste disposal problems.
6. Funding
This work was supported by the soil laboratory, College of Engineering in Baghdad University.
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635

Vol. 5, No. 3, March, 2019
Circularization Technique for Strengthening of Plain Concrete

Short Square Columns Subjected to a Uniaxial Compression
Compressive Pressure
Ahmed W. Abdulsattar a*, Hayder A. Al-Baghdadi b

a
M.Sc. student, Department of Civil Engineering, College of Engineering, University of Baghdad, Baghdad, Iraq.
b
Department of Civil Engineering, College of Engineering, University of Baghdad, Baghdad, Iraq.
Abstract
This paper presents an experimental study for strengthening existing columns against axial compressive loads. The objective
of this work is to study the behavior of concrete square columns strengthening with circulation technique. In Iraq, there are
significantly more reinforced rectangular and square columns than reinforced circular columns in reinforced concrete
buildings. Moreover, early research studies indicated that strengthening of rectangular or square columns using wraps of
CFRP (Carbon Fiber Reinforced Polymer) provided rather little enhancement to their load-carrying capacity. In this paper,
shape modification technique was performed to modify the shape (cross section) of the columns from square columns into
circular columns. Shape modification technique is also called circularization technique because the cross section is modified
from square into circular cross section. Then, the circularized columns were wrapped with CFRP wraps. Shape modification
is the strengthening method adopted in this paper as a mean to strengthen existing square columns. Columns studied in this
paper are short columns with square sections as a special case of rectangular columns. Columns in this study are plain concrete
columns (having concrete strength of 𝑓𝑐′ = 24.41 MPa) with no internal steel reinforcement. The aim of this research is to
study experimentally the behavior of circularized concrete square columns confined with CFRP wraps. Then, for better
understanding, the results were compared with another, more widely used, strengthening technique which is the direct
wrapping of square columns with CFRP wraps. Thus, investigating experimentally the effectiveness of the two
aforementioned strengthening techniques in increasing the load-carrying capacity and ductility of the existing concrete
columns. The methodology of this research is that six plain concrete short square columns were casted. These six columns
were exerted to compressive pressure using concrete testing machine. These six columns were divided into three groups, each
group consisted of 2 columns. The three groups were classified as follows: first group (titled L0) consisted of two square
columns which were not strengthened by any method, second group (titled L1) consisted of two square columns confined by
one layer of CFRP wraps, finally, the third group (titled LC1) consisted of two circularized square columns confined by one
layer of CFRP wraps.
Experimental results showed that load bearing capacity and ductility of square columns have been significantly enhanced.
Test results showed that shape modification technique (columns LC1) produced enhancement in load carrying capacity
about 167.8 % of the original non-strengthened columns (columns L0). Furthermore, square columns wrapped by one layer
of CFRP wraps (columns L1) produced enhancement in load carrying capacity about 56.1% of the original non-
strengthened columns (columns L0). As such, it was evident that circularization technique resulted in enhancement in load
carrying capacity far more than the enhancement obtained from wrapping the square columns with CFRP wraps.
Keywords: Circularization; Plane Concrete Columns; Confinement; Stress Concentration; Load Bearing Capacity; Uniaxial Compressive
Pressure; CFRP (Carbon Fiber Reinforced Polymer).
* Corresponding author: ahmad_waad_24@yahoo.com

636
1. Introduction
Increasing the load carrying capacity of structural elements, such as columns, can be done conventionally by
increasing the concrete strength properties, column section, and/or reinforcement. On the other hand, it is worthwhile to
mention that recently worldwide and especially in Iraq, the need to increase the bearing load capacity of post column
construction (existing column) is one of the big challenges. The complete lateral “clothing” of post-constructed columns
by a sheet-like reinforcement (attached by strong adhesives) has been commonly used to provide certain improvement
in strength properties of columns. Warping columns with that sheet-like reinforcement had been studied by many
researchers and results showed that sheet-like reinforcement strengthening is a promising approach in terms of
increasing the load carrying capacity of such columns.
Columns are the most important structural members in any structure, it is only reasonable to acquire new methods
for strengthening existing columns. Many researches have been published which studied the behavior of strengthened
existing columns. Columns can be strengthened by steel cages (ACI Committee 440 2008) [1], by CFRP (Carbon Fiber
Reinforced Polymer) (Sangeetha 2007) [2], or by GFRP (Glass Fiber Reinforced Polymer) (A. and N. 2015) [3].
However, when strengthening square columns, confinement effect is reduced due to the existence of stress concentration
areas at the sharp corners of the square cross section. This is where circularization plays it roll. Circularization is
considered as an effective mean to eliminate stress concentration areas and it restores membrane effect which was
reduced due to the existence of sharp edges and flat sides of the cross section, Yan & Pantelides, (2008) [4].
The practical procedures to modify the rectangular or square columns into circular columns are considered many,
and may be summarized as follows:
 Surrounding the square column by a circular mold. Then, pouring a concrete mix which is suitably designed to
fill the gaps between the mold and the hardened square column.
 Segments of concrete, casted and hardened previously, are attached by adhesives to the faces of the non-circular
column in such a manner that the final shape of the whole column and segments form a circular cross section.
2. Confinement
Confinement is a strengthening method that is applied to structural members which are subjected to compressive
pressure. This process is performed to increase load carrying capacity as well as ductility of such members, Rolli and
Chandra (2015) [5].
According to ACI Committee 440 (2008) [1], using FRP jackets as an external confinement for reinforced concrete
columns can increase their strength and ductility. In terms of increased capacity, the results are immediate and are
expressed in terms of increased load resistance. Whereas increased ductility requires calculation to determine the ability
of the confined element to sustain rotation as well as drift without any major loss in strength.
2.1. Definition of Passive Confinement

Passive confinement is the condition where the FRP shells do not cause confinement immediately for the member.
Instead, the confining pressure of FRP shells is activated as a result to the lateral dilation of the member under axial
compression load. When concrete starts to dilate (laterally expand) due to the applied load, tensile pressure along the
hoop direction starts to develop in (or exerted on) the FRP wraps. Thus, the confining pressure, developed in FRP shells,
increases proportionally with the dilation of the concrete until the system fails when the FRP shells rupture,
Ozbakkaloglu, Lim and Vincent (2012) [6].
FRP wraps, used to confine a concrete member, usually provide passive confinement, i.e. the fibers remain unstressed
until sufficient dilation had occurred, ACI Committee 440 (2008) [1].
2.2. Application of Confinement

2.2.1. Confinement of Circular Columns
According to Mirmiran and Shahawy (1997) [7], the confinement obtained by using either internal reinforcement,
e.g. longitudinal steel reinforcing bars, or external confinement, e.g. FRP jackets, is an external passive confinement.
Passive confinement means that confining effect is activated only after the confined member dilates in the hoop direction
(Poisson’s effect in concrete). Therefore, the mechanism of confinement depends on two factors; dilation of concrete
column and the radial stiffness of the confining member (FRP jackets) to suppress the dilation. As a result, two
conditions must be met; geometric compatibility between the concrete and the wraps, and equilibrium of forces in the
free body diagram at any section as shown in Figure 1.
In case of circular cross-sectional columns confined with FRP wraps, the lateral confining pressure 𝑓𝐼 , exerted by
FRP wraps on the concrete can be considered to be uniformly distributed along the circumference of the section as
illustrated in Figure 1, Ozbakkaloglu, Lim and Vincent (2012) [6]. It should be noted that in Figure 1, D is the diameter
637
of the circular column, 𝑓𝑟 is the FRP confining pressure, 𝑓𝑗 is the hoop stress, 𝑡𝑓 is the thickness of FRP wraps.
Figure 1. Confined action on a circular column section

2.2.2. Confinement of Square or Rectangular Columns
When externally wrapping circular concrete columns with FRP wraps, it is correct to assume that the confining
pressure is continuous along the circumference of the section. However, FRP sheets have a weak flexural stiffness, thus,
low transverse confining stress can be developed in square or rectangular sections. At the edges and sharp corners of
square or rectangular sections, high axial stiffness and low flexural stiffness of FRP sheets result in stress concentration
zones at these corners. Stress concentration is deemed dangerous and it develops continuously until failure occurs at
these regions, i.e. at edges precisely. Failure happens generally by rupture of FRP sheets at corners (stress in fibers at
corners reaches ultimate strength of the FRP fibers), while stresses in the fibers lying along the sides of the section are
still lower than the ultimate strength of the FRP fibers, Campione, Miraglia and Papia (2004) [8].
Figure 2 shows that there is a reduction in the effective confinement area. For square column with sharp corners, the
confinement area initiates at the corners in the form of a second-degree parabola having an initial slope of 45°. However,
for square column with rounded corners with a radius 𝑅𝑐 , the parabolic confining action is again assumed but for this
case; the effective confinement area is considerably larger than the case of sharp corners, Benzaid and Mesbah (2013)
[9].
Figure 2. Active confined area for square sections confined with FRP wraps [9]
In contrast to circular cross-sectional columns, FRP fibers exerts a non-uniform lateral stress on square columns
caused by the non-uniform dilation of square columns. Flat sides of the square column are subjected to lower confining
pressure compared to the sharp corners, i.e. stress is being concentrated at the edges. Therefore, due to the cross-sectional
shape and due the non-uniform distribution of the confining stress, only a portion of the whole cross-sectional area is
confined effectively. Thus, confinement efficiency in this case is lower than the case of circular cross sectional columns.
Additionally, another reason for the lower efficiency is that in circular columns; the confining pressure depends greatly
on the tensile stiffness of the wraps, whereas in square columns; the confining pressure depends on the flexural stiffness
of the wraps, which is much lower than the tensile stiffness of the wraps, Al-Khafaji (2016) [10].
2.3. Circularization Definition

Circularization is defined as a method applied to non-circular concrete members in order to change their shape, (i.e.
cross section) from non-circular shape, whether it be rectangle or square or any other shape, into a circular shape, Pham,
Doan and Hadi (2013) [11].
On the other hand, Yan, Pantelides, & Reaveley (2008) [12], defined shape modification process as a practical method
to remove the effects of sharp corners of the column’s cross section, thus, improving the compressive response of the
square columns confined externally by FRP.
638
In the experimental work, six square concrete columns were casted for laboratory experiments. The experimental
tests can be categorized into three main groups:
 Testing of 1/10th-scale square-section specimens (2 columns).
 Testing of 1/10th-scale square-section specimens wrapped with one layer of CFRP sheet (2 columns).
 Testing of 1/10th-scale square-section specimens wrapped with one layer of CFRP sheet and using circularization
technique (2 columns).
All column specimens were to be subjected to a uniaxial compressive load applied on them by using a universal
compression machine. All column specimens were designed as short columns with a normal concrete strength of 𝑓𝑐′ =
24.41 MPa. All the columns were plain concrete columns. For circularization process, a plain concrete was used with a
concrete strength (for circularization) of 𝑓𝑐′ = 28.8 MPa. Finally, the lateral dilation at the midheight of the specimens
was measured by using two dial gauges. The two dial gauges were installed on two opposite sides of the columns, i.e.
the angle between the two gauges was 180°. Figure 3 shows experimental matrix, column specimens casted and tested,
and naming process for all of the specimens.
Six square columns were casted using plain

concrete, were concrete strength was equal
to 𝑓𝑐′ = 24.41 MPa
2 Square concrete columns, without 2 Square concrete columns 2 Circularized square concrete
any confinement applied to them. confined with one layer of CFRP columns confined with one layer
These two columns are reffered to as wraps. These two columns are of CFRP wraps. These two
reference columns and are titled L0 titled L1 columns are titled LC1
Figure 3. Bar chart to demonstrate experimental matrix, specimens, and naming process
4. Experimental Matrix
4.1. Design of Specimens
Six short plain concrete columns with a height of 30 cm and square cross sectional area of 10 X 10 cm were used.
These dimensions were chosen such as to comply to the minimum limit allowed by the ACI Committee 318 (2014) [13]
for considering the member as a short column, where ACI stated that a structural member is considered a column if the
ratio of height-to-least lateral dimension was greater than 3, if the member was vertical or predominantly vertical, and
if the member was used primarily to support axial compressive load.
In this study, six square plain concrete columns were casted without any internal reinforcement. The six square
columns were divided into three groups and each group consisted of two column specimens. First group (L0) consisted
of two columns (L0-1 and L0-2) with no external confinement. Columns in this group were considered as the reference
columns. The second group (L1) consisted of two columns (L1-1 and L1-2) confined with one layer of CFRP wraps as
an external confinement. The third group (LC1) consisted of two square columns circularized with concrete to form a
circular column section, i.e., the two hardened square columns, were modified into circular columns by circularization
technique. The circularized columns (LC1-1 and LC1-2) had a height equal to the original height of the square columns
(30 cm), and a circular cross sectional area with diameter of 15 cm. Finally, the circularized columns were wrapped with
one layer of CFRP wraps as an external confinement. Wrapping was achieved by using epoxy resin.
Circularized square columns are sometimes referred to as composite columns since they are consisted of two parts;
the existing square column part and semicircular circularization concrete part that was used to modify the shape of the
column’s cross-section from square into a circle.
The description of the specimens is summarized in Table 1.
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Table 1. Description of the specimens
Name Specimen Description

L0 The specimen is a square column with concrete strength of 𝑓𝑐′ = 24.41 MPa without any confinement
L1 The specimen is a square column with a concrete strength of 𝑓𝑐′ = 24.41 MPa confined with one layer of CFRP sheets
The specimen is a square column with a concrete strength of 𝑓𝑐′ = 24.41 MPa circularized with concrete of 𝑓𝑐′ = 28.8 MPa
LC1
and confined by one layer of CFRP sheets
4.2. Circularization Process

Many methods for performing shape modification to square and rectangular sections are available. However, the
method of direct circularization was adopted for this study as shown in Plate 1 A, In this method, the square columns
were placed concentrically inside the cylindrical mold in order to perform shape modification. Shape modification was
performed by casting the concrete mix inside the gaps between the cylindrical molds and the square columns. It is
worthwhile to mention that by using direct circularization process the final composite column assemble as a perfect
cylinder without any distortions or any discontinuity in the final shape. Plate 1 B, shows circularized square columns.
(a) Circularization Process (b) Circularized columns

Plate 1. Performing shape modification
4.3. External Confinement Process
When applying epoxy resin over the column surface, the resin was spread evenly by using a brush all over the surface
of the columns. Then, one layer of CFRP was attached to surface of the columns. For good impregnation of the resin
into the CFRP layer, also, to avoid any air bubble that may form or may be trapped inside the epoxy, a small serrated
roller was used. Finally, an overlap of 10 cm adopted for each layer, as illustrated in Figure 4. Furthermore, the fibers
were wrapped around the column in the hoop orientation. The serrated roller was rolled in the direction of the fibers in
order avoid any air bubble entrapped and the epoxy resin was left for 7 days to fully dry.
CFRP layer
(a) Overlap length of square column (b) Overlap length of circular column
Figure 4. Overlap length of CFRP
4.4. Selecting Appropriate Aggregate Size
Maximum size for coarse aggregate used for both square column concrete and shape modification concrete, was
chosen in compliance with ACI Committee 318 (2014) [13], where, according to ACI, the maximum size for coarse
aggregate used cannot exceed any of the following:
 1⁄5 of the smallest dimension between sides of forms.
 1⁄3 of the depth of slabs.
 3⁄4 of minimum specified clear spacing between the individual reinforcement bars or wires, i.e. ties.
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Concrete used in this study was plain concrete, thus, the third condition shall be omitted. Furthermore, since
specimens in this study are columns, the second condition shall also be omitted. The remaining first condition is of great
importance. Thus, in compliance with the first condition, 1/5 of the least dimension is 1/5 × 10 = 2 cm. Furthermore,
since there is a small area (spacing) between the sides of the square column and the inner fiber of the cylindrical mold,
a max size of half inch was chosen. Thus, the gravel used was of size of 1/2 inch or 1.25 cm, as shown in Figure 5.
Aggregate size
1.25 cm
Circularization
concrete
Square column
Figure 5. Sketch to illustrate size comparison between different gravel sizes

4.5. Material Properties
Materials used to cast columns were constituents of concrete, which are cement sand and gravel. Gravel used was
crushed gravel with maximum size of half inch. For sand, ordinary river sand is used and it was bought from local
market. Finally, sulfate resisting cement was used since it is one of the most universal type implemented in Iraq and
abroad as well. Concrete mixture properties are shown in Table 2.
Commercially available carbon fibers (CFRP) which are categorized by unidirectional fibers was bought from local
market and used in laboratory experiments. This CFRP wraps was used to cover (jacket) columns L1 and LC1. To attach
the CFRP wraps on the circumference of the columns, epoxy resin was used as an adhesive material. CFRP material
used was Sika Wrap 301 C, while for the epoxy resin, Sikadur 330 was used. The properties of both CFRP material and
epoxy resin are shown in Table 3, Table 4, and Table 5.
Table 2. Concrete mixture properties
Compressive strength for all square columns 24.41 MPa

Compressive strength for circularization concrete 28.8 MPa
Concrete mix ratio for square columns Volumetric ratio of 1:1.5:2.5 corresponding to cement, sand and gravel
Concrete mix ratio for circularization concrete Weight ratio of 1:1.24:2.16 corresponding to cement, sand and gravel
Maximum size of grave or coarse aggregate 12.5 mm
Type of cement used for concrete mixture Sulfate resisting cement
Water Normal potable water available at the laboratory
PH of water used for concrete mixture 6.8 - 7.2
Lab temperature 25°C
Table 3. Dry fiber properties of Sika Wrap 301 C
Dry fiber tensile strength 4900 N/mm2

Dry fiber tensile modulus of elasticity 230 000 N/mm2
Dry fiber elongation at break 1.7 %
Dry fiber density 1.80 g/cm3
Table 4. Laminate properties of CFRP wraps (Sika Wrap 301 C) after being embedded in Sikadur 330 epoxy resin
Laminate fiber tensile strength 4300 N/mm2

Laminate fiber tensile modulus of elasticity 225 kN/mm2
Laminate fiber elongation at break 1.91 %
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Table 5. Sikadur 330 epoxy resin properties
Resin tensile strength 30 N/mm2 (7 days at +23°C)

Resin tensile modulus of elasticity 4500 N/mm2 (7 days at +23 °C)
Resin elongation at break 0.9 % (7 days at +23 °C)
Resin tensile adhesion strength Concrete fracture (> 4 N/mm2) on sandblasted substrate
Resin density 1.30 ± 0.1 kg/l (component A+B mixed) (at +23 °C)
4.6. Instrumentation and Test Setup

To measure the lateral deformation of the columns under axial loads, two dial gauges were used. The two dial gauges
were installed in horizontal direction so that they would measure the horizontal displacements at the midheight of each
specimen. Furthermore, to gain better understanding of the horizontal displacement, the two gauges were installed in
two opposite sides on each specimen, i.e. the angle between them was 180°, as shown in Plate 2. A uniaxial compressive
load was exerted on the columns by using a universal compression machine as shown in Plate 2.
(a) Compression machine (b) Dial gauges

Plate 2. Installing dilation gauges for columns

5.1. Square Columns with no External Confinement by CFRP Wraps
Columns in this group are titled (L0-1 and L0-2) and are subjected to axial loads until failure. Plate 3 shows failure
modes of columns L0-1 and L0-2. It was noticed that failure occurred because of crushing of concrete at top regions,
precisely at the corners of the column. The load began from zero and increased until failure. Columns were failed by
crushing; this is a typical failure mode for compression short members. Failure of columns was sudden, and prior to
failure there were cracks that started to develop and increase in number and size with increased loading until the columns
failed.
(a) Column L0-1 at failure (b) Column L0-2 at failure

Plate 3. Modes of failure of columns (L0)
Load-displacement curves were measured by using two dial gauges at mid-height of columns. Figure 6 and Figure 7,
show load displacement curve for columns L0-1 and L0-2 respectively. As observed from load displacement curve, the
lateral displacement continued to increase until failure occurred where columns were crushed. Table 6 presents
laboratory experimental results for columns L0-1 and L0-2. During testing, there was an observed small lateral buckling
experienced in both columns L0-1 and L0-2. However, this small buckling didn’t affect the overall behavior of columns;
as the columns were designed as short columns and they behaved and failed as short columns. Furthermore, for each
one of the two columns, the net side displacement obtained from the difference of the two lateral displacements was
642
used to plot Figure 6 and Figure 7. The net side displacement for column L0-1 for instance was -0.45 mm and 0.59 mm.
Thus, the net side displacement was 0.59 - 0.45 = 0.14 mm. This net displacement (0.14 mm) was plotted against the
applied load in Figure 6.
Table 6. Experimental results for columns L0
Unconfined column Left side lateral Right side lateral Net side dilation
Specimen
strength (MPa) dilation (mm) dilation (mm) (mm)
L0-1 20.94 -0.45 0.59 0.14
L0-2 20.52 -0.26 0.36 0.1
250
200
Load kN
150
100
50
0
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12 0.14 0.16
Lateral displacement (mm)
Figure 6. Load-displacement curve of column L0-1
250
200
Load kN
150
100
50
0
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12
Lateral displacement mm
Figure 7. Load-displacement curve of column L0-2
5.2. Square Columns Confined with one Layer of CFRP Wraps

Columns in this group were titled L1-1 and L1-2. Plate 4 shows failure modes of columns L1. Observing modes of
failure for this group L1, it was noticed that the columns failed prematurely. This means that the concrete was crushed
before CFRP wrap could reach its ultimate strain. Thus, due to this mode of failure; the concrete was crushed inside the
CFRP layers. It should be noted that loading was applied by a compression machine. Loading was applied continuously
on the columns until they failed. Since the columns failed prematurely, crushed concrete wasn’t observable by eye.
However, after closer inspection, there was a slight noticeable bulge in the columns indicating that indeed concrete was
crushed before CFRP wrap reached its full strain capacity. It is worthwhile to mention that this type of failure for
columns confined with CFRP wraps was experienced also by Benzaid and Mesbah (2013) [9].
As loading increased, and especially when the applied load was near the load which the reference columns L0 failed
at, there was a large cracking sound heard from CFRP wraps. This is thought to be an indication that the CFRP wraps
were fully activated and confining pressure had started to take full effect.
Strengths of unconfined columns subjected to axial compressive load were 20.94 and 20.52 MPa for columns L0-1
′
and L0-2 respectively. Average strength of unconfined columns is 𝑓𝑐𝑜 = 20.73 MPa. Whereas the strengths of confined
square column obtained from laboratory experiments were 31.19 and 33.53 MPa for columns L1-1 and L1-2
respectively. The average confined concrete strength is 𝑓𝑐𝑐′ = 32.36 MPa. Thus, by providing external CFRP confinement,
an enhancement in load carrying capacity was about 56.1%. This high increase in load bearing capacity is believed to
be due to the premature failure of columns L1, were the concrete, although being crushed, was still confined inside the
CFRP layer. Table 7 shows data acquired from laboratory tests. Figure 8 and Figure 9 show load displacement diagram for
643
columns L1-1 and L1-2 respectively, and for plotting the two diagrams, net side displacement was also used since both
columns L1-1 and L1-2 experienced lateral buckling.
(a) Column L1-1 at failure (b) Column L1-1 at failure

Plate 4. Modes of failure of columns (group L1)
Table 7. Strength and lateral dilation of columns L0 and L1

Specimens
Column L0-1 Column L0-2 Column L1-1 Column L1-2
Variables
Unconfined column strength (MPa) 20.94 20.52 --- ---
confined column strength (MPa) --- --- 31.19 33.53
Left side lateral dilation (mm) -0.45 -0.26 -0.92 -0.71
Right side lateral dilation (mm) 0.59 0.36 1.28 1.11
Net side dilation (mm) 0.14 0.1 0.36 0.41
Average load bearing capacity increment % --- --- 56.1%.
350
300
Load kN
250
200
150
100
50
0
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4
Figure 8. Load displacement curve of column L1-1
350
300
250
Load kN
200
150
100
50
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
Figure 9. Load displacement curve of column L1-2
644
Columns L1 failed prematurely by crushing of concrete without any significant damage happening to the CFRP
wraps. It is for this reason that the load bearing capacity was greatly increased by 56.1%. Similar large increment in load
carrying capacity was reached also in the work of Khan and Fareed (2012) [14], where they fully confined concrete
short square columns by one layer of CFRP wraps. Their columns were subjected to concentric compressive loads. In
their experiment, the basic unconfined columns failed by crushing and withstood a maximum load of 302 kN, while the
wrapped square columns failed by rupture of CFRP wrap (unlike columns L1 where CFRP wraps were not ruptured)
and withstood a maximum load of 412 kN, thus, achieving an increase in load bearing capacity about 36.16%.
5.3. Circularized Columns Confined with One Layer of CFRP Wraps

In columns LC1, the columns were composite columns, meaning that each column consisted of two parts. The first
part was the original square column with concrete strength 𝑓𝑐′ = 24.41 MPa. The second part was the concrete (with
𝑓𝑐′ =28.8 MPa) used to change the section of the hardened square column into a circular cross section. Finally, the
composite columns were externally confined with CFRP wraps. Circularization technique was used to eliminate the
phenomenon of stress concentration caused by sharp edges of square columns when confined with CFRP wraps,
Pantelides, Yan and Reaveley (2004) [15]. Columns in this group were titled LC1-1 and LC1-2. The columns are
subjected to compressive pressure until failure occurred. Plate 5 shows failure modes of columns LC1.
(a) Column LC1-1 at failure (b) Column LC1-2 at failure

Plate 5. Modes of failure of columns LC1
Columns LC1-1 and LC1-2 failed in a brittle manner in an explosive nature. Due to the fact that circularization
technique was used to eliminate the phenomenon of stress concentration, restore membrane effect of CFRP wraps, and
increase confinement effect, thus, columns LC1 failed in an explosive manner where large strain energy was absorbed
and then released at failure. During testing of columns LC1, cracking sound originated from FRP wraps was heard. As
the applied load increased, the cracking sound also increased; until failure occurred at ultimate load where CFRP
ruptured and the concrete burst out and scattered in an explosive nature.
The strengths of unconfined column strength obtained from testing of square plain concrete columns under uniaxial
loading condition were 20.94 and 20.52 MPa for columns L0-1 and L0-2 respectively. The average unconfined concrete
′
strength is 𝑓𝑐𝑜 = 20.73 MPa. Whereas the strengths of circularized square columns obtained from laboratory experiments
were 54.06 and 56.97 MPa for columns LC1-1 and LC1-2 respectively. The average circularized concrete strength is
′
𝑓𝑐𝑐𝑖 = 55.52 MPa. Thus, by providing external CFRP confinement, an enhancement in load carrying capacity was about
167.8 %. Table 8 shows data acquired from laboratory tests.
Similar results were obtained from the work of Rolli and Chandra (2015) [5]. In their study, they experimented
reinforced concrete (RC) square columns circularized then wrapped by three layers of CFRP wraps. Columns had
dimensions of 150 × 150 mm as cross section and 750 mm as height. Columns were subjected to axial compressive
loads until failure occurred. In their experiment, the average peak load exerted on the square columns was 726.3 kN,
while for circularized columns, the average peak load exerted on them was 2896.68 kN. Thus, circularization technique
resulted in an increment in load carrying capacity for the columns about 299%. Surely, the increment in load carrying
capacity achieved in their experiment is much larger than the increment observed in columns LC1 in this paper. There
are many reasons to this variation (difference in increment percentage) but mainly it is due to different wrap thickness,
i.e. different number of CFRP layers. Another reason is the difference in concrete strength, i.e. 𝑓𝑐′ . From their
experiments, square columns as well as circularization concrete were both casted using concrete mix of strength of grade
M30. While as for columns LC1, i.e. columns in this paper, square columns were casted using concrete mix of strength
equal to 𝑓𝑐′ = 24.41 MPa, while circularization was performed using concrete mix of strength equal to 𝑓𝑐′ = 28.8 MPa.
645
Table 8. Strength and lateral dilation of columns L0 and LC1

Specimens
Column L0-1 Column L0-2 Column LC1-1 Column LC1-2
Variables
Unconfined column strength (MPa) 20.94 20.52 --- ---
confined column strength (MPa) --- --- 54.06 56.97
Left side lateral dilation (mm) -0.45 -0.26 0.58 0.2
Right side lateral dilation (mm) 0.59 0.36 0.25 0.69
Net side dilation (mm) 0.14 0.1 0.83 0.89
Average load bearing capacity increment % --- --- 167.8 %
Figure 10 and Figure 11 show load displacement curves for columns LC1-1 and LC1-2 respectively. Since the two
columns in the third group didn’t experience any lateral buckling at midheight of the columns, the load displacement
diagrams for both of them was plotted based on the highest displacement of the two dial gauges for each column. For
instance, in case of column LC1-1, the two dial gauges recorded dilation at the location where they were installed. Thus,
the largest of the two recordings, i.e. the largest of 0.58 and 0.25 mm (which is 0.58 mm), was plotted in Figure 10
versus the applied load. For column LC1-2, the largest of the two dial gauge readings 0.2 and 0.69 mm, which is 0.69
mm, was plotted in Figure 11 versus the applied load.
Additionally, Figure 12 shows maximum loads exerted on the columns L0, L1, and LC1. It should be noted that for
square columns L0, stress was calculated normally by dividing the applied load by the area of square column. However,
for columns LC1, the stress was calculated by dividing the applied load by the area of square section instead of the area
of the new composite circular section. This was done in order to ease understanding of strengthening by circularization
effect on square columns.
600
500
400
Load kN
300
200
100
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7
Figure 10. Load displacement curve of column LC1-1
600
500
400
Load kN
300
200
100
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8
Figure 11. Load displacement curve of column LC1-2
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60 55.52
Average maximum load, kN

50
40
32.36
MPa
30
20.73
20
10
0
f'co f'cc f'ci
Figure 12. Bar chart for maximum average stress carried by the column, 𝒇′𝒄𝒐 , 𝒇′𝒄𝒄 and 𝒇′𝒄𝒄𝒊
Where:
′
𝑓𝑐𝑜 : Average maximum stress applied, i.e. strength, on the reference non-confined square columns.
𝑓𝑐𝑐′ : Average maximum stress applied, i.e. strength, on the externally confined square columns.
′
𝑓𝑐𝑐𝑖 : Average maximum stress applied, i.e. strength, on circularized confined square columns.
6. Conclusions
 Strengthening method by performing circularization technique and applying external passive confinement to the
columns provided by CFRP wraps, deemed excellent results in terms of enhancing load bearing capacity and
ductility of square columns.
 Strengthening method by directly applying, on the square column, an external passive confinement provided by
CFRP wraps, deemed conveniently good results in terms of enhancing load bearing capacity and ductility of
square columns.
 When comparing results between circularized columns and square columns (both confined with CFRP) in terms
of load bearing capacity, it was observed that circularized columns enhanced and increased load bearing capacity
far better than the increment resulted by direct application of CFRP without shape modification. Circularized
columns enhanced load carrying capacity up to 167.8 %. Whereas confined square columns enhanced load
carrying capacity up to 56.1%.
 When comparing results between circularized columns and square columns (both confined with CFRP) in terms
of ductility, it was observed that both strengthening methods provided significant increase in ductility. However,
circularized columns behaved in a more ductile manner than the confined square columns behaved.
 Circularization method effectively eliminated to a great extent stress concentration areas which would result if a
non-circular column is wrapped with CFRP. This resulted in better enhancement in terms of load bearing capacity
and ductility.
7. Acknowledgement
The authors gratefully acknowledge the support of the Department of Civil Engineering, University of Baghdad.
9. References
[1] ACI Committee 440. "Guide for the Design and Construction of Externally Bonded FRP Systems for Strengthening Concrete
Structures." ACI 440.2R. (2008).
[2] Sangeetha, P. "Analysis of FRP Wrapped Concrete Columns under Uniaxial Compression." journal of scientific and industrial
research 66. (2007).
[3] Beryl Shanthapriya A, and Sakthieswaran N. “Optimization of GFRP Confinement in RC Columns Using Shape Modification
Technology.” International Journal of Engineering Research and V4, no. 08 (August 31, 2015). doi:10.17577/ijertv4is080394.
647
[4] Yan, Z., and C. Pantelides. "External FRP Confinement of Concrete Columns Using Shape Modification Technology." Fourth
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Vol. 5, No. 3, March, 2019
Multi-Level Crash Prediction Models Considering Influence of

Adjacent Zonal Attributes
Nemat Soltani a, Mahmoud Saffarzadeh b*, Ali Naderan c

a
Ph.D. Candidate, Tarahan Parseh Transportation Research Institute, Tehran, Iran.
b
Professor, Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering, Tarbiat Modares University, Tehran, Iran.
c
Assistant Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, Islamic Azad University, Science and Research Branch, Tehran, Iran.
Abstract
This study investigates factors affecting accidents across transport facilities and modes, using micro and macro levels
variables simultaneously while accounting for the influence of adjacent zones on the accidents occurrence in a zone. To
this end, 15968 accidents in 96 traffic analysis zones of Tehran were analyzed. Adverting to the multi-level structure of
accidents data, the present study adopts a multilevel model for its modeling processes. The effects of the adjacent zones
on the accidents which have occurred in one zone were assessed using the independent variables obtained from the zones
adjacent to that specific zone. A Negative Binomial (NB) model was also developed, and results show that the multilevel
model that considers the effect of adjacent zones shows a better performance compared to the multilevel model that does
not consider the adjacent zones’ effect and NB model. Moreover, the final models show that at intersections and road
segments, the significant independent variables are different for each mode of transport. Adopting a comprehensive
approach to incorporate a multi-level, multi-resolution (micro/macro) model accounting for adjacent zones’ influence on
multi-mode, multi-segment accidents is the contribution of this paper to accident studies.
Keywords: Multi-Level Model; Adjacent Zone; Crash Frequency; Micro/Macro Variable.
1. Introduction
Accidents are and have always been regarded as one of the sad consequences of transportation systems. In 2015, 19.9
people out of each 100000 have died in accidents in Iran; compared to 5.1 casualties in Europe [1, 2]. Hence, the
necessity of paying more attention to transportation safety and carrying out pertinent investigations seems unavoidable.
Since the nature and mechanism of accidents varies across diverse transportation facilities, it is essential to run separate
investigations on the accidents of each mode. The studies done over the recent years have mostly addressed accidents
of all modes together or have considered only a single mode (vehicle, motorcycle and pedestrian) [3]. This has led to an
inaccurate understanding of the factors affecting accidents since one factor might increase accidents in one mode while
decreasing them in the other. Therefore, the significance of reaching an accurate understanding of the factors leading to
accidents necessitates separate investigation of accidents across different transportation modes and facilities.
Most of the previous studies on transportation safety have addressed micro-level factors which are related to accidents
such as road geometry or the road lighting quality. Most of them are carried out at the operation time of transport
* Corresponding author: saffar_m@modares.ac.ir

649
facilities and are based on the data related to the existing accidents. Then, some engineering solutions are proposed
based on interpretation of model results [4]. On the other hand, some researchers have recently investigated the factors
affecting accidents at a macro level. These factors, for example economic and demographic variables, have been
considered at different geographical levels such as Traffic Analysis Zones (TAZs) and census blocks. The development
of accident prediction models based on macro-level variables has increased the amount of attention paid to safety in
studies related to road network planning. These models result in safety enhancements prior to the operation of
transportation facilities.
To get an accurate understanding of the factors leading to accidents, both micro-level and macro-level factors need
to be attended to simultaneously. That’s why a number of studies have recently addressed the factors affecting accidents
while considering the factors at both micro and macro levels simultaneously [5]. The present research has investigated
both micro and macro variables across different types of facilities (intersections and road segments) and modes of
transport (vehicle, motorcycle and pedestrian). The macro-level variables used in this study were collected at TAZ-level.
The use of TAZs is more common than other geographical levels (e.g. census block) because zone divisions are more
in line with the studies related to transport planning models and variables (e.g. trip generation and trip distribution) are
more readily accessible.
Since in the present study macro-level variables are extracted at TAZ-level, they are the same for the accidents which
have occurred at the intersections and road segments in zones. Therefore, the present study has adopted a multilevel
model for investigating the amount of intra-zonal correlation resulted from similar macro variables. Multilevel models
are more suitable for sets of data which are multilevel and in which low-level data are nested in higher-level data [6].
In this study, the data were categorized in two levels. The first level accommodated the micro-level variables related
to each accident and the second level included the macro-level variables related to TAZs. The hierarchical structure of
the database is shown in Figure 1.
Study Area
Zone 1 Zone j Zone 96
Accident 1 Accident 2 Accident i Accident 1 Accident 2 Accident i Accident 1 Accident 2 Accident i
Figure 1. Hierarchical structure of the variables

On the other hand, considering the same macro-level variables for the accidents which have occurred in a single TAZ
but in different situations might lead to an inaccurate understanding of the factors affecting accidents. This is because
the occurrence of some of them might have been affected by the factors available in adjacent TAZs. For instance, an
accident which has occurred at the borders of a TAZ can be more affected by the factors available in adjacent TAZs
than the factors of its own zone.
There are two options available for measuring the influence of adjacent TAZs on the accidents which have occurred
in a TAZ. The first option is through Spatial Error Correlation Effects in which the unobserved exogenous variables
available in one zone exert influence on the dependent variables which exist in the target as well as adjacent zones [7,
8]. The second method is carried out by means of Spatial Spillover Effects in which the observed exogenous variables
which are available in one zone affect the dependent variables existing in both the target zone as well as the adjacent
zones [9, 10, and 11].
In this study, to evaluate the influence of neighboring zones on the accidents of one zone through spatial spillover
effects procedure, the adjacent TAZs of one zone were identified. Then, some new variables were determined based on
the amounts of this variable in the neighboring TAZs. The final models were developed using these variables.
Considering the above-mentioned, the objectives of the present study can be summarized as follows:
1. Investigating the factors affecting accidents across transport facilities and modes;
2. Considering the factors affecting accidents at both micro and macro levels simultaneously and measuring the
influence of each;
3. Investigating and measuring the intra-zone correlation effect using a multilevel model;
4. Studying the influence of zones adjacent to a TAZ on the accidents which have occurred in that TAZ.
Figure 2 shows different steps followed in this research. The next section reviews related studies in this regard.
Section 3 addresses data collection and Section 4 explains the methodology of the study. Next, the results obtained from
the final models are presented followed by the conclusion.
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Figure 2. Research methodology
Finding the suitable method of analysis and selecting influential independent variables are two factors that affect the
development of safety models. In the past years, researchers have proposed numerous methods for developing accident
prediction models using different variables. The details of these methods and their results are presented in review papers
[12, 13]
The accident prediction models are mostly developed using micro-level variables [14-16]. These studies have helped
to identify the factors affecting the accidents at this level and determine solutions for decreasing the number of accidents
in different transport facilities like intersections or road segments. On the other hand, extensive efforts have been made
in recent years to develop accident prediction models using macro-level variables. These variables include roads length
with different functional classification in a zone [17, 18], and trip generation and trip distribution data for each TAZ
[19]. They also include environmental conditions like land use specifications [20], and socioeconomic factors like
household income [21]. The results of these researches have led to the consideration of safety indices in road network
planning.
Cai et al, investigated the influence of macro-level variables at TAZ-level on pedestrians and cyclists’ accidents
using Dual-State models. In their study, they were also trying to measure the influence of the neighboring zones on the
accidents of one zone. According to their results, some factors like population density, employment rate, and the number
of public transport users in one TAZ increase the number of accidents. Moreover, the influence of adjacent zones on the
accidents of one zone turned out to be significant and Dual-State models, especially Zero-Inflated Negative Binomial
model, showed a better performance in comparison to Single-State models [9].
To reach an accurate understanding of the factors affecting accidents, it seems necessary to consider suitable variables
at both micro and macro levels simultaneously and develop appropriate models. Although extensive researches have
been carried out on investigating the factors affecting accidents at micro and macro levels, few studies have so far
merged the data at both levels to develop accident prediction models.
Huang et al, developed accident prediction models at micro and macro levels and compared the performance of these
models in predicting hot zones. Based on this study, accident prediction models were developed for TAZs using macro-
level variables, and for intersections and road segments using micro-level variables. The results of this research indicated
651
that models have a better performance at micro level and present a better picture of the micro variables affecting traffic
accidents. Whereas, for investigating safety at TAZs, using accident models at macro level is more fruitful because less
detailed data are needed here [22].
Guo et al, developed accident prediction models for signalized intersections based on variables at micro and macro
levels. Based on the results of this study, the researchers found that at corridor level, Poisson models have a better
performance in comparison to other models [23]. Mitra and Washington, investigated the effect of variables at micro
level like Annual Average Daily Traffic (AADT), and at macro level like population across different age groups, total
population and the number of schools in zones adjacent to intersections on the number of accidents. Based on the results
of this study, the amount of population in 16-64 age groups and the annual average rainy days have a significant effect
on the occurrence of accidents. Moreover, through comparing the models developed based on traffic parameters and the
models developed based on all variables, the researchers found out that the omission of macro-level variables can
significantly increase the effect of other factors like AADT [24].
In this study, the variables are considered at both micro and macro levels. Since the macro-level variables available
for the accidents in a TAZ are the same, the structure of data in this study is multilevel. A multi-level data constitutes of
correlation among observations and inter-group independence where lower-level data are nested in the higher-level data.
When accident data is multilevel, using multilevel models, which account for intra-group correlation of accidents data,
is beneficial [6]. Detailed information about multilevel data and the adoption of multilevel models in studies related to
safety can be found in [25].
Huang and Abdel-Aty, adopted a five-level structure (geographic region level, traffic site level, traffic crash level,
driver-vehicle unite level and occupant level) as the general structure of accidents data. In this study, macro-level
analysis is considered based on the three high levels of geographic region level, traffic site level, and traffic crash level;
and micro-level analysis has considered the three low levels of traffic crash level, driver-vehicle unit level, and occupant
level. The authors in this study have proposed different methods for investigating multilevel data including analysis of
accidents data at intersections and time level [26].
Shi et al, investigated the number of highway accidents using multilevel and Negative Binomial (NB) models. In
their research, the highway was divided into 196 segments based on its geometrical specifications. The traffic data were
obtained through Automotive Vehicle Identification (AVI) systems installed in the highway. Since the output data of
AVI systems divided the highway into 43 segments, each AVI system represented the data related to some segments.
Due to the dual-level structure of the data, a multilevel model was used for investigating traffic accidents. Results show
that the multilevel model had a better performance than NB model. Moreover, some factors such as the increase of speed
or the increase of the horizontal degree of curvature decrease the number of accidents [27].
Considering the information presented above, in this study, both micro-level and macro-level independent variables
for the accidents which have occurred at intersections and road segments are collected across transport modes (vehicle,
motorcycle, and pedestrian) so that a comprehensive investigation can be carried out. Besides, the performance of
multilevel models in estimating the number of traffic accidents was evaluated as well. Finally, the influence of the
adjacent zones on the accidents were investigated.
3. Data Collection
In the present study, for developing accident prediction models using micro and macro variables, accident data over
the years 2014 and 2015, were collected for the west and the south west of Tehran, Iran. In general, data related to 15968
accidents (1231 accidents occurring at intersections and 14737 in road segments) which have occurred in 360
intersections and 892 road segments were collected. Tehran, as the capital city of Iran, has 5 main areas which in total
comprise 22 districts. The west and the south west main areas are composed of districts no. 9, 10, 17, 18, and 19 that
include 96 TAZs. The accident data was obtained through the database available in Tehran Traffic Police Center, and
the demographic data, i.e. population, education and employment were obtained through Iran National Census Center.
Besides, the traffic data was collected through Transportation and Traffic Organization of Tehran Municipality and
based on the results obtained from running Tehran traffic model. After collecting the required data, all information was
imported to the GIS application. Then the traffic, social, and demographic data related to each accident was calculated.
Figure 3 shows the districts under study along with the TAZs in those districts.
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22 districts of Tehran including study area Study area including related TAZs
Figure 3. Location of study area
The independent variables are shown in figure 4 and table 1 and table 2 list the variables used in this study at micro
and macro levels at intersections and in road segments respectively across modes of transport along with their descriptive
statistics.
Since in regression models there is usually a logarithmic relation between independent variables and the response
variable, using the logarithm of independent variables in the modeling process makes interpretation of the results much
easier. This is also very common in the previous studies [28, 29]. Moreover, this method also decreases variance among
variables [17, 30]. Hence, the present study uses logarithmic conversion of the variables related to the population and
trip generation, trip distribution of TAZs and traffic volume in road segment.
As already mentioned, to evaluate the effect of adjacent zones on the accidents occurring in a TAZ, all TAZs adjacent
to that TAZ were identified. Then, a new variable based on the value of the each independent variable from surrounding
TAZs was obtained. These variables capture the effect of neighboring TAZs on crash frequency in one TAZ. In Table
3 you can find a descriptive summary of the variables extracted from adjacent TAZs.
Micro-level Variables Macro-level Variables

Education Proportion of bus lines
Weather Population
Day
Age Trip production
Gender Trip distribution
Brightness Percent of literate
Volume
Percent of employed
Figure 4. Independent variables at micro and macro level
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Civil E ngineering Journal Vol. 5, No. 3, March, 2019
Table 1. Descriptive summary of variables for the intersection models
Mode of Transportation Vehicle Motorcycle Pedestrian
Variable Definition Min Max Mean SD Min Max Mean SD Min Max Mean SD
Education of driver; with university education= 0, without

Edu 0.00 1.00 0.83 0.38 0.00 1.00 0.63 0.48 0.00 1.00 0.79 0.41
university education= 1
Weather Sunny days= 0, rainy and snowy= 1 0.00 1.00 0.02 0.15 0.00 1.00 0.02 0.13 0.00 1.00 0.03 0.17
Day Weekday= 0, weekend day= 1 0.00 1.00 0.30 0.46 0.00 1.00 0.29 0.45 0.00 1.00 0.25 0.44
Age Age of driver 17.00 75.00 35.77 13.47 16.00 81.00 31.51 15.27 11.00 75.00 30.51 16.02
Gender Man= 0, woman= 1 0.00 1.00 0.10 0.30 0.00 1.00 0.06 0.23 0.00 1.00 0.11 0.31
Bri Daylight= 0, night= 1 0.00 1.00 0.28 0.45 0.00 1.00 0.29 0.45 0.00 1.00 0.27 0.44
Pro-bus Proportion of bus lines per road lines in TAZ 0.00 10.04 1.63 1.58 0.00 10.04 1.87 1.79 0.00 10.04 1.59 1.51
Pop Population of TAZ 0.00 39688.00 15761.33 7467.20 0.00 39688.00 16473.84 7970.85 0.00 33856.00 16383.91 7009.66
T-dis Trip distribution of TAZ 2469.08 45787.48 13732.53 6828.73 2469.08 45787.48 13540.96 6361.23 5066.68 30838.77 14134.54 6597.04
T-gen Trip generation of TAZ 2368.48 29483.32 14677.16 5536.39 2368.48 29483.32 15111.75 6117.71 2368.48 29483.32 15418.33 5716.89
Lit Percent of literate of TAZ 0.00 97.61 88.76 14.19 0.00 97.61 88.07 13.83 0.00 94.97 88.84 12.66
Emp Percent of employed of TAZ 0.00 96.16 84.16 13.32 0.00 96.16 84.23 13.11 0.00 93.20 84.43 11.84
Table 2. Descriptive summary of variables for the road segments models
Variable Definition Min Max Mean SD Min Max Mean SD Min Max Mean SD
Education of driver; with university education= 0, without

Edu 0.00 1.00 0.81 0.39 0.00 1.00 0.66 0.47 0.00 1.00 0.71 0.46
university education= 1
Weather Sunny days= 0, rainy and snowy= 1 0.00 1.00 0.02 0.15 0.00 1.00 0.00 0.07 0.00 1.00 0.02 0.14
Day Weekday= 0, weekend day= 1 0.00 1.00 0.27 0.44 0.00 1.00 0.26 0.44 0.00 1.00 0.24 0.43
Age Age of driver 16.00 86.00 35.42 14.45 12.00 90.00 31.45 15.62 7.00 81.00 30.41 18.02
Gender Man= 0, woman= 1 0.00 1.00 0.07 0.25 0.00 1.00 0.04 0.19 0.00 1.00 0.06 0.25
Bri Daylight= 0, night= 1 0.00 1.00 0.23 0.42 0.00 1.00 0.26 0.44 0.00 1.00 0.29 0.45
Vol Traffic count per segment base on peak hour 1.00 23445.00 9501.67 7082.57 1.00 23445.00 5821.36 5901.79 1.00 23445.00 5212.70 5423.44
Pro-bus Proportion of bus lines per road lines in TAZ 0.00 15.79 2.07 2.94 0.00 15.79 2.11 2.83 0.00 15.79 1.87 2.26
Pop Population of TAZ 0.00 39688.00 16897.35 9178.58 0.00 39688.00 15730.87 7893.03 0.00 39688.00 15826.84 7738.84
T-dis Trip distribution of TAZ 2469.08 45787.48 13614.77 8028.87 2469.08 45787.48 13776.10 7862.80 2469.08 45787.48 14167.46 8572.22
T-gen Trip generation of TAZ 1211.37 29483.32 15066.68 5769.00 1211.37 29483.32 14551.61 5780.43 1211.37 29483.32 14663.78 5683.04
Lit Percent of literate of TAZ 0.00 97.61 89.10 9.76 0.00 97.61 89.24 11.62 0.00 97.61 89.72 10.29
Emp Percent of employed of TAZ 0.00 96.16 85.97 9.21 0.00 96.16 85.33 11.05 0.00 96.16 85.79 9.77
Table 3. Descriptive summary of the variables extracted from adjacent TAZs
Variable Min Max Mean SD Min Max Mean SD Min Max Mean SD
Intersection
Pro-bus 0.46 7.61 2.19 1.47 0.56 6.7 2.31 1.45 0.56 6.7 2.23 1.58
Pop 2785.5 24900.5 15511.05 4942.23 2785.5 24900.5 15993.28 4399.8 8864.75 23486.8 16031.7 4693.3
T-dis 5457.03 21660.49 12379.58 4072.01 5283.8 21660.49 12623.56 3556.65 5174.75 21660.49 12514.62 4111.84
T-gen 4597.51 20922.76 14025.84 3682.42 4597.51 20922.76 14256.96 3189.52 8472.48 20922.76 14283.63 3400.38
Lit 85.03 94.8 90.39 2.97 85.03 94.8 89.72 2.67 85.44 94.8 90.2 2.85
Emp 83.94 88.49 86.34 1.19 83.94 88.49 86.57 1.23 83.94 88.49 86.39 1.14
Segment
Pro-bus 0.34 7.61 2.35 1.66 0.34 7.61 2.2 1.48 0.34 7.61 2.22 1.56
Pop 2785.5 24900.5 15572.84 5054.69 2785.5 24900.5 14925.17 4872.91 2785.5 24900.5 14774.07 4908.31
T-dis 3970.85 21660.49 12036.6 3590.86 3970.85 21660.49 12050.12 3895.83 3970.85 21660.49 12008.03 4045.11
T-gen 4597.51 20922.76 13815.47 3552.36 4597.51 20922.76 13494.19 3577.26 4597.51 20922.76 13474.49 3548.93
Lit 85.03 94.8 89.64 2.74 85.03 94.8 90.15 2.58 85.03 94.8 90.31 2.62
Emp 83.94 88.49 86.45 1.37 83.94 88.49 86.27 1.24 83.94 88.49 86.27 1.24
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4. Methodology
Poisson model is a type of statistical model which, due to the random, non-negative and sporadic nature of accidents
data, has had remarkable and successful applications. One of the fundamental assumptions of this model is equality of
accidents’ mean frequency and variance. To consider the over-dispersion of accidents data, an NB model would be
adopted. By adding gamma-distributed error term to the average available in Poisson model, this model considers the
over-dispersion available in accidents data and thus is preferred over Poisson model.
The formula for the NB model is presented in the following equations:
Yi ~Poisson(λi ) (1)
Ln λi = β0 + βXi + εi (2)
Where:
Yi : Represents the crash frequency by modes at intersection i or road segment i;
λi : Shows the expectation of Yi ;
Xi : Indicates a vector of explanatory variables;
β0 : The intercept;
Β: The vector of estimable parameters;
εi : Represents the error term which is considered to be independent X and has a two-parameter gamma distribution.
One of the main assumptions in NB models is the independence of observations. However, it is hardly possible in
practice to consider accidents independent from one another. For instance, the accidents occurring in one area might
have unobserved common factors [12]. To enhance accidents models for intersections and road segments and to consider
the correlation among accidents occurring in one zone due to their common macro-level variables, the present model
adopted a multilevel modelling approach.
The general equation for the single-level model or the conventional simple regression model is as follows:
yi = β0 + β1 X1i + ei (3)
In the above equation, the subscript i represents an individual respondent, y and x stand for the dependent and
independent variables respectively. There are also two fixed parameters (β0 and β1) that show the intercept and the slope,
and a random part (e) that makes it possible to have fluctuations around the fixed part. The word “random” here means
“allowed to vary”.
The micro-level of the individual is the sole place where this equation is specified. For developing a multilevel model,
this micro-model needs to be re-specified through differentiating TAZs with the subscript j. This provides the following
for the random intercept and random slope model:
yij = β0j + β1j X1ij + eij (4)
At TAZ-level, two macro models exist:
β0j = β0 + u0j (5)

β1j = β1 + u1j (6)
The first macro-model allows for different TAZ-level intercept (β0j) to change from one TAZ to another around the
overall intercept (β0) through the addition of random component u0j. The second macro-model allows for differential
slope (β1j) to change around the overall slope (β1) through the addition of random component u1j [31].
Once more, the micro model is regarded as an intra-zonal equation, whereas the macro models are between zonal
equations where the parameters of the intra- model are the responses.
It is worthy of notice that when the notation is used with eij as a part of the micro model as opposed to the macro
model for in that case just the micro-model includes both subscripts i and j, and this demonstrates a within situation,
whereas the macro-model in that case just includes subscript j, which demonstrates a between situation. The completely
random two-level model includes a combination of all three equations:
yij = β0 + β1 X1ij + (𝑢1𝑗 𝑋1𝑖𝑗 + 𝑢0𝑗 + 𝑒𝑖𝑗 ) (7)
The best accident model for intersections and road segments in each mode of transport was chosen based on three
criteria, namely log-likelihood, Akaike’s Information Criterion Corrected (AICC) and Bayesian Information Criterion
(BIC). What follows are the formulae for this measure:
AICC = 2k − 2LL(full) + 2k(k + 1) ⁄ (n − k − 1) (8)
BIC = kln(n) − 2LL(full) (9)
655
In the above formulae k represents the number of parameters, n indicates the number of observations, and LL(full)
shows the log-likelihood for the full model.

Accident prediction models were developed across intersections and road segments and for three modes of transport
(vehicle, motorcycle, and pedestrian). After developing numerous models including 3 types of NB models, multilevel
models with and without neighboring zones’ effect, 18 final models were created in total. To compare the performance
of the multilevel model with that of the NB model and to find out how much influence is exerted by the neighboring
zones on the accidents occurring in one zone, some comparisons were made among the final models based on the criteria
Model Goodness of Fit, Log-Likelihood, AICC, and BIC. The summary of model performances for models of
intersections and road segments are given in Table 4 for each mode of transport (vehicle, motorcycle, and pedestrian).
Results show that multilevel models which take into account the effect of neighboring zones have a better
performance than other models. Since the independent variables used in the modeling process proved significant in some
modes of transport yet insignificant in some others, the investigation of factors affecting accidents across different
facilities and in different modes of transport seems necessary. This result agreed with the safety research that the sets of
significant variables in crash frequency analysis differed for different transportation modes [32]. Moreover, multilevel
models can better estimate the number of accidents for they consider the multilevel structure of the data. Considering
the effect of the neighboring zones on the accidents occurring in a TAZ has a significant effect on both model
performance and the results of model goodness of fit.
Table 5 lists the coefficients and average marginal effects of the significant variables (P-value<0.05) in six final
models. Based on the final models the following results were achieved. Figure 5 shows spatial distribution of modeled
vs. observed accidents per TAZ by transportation modes.
Table 4. Summary of model performances
Type of Model Multilevel Multilevel-ENZ* NB
Mode of Transportation Vehicle Motorcycle Pedestrian Vehicle Motorcycle Pedestrian Vehicle Motorcycle Pedestrian
Intersection
Akaike Information Criterion
1049.89 772.03 328.59 990.82 731.47 299.68 1071.48 822.87 388.61
Corrected (AICC)
Bayesian Information Criterion (BIC) 1097.28 816.42 361.62 1057.39 790.71 343.67 1115.6 864.24 419.61
- Log Likelihood 510.04 370.92 148.03 473.56 344.7 125.01 521.96 397.49 179.37
Road Segment
Akaike Information Criterion
5206.64 3320.76 2922.14 5155.32 3268.69 2872.09 5242.62 3404.84 3028.71
Corrected (AICC)
Bayesian Information Criterion (BIC) 5276.1 3387.78 2988.22 5252.23 3362.12 2964.18 5307.48 3467.43 3090.43
- Log Likelihood 2588.01 1645.01 1445.7 2556.06 1612.64 1414.29 2607.04 1688.1 1500.01
*Multilevel models which take into account the Effect of Neighboring Zones
Table 5. Accident prediction models at intersection and road segments by mode of transportation
Modes of
Vehicle Motorcycle Pedestrian
Transportation
Average Average Average

Variable Coefficient P-value Coefficient P-value Coefficient P-value
marginal effect marginal effect marginal effect
Intersection
Intercept -9.7 0.00 0.00 -11.72 0.00 0.00 -7.32 0.031 0.00
Age -0.05 0.00 0.95 - - - - - -
Pro-bus - - - -1.42 0.04 0.24 - - -
Log-Pop - - - - - - 2.3 0.01 9.97
Lit 0.034 0.00 1.03 - - - - - -
Emp 0.071 0.03 1.07 - - - - - -
Log-Pop* - - - - - - 2.12 0.00 8.33
Log-T-gen* 4.37 0.00 79.04 - - - - - -
Lit* - - - - - - 0.086 0.03 1.09
Emp* - - - 0.248 0.00 1.28 - - -
Road Segment
Intercept -5.1 0.00 0.01 - - - -8.87 0.00 0.00
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Edu - - - - - - 0.068 0.00 1.07

Weather - - - -0.486 0.00 0.62 - - -
Log-Vol 1.11 0.00 3.03 0.83 0.004 2.29 0.431 0.00 1.54
Pro-bus -0.31 0.00 0.73 -0.018 0.00 0.98 -0.009 0.00 0.99
Log-Pop -1.53 0.02 0.22 0.34 0.00 1.4 - - -
Log-T-gen 2.3 0.00 9.97 - - - 0.65 0.048 1.92
Lit - - - 0.15 0.02 1.16 0.013 0.00 1.01
Emp - - - 0.084 0.00 1.09 0.042 0.034 1.04
Log-Pop* 0.98 0.023 2.66 - - - - - -
Lit* 0.034 0.0 1.03 0.017 0.015 1.02 0.063 0.00 1.07
Emp* 0.15 0.00 1.16 0.08 0.00 1.08 - - -
*: exogenous variable from neighboring TAZs
a. Spatial distribution of observed vehicle accidents b. Spatial distribution of observed motorcycle accidents
c. Spatial distribution of observed pedestrian accidents d. Spatial distribution of modelled vehicle accidents
e. Spatial distribution of modelled motorcycle accidents f. Spatial distribution of modelled pedestrian accidents
Figure 5. Spatial distribution of accidents by transportation modes
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5.1. Micro Variables

Based on the final model results for vehicle accidents at intersections, higher age of drivers leads to less accidents.
Since older drivers are more experienced and practice more caution in driving, the number of their accidents would
decrease. This result is similar to the findings of Kazazi et al, which concluded the older drivers had fewer accidents
because of their more cautious behavior [33].
Drivers’ level of education is negatively correlated with the number of pedestrian accidents in road segments, i.e. as
the level of education increases among drivers, fewer pedestrian accidents occur in road segments. Since more educated
people observe the rules more meticulously, the number of accidents, quite naturally, decreases. It is consistent with
previous study that drivers who had a lower education level had more accidents [34].
Rainy and snowy weather decreases the number of motorcycle accidents in road segments. This variable does not
show a significant change in other modes of transport and for the accidents occurring in intersections. This significant
change can be explained by the fact that when it rains or snows, the use of motorcycle decreases which naturally leads
to fewer accidents for this mode of transport in such weather conditions. Mitra and Washington, showed that the annual
average number of rainy days had negative relationships with crash occurrence at intersection. They explained that is
because of decreased driving population during the rainy season in the sample data [24]. On the other hand, some
previous studies found that rainy weather increases crashes [35]. In this case, further studies and consideration of all
related factors such as friction factor of road surface is required.
Higher volumes of traffic leads to more accidents in road segments in all three modes of transport (vehicle,
motorcycle, pedestrian), which is consistent with previous studies [36-38]. Obviously, such an increase in traffic
increases the amount of activity on roads which in turn results in a higher likelihood of accidents.
5.2. Macro Variables
Higher ratios of bus lines to roads length in a TAZ leads to fewer motorcycle accidents at intersections and fewer
accidents in road segments for all modes of transport. Since increasing the number of bus lines leads to increasing public
transportation facilities in one zone which in turn encourages people to use these facilities, the traffic of vehicles and
motorcycles would naturally decrease in that zone. This lower volume of traffic also results in lowering the possibility
of accidents (i.e. exposure).
Some researchers found that population is statistically a significant variable to predict crashes [39, 24, 5]. Lee et al,
observed that a higher population density had a propensity to increase pedestrian and bicycle crashes in intersection [5].
In this study, population increase in one TAZ also increases the number of pedestrian accidents in intersections and the
number of motorcycle accidents in road segments. Moreover, population increase decreases the number of vehicle
accidents in road segments. Since the study area is a densely populated urban area, the road network is mainly composed
of collectors and due to the low capacity of these roads, the volume of vehicle traffic is not much. Therefore, in densely
populated areas, due to their roads network structure and the composition of the passing traffic, the number of pedestrian
and motorcycle accidents increases and that of vehicles decreases. Population increase in the neighboring zones of one
TAZ leads to more pedestrian accidents in intersections and vehicle accidents in road segments. Since population
increase leads to more people moving about in that zone as well as in the neighboring zones, the likelihood of pedestrian-
vehicle accidents increases.
Trip generation increase in one TAZ leads to a higher number of pedestrian and vehicle accidents in road segments
and this increase in the neighboring zones leads to more vehicle accidents in intersections. Increase of trip generation
in one zone and in its neighboring zones leads to a higher volume of vehicle passing traffic in the roads network which,
in turn, increases the likelihood of vehicle collisions. Several previous studies found that trip generations and attractions
have a significant impact on crash frequency [40]. For example, trip generations and attractions per area are positively
associated with segment crash frequency; however, this factor has no significant effect on intersection crashes [41].
Considering the results of the final models, a higher percentage of literate people in one TAZ leads to more vehicle
accidents in intersections and more motorcycle and pedestrian accidents in road segments. Moreover, a higher
percentage of literate people in the neighboring zones of one zone leads to more pedestrian traffic accidents in
intersections and generally accidents in road segments in all three modes of transport. Since higher levels of education
usually leads to higher levels of public welfare, when the percentage of literate people increases in one zone, in fact the
level of public welfare increases which normally leads to the possession of more personal vehicles. Therefore the volume
of vehicle traffic increases which, in turn, results in more accidents in the mentioned transportation modes and facilities.
Number of employment plays a significant role in the probability of an accident [42, 17]. According to the results in
this study, as the number of employed people increases in a TAZ, the number of vehicle accidents in intersections and
the number of motorcycle and pedestrian accidents in road segments increase as well. Also, as the number of employed
people increases in the neighboring zones of one TAZ, the number of motorcycle accidents in intersections and road
segments and the number of vehicle accidents in road segments increase. When the number of employment increases in
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a TAZ, not only does the vehicle traffic volume increase in that zone and its neighboring zones, but also the level of
public welfare and, in turn, the number of personal vehicles increases, too. This leads to a higher volume of passing
motor vehicle traffic and more accidents in those zones.
5.3. Sensitivity Analysis of Variable
To run a quantitative comparison of the effects of different variables on the accidents occurring in road segments, a
sensitivity analysis of variables was carried out. This would help in understanding how important a variable is in the
accidents of each mode of transport (vehicle, motorcycle, and pedestrian). In fact, the sensitivity analysis shows how
much of the variance in the response variable is accounted for by one unit of change in the independent variable. The
results are presented in Table 5.
As can be seen, in intersection accidents, trip generation in the neighboring zones has the greatest impact on the
number of accident, so that adding 1 unit to the logarithm of trip generation in the neighboring zones of a zone increases
vehicle accidents in that zone by a factor of 79.04. On the other words, when the trip generation is 10 times, vehicle
crashes is 79.04 times. The percentage of literate people in one TAZ has the least effect, such that for each percentage
of literate people in one TAZ increase, the expected number of accident is increased by a factor of 1.03.
Regarding crashes in road segments, the logarithm of traffic volume in a road segment has different effects on
accidents based on transportation modes, such that adding 1 unit to this variable increases vehicle, motorcycle and
pedestrian accidents by factors of 3.03, 2.29 and 1.54 respectively. Therefore, the influence of this variable on vehicle
accidents is approximately 2 times stronger than that on pedestrian accidents. Regarding the variable population’s
logarithm of a TAZ, adding 1 unit to this variable decreases the number of vehicle accidents by a factor of 0.22. Whereas,
this variable increases motorcycle accidents by a weight of 1.4.
The same interpretation is true for the other variables available in Table 5. Based on the results obtained from
analyzing the sensitivity of the significant variables of the final models, it is observable that a variable influences the
accidents in various modes of transport differently. Therefore, the necessity of investigating the factors influencing
accidents across different modes of transport becomes evident.
6. Conclusion
Since the factors affecting accidents are different across transport facilities and modes, the accident prediction model
of the present study was developed across different modes of transport (vehicle, motorcycle, and pedestrian). The
independent variables were considered at both micro and macro levels. To consider the intra-zone correlation due to
common macro variables for the accidents occurring in one TAZ, a multilevel model was adopted in the modeling
process. Since the accidents occurring in one TAZ might be affected by the variables available in neighboring zones, a
multilevel model was also developed using the variables extracted from the neighboring zones of one TAZ. To this end,
the data related to 15968 accidents occurring in 96 TAZs of Tehran were collected. Next, the traffic, social and
demographic data related to the area under study were also collected and a database was created under GIS application
platform.
Multilevel models were developed with/without considering the effect of neighboring zones, and for comparison
purposes, an NB model was also developed and its results were compared with those of the multilevel models.
The final models were developed for the accidents occurring in intersections and road segments for each mode of
transport based on the criteria model fit, Log-Likelihood, AICC, and BIC.
According to the results, the multilevel model which considered the influence of neighboring zones had a better
performance in comparison to the other two models, namely the multilevel model that did not take into account the
effect of neighboring zones and the NB model. Considering the results obtained from the final models, some variables
like higher driver age, higher level of driver education, rainy and snowy weather, and higher ratio of bus lines to the
roads length available in a TAZ lead to decreasing the number of accidents; while some variables like higher vehicle
traffic and higher percentage of employed and literate people in a TAZ lead to a higher number of accidents. Since the
variables used in the modeling process proved significant in intersections and road segments for some modes of transport
but insignificant for some other modes, and also Based on the results obtained from analyzing the sensitivity of the
significant variables of the final models, because the effects of these variables were of different types and amounts in
intersections and road segments for different modes, the necessity of investigating the factors affecting accidents across
different modes and different transport facilities seems unavoidable.
7. Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank from Transportation and Traffic Organization of Tehran Municipality for providing
the traffic data.
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Vol. 5, No. 3, March, 2019
The Effect of Lining Material on the Permeability of Clayey Soil
Arwa O. Shakir a, Haifaa A. Ali b*

a
M.Sc. Student, Department of Civil Engineering University of Baghdad,, Baghdad, Iraq.
b
Assistant Professor, Department of Civil Engineering University of Baghdad,, Baghdad, Iraq.
Abstract
The main objectives of current work are to reduce the permeability of clayey soil for different fluid (water and crude oil)
and to predict its efficiency for petroleum storage. Current research uses a sodium bentonite (B) with percentage (1.5, 3
and 6%) by the dry weight of soil and coal tar extended epoxy resin coating as the lining material. The soil sample was
brought from AL -Nahrawan region. Soil's permeability for petrol was studied through using compacted soil model and
making a central hole (core) in it with changing its dimensions (diameter, thickness of wall and base), type of fluid and
number of filling cycles. After filling the core with these fluids, the volume losses of fluids were measured per day. When
two cycles were finished, a sample was taken from the base of the core to be examined in a consolidation test. Number of
laboratory tests have been conducted such as (Atterberg limits, compaction test, consolidation, sieve analysis and specific
gravity).The results showed that the increase in bentonite percentage causes an increase in (optimum moisture content,
Atterberg limit and specific gravity) and also decreasing in (max dry unit weight and permeability) as the fluid was water.
However, an increase in permeability was obtained using the crude oil. A reduction in volume losses was observed when
using the lining material, coal tar extended epoxy resin coating.
Keywords: Permeability; Compacted Clay Liner; Crude Oil; Bentonite; Lining Material (Coal Tar Extended Epoxy Resin Coating
(Nitocote ET-402)).
1. Introduction
Environmental damage is usually the result of accidental spills and sometimes deliberate disposal of oil or oily wastes
into water or land, through bursts of pipes and pumps, erosion of pipelines and spillage during transport [1]. Soil and
groundwater contamination with petroleum components can result from small leaks to large ruptures in underground
storage tanks (USTs), which represent broad public environmental and health concerns [2, 3].
Crude oil contains a complex mixture of compounds, mainly hydrocarbons. The constituents of crude oil are grouped
into four major categories, the saturated compounds, the aromatics, the resins, and the asphaltenes [4]. The main
environmental concern associated with crude oil is that it can pose serious risks to human health and the earth’s ecology
during all stages of production, processing and consumption, if not handled carefully [3, 5].
Soil permeability is considered a key parameter in many hydrological and geotechnical problems so, environmental
concerns have led researchers to focus their attention on the hydraulic conductivity of clays, due to their important role
in waste containment [6].
The compact clay liner is one of the most important components of municipal landfills used to prevent the infiltration
of pollutants into groundwater resources. Compressed clay soil is generally considered impervious. Even with the
* Corresponding author: haifaaali2013@yahoo.com

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emergence of hazardous waste disposal and associated problems of groundwater pollution through leachate, clays are
being accepted as barriers [7].
Most of the soil at the site is used to build clay barriers as long as they can be compressed according to standard
specifications, including hydraulic conductivity. Wherever the soil available at the site is not sufficient to be used for
construction clay barriers, the soil mixing with bentonite is the most widely used [8].
Sodium bentonite has a hydraulic conductivity in the range of 10 -11 to 10-12 m/s. High swell capacity associated with
a very low hydraulic conductivity and high surface area makes this clay suitable as liner material to reduce leakage due
to crack or any other reason [9].
At the present time a new way for compacted clay liner is being used through coating it by using Nitocote ET 402
material which has a corrosion resistance making it an economic material. The coating possesses a high-build capability,
excellent bond and chemical resistance properties. Rasheed, (1999) [10], investigated that any film or impervious layer
placed on the section of a channel can serve as a lining.
The successful construction and design of soil liners and covers require considering multiple factors e.g., assessment
of chemical compatibility, selection of materials, determination of construction methodology, bearing capacity,
evaluation of settlement, and analysis of slope stability [11].
Kavya et al. (2016) [11] examined the potential of modified soil barrier by mixing locally available soil with sodium
bentonite with percentage (3, 6, 9, 12, 15%) by weight to contain municipal solid waste .They observed an increasing
in un confined compression strength and a decreasing in hydraulic conductivity with increasing percentage of bentonite.
Also, they found that 12% of the group met the liner standards and found it to be the optimum percentage.
Goodarzi et al. (2016) [12] investigated the effects of different concentrations of various organic chemicals including
methanol, acetone, acetic acid and citric acid on macro and microscopic responses of Na + -Bent. They reported that
contaminants produced small structural units and total structures that may be significantly different from natural soil.
This is due to the breakdown of the diffused double layer and the decreasing of the surface charge density of the particles.
In addition, aggregation and development of aggregated structure have been reported in the presence of organic
chemicals. This change in tissue has reduced the plasticity and soil swelling index as well as increased Na + -Bentonite
permeability [22].
Krishna et al. (2016) [13] tried to evaluate the effect of municipal leachate on soil properties. The results showed
that the values of natural moisture content in non-contaminated soils are generally lower than those found in polluted
soil samples. Also, they reported that the concentration of chloride in contaminated soil was higher than that of non-
contaminated soil. This shows that due to the disposal of solid waste the soil quality is reduced. Finally, the study
concludes by drawing on the results obtained from, the solid waste disposed, the soil quality is reduced compared with
the non-contaminated soil.
Youssef and et al. (2016) [14] Investigated the impact of iron ore taillings (IOT) on the hydraulic conductivity of the
compressed laterite using deionized water and municipal solid waste residues such as combustible liquids, respectively.
The hydraulic conductivity decreased with an increase in IOT content due to improved mechanical properties of the soil.
The decrease of IOT soil mixtures reduced the hydraulic conductivity to less than 1 × 10-9 m / s, particularly in higher
compactive efforts. Also, biotic clogging of soil pores due to accumulation of biomass from yeast and bacteria found in
leachate tends to greatly reduce hydraulic conductivity.
Chinade et al. (2017) [15] Discussed the impact of municipal solid waste (MSW) leachate on the strength of
compressed tropical soil to slow landfills. Unconfined compressive strength (UCS) samples are compressed at water
content from -2, 0 and + 2% relative to the optimum moisture content of three compactive efforts: British standard
low(BSL), West African Standard (WAS) and British Standard Heavy (BSH) were permeated with MSW leachate for
7, 21, 42, 84 and 120 days respectively. They concluded that UCS for compressed samples decreased overall with
increased BSH, WAS and BSL permeating intervals respectively, due to the increase in clay particles that reduced
friction resistance between solid particles at their contact points.
Javadi et al. (2017) [16] estimated the swelling, hydraulic conductivity and pollutant retention of compacted clay
modified with (hexadecyltrimethylammonium (HDTMA) bentonite) against both gasoline and organic solution. They
found the addition of 10% of the HDTMA to the compressed clay is slightly increased the hydraulic conductivity of the
mixture to water. However, a higher tendency for swelling and lower hydraulic conductivity of gasoline were observed
with 5% of the HDTMA bentonite, and the embedded clayey soil had a much stronger retardation capacity for
naphthalene.
Sobti et al. [2017] [17] investigated a relative cost analysis of the use of a compacted clay liner( CCL) consisting of
a fine soil layer with low permeability overlapped by a geomembrane, fabricated soil liner( FSL), which was
manufactured by locally available mixtures of sandy/silty soils with bentonite varies from 0 to 40% for sand and 0 to
663
15% for silt and geosynthetic clay liner (GCL) is a clay lining manufactured in the factory consisting of a thin layer of
bentonite, which is encased between two earth cladding or adhered to a terrestrial membrane as a barrier material in
landfills / waste containment facilities in order to judge the economic feasibility of different materials. They found that
FSL is more economical contrast to other types. In addition, GCL can be used when both bentonite and appropriate clay
are not attendance nearby and must be brought over long distances.
Naini et al. (2017) [18] Studied the influence of four kinds of inorganic leachate components at concentrations of 2,
5 and 10%, leachate .Also the effect of deionized water on shear strength factors for three compacted clay liner (CCLs)
with different plasticity index conducted by a series of direct shear and vane shear tests. They found that the increase in
pollutant's content to 2%, cause an increase in the undraind shear strength of the bentonite clay slabs in both direct and
vane shear tests.
In this study, the effect of bentonite on the geotechnical properties of clayey soil and volume loss of clayey soil
subjected to water flow as soluble polarity solvents and crude oil as insoluble solids in polarization are investigated.
Also, the impact of the lining material (Nitocote ET 402) is examined. The new manner of coating the clay liner by
Nitocote ET 402 yields the most effective results that minimizes the volume loss of crude oil than bentonite additive.
2. Sample Preparation
In order to compare between the modified and unmodified soil samples, the initial water content and dry density
were fixed.
At first the unmodified soil passed from sieve No.4 then oven- dried with 105c. The dried soil mixed
homogenously with bentonite then amount of water previously determined from compaction test was added to it and it
was left to cure .Finally it was subjected to physical tests.
The consolidation and shear strength tests were conducted on samples (50mm in diameter and 20mm in height) and
(38 mm in diameter and 75 mm in height) respectively were extruded from compacted mould by compaction test through
using a hydraulic jack.
The model sample was prepared through using the split mould which has dimensions (15.1 cm in diameter and 17.5
cm in height) as shown in Figure 1. The weight of bentonite and soil were determined using the dry unit weight of soil
and used mould volume. The soil has been mixed homogeneously with percentage of bentonite after determination its
weight. Amount of water which is previously determined from the standard compaction test was added to soil, then it
was compacted in three layers. Each layer has a determined number of blows to give the same energy of the standard
proctor. The number of blows was (85 blows/layer) using a hammer dropping from height of 300 mm. The surface of
the compacted soil has been scarified lightly with a spatula, then the second and the third layer are handled with the
same way. The extension collar which is found at the top of the mould was removed carefully and the surface of top soil
is leveled off. A compression machine is used to make a core inside the compacted soil by inserting different diameter
cylinders (70, 80 and 90 mm) as shown in Figure 2.The procedure is repeated for origin soil by coating internal walls
of the core with Nitocote material.
Figure 1. The split mould Figure 2. The used cylinders
664
3. Materials
3.1. Soil
The soil that was used in this study was brought from Al- Nahrawan region which represents a soil that rich with
clay content .The physical properties and chemical tests are illustrated in Tables 1 and 2 respectively. The chemical tests
were achieved in ministry of science and technology.
3.2. Bentonite
To decrease the permeability of soil, sodium bentonite (B) was used which was brought from the middle oil company.
The bentonite properties represented by high swell capacity associated with a very low diffusion coefficient, low
hydraulic conductivity in the range of 10-11 to 10-12 m/s and high surface area makes bentonite-soil mixture suitable as
liner material for underground storage tanks [18]. The chemical composition is illustrated in Table 3. The chemical tests
of bentonite were achieved in ministry of science and technology.
Table 1. The physical properties of the soil
Property Value Specification

liquid limit% 49
Plastic limit% 21 ASTM D4318
Plastic index% 28
Max dry density gm/cm3 1.78
ASTM D698
Optimum Moisture Content, % 17.5
Specific gravity 2.7 ASTM D854-00
Clay% 60
silt% 26 ASTM D422-63
sand% 14
Classification soil unified classification system (USCS) Clay with low plasticity ( CL) ASTM D 2487
Table 2. Composition of soil oxides
Compound Weight%
SiO2 53.15
SO3 0.63
CaO 15.23
L.O.I 13.49
MgO 3.13
pH 7.2
Table 3. Chemical composition of bentonite
Compound Weight%
Al2O3 16.65
CaO 3.49
SiO2 54.45
MgO 3.73
Fe2O3 15.58
3.3. Coal Tar Extended Epoxy Resin Coating (Nitocote ET402)

Nitocote ET 402 is a coal tar extended, 100% solids, epoxy resin coating which has a corrosion resistance making it
an economic material so, it was used in this study as lining material for coating clayey soil although it is used for coating
concert surface. It is brought from local Fosroc Company. The coating possesses a high-build capability, excellent bond
and chemical resistance properties according to BS 7542 & ASTM C30 .Rasheed, (1999) [10] investigated that any film
or impervious layer placed on the section of a channel can serve as a lining.
665
NitocoteET 402 is used to prevent corrosion of concrete surfaces for applications such as:
 Chemical processing;
 Seawater tanks, channels and intakes;
 Foundation waterproofing;
 Manhole linings;
 Jetties, piers and docks;
 Sewage works and effluent plants.
It includes two cans (hardener can, and resin can). The entire contents of these cans are mixed mechanically using
slow speed electric drill for 3-5 minutes till the homogeneous consistency is obtained. The application applied in this
research involves two coats. The first coat is applied with a wet film thickness not less than 200 microns, and left for
drying before the application of second coat for at least three hours at 45c.The second coat was applied after finishing
the first one and left for drying. The chemical resistance and properties are shown in Tables 4 and 5 respectively.
Table 4. Chemical Resistance
Acids (m/v)
Hydrochloric acid 10% Excellent
Sulphuric acid 10% Very good
Nitric acid 10% Very good
Phosphoric acid 10% Very good
Alkalis (m/v)
Ammonia 15% Excellent
Sodium Hydroxide 25% Good
Solvents & organics
Oils, vegetable and minerals Excellent
Ferric Chloride 15% Very good
Aqueous solutions
Water Excellent
Sea water Excellent
Raw sewage Very good
Table 5. The properties of lining material
Property Value
Color black
Flash point 25c
Film thickness Dry:100-250microns/coat wet:161-403microns/coat
3.4. Crude Oil

The crude oil used in this work was brought from The Middle Oil Company. The properties are shown in Table 6.
Table 6. The properties of crude oil
Property Quantity
Specific gravity (at 25oC) 0.89
Viscosity (cp) 41.3
Density (g/cc) 0.88
Flash point (c) 43.1
666
4. Laboratory Work
4.1 Consolidation Test
Satisfactory to (ASTM,D2435_96) the test was achieved.
4.2. Shear Strength Test
The test was accomplished according to (ASTM, D 2166) and all tests were conducted in soil laboratory, civil
engineer department, University of Baghdad.
4.3. Small Scale Model Test
The check of model is considered as a test to study the behavior of long time of stored fluids.
At first the core was filled with petroleum products. Through using Vernier the reading which represents the drop-
in head per day was recorded till the central hole percolates all the fluid. The test is repeated for two cycles with different
percentages of bentonite and also with coating the internal wall of the core by coal tar extended epoxy resin coating
material. Figures 3 to 5 represented the stages of performing the model.
Figure 3. Coring the compacted clay
Figure 4. Extrude the core performing cylinder
667
Figure 5. Putting the model samples in container filled with sand

5.1. Atterberg Limit Test
From the results that is shown in Figures 6 to 8 and Table 7, there is an increase in liquid limit and plastic limit and
plastic index. This is due to increase in clay content, which in turn causes an increase in the plasticity characteristics by
taking more water to deform and filling up the voids make the mix impervious, which is the same result that was
obtains by [20]. Also, may be due to the high activity of bentonite accordance to [19].
Perhaps the increase of dielectric constant and the decrease in cation valence of the pore fluid lead to an increasing
in swelling and water retention which caused an increasing in Diffuse Double Layer thickness (DDL) and made an
increasing in Atterberg limits .Similar to [21]. Water has approximately high dielectric constant which reveal the
increasing in the Atterberg limits.
Odell et al. 1960 [22] and Pandian et al. (1995) [23] showed that increasing the bentonite content will linearly increase
the liquid limit of soil-bentonite mix up to approximately 20%. However, they showed that the relationship is nonlinear
at higher bentonite contents for clay-bentonite mixtures.
6
28
Bentonite content , %
25
3
1.5
22
21
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Water content, %
Figure 6. Effect of bentonite on plastic limit
67
6
57
1.5
51
49
0
0 20 40 60 80
Water content, %
Figure 7. Effect of bentonite on liquid limit
668
39
6
32
3
29
1.5
0 28
0 10 20 30 40 50
Water content, %
Figure 8. Effect of bentonite on plastic index
Table 7. Summery of Atterberg limit test
Additive percentage Liquid limit value Plastic limit value Plastic index value
0% 49 21 28
1.5% 51 22 29
3% 57 25 32
6% 67 28 39
5.2. Grain Size Distribution Curve

The result are shown in Figure 9.
100
90
80
70
60
Passing, %
50
40
30
20
10
0
10 1 0.1 0.01 0.001 0.0001
Particle size, mm
Figure 9. Grain size distribution curve for unmodified soil
5.3. Specific Gravity

The increasing in specific gravity was observed with increasing the bentonite content due to high specific gravity of
bentonite. similar with [10]. Also increasing the clay content in the given soil led to a high specific gravity. These results
are compatible with [24] as shown in Figure 10.
669
2.82
2.8
Specific gravity
2.78
2.76
2.74
2.72
2.7
0 2 4 6 8
Bentonite content, %
Figure 10. Effect of bentonite on specific gravity of soil
5.4. Compaction Test

From the result that is shown in Figure 11 below and Table 8, we observed a reduction in dry unit weight and an
increase in moisture content has occurred when bentonite content incresed. When the given soil was mixed with
bentonite material which has low weight and swelling characteristic caused an increase in clay content of soil and
plasticity, thus the ability of possessing water in soil structure also increased .The water starts to occupy space which
could be filled with soil mineral particles , which in turn reduces the weight of soil in compaction mold and leads to
reduction in the maximum dry density and an increase in water content due to hydrophilic property of bentonite with
water. The increase in clay content required more water to coat the soil particles to slide one over the other and to form
the flocculent structure by occupying less solids in a given soil volume. This corresponds with the study of [8, 10, 20,
25].
In other words, due to larger specific surface area, high cation exchange and high activity of bentonite, the absorbed
water surrounding the clay particles which has considerable volume, leads to an increase in the water content and a
decrease in the dry unit weight. The results are similar to [10, 26-29].
1.85
0%B
1.8
1.5%B
1.75
3%B
Maximum dry density
1.7
6%B
1.65
gm/cm3
1.6
1.55
1.5
1.45
1.4
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Water content, %
Figure 11. Compaction test result
Table 8. Summery of compaction test
Additive percentage Maximum dry density Optimum moisture content

0% 1.776 17.5
1.5% 1.759 18.1
3% 1.74 18.9
6% 1.72 19.3
670
5.5. Consolidation Test

It's obvious from the results shown in Figure 12 and Table 9, there is a decrease in hydraulic conductivity when
increasing bentonite as fluid was water. This is due to the increase in fine content and in the swelling capacity of
bentonite which may be possible as a result of the mineral galleries of the bentonite occurring due to the hydrophilic
nature (hydrogen bonds) of bentonite and the time interval of 24 hrs. left for it to absorb water. Therefore, expansion
occurs as water molecules penetrate beyond the external surface to the interstice of the bentonite layers [30]. So the
saturated bentonite can perform as a gel whose volume is up to 15 times from its dry volume which fills most of the
voids that cause a reduction in permeability. Similar result have been obtained by a number of researchers [25, 31]. Also
as bentonite causes an increase in plasticity which, in turn causes an increase in double layer thickness and a reduction
in congregation making the soil less permeability. Similar results were obtained by [11, 17, 32, 33, 34]. On the contrary
the coefficient of consolidation is decrease due to filling the voids by fine particles. This is similar to the finding of [20,
32].
The test result indicates that as the bentonite content increases, the compression index and the coefficient of volume
compressibility increase as a result of the increasing the plasticity of soil that will make it possess more water in its
structure, so it increases the diffuse double layer thickness, making the particles to slide one over another with more a
compressibility. The same results were found by [29].
While in contact with petroleum solvents, an increase in hydraulic conductivity was observed when bentonite content
was increased as shown in Figure 12 and Table 10. This may be due to the density of viscosity oil and its viscosity
correspond with [35]. Also, there was no swelling due to lack of association with organic solvent. This observation is
based on the behavior of oversized bentonite on the chemical composition in line with the similar degree of substitution,
and the quantity and nature of the cations associated with it. Similar with [30]. The decreasing in swelling makes an
increase in permeability of soil by changing soil fabric, more flocculated structure will be formed. Similar result was
observed by [3, 32, 36].
According to Goury Chapman's equation 1, the thickness of the double layer depends on the dielectric constant (D).
𝐷 (1)
T=√
n0 ∗ v2
In which n0= electrolyte concentration, v = cation valance. and T = Thickness of double layer.
Crude oil is a mixture of hydrocarbons that have very low dielectric constants; therefore, the D value of crude oil is
low, so the value for T will decrease accordingly, causing the double layer to shrink and open flow paths. In addition to
opening flow paths, low-dielectric-constant liquids cause clay particles to flocculate and shrink, thus causing the soil to
crack. These cracks are the so-called syneresis cracks, which are similar to those associated with desiccation caused by
drying. Similar results were found by [32, 37, 38].
It can be observed that the flocculation of clay particles and changes in Atterberg limits influence the distribution of
void size and shape, there by changing the soil structure. Actually, the increases in hydraulic conductivity and alterations
in soil structure cannot be solely attributed to the density and viscosity of pore fluid. In fact, both the viscosity and the
dielectric constant of the fluid are responsible for the failure of the liner materials. In addition, the nature of the water
or water-loving liquid (as measured by the constant insulation factor or the octanol-water division) is more important
than the density or viscosity in assessing its permeability through the soil. This corresponds to. [32, 39].
0.6
0%B
0.55 1.5%B
3%B
0.5
Void ratio, e
6%B
0.45
0.4
0.35
0.3
1 10 100 1000
Effective stress, Kpa
Figure 12. Consolidation test results
671
0.6
0%B
0.55 1.5%B
3%B
0.5
Void ratio, e
6%B
0.45
0.4
0.35
0.3
1 10 100 1000
Effective stress, Kpa
Figure 13. Consolidation test results with the effect of crude oil
Table 9. Consolidation test results as the fluid was water
Additive percentage Cc value Cr value K value

0% 0.102 0.009 4.46E-9
1.5% 0.113 0.013 1.81E-9
3% 0.135 0.022 2.31E-10
6% 0.146 0.034 6.83E-11
Table 10. Consolidation test results as the fluid was crude oil
Additive percentage Cc value Cr value K value

0% 0.092 0.008 7.2E-9
1.5% 0.100 0.009 9.3E-9
3% 0.116 0.019 8.21E-9
6% 0.119 0.020 7.8E-9
5.6. Unconfined Compression Test

Test results shown in Figure 14. It can be noticed that increasing the bentonite content causes an increase in
unconfined compressive strength due to increasing the fine content as cementing material. Also, bentonite cause
reduction in interparticle repulsion force making flocculated structure soil which means a more random particle
orientation and hardening process that developed during 28 days curing period [40], so the soil shear strength will
become greater when bentonite is added the same results were obtained by [8, 18, 20, 41].
800
700
600
Stress, KPa
500
400
300
0%B
200
3%B
100
6% B
0
0 5 10 15 20 25
Strain, %
Figure 14. Unconfined compression test results
672
5.7. Small Scale Model Test

5.7.1. Effect of Wall and Base Thickness
An effect of wall and base thickness have been studied for the used model on the permeability of soil for crude oil
and water. It has been done through using cylinders with different diameters and lengths. Figure 15 represents the effect
of wall thickness through using cylinders (70,80 and 90 mm) in diameter and inserting into the model to fixed depth
(80mm). Figure 16 represents the effect of base thickness through using cylinder (70mm diameter) and inserting it to
different depths (80, 90 and 100 mm).
The results from Figures 15 and 16 show a decrease in ratio of volume loss to original volume from (0.91 to 0.63)
and from (0.87 to 0.68) after 7 days from starting test when increasing the thickness of the wall and base from (30.5 to
40.5 mm) and (70 to 80 mm) respectively, this is due to lengthen the flow path which reduces the permeability.
The cylinder with 70 mm in diameter and 80 mm in height was chosen.
T= 7 day
0.63 T=4 day
40.5
0.33
T=3 day
0.26
0.15 T=2 day
Wall thickness in mm
0.81
35.5
0.46
0.38
0.29
0.91
0.57
30.5
0.51
0.41
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1

Volume loss/v
Figure 15. Effect of wall thickness
T= 7 day
0.68 T= 4 day
0.35
90
0.27 T= 3day
0.17
Base thickness in mm
T=2 day
0.77
0.4
0.34
80
0.23
0.87
0.49
70
0.42
0.36
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Volume loss/v
Figure 16. Effect of base thickness
5.7.2. Effect of Different Percentage of Bentonite

The cylinder with 70mm diameter and 80mm in length has been used for making a core inside the model for two
fluid with two cycle.
From Figure 17a, an increase in the ratio of volume loss to original volume form (0.27 to 89), (229.6% increase)
can be observed 3 days after starting the test when the bentonite content is increased from 0 to 6%, this is due to the
reduction in thickness of DDL, resulting in the diffraction of clay particles and possible cracking leading to shrinkage
of the soil skeletons, causing a decrease in repulsive forces that tended to flocculate and form aggregates due to attractive
673
forces between particles, leading to a net increase in the effective flow zone and the hydraulic conductivity of the soil-
pore fluid. Similar results in [42-44].
From Figure 17b ,a decrease in the ratio of volume loss to original volume from (0.94 to 0.34),(63.84% reduction)
has been seen when increasing bentonite content from (0 to 6%) as the liquid was water 12 days after starting the
test was due to increased bentonite swelling capacity and strong affinity between clay and water molecules, which
increased the thickness of clay particles and thus reduced soil porosity. Thus, the number of effective pores, the hydraulic
conductivity and water movement in the soil were reduced so that the flow path was lengthened. Similar results with
[32, 36, 45, 46].
Also, bentonite causes increased plasticity of the soil, so it offers less hydraulic conductivity. It is well known that
soil with a higher limit of fluid or a plasticity index should have a lower hydraulic conductivity (Mitchell 1976 [33];
Benson et al. 1994 [34]). Figures 18 and 19 shows an increase in volume loss from (0.77 to 0.835), (8.4% increase) and
from (0.69 t0 0.81), (17.3% increase) respectively with refilling the core due to the effect of petrol.
1.2
1
Volume loss/ v
0.8
0.6
(a)
0%B
0.4
1.5% B
0.2 3%B
6%B
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Time, day
1.2
1
Volume loss/v
0.8
0.6
(b)
0%B
0.4
1.5%B
0.2 3%B
6%B
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Time, day
Figure 17. Comparison in the time –volume loss relationships between unmodified and modified soil (a) crude oil (b) water
1.2
1
volume loss/volume
0.8
0.6
0.4
First cycle
0.2
Second cycle
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Time, day
Figure 18. Effect of number of filling on volume loss – Time relationships for soil mixed with %1.5 B
674
1.2
volume loss/volume
0.8
0.6
0.4
First cycle
0.2
Second cycle
0
0 2 4 6 8 10
Time, day
Figure 19. Effect of number of filling on volume loss- time relationships for soil mixed with 3%B
5.7.3. Effect of lining material (Nitocote ET 402)

The core which carried out by inserting cylinder 70mm in diameter and 80mm in height into the compacted soil has
been coated by the Nitocote ET 402 material by using a brush. Figure 20 plot the volume loss verse the time of
permeability of fluid used. From Figures 20a and 20b, there is a decrease in the ratio of volume loss to the original
volume after 11days from starting test from (0.93 to 0.52), (44.65% reduction) and from (0.58 to 0.32), (45% reduction)
respectively was observed. That means more time for the fluid to remain inside the core, this is due to chemical resistance
and the viscosity property of the coating material. Perhaps this material leads to plug the voids so the permeability
reduced as illustrated from SEM results Figure 21. That can be explained more as the Nitocote material form a
waterproof layer that clogged voids.
1.2
1
Volume loss/v
0.8
(a) 0.6
0.4
unmodified soil
0.2
coated soil
0
0 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24
Time in day
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
Volume loss/v
0.5
(b)
0.4
0.3
0.2 unmodified soil

0.1 coated soil
0
0 5 10 15 20
Time in day
Figure 20. Comparison in the time –volume loss relation between original soil and soil lined with high build coal tar epoxy
resin (a) crude oil (b) water
675
5.8. Micro Structure Studies

Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) images of origin soil, contaminated soil and lined soil by Nitocote material are
shown in Figure 21. It is shown that a fluid crude oil has an effect on the microstructure of soil which causes an
eggloramation of the soil particles that increase the voids between it and the more loss structure causes an increase in
permeability as shown in Figure 21b.
Figure 21c shows the less amount of voids because the lining material (Nitocote ET402) forms a waterproof layer
that plugged the voids and made more dense structure, causing a decrease in seepage. The test was conducted at the
physical science laboratory, college of science in Al-Nahrain University.
Figure 21. SEM Photo (a) origin soil, (b) contaminated soil with crude oil (c) lined soil as crude oil was a fluid
6. Conclusions
Several conclusions may be drawn from the results of current research:
 The addition of sodium bentonite increases the liquid limit, plastic limit and the specific gravity.
 When adding bentonite, there is a decrease in max dry density and increase in optimum moisture content.
 The value of coefficient of permeability (k) obtained from consolidation test tended to decrease. An increase in
coefficient of compressibility (cc) and swelling index as a cause to increase the bentonite content have been
observed.
 The uses of bentonite did not cause a decrease in volume loss but resulted in an increase in its values, especially
when using a crude oil as a permeant fluid.
 With refilling the models, the seepage increases as a result of the petrol's effect.
 The most efficient and effective material that minimizes the seepage loss of crude oil in this research is a coal
tar epoxy resin coating when using it as lining material.
7. Funding
This work was supported by the soil laboratory, College of Engineering in Baghdad University.
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678

Vol. 5, No. 3, March, 2019
Study on Bond Strength of Alccofine Based Normal and High

Strength Concrete
Balamuralikrishnan R. a*, Saravanan J. b

a
Asst. professor, Department of BNE, College of Engineering, National University of Science and Technology, Muscat, PO Box:2322,
CPO Seeb 111, Sultanate of Oman.
b
Department of Civil and Structural Engineering, Annamalai University, Pin:608001,Tamilnadu, India.
Abstract
Plenty of research works in India and abroad focusing on the reuse or recycling of waste materials from many industries.
Among that finding out suitable cementitious material for the replacement of cement is significant. Many waste materials
such as fly ash, silica fume, GGBS, metakaoline, micro materials, quartz power, etc. are tried out for replacing partially or
full of cement in concrete. A new ultrafine material called Alccofine is tried out for replacing partially in this research.
M20 and M60 grade of concrete is intended to study the performance of normal and high strength concrete by replacing
the cement with alccofine of different dosages. Previous researches showed that the replacement of alccofine increases
the strength. Design mix made for M20 and M60 grade and cubes casted with various percentage of alccofine with cement.
Hence the study is aimed to assess the bond behavior of M20 and M60 grade of concrete structures as an alternate to the
conventional materials. The cubes are prepared initially for the design mix and determined the strength of concrete. Then
specimens are prepared for the bond test and tested using pullout test methods. The results are analyzed and observed that
the bond strength is increased with increase of alccofine replacement to certain dosage.
Keywords: Alccofine-1203; Conventional Concrete; Conventional Steel Rebar; Bond Behavior.
1. Introduction
Mechanical properties of concrete which includes compressive strength and pull out strength. Compression test is
the most common test conducted on hardened concrete partly because it is an easy test to perform and partly because
most of the desirable characteristics properties of concrete are qualitatively related to its compressive strength. The
compression strength is carried out on the specimen cubical or cylindrical in shape prism is all so used but it is not
common in our country. Sometimes the compressive strength of the concrete is determined using parts of a beam tested
in flexure. Bond in reinforced concrete refers to the adhesion between the reinforcing steel and the surrounding concrete.
It is this bond which is responsible for the transfer of axial force from a reinforcing bar to the surrounding concrete,
there by proving strain compatibility and composite action of concrete and steel. If this bond is inadequate, slipping of
the reinforcing bar will occur, destroying full composite action. Hence the fundamental assumption of the theory of
flexure, viz. plane section plane even after bending, becomes valid in reinforced concrete only if the mechanism of bond
is fully effective. It is through the action of bond resistance that the axial stress (tensile or compressive) in a reinforcing
bar can undergo variation from point to point along its length.
The Effect of surface texture on bond strength of GRRP bar both sand coated GFRP and plain GFRP in concrete
* Corresponding author: balamuralikrishnan@nu.edu.om

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with different bar diameters say 9.5, 13, 19, 22 mm. The bond performance of sand coated GFRP rebar’s improved by
17-58%, and the bond strength developed mainly due to interlocking friction between sand particles and surrounding
concrete [1].The bond deterioration was influenced by the corrosion level, the loading history and amount of
confinement reinforcement [2]. The bonded anchor tension resistance limits determined by bond strength provided by
the glue. Bond strength is an overall parameter used for description of connection quality between the steel anchor and
concrete. The characteristics of glue are the limiting factor for chemical anchoring in high performance concrete [3]. In
general the bar diameter is increases the bond stress increases [4]. The bond strength between the ultra-high performance
fiber concrete (UHPFC) and normal concrete substrate depends on the surface treatment of the substrate, as the surface
treatment increases when the bond strength increases. The highest bond strength was achieved for the sand blasted
surface [5]. The polluted and non-polluted steel bars, the small bar sizes have greater bond strength then the large bar
sizes if the embedded length was small [6]. The ductility and bond strength of concrete was found to the increased in
steel fiber reinforcement concrete [7].
The bottom ash concrete possess bond strength almost same as that of controlled concrete [8]. The bond behavior of
the galvanized reinforcing steel was similar to that of the conventional epoxy coated bars [9]. Confinements on the bond
strength between concrete and corroded steel bars and the stirrups can limit the longitudinal cracking of concrete cover,
and significantly increase the bond strength of corroded steel bars [10]. The ultimate bond strength and the slip at the
peak bond stress are greatly influenced by equip-biaxial lateral tension. The slip at the peak bond stress first increases
and then decreases [11]. The bond strength between steel bars and high strength concrete increased with the increase of
concrete age, the bond strength was 5.89, 14.81, 19.82, 21.95, 22.56, and 25.54 MPa when the concrete age was 1, 3, 5,
7, 14, and 28 days respectively [12].
Alkali activated concrete have a better bond with steel in comparison with Portland cement based concrete. The
evaluation of bond between steel and concrete, but also for the development of alkali-activated or hybrid cement based
steel-fibre concretes [13]. The influence of locally available natural lightweight aggregates for the bond properties of
reinforcing steel bars embedded in structural concrete made with, was studied using pull-out tests on cubic specimens
of 150 × 150 × 150 mm. The natural lightweight aggregates could be considered as a promising, and cost effective
material for designing reinforced concrete members [14]. The pull-out test was conducted and chloride contents were
tested at crack area along 40 mm depth. The cracks of width more than 200 microns increased gradually; the chloride
content decreased along the depth of concrete, and the chloride content increased as the widths of initial cracks increased
or as the bar diameters increased. The ductility of bond specimens decreased as the diameter increased [15]. The chloride
penetration of concrete was affected in many ways, including physical, chemical, and mechanical such as permeability,
cement binding, and cracking (both internal and external) [16]. On one hand, bond strength was influenced by curing
conditions concrete compressive strength, concrete cover, embedded length, preflexural crack length, chemical adhesion
and friction [17].
1.1. Alccofine 1203
Alccofine (1203) (AF) is a specially processed product based on slag of high glass content with high reactivity
obtained through the process of controlled granulation. Owing to this unique and ultrafine particle size, AF provides
requirement of concrete performance. It can also be utilized as high water reducer to improve compressive & flexural
strength and also workability to improve the flow. It performs in superior manner than all other mineral admixture used
in concrete with in India. Due to its inbuilt CaO content alccofine triggers two way reaction during hydration also
consumes by product calcium hydroxide from the hydration of cement to form additional C-S-H gel similar to pozzolans.
AF is a new generation material supplementary cementitious material (SCM) with a built in high tech content. Due
to the dense packing of cementitious material, it produces low void content. Strength development increases drastically
at early ages and the larger on strength are higher compared to traditional supplementary cementitious material. It has
an ability to increase the service life of concrete by its ‘packing effect’. Packing effect retards ingression of aggressive
agent in concrete even by diffusion and thus enhances durability of concrete. Because of its finer pore structure and
chemical stability, AF in concrete is substantially more resistant to chloride diffusion. CaO available in AF contributes
to maintain CaO has buffer solution, which helps to maintain pH of pore solution. It can be used in two different ways
as a cement replacement. (i) In order to reduce the cement content (ii) An additive to improve concrete properties.
1.2. Properties of Alccofine 1203
It is observed that the major chemical compositions of Alccofine 1203 is 34 percent calcium oxide, 35 percent silicon
dioxide and 24 percent aluminum dioxide.
In this research the main objectives are to find the properties of materials, design the mix proportion for normal
strength concrete and high strength concrete, the bond strength of steel reinforcement in normal concrete and normal
strength concrete using Alccofine and finally to obtain the bond strength of high strength concrete using Alccofine. The
main scope are includes casting of cubes and cylinders, experimental study is restricted to assess the bond strength using
pull-out test for conventional concrete and concrete with Alccofine 1203.
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3. Experimental Investigations
3.1. Preliminary Tests on Materials
Basic tests like specific gravity, sieve analysis, scanning electron microscope (SEM) analysis for OPC and Alccofine
were carried out on the materials to be used. Testing was done and the results were tabulated as given below.
3.2. Specific Gravity of Materials
The specific gravity of the materials used for making concrete is determined as per IS 2386 - 1963. The values
obtained are given in the Table 1 and the combined specific gravity for cement and alccofine are presented in Table 2.
Table 1. Specific gravity
Sl. No Name of the Material Specific Gravity

1 OPC Cement 3.15
2 Alccofine 2.87
3 Fine Aggregate 2.71
4 Coarse Aggregate 2.78
Table 2. Combined Specific Gravity
Sl. No Name of the material Combination in % Specific gravity
1 Cement + Alccofine C 100% + A 0% 3.15
3.3. SEM analysis

The cementitious materials are analysed in SEM analysis to find in the materials shape and size of the samples
3.3.1. OPC- 43 (Figure 1)
Figure 1. SEM analysis of OPC 100µ, 10µ and 1µ
3.3.2. ALCCOFINE-1203 (Figure 2)
Figure 2. SEM analysis of AF 100µ, 10µ and 1µ
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3.3. Mix Ratio for M20 and M60 Grade of Concrete

The design mix for M20 and M60 grade of concrete is carried out as per the standards IS 10262 – 2009. (Table 3 and 4 ).
Table 3. Mix ratio for M20 grade concrete
Sl. No Cement F.A C.A W/C

1 1 2.11 3.39 0.55
Table 4. Mix ratio for M60 grade concrete
Sl. No. Cement F.A C.A W/C SP

1 1 1 2.05 0.31 0.029
The specimen details for M20 grade concrete with 0, 10, 12, 14 and 16 percent of alccofine and M60 grade concrete
with 0, 10, 12, 14 and 16 percent of alccofine are presented in Table 5.
Table 5. Specimen details
Curing days
Sl. No Mix Total
Specimen 3 7 14 28
1 CA0 3 3 3 3 12
2 CA10 3 3 3 3 12
3 CA12 Cube M20 3 3 3 3 12
4 CA14 3 3 3 3 12
5 CA16 3 3 3 3 12
6 CA0 3 3 3 3 12
7 CA10 3 3 3 3 12
8 CA12 Cube M60 3 3 3 3 12
9 CA14 3 3 3 3 12
10 CA16 3 3 3 3 12
3.4. Confinement of Concrete

The aim of confinement by means of transverse compression or transverse reinforcement is to prevent a failure along
a potential splitting crack and to enforce a shear failure, which is associated with the maximum attainable bond strength.
The cube shall be reinforced with a helix of 6mm diameter plain mild steel reinforcing bar conforming to grade 1 of IS:
432 ( part 1) - 1966 or IS: 226:1962 at 25 mm pitch, such that the outer diameter of the helix is equal to the cube, each
end of the helix being welled to the next turn. Figure 3 shows that the typical helical reinforcement for concrete
confinement during the casting of specimens. In reinforced concrete, rods are embedded in concrete in such a way that
as to function together with the concrete to resist forces. Embedded length can be calculated as per the standards in IS
11309 (Figure 4).
Figure 3. Helical spring Figure 4. Embedded bar
3.5. Casting and Curing of Specimens

In reinforcing steel loose scale and rust shall be removed by wire brushing and bars inspected to ensure that they are
free from grease, paint, or other coating which would affect their bond. The conventional concrete samples mixing were
done with pan mix. During the compaction process on the table it was necessary to hold the reinforcement bars in place
by hand. Once taken of the table both the concrete were stiffs enough to hold the reinforcement bars firmly in place on
their own are shown in Figures 5 and 6.
682
Figure 5. Helical reinforcement kept in position while casting
Figure 6. Specimens under curing
3.6. Pull out Test

The pull out test was conducted in universal testing machine (UTM). The specimens were placed in inverted position
as shown in Figure 7. Concrete cube specimen fixed with upper jaws and another edge of the reinforcement rod was
fixed with lower jaw as shown in figure. When the machine started the lower jaw will be coming down by that way the
rod is pulled. The load applied gradually through UTM by the incremental value of 0.2. Slip occurs at the time of testing
were noted with the help of vernier scale, when the specimens attain the maximum bond stress leads to failure. Maximum
slip value and load value was observed.
Figure 7. Specimen kept in position for pull out test
3.7. Bond Strength

In this test the bond strength is expressed in terms of the average bond stress obtained from pullout test. The force
around the embedded length is calculated through UTM and the average bond stress is calculated and the test results are
tabulated. Table 6 shows the bond stress and slip values obtained during the experiment for the normal strength concrete
i.e. M20 grade of concrete. Table 7 shows the bond stress and slip values obtained during the experiment for the high
strength concrete i.e. M60 grade of concrete.
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Table 6. Maximum load and slip values of specimens for M20

Grade of No. of days Percentage of Maximum slip Bond stress in
Maximum load in N
concrete of curing alccofine in mm N/mm2
0 15000 6.25 3.97
10 16000 5.22 4.24
M 20 7 12 17000 4.22 4.50
14 17000 4.10 4.50
16 22000 3.80 5.80
0 17000 5.22 4.50
10 18000 5.20 4.77
M20 14 12 18000 4.20 4.77
14 19000 4.23 5.03
16 23000 3.75 6.10
0 19000 4.50 5.03
10 21000 4.85 5.57
M20 28 12 23000 3.90 6.10
14 21000 3.22 5.57
16 23000 3.21 6.10
Table 7. Maximum load and slip values of specimens for M60

Grade of No. of days Percentage of Maximum load Maximum slip Bond stress in
concrete of curing alccofine in N in mm N/mm2
0 23000 4.50 6.10
10 25000 4.20 6.63
M60 7 12 26000 3.80 6.89
14 27000 3.50 7.16
16 30000 3.50 8.48
0 25000 4.20 6.63
10 27000 4.00 7.16
M60 14 12 27000 3.50 7.16
14 28000 3.25 7.42
16 31000 3.20 8.22
0 26000 3.90 6.80
10 30000 4.00 7.95
M60 28 12 31000 3.40 8.22
14 33000 3.05 8.75
16 32000 3.10 8.40

The Pull out is used for determining the bond strength for both normal and high strength concrete. From the bond test
bond stress and slip is calculated and the results are tabulated and shows in the Table 4.7 and 4.8. The graphical
representation is as follows for all the specimens and mixes.
4.1 . Normal Strength Concrete (M20)

The load vs. slip curve for normal concrete with alccofine 0,10,12,14 and 16 percent are shown in Figures 8 to 12.
684
2000
1800
1600
1400
Load (kN)
1200
1000
800
600 7 Days
400 14 days
200 28 days
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Slip in mm
Figure 8. Load vs. slip curve (A0%)
2500
2000
Load (kN)
1500
1000
7days
500 14 days
28days
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Slip in mm
2500
2000
Load (kN)
1500
1000
28 days
500 14 days
7 days
0
0 1 2 3 4 5
Slip (mm)
685
2500
2000
Load (kN)
1500
1000
28days
500 14days
7 days
0
0 1 2 3 4 5
Slip (mm)
3500
3000
2500
Load (kN)
2000
1500
1000 28 days
14 days
500
7 days
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
Slip (mm)
From the above graphs (Figures 8 to 12) the following results were obtained:
 Bond stresses increased with the increase of percentage replacement of alccofine except 16% replacement.
 Slip value decreased with the increase of percentage replacement of alccofine in all the replacements.
 The maximum load is 23000 N/mm2 and the corresponding slip is 3.21mm.
 All the curves obtained through the experiment are not smooth because of some slippage error occurred during the
experiment.
4.2 . High Strength Concrete (M60)
The load vs. slip curve for high strength concrete with alccofine 0, 10, 12, 14 and 16% are shown in Figures 13 to 17.
3000
2500
2000
Load (kN)
1500
1000
7days
500 14 days
28days
0
0 1 2 3 4 5
Slip in mm
686
3000
2500
2000
Load (kN)
1500
1000 7days
500 14days
28days
0
0 1 2 3 4 5
Slip in mm
3000
2500
2000
Load (kN)
1500
1000 7days
14days
500 28days
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
Slip in mm
3000
2500
2000
Load (kN)
1500
1000 7days
14days
500
28days
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5
Slip in mm
3500
3000
2500
Load (kN)
2000
1500 7days
1000 14days
500 28days
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5
Slip in mm
From the above graphs (Figures 13 to 17) the following results were obtained
 Bond stresses increased with the increase of percentage replacement of alccofine except 16% replacement.
687
 Slip value decreased with the increase of percentage replacement of alccofine in all the replacements.
 The maximum load is 33000 N/mm2 and the corresponding slip is 3.05 mm.
 All the curves obtained through the experiment are not smooth because of some slippage error occurred during the
experiment.
5. Conclusions
Based on the experimental investigation the following conclusions are drawn.
 The bond stress are determined through pull out test only for all the specimens, it is observed that the bond strength
increases for increase in percentage of Alccofine replacement.
 The embedded bar is pulled out through UTM, the rod slips are measured, the slip is decreasing with the increase
in load as well as in increasing the percentage replacement of Alccofine.
 For M20 grade concrete, it is observed that the strength of the concrete increases rapidly in early ages that is 7 days
and after that it gradually increases. The maximum bond stress obtained at the age of 7 days is 22000 N/mm2 for
16% replacement of Alccofine.
 For M20 grade concrete, at 7 days the bond stress for 16% replacement of alccofine increases by 45% whereas
when compared at 28 days the bond strength 12% replacement shows higher strength than conventional concrete
by 20%.
 For M20 grade concrete, the maximum bond stress achieved at 28 days for 12% replacement of alccofine with
cement is 23000 N/mm2.
 Hence it is understood that the replacement of alccofine with cement yields increase in bond strength and also
decrease in slip for all the specimens.
 For M60 grade concrete, it is observed that the strength of the concrete increases rapidly in early ages that is 7 days
and after that it gradually increases. The maximum bond stress obtained at the age of 7 days is 32000 N/mm2 for
16% replacement of Alccofine.
 For M20 grade concrete, at 7 days the bond stress for 16% replacement of alccofine increases by 20% whereas
when compared at 28 days the bond strength 12% replacement shows higher strength than conventional concrete
by 10%
 For M20 grade concrete, the maximum bond stress achieved at 28 days for 14% replacement of alccofine with
cement is 33000 N/mm2.
 The bond stress increased with the increase of concrete strength as well as the slip is reduced.
 The maximum slip for normal strength concrete obtained is 6.25 mm for the conventional concrete at the age of 7
days where as for high strength concrete 4.5 mm. At the age of 28 days the percentage of slip reduced by 10 to 20%
invariably.
 The lesser amount of slip is calculated for 28 days, 3.21 at 16% replacement of alccofine and 3.05 at 14%
replacement of alccofine respectively for normal and high strength concrete.
7. References
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Vol. 5, No. 3, March, 2019
Energy Absorption Capacity Of Layered Lightweight Reinforced

Concrete Beams With Openings In Web
Muyasser M. Jomaah a, Diyaree J. Ghaidan a*

a
Civil Engineering Department, College of Engineering, University of Tikrit, Iraq.
Abstract
This research presents the flexural behavior on reinforced concrete beam with transverse web opening constructed from
layered concrete. The layered concrete combining normal concrete and lightweight aggregate concrete (LWC) are
depended in present study. In the experimental program, 13 models of normal and layered reinforced concrete beams are
tested under the effect of four-point loads. All beams had the same overall geometrical dimensions and main longitudinal
top and bottom with internal diagonal reinforcement provided around the openings. One of the beam specimen is tested
as control beam and the other specimens are divided into three groups [G1, G2, and G3] to study the effects of the following
variables: effect of presence of web openings, layered system, lightweight aggregate (partially volumetric replacement of
normal aggregate by thermostone) on the ultimate load, cracking load, cracking pattern and energy absorption capacity.
The existing of an opening in beam specimens reduced the flexural capacity of beams with a percentage depending on the
size of opening and opening number. The test data obtained from the adopted layered technique of (NEW) and (LWC)
have shown that for beams constructed from two layered concrete (LWC with thermostone in the web and bottom flange
of I-beam section) ultimate load is decreased about (9.3%-48.8%). It has also, the beams constructed from three-layered
of concrete (LWC with thermostone in the web of I-beam section), their ultimate load is decreased about (25.6%-58.1%).
On the other hand, magnitude increased of energy absorption capacity are achieved by the decreased opening size,
introducing the full size opening of dimension (100×1000) mm reduces the energy absorption capacity of the RC I-section
beams at least 80% compared to solid beam while the beam with opening size (100×100) mm decrease up to 16%. In the
case of the layered concrete beams specimen, the real influence of lightweight concrete (LWC) type in the layered
reinforced concrete is observed significantly after increasing the length of opening more than 100 mm.
Keywords: Layered Concrete; Lightweight Aggregate Concrete; Openings; Thermostone Aggregate; Energy Absorption Capacity.
1. Introduction
In civil engineering construction, the objective of using or selecting any material is to make full utilization of its
properties in order to get the best performance for the formed structure. The features of a material are based on factors
such as availability, workability, structural strength, durability, and cost. As it is difficult to find a material, which
possesses all these properties to the required level, the engineer's problem consists of an optimization involving different
materials and methods of construction.
Hybrid layered systems of various strength materials can be used in civil engineering construction. The hybrid
concrete structure under flexural as consists of two layers; for an example the compressive layer, which is made of a
* Corresponding author: diyarij@gmail.com

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high compressive material, and the tension layer, which is made of lightweight material to get the best performance of
this structure with lower cost and weight.
The term “Lightweight concrete” is generally used for concrete of density lesser than 2200 kg/m3. The utilized of
lightweight concrete is ruled primarily by economic considerations [1]. LWC is not just one item, it is a spectrum of
different concrete with a variety of characteristics and it fills in a number of needs. It is produced by including large
quantities of air in the aggregate or in a matrix or between the aggregate particles [3]. There are several types of
lightweight concrete such as no-fines concrete, aerated concrete, and lightweight aggregate concrete [1].
Beam openings may be of several shapes, sizes and are generally located close to the supports where shear is
dominant. Practically, it is quite often employ to provide convenient passage of environmental services such as a network
of pipes and ducts which reduce the story heights of buildings and weight of construction as it progresses the demand
on the supporting frame both under gravity loading and seismic excitation which results in an economical design [9].
In reinforced concrete beams the structural engineer is often challenged with the problem of providing convenient
passage .Due to abrupt changes in sectional configuration, the corners of the opening would be subjected to stress
concentration and it is possible to induce transverse cracks in the beam. Also, it can reduce the stiffness, which leads to
deformations and excessive deflections under service load and considerable distribution of forces and internal moments
in a continuous beam. So, the effect of openings on the ultimate strength and behavior of reinforced concrete beams
must be regard and the design of these beams needs special consideration. However, current codes of practice for design
of reinforced concrete structures do not provide provisions for the design of R.C beams with openings [8].
Oukaili and Shammari, (2013) carried out an experimental test on T-reinforced concrete beams with a circular
opening. Seven beams with simply supported and having multiple web circular openings were tested using concentrated
static load at mid-span. The test variables were number of circular openings web (4 or 6) and the technique which was
used to strengthen the member at openings (utilize internal deformed steel bars as in the case of the openings are planned
before casting the beams) or using carbon fiber reinforced polymer (CFRP) fabric as in the case of the openings will be
created in the present beams). The obtained laboratory results indicated that the strengthening of beams at openings may
compensate the decrease of the beam capacity due to the existence of the openings under static loading [14].
Zaki et al., (2017) tried to trace the effect of introduced opening (unsymmetrical) in the reinforced concrete beam.
Eleven reinforced concrete beams (150×300×1500 mm) were tested under to two-point load with different opening size.
Test results showed that the ultimate load reduced about 70% by opening (120×360mm) as a compare the control beam
(without opening) [13].
The effect of small circular opening on the shear and flexural and ultimate strength of beams were investigated. The
main factors of the test are the diameter changes and the opening position. In this study, five beams were casted and
tested using C20 concrete and Fy415 steel. The first beam was solid and was used as control for comparison with other
beams with an opening. The second beam opened at distance of L/8 by 110mm (0.55D), third beam opened at distance
of L/8 by 90mm (0.45D). Beam number four and beam number five had openings at distance L/4 as mentioned above.
The tested beams were loaded with two concentrated and symmetrical load as simple beam. They conclude that the
reduction of ultimate strength increased and cracking patterned as well as the beam failure mode when the opening
diameter increased. To increase the ultimate shear strength of the beam, they recommended the use of diagonal
reinforcement and stirrups in top and bottom chords of opening. They also concluded that the most critical opening
position to achieve the ultimate strength in beams is near the support and that the best opening place in these beams is
mid span (flexure zone) [18].
The experimental and finite element (FE) method is used to investigate the shear behavior of the reinforced concrete
beams with openings. The main variables were the shear span -to- depth ratios (av/d), the size of openings, and the
opening location. Based on the shear span-to-depth ratio the beams were divided into three series. Test data showed that
the openings in a high shear area (the line connecting the load and support points) led to the early collapse of the beams
[17].
On the other hand, the authors define in this paper the energy absorption capacity is the area under the structural
loading-displacement curve. There are few research works on the energy absorption capacity of reinforced concrete
beam with openings. The energy absorption capacity of the beam with circular openings significantly more than energy
absorption capacity of the beam with square openings. Also, failure of beam due to Vierendeel truss action reduce the
ductility and energy absorption capacity [16].
So, the main aims of this study was evaluated experimentally the energy absorption capacity and the behavior of
layered reinforced concrete I-section beams with openings.
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2. Experimental Program
2.1. Material
General description of the material in this study is listed below:
2.1.1. Cement
Ordinary Portland cement (type I) is used throughout in this study. It satisfies to the Iraqi specification No.5 [10].
2.1.2. Fine Aggregate
Natural sand From Qara salm area in Iraq is used as fine aggregate in this work. The maximum size of the fine
aggregate has 4.75 mm with rounded-shape particles. The sieve analysis of fine aggregate indicates that the fine
aggregate grading is submitted the requirements of Iraqi Specification No. 45 [11].
2.1.3. Coarse Aggregate
Crushed gravel from laylan /Iraq is utilized in this work as coarse aggregate passing sieve No.12.5.The specific
gravity of aggregate used is 2.6 with grading satisfying the requirements of Iraqi Specification No. 45 [11]
2.1.4. Steel Bars
Two sizes of deformed steel bars of nominal diameter (12 mm and 8mm) are utilized as main reinforcing bars. While
the 6 mm diameter deformed steel bars are utilized as stirrups. The result of testing this bar meet the A615 [7]
requirements for Grade 60.
2.1.5. Thermostone
One kind of blocks, produced from cellular concrete (also known as autoclaved aerated concrete), is known as
thermostone. These blocks are increasingly used as an alternative to bricks in multi-story buildings in order to reduce
the total load of the building as well as to ensure thermal comfort inside it. In this study looking for the effect of using
recycled lightweight aggregate from lightweight concrete blocks (gathered from the waste products of construction or
thermostone factories) as a coarse aggrgate. The recycled aggregate is obtained by crushing lightweight concrete waste,
brought from thermostone factory in Kirkuk city, into a similar grading to that of the natural aggregate 12.5mm, and is
used in the saturated surface dry condition. This is then used to replace the coarse aggregate only with 50% ratio. The
replacement is volumetric for lightness weight of thermostone aggregate, Table 1 and Table 2 show grading and physical
properties of thermostone respectively.
Table 1. Grading of thermostone aggregate
Sieve size (mm) Cumulative passing % Limit of ASTM C330-99 [19]
12.5 99 90-100
9.5 77 40-80
4.75 5.4 0-20
Table 2. Properties of thermostone aggregate
Properties Specification Test Results Limits of specification
Specific gravity ASTM C127 [20] 1.01 -
Absorption % ASTM C127 [20] 43.5 -
Dry loose unit weight kg/m3 ASTM C29/C29M [21] 355 -
Sulfate content (as SO3) % Iraqi specification [11] 0.3 1(max. value)
2.2. Mix Proportion

After casting two trail mixes, as shown in the Table 3. , and making necessary alterations. The concrete mix that is
obtained following the ACI Committee-211 [15] (specifications of concrete mix design) achieved comparatively a good
degree of workability, minimum density and an acceptable level of strength (30MPa) which is targeted. It is utilized for
casting large-scale reinforced concrete beams, and standard cylinders. Further for investigation of the effect on the
behavior of lightweight aggregate concrete.
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Table 3. Trail mix

Cement Content Coarse Aggregate Fine Aggregate Compressive strength
Trail Mix w/c Density (kg/m³)
(kg/m³) (kg/m³) (kg/m³) at 28 Day (MPa)
1 400 1200 600 0.4 2413 24
2* 460 920 782 0.38 2370 33
*concrete mix which were used in this study.
2.3. Mechanical Property of Normal and Lightweight Concrete

2.3.1. Concrete Compressive Strength (fc’)
The compression test is carried out according to ASTM C39 [4] on cylinders of 150X300 mm .Results of the tests
for all concrete mix in this study at 28 days are higher than (17) MPa. This is the minimum required strength
recommended by ACI Committee-213 [2] for structural LWC, as shown in Table 4. Summarizes the compressive
strength for the normal concrete and lightweight concrete mix are given.
2.3.2. Splitting Tensile Strength (fct)
The indirect tensile strength (The splitting tensile strength) is performed according to ASTM Standard C496[5].
Cylinders of 150×300 mm were loaded continuously up to failure .As shown in the Table 4, the reduction in the tensile
strength of concrete is about 33% as compared to the normal concrete when the aggregate is replaced by 50%
thermostone aggregate. This reduction in the tensile strength could be attributed to the effect of the cellular structure of
lightweight aggregate (thermostone) that enhanced the initiation and growth of microcracks in concrete under tensile
loading.
Table 4. Properties of hardened concrete
Type of concrete Curing period Density kg/m3 fc’ (MPa) fct (MPa) fr (MPa)
NWC 7 days 2373 33 4.3 5.84
28 days - 34.14 4.41 7.68
LWC 7 days 2082 15.29 2.53 4.44
28days - 23.68 2.95 5
2.3.3. Modulus of Rupture (fr)

Using the flexural strength testing machine of 150 kN capacity, prismatic specimens of 100×100×500 mm are tested
under two-point loading for modulus of rupture according to ASTMC78 [6].The reduction in the modulus of rupture of
concrete is about 22% as compared to the normal concrete when the aggregate is replaced by 50% thermostone
aggregate. As shown in the Table 4.
2.3.4. Unit Weight

As it is shown in Table 4, the unit weight for concrete mixes produced from 50% thermostone aggregate at 7 days
met the requirement of ACI Committee-213[2] for structural LWC. The reason behind that is due to the porous structure
of this type of aggregate compared to the natural aggregates due to the unit weight of the lightweight concrete blocks
(thermostone) is about 600 – 800 kg/m3.
2.4. Details of Specimens

For investigate the flexural behavior, (13) reinforced concrete I-shaped cross-section beams are exposed to four point
load after curing for 28 days. Designation of test specimens divided into three groups according to the type of concrete
and opening in the web. Their details are listed in Table 5. One of these beams is a control beam without openings. The
square and rectangular opening are created by inserting a box fabricated from styrobore. The distance between the
support and the center of opening is (250, 350, 400, 750) mm respectively, for two square, rectangular, square, full-size
openings. The main steel reinforcement consists of two ∅12 mm, the compression reinforcement consists of two ∅8mm.
Stirrups consist of ∅6 mm at 100 mm center to center. This reinforcement is utilized for the reference beam, for beams
with strengthened openings with pre-fabricated internal steel bars consisting of ∅6 mm as diagonal bars around the
openings for each side. A schematic diagram of the test beam specimens showing the dimensions and details of the
reinforcement is depicted in Figures 1 to 6.
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Table 5. Details of specimens
Sample Description
BN B:beam N:normal concrete
G1
BN1 B:beam N:normal concrete 1:rectangulare open
BN2 B:beam N:normal concrete 2: square open
BN3 B: beam N: normal concrete 3: two square open
BN4 B:beam N:normal concrete 4:full size open
G2
BT1-1 B:beam T: LWC* (50% normal aggregate. +50% thermostone aggregate) 1:1st group(two layer) 1:rectangulare open
BT1-2 B:beam T: LWC (50% normal aggregate. +50% thermostone aggregate) 1:1st group(two layer) 2:square open
st
BT1-3 B:beam T: LWC (50% normal aggregate. +50% thermostone aggregate) 1:1 group(two layer) 3:two square open
st
BT1-4 B:beam T: LWC (50% normal aggregate. +50% thermostone aggregate) 1:1 group(two layer) 4:fullsize open
G3
BT2-1 B:beam T: LWC (50% normal aggregate. +50% thermostone aggregate) 2:2nd group(three layer) 1:rectangulare open
BT2-2 B:beam T: LWC (50% normal aggregate. +50% thermostone aggregate ) 2:2nd group(three layer) 2:square open
nd
BT2-3 B:beam T: LWC (50% normal aggregate. +50% thermostone aggregate ) 2:2 group(three layer) 3:two square open
nd
BT2-4 B:beam T: LWC (50% normal aggregate. +50% thermostone aggregate ) 2:2 group(three layer) 4:fullsize open
LWC*: lightweight concrete
Figure 1. Detail of reinforced concrete beam (reference)
Figure 2. Detail of reinforced concrete beam with rectangular opening
Figure 3. Detail of reinforced concrete beam with square opening
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Figure 4. Detail of reinforced concrete beam with two square opening
Figure 5. Detail of reinforced concrete beam with full-size opening
Layered concrete system in constant case of opening parameter
BN- group BT1-group BT2-group
Normal Thermostone
aggregate aggregate
Figure 6. Layered reinforced concrete group to be studied

3.1. Ultimate Load and Cracks Pattern (Pu)
The ultimate loads are presented in Table 6 and Figures 7 to 11 each one represents the modes of failure and cracks
pattern. The solid reference beam (BN) failed in flexure mode. The failure is due to yielding of the tensile reinforcement
at ultimate load. This type of failure mode is typical for under-reinforced beams, as illustrated in Figure 7. The ultimate
load was 95 kN corresponding mid-span deflection of 12.7 mm.
Generally, all beams with openings exhibited diagonal cracks originating at the opening corners nearest to the support
and load points because of stress concentration. Based on the beams result, an increasing of opening diameter leads to
increasing of cracks around the opening at all load stages whereas the type and pattern of cracking in these beams are
different. In beam (BN2) the direction of shear cracks that is passed through the center of the opening and rapidly grows
through the top and bottom section of the beam. With increasing the width of these cracks, the beam under the load of
92.8 kN is subjected to shear failure. According to Mansur & Tan [12], this kind of failure is known as beam failure
type. The mode of failure for both shapes of the square opening is illustrated in Figure 9. For the beam (BN1), first shear
crack induced under 33.15 kN, the direction of these preliminary cracks, which has an angle of approximately 45 degrees
relative to the horizontal direction, passed through the centre of the opening, but with an increase of load, its direction
changes nearly in the horizontal direction. As the amount of the load increased, additional cracks on top and bottom of
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opening will form. These cracks join the horizontal cracks and when the total amount of applied load reaches 81.8 kN
the beam suddenly failed in frame type mode while the opening position on the other side remained undisturbed, as
shown in the Figure 8. For beam (BN3) (two square opening of dimension 100×100 mm) that shown in Figure 10, the
first crack is initiated at the opening corner nearest to the support. As the load increased, circumferential cracks are
observed at the top and bottom chord of the opening, the beam failed by shear action at a load of (70.7) kN. The major
cracks are located at the line joining the points of the opening corners and the nearest the support toward the point of
load application. Similarly, minor cracks are observed at the four corners of the two square opening. However, the crack
condition is not as severe as the other opening. The mode of failure, as indicated by Figure 10 was a typical shear failure.
The crack pattern for the beam (BN4) with opening length 1000mm was shown in Figure 11. The first crack at the
mid-span of the beam is initiated at 11.05 kN. Then, the crack at the shear zone is initiated at the opening corner nearest
to the support at a load level of 33.15 kN. As the load increased, additional new cracks are observed at the top and
bottom chord of opening and the beam failed by a shear action at 61.9 kN. In addition, the major crack is located at the
line joining the points of the opening corners and the point of load application. The mode of failure, as indicated by the
Figure 11 is a shear failure.
The type of concrete has significant effect on the crack pattern around the opening and also on the value of ultimate
strength. This is illustrated in group [G2] and [G3]. The ultimate load recorded for specimens (BT1-1, BT1-2, BT1-3,
BT1-4, BT2-1, BT2-2, BT2-3 and BT2-4) was (66.3, 86.2, 66.3, 48.6, 61.9, 70.7, 61.9, and 39.8) kN respectively. In
comparison to similar beam made out of normal concrete, it fails under low loads and shows larger cracks.
Table 6. Experimental result of beams
load (kN) Deflection (mm)

Open dimension Capacity decreasing E.A.C**** Mode of
Beam
(lo×do)*** (%) kN.mm failure
Pcr Pu ∆cr ∆u
BN* 33.15 95 2 12.7 - 816.77 flexure
G1
BN1 100×200 33.15 81.8 2.31 11.4 13.9 636.73 shear
BN2 100×100 33.15 92.8 1.7 11.5 2.3 681.43 shear
BN3 D**(100×100) 33.15 70.7 2.9 8.1 25.6 567.92 shear
BN4 100×1000 11.05 61.9 1.26 4.62 34.8 127.76 shear
G2
BT1-1 100×200 22.1 66.3 2.2 8.53 30.2 397.36 shear
BT1-2 100×100 33.15 86.2 1.58 10.55 9.3 673.93 shear
BT1-3 D(100×100) 22.1 66.3 1.44 8.85 30.2 477.01 shear
BT1-4 100×1000 11.05 48.6 1.23 4.42 48.8 103.56 shear
G3
BT2-1 200×100 22.1 61.9 1.47 8 34.8 329.48 shear
BT2-2 100×100 22.1 70.7 1.62 6.14 25.6 275.86 shear
BT2-3 D(100×100) 22.1 61.9 1.47 6.9 34.8 267.81 shear
BT2-4 100×1000 11.05 39.8 0.94 4.05 58.1 88.30 shear
B*=reference beam specimen; D**= double square opening; E.A.C****:= energy absorption capacity (kN.mm)
(lo×do)***= (width of opening × height of opening).
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BN
Flexural cracks initiated

then shear crack appear
Figure 7. Crack pattern for specimen BN (reference)
BN1
Frame-type
failure
Figure 8. Crack pattern for specimen BN1 (rectangular opening)
BN2
Beam-type
failure
Figure 9. Crack pattern for specimen BN2 (square opening)
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BN3
Major
Undisturbed cracks
side of sample
Minor
cracks
Figure 10. Crack pattern for specimen BN3 (two square opening)
BN4
Major
cracks
Figure 11. Crack pattern for specimen BN4 (full-size opening)
3.2. Energy Absorption Capacity

It is the capacity of a material, section, structural element or structural system to tolerate large inelastic deformations
prior to total collapse. Without such a property, structural members would a diminished ability to resist loads beyond
their maximum strength. The area under the load-deflection curve is considered in this study.as shown in the Table 6.
As Compared to the control beam, the energy absorption capacity of the normal concrete beam with opening length
(1000mm) decrease up to 84% while the beam with opening size (100×200) and (100×100) respectively, decrease up to
22% and 16%. So, magnitude increased of energy absorption capacity was achieved by the decreased opening size, as
shown in the Figures 12 and 13.
In case of the two layered concrete beams, the real influence of lightweight concrete (LWC) type in the layered
reinforced concrete is observed significantly after increasing the length of opening more than 100mm, for instance : the
energy absorption capacity of the beam specimen which constructed from LWC thermostone BT1-2 is 10% less than
the beam specimen BN2. With increased the opening dimension in the beam specimen BT1-1, the energy absorption
capacity decreased up to 45% in compare with BN1.
In addition, the energy absorption capacity of the beam BT1-1 is greater than that of the beam BT2-1 in the rate of
6%, similarly between the beams BT1-2and BT2-2.These results indicate that the experimental results of increasing
layered number for layered concrete beam exhibited a negative performance on the energy absorption capacity, as shown
in the Figures 14 and 15.
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Figure 12. Energy absorption capacity for reinforced normal concrete beams (reference and rectangular openings)
Figure 13. Energy absorption capacity for reinforced normal concrete beams (reference and full-size openings)
Figure 14. Energy absorption capacity for reinforced layered concrete beams with square openings
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Figure 15. Energy absorption capacity for reinforced layered concrete beams with rectangular openings
4. Conclusions
 It is possible to produce lightweight concrete by using locally available materials, thermostone, as coarse
lightweight aggregate.
 The test results show there is a trivial difference between beams with opening and control beam till opening size
of 100mm in (length).
 By making a square opening in the beam (100×100) mm, the cracks appeared around the opening most of them
started from two opening corners to the edge of the beam and the beam failure occurred in the opening region.
So we can say that failure occurred in the beam (BN2) is beam type failure and this gives us an indication that
beam with existed small opening gives us an alarm before failure.
 In normal reinforced concrete beam with small opening at shear zone, the maximum reduction in ultimate load
was about (2.3%).
 In normal reinforced concrete beam with large opening (length of opening more than 100mm) at shear zone,
excessive shear cracks were found around the openings. The failure mode was in shear. Providing large opening
in reinforced concrete beam decreased the ultimate load about (34%).
 The experimental test results obtained from the adopted layered technique of (NEW) and (LWC) have shown that
for beams constructed from two layered concrete (LWC with thermostone in the web and bottom flange of I-
section beam),the ultimate load was decreased about (9.3%-48.8%).
 The beams made from three layered of concrete (LWC with thermostone in the web of I-beam section), their
ultimate load is decreased about (25.6%-58.1%).
 The two layered concrete show that good performance more than the three layered.
 Introducing the full size opening of dimension (100×1000) mm reduces the energy absorption capacity of the RC
I-section beams at least 80% compared to solid beam.
 In the three layered concrete beams specimen, the load-displacement curve shifts to the left and becomes stiffer,
which reduces the energy absorption capacity of concrete beam.
5. Acknowledgement
The author acknowledge Tikrit University and Kirkuk University for their help to done this research works.
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[13] Zaki, Michael M., Mostafa A. Osman, Ata E. Shoeib, and Megdy M. Genidi “The effect of created opening under working load
on behavior of R.C beams.” Proceedings of the nineth international conference on NANO-technology in construction (NTC 2017).
[14] Oukaili, Nazar K. and Abeer H. Shammari “Response of reinforced Concrete Beams with Multiple Web Openings to Static
Load.” Proceedings of the fourth Asia-pacific conference on FRP in structures (APFIS 2013).
[15] ACI Committee, American Concrete Institute, and International Organization for Standardization. “Standard practice for
selecting proportions for normal, heavyweight and mass concrete (ACI 211-91).” American Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills,
Michigan, USA.
[16] Aykac, Bengi, Ilker Kalkan, Sabahattin Aykac, and Yusuf Emre Egriboz. “Flexural Behavior of RC Beams with Regular Square
or Circular Web Openings.” Engineering Structures 56 (November 2013): 2165–2174. doi:10.1016/j.engstruct.2013.08.043.
[17] Osman, Bashir H., Erjun Wu, Bohai Ji, and Suhaib S. Abdulhameed. “Shear Behavior of Reinforced Concrete (RC) Beams with
Circular Web Openings Without Additional Shear Reinforcement.” KSCE Journal of Civil Engineering 21, no. 1 (April 25, 2016):
296–306. doi:10.1007/s12205-016-0387-7.
[18] Saksena, Nilesh H., and P. Patel. "Experimental study of reinforced concrete beam with web openings." International Journal of
Advanced Engineering Research and Studies-India 2, no. 3 (2013): 66-68.
[19] ASTM C330, ”Standard Specification for Lightweight Aggregates for Structural Concrete.” ASTM International, West
Conshohocken, PA. (1999).
[20] ASTM C128 “Standard Test Method for Relative Density (Specific Gravity) and Absorption of Fine Aggregat". ASTM
International, West Conshohocken, PA. (2015).
[21] ASTM C29/C29M ”Standard Test Method for Bulk Density (Unit Weight) and Voids in Aggregate.” ASTM International, West
Conshohocken, PA. (2009).
701

Vol. 5, No. 3, March, 2019
Improvement of Soft Soil Using Linear Distributed Floating Stone

Columns under Foundation Subjected to Static and Cyclic Loading
Mahdi Karkush a*, Anwar Jabbar b

a
Assistant Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, College of Engineering, University of Baghdad, Iraq.
b
M.Sc. Student, Department of Civil Engineering, College of Engineering, University of Baghdad, Iraq.
Abstract
A stone column is one of the soil improvement methods that are mainly used for improving the geotechnical behavior of
soft soils. For deep improvement of soft soil, the floating stone columns are considered the best and effective economically
which provide lateral confinement and drainage and longitudinal skin friction. In this study, six tests were carried out on
the natural soft soil of undrained shear strength of 5.5 kPa improved by single and two linear distributed floating stone
columns. The stone column dimensions are 30 mm in diameter and 180 mm in length and the stone column material is
sand of high internal friction angle of 48°. The natural and improved soil samples are tested under isolated raft foundation
of dimensions 120×120 mm subjected to vertical static and cyclic loading of frequency 2Hz and continued for 50 seconds.
The results showed a significant improvement in soil bearing capacity when reinforced with stone columns despite the
small area replacement ratio, where the bearing capacity of improved soil increased by 120 to 145%. The compressibility
of improved soil decreased by 57 to 86% in comparison with that of natural soft soil. Also, the floating stone columns
reduced the porewater pressure, where the stone columns considered efficient in providing short drainage pathways. This
can be one of the reasons why soil reinforced with floating stone columns hold higher cyclic and static stresses regardless
the end bearing of stone columns.
Keywords: Floating; Stone Column; Soft Soil; Axial Loading; Cyclic Loading.
1. Introduction
Most of the soils located in the middle and southern parts of Iraq are considered as soft to very soft cohesive soils
especially in areas close to the marshes. Many projects are planned to be constructed in these areas, in the next coming
years, it is expected to construct more than 1400 km of new railway networks and rehabilitation of the current network
[1]. Soft clay soil is alluvial sediment formed in the last 10,000 years on a flat surface [2]. The soil is recognized by its
high compressibility index ranged (0.19-0.44), the low shear strength (cu<40 kPa), and high moisture content (40-60) %.
One of the challenges that facing the geotechnical engineers is building on soft soil and meet the design project
requirements. Mitchell and Jardine [3] recommended alternative method using additional appropriate materials rather
than soft soil, relocating the projects to pass the poor area or using deep foundation, redesign the plant to satisfy the weak
soil specification or modification of weak natural soil properties to adapt to the design specification of the facility. A
stone column is one of the soil improvement methods that is used to increase soil strength, decrease the compressibility
of soil, accelerate the consolidation rate and reduce the liquefaction potential of soils, they are mainly used for improving
soft soils. Shivani et al. [4] studied the geosynthetic-encased stone columns with combination of ring model footing
* Corresponding author: mahdi_karkush@coeng.uobaghdad.edu.iq

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resting on clay reinforced with stone columns in a square tank testing and observed increase in bearing capacity
and reduction in settlement are achieved as compared to ordinary stone column due to increasing confining
pressure provided by encapsulating reinforcement. Fahmi et al. [5] investigated the behavior of the soft soil of 15 kPa
shear strength and reinforced with ordinary and encased stone columns with geogrid under cyclic loading. Also, they
used PLAXIS 3D software for verification of the enhanced method of utilizing stone columns and field load exams.
They concluded that the models subjected to cyclic loading under the rate of loading 10 mm/sec reached the failure level
faster than models tested under the rate of loading 5 mm/sec. The results of the PLAXIS 3D of settlement compared with
the measured settlement in the laboratory yield a reasonable comparable value up to 50% of the design load. Afterwards,
the recorded settlements show up to 60% higher values in compare with the results of the finite element analyses. Shehata
et al. [6] studied numerically the effects of construction system of stone columns in soft clay on the load-settlement
behavior of the treated ground, where High radial displacements of the soil particles associated with the installation
process of the stone columns to achieve their target diameter, significantly alter the surrounding soil properties and affect
the overall performance of the improved soil. Different radial excitations have been considered in the analyses to mimic
the construction procedure. Aspects of the two- and three-dimensional numerical analyses are combined in this study to
overcome the local numerical instabilities.
Zukri and Nazir [7] presented short review about the material used in construction the stone columns. Stone columns
are considered the most “natural” soil treatment method or foundation system, where replacement of some soft or loose
soil with those of more density will increase the confinement pressure leading to increase the strength of soil and reduce
the compressibility of soil. Also, in saturated cohesive soil will increase the time rate of consolidation. For the deep
improvement of soft soils, when the depth is greater than 25 meters and the columns do not reach the bearing layers, the
built-up stone columns are called floating stone columns [8]. Floating stone columns are considered the best and effective
economically technique used in improvement of soft and loose soils [9]. The stone columns had been widely used in the
reinforcement and stabilization the railways constructed on the soft soils to control deformation and excessive porewater
pressure [10]. Previous studies such as [11, 12] focused on improving the soil by end bearing stone columns and their
behavior under the static loads, but the information remains limited about the floating stone columns when subjected to
cyclic loads. In this study, six tests are carried out on the natural soft soil of undrained shear strength (5.5 kPa) improved
by single and linear two floating stone columns which have 30 mm diameter and 180 mm length to increase the bearing
capacity of soil, reducing the expected settlement of soil, and increasing the time rate of porewater dissipation.
2. Material and Methods

2.1. Natural Soft Soil
The soil is brought from a depth of 9 meters underground surface from Al Nahrawan city which is located 35 km to
east of Baghdad city. The disturbed and undisturbed samples had been taken from a depth under groundwater table. The
undisturbed samples are taken by Shelby tubes to study the mechanical properties of natural soil, while the disturbed
sample of natural soil was used to determine the chemical and physical properties and then used in the physical model
setup to measure the bearing capacity and compressibility properties of soil. The physical and chemical properties of the
natural soft soil are listed in Table 1.
Table 1. The physical and chemical properties of natural soft soil
Property index Value Standards Property index Value Standards

Liquid limit, % 35 ASTM D 4318 Sand content, % 10.0 ASTM D 422
Plastic limit, % 19 ASTM D 4318 Silt content, % 50.0 ASTM D 422
Plasticity index, % 16 ASTM D 4318 Clay content, % 40.0 ASTM D 422
Liquidity index, % 0.625 ASTM D 4318 TSS, % 5.72 B.S. 1377:1990 [13]
Specific gravity (Gs) 2.7 ASTM D854 SO3, % 1.799 B.S. 1377:1990
3 -1
Maximum dry unit weight (kN/m ) 17.2 ASTM D1557 Cl , mg/l 0.126 B.S. 1377:1990
Optimum moisture content, % 19.0 ASTM D1557 OMC, % 0.782 B.S. 1377:1990
Soil symbol according to USCS CL - Gypsum, % 3.868 B.S. 1377:1990
pH 7.11 B.S. 1377:1990
2.2 Stone Column Material

Sand is chosen to simulate the stone column material because it has an appropriate friction angle (more than 35°) and
used by 50% of the researchers. The properties of the used sand are listed in Table 2, these properties are determined in
accordance with (ASTM, 2003) [14]. The relative density of floating column material was selected as 65% because
Shahu and Reddy [15] showed that if the density is greater than 80%, it would be very difficult to obtain a regular stone
703
column at construction. After choosing the column diameter and length, it's necessary to select an appropriate particle
size of stone column material. Wood et al. [16] emphasized that the typical ratios of column diameter to particle diameter
(D/d) ranged from 12 to 40%. Al-Shaikhly [17] also emphasized that the maximum value of improvement occurred when
D/d ranged from 11 to 40%. Therefor the size of sand particles was selected within the measurement of ranges between
(0.7-2.5) mm which resulted D/d ratios ranged from 12 to 43 that is mean the sand particles passing through the sieve
#8 and kept on sieve #25. The distribution of particle size of the natural soft soil was determined by a hydrometer
according to ASTM D 422 and the particle size distribution of the sand used in the stone columns was determined using
a dry sieving analysis method as shown in the Figure 1.
Table 2. The properties of stone column material
Property index Value Standards

3
Maximum dry unit weight (kN/m ) 19.1 ASTM D4253
3
Minimum dry unit weight (kN/m ) 14.4 ASTM D4254
Dry unit weight (kN/m3) at Dr =65% 17.2 -
D10 (mm) 0.9 ASTM D422
D30 (mm) 1.3 -
D50 (mm) 1.75 -
D60 (mm) 2.0 -
Coefficient of uniformity (Cu) 2.22 -
Coefficient of curvature (Cc) 0.94 -
Suitability number (SN) 3.0 -
Specific gravity (Gs) 2.65 ASTM D854
Angle of internal friction φ (°) 48.5 ASTM D3080
100
90 Clay
80 Sand
70
60
Finer (%)
50
40
30
20
10
0
10 1 0.1 0.01 0.001
Size (mm)
Figure 1. The particle size distribution curves of the natural soft soil and stone column sand
2.3 Compressibility and Shear Strength of Soft Soil

The compressibility characteristics of natural soft soil are measured by conducting 1-D consolidation test according
to the procedure recommended by ASTM (D2435-70). The diameter of the consolidated ring was 50 mm and 20 mm
high. The coefficient of volume compressibility (mv) ranges from 0.07 to 1.07 m2/MN and the coefficient of
consolidation (cv) equals to 0.05 cm2/sec. The direct shearing test was determined in accordance with ASTM D 3080-
98 for sand used in stone columns and natural soft soil. The minimum width of sample must be more than at least ten
times the maximum particle size and the sample thickness must be more than at least six times the maximum particles,
so the dimensions of the box used in the test are 60×60×30 mm. The undrained shear strength (cu) of soft soil is 8 kPa
and the internal angle of friction is 9.5° due to the presence of 10% of sand in the soft clay soil. The unconfined
compression strength test was performed and determined according to ASTM D 2166-00 standard. The sensitivity (St)
of the natural soil sample equals to 1.13 which calculated according to Equation 1. Accordingly, the soft clay soil can
be classified as slightly sensitive [18].
704
𝑞𝑢 (𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑒𝑑)
𝑆𝑡 = (1)
𝑞𝑢 (𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑑𝑒𝑑)
Where qu is the unconfined compression strength of soil. Also, the undrained shear strength of soil is measured by
conducting the unconsolidated undrained triaxial test on natural soft soil. The undrained shear strength (cu) calculated
by applying confining pressures of (100, 200, and 300) kPa is equal to 11 kPa. The results of compressibility and shear
strength parameters of soft clay soil sample are given in Table 3.
Table 3. Compressibility and shear strength parameters of natural soft soil
Index property Index value

Initial void ratio (eo) 0.78
Compression index (cc) 0.166
Swelling index (cr) 0.027
2
Coefficient of consolidation (cv) (cm /sec) 0.05
Avg. coefficient of volume change (mv) (m2/MN) 0.49
Coefficient of permeability (k) (cm/min) 1.45E-08
Angle of internal friction for soft soil, φ (°) (direct shear test) 9.5
Undrained shear strength for soft soil, cu (kPa) (direct shear test) 8.0
Undrained shear strength for undisturbed soft soil, c u (kPa) (unconfined compressive strength test) 5.5
Undrained shear strength for remolded soft soil, cu (kPa) (unconfined compressive strength test) 4.84
Undrained shear strength for undisturbed soft soil, cu (kPa) (unconsolidated undrained triaxial test) 11
3. Experimental Study and Results

A laboratory physical model is designed for the purpose of studying the effects of the stone columns on the soil
bearing capacity and compressibility of soil under static and cyclic loads. The steel container is (700×700×600) mm
made of a 3 mm thickness steel plate supported by angles of 8 mm thickness at the corners. Also, there is a steel pipe
welded to the angles to support and prevent any movement of lateral steel plates. At 100 mm apart from the container
base there is a steel plate with holes of 5 mm each 50 mm apart. This plate was supported from the bottom to ensure no
movement during vertical loading. The purpose of the plate is to act as filter plate and two pieces of geotextile was
placed over the filter plate to allow drainage and prevent clay particles from passing through the filter plate. The
dimensions of the tank (700×700) mm were chosen to achieve the free distance between the outer edge of the column
and the tank wall as shown in Figure 2.
Figure 2. The physical model used in testing soil samples under cyclic loading
Steel loading frame is used to support the mechanical jack and axial loading system. The axial loading system is
connected through a mechanical jack associated by an engine and AC drive (speed controller), which controls the speed
of the engine. The most extreme load that can be connected is around 1 ton. At (1 mm/min) the loading rate is kept
705
constant as suggested by ASTM D1143. The axial loading system consists of:
 Mechanical jack: The load that can be connected through the mechanical jack is around 2 tons in weight.
 Gear box: Is an engine with a high drive, it has the ability to apply high torque and can control the axis speed
through AC motor (speed control). The shaft is connected by the mechanical socket.
 AC Drive (speed controller): The device is directly connected to gearbox to control the speed of the.
The natural and improved soil samples are tested under isolated raft foundation of dimensions 120×120 mm subjected
to vertical static and cyclic loading. The required amount of soil was collected in a large container and mixed with the
natural water content of 29%, The amount of soil required to fill the container was divided into 5 layers, after finishing
the ending layer, the top surface had been scraped to get a flat surface then covered with polythene sheets to prevent any
loss of moisture. The soil left in steel container covered with polyethylene sheets for (8-10) days to regain strength and
get stable soil surface. Fattah et al. [12] stated that for curing the bed soil before test should covered and left for a period
of 5 days. The diameter of stone column is selected to be 30 mm and spacing (centre to centre) is 75 mm. The typical
length/column diameter ratio (L/D) is generally between 6 to 10, so the column length is chosen according to this ratio.
Mckelvey et al. [19] stated that no respectable increase within the load carrying capability urged to be obtained beyond
L/D ratio greater than 10. Each column instilled by drilling a hole by a suitable auger and filled with the predetermined
mass of the sand mass which divided equally into groups and added into the hole with ramming until the desired
densification is achieved. The pore pressure readings are recorded from the piezometer installed at the bottom of
container during each load increment.
The instruments used in physical model are:
 Load cell with digital weighing indicator: Pressure/tension load cell is utilized to measure load with input
accuracy of 50 g and capacity of 1 ton was calibrated locally.
 Porewater pressure transducers with digital indicator: The pore pressure electronic reading unit connected to the
three pressure adapters. The transducers are connected at the side of test box at distances of (5, 20, 35) cm apart
from the surface of soil.
 LVDTs data system: Two linear variable displacement transducer (LVDT) with digital indicator have been used
to get accurate readings and measuring of movements as small as a few parts of millimetres. These sensor devices
measured linear displacement and very accurate (calibrated as 1 mm = 0.172 V and 0.309 V) respectively.
3.1. Load-Settlement Relationship under Static Load

The loading capacity of natural soft soil (no column) was found to be around 0.44 kN which equivalent to bearing
capacity of approximately 31 kPa. The measured value of bearing capacity (31 kPa) is well agreed with the bearing
capacity of soil (28.27 kPa) calculated by Terzagh’s equation.
𝑞𝑢𝑙𝑡 = 5.14 𝑐𝑢 (2)
Where cu is the undrained shear strength of the soft soil (5.5 kPa), 5.14 is the bearing factor for clay (Nc), and qult is
the ultimate bearing capacity of soil. The ultimate bearing capacity of untreated soil (SL0) is compared with that of the
reinforced soil with single floating stone column (SL1) and two floating stone columns (SL2) floating stone columns as
shown in Figure 3. It was noted that the presence of the columns developed the bearing capacity of the weak soil. The
ultimate bearing capacity of the soil was improved by 75% with one stone column and this increase is good for the area
replacement ratio of 4.9%. Abdul Husain [20] and many researchers have reported that improvement in soil does not
occur significantly except for the area replacement ratio greater than 15%. This significant improvement was due to the
large angle of internal friction of the floating stone column (48°) compared to the rest of the studies.
𝐴𝐶
𝐴𝑟 = (3)
𝐴𝑓𝑜𝑜𝑡
Where Ar is area replacement ratio; AC is area of stone column cross; Afoot is area of isolated foundation. Table 4
shows a comparison between the ultimate bearing capacity of soil (qult) measured experimentally with those calculated
theoretically by modified Davisson equation [21]. The results showed that the results obtained from Davison’s equation
are more conservative.
706
Pressure (kPa)
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
0
SL0
5
Surface settlement (mm)
SL2
SL1
10
15
20
25
30
Figure 3. Pressure versus settlement under foundation subjected to static loading for untreated and reinforced soil samples
Table 4. Summary of the static bearing capacity values
qult (kN/m2)
Loading symbol No. of stone columns % of Deviation
Measured Davisson Eq.
SLO - 28.27 31.0 9.6
SL1 1 47.7 54.5 14
SL2 2 50.0 61.0 22
3.2. Load-Settlement Relationship under Cyclic Loading

Cyclic loading tests carried out on natural soft soil (nonreinforced) (CL0) and two tests on soil reinforced with single
floating stone column (CL1) and two floating stone columns (CL2). All tests were conducted under cyclic stresses of
100 cycles of frequency 2 Hz. The results of cyclic loading tests are shown in Figure 4 which shows cyclic stresses
against settlement. Results showed the influence of cyclic stress levels (20.44, 27.25, 34.06, and 40.88 kPa) on the
settlement of footing constructed on soft soil reinforced with floating stone columns.
Cyclic stress (kPa)

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
0
5
10
Settlement (mm)
15
20
25
30
35 CL0
40 CL1
45 CL2
50
Figure 4. Relationship between cyclic stresses with surface settlement

Natural soft soil sample was more sensitive to loading change than the reinforced soil samples. For soft soils supported
by stone columns under cyclic stress of 27.25 kPa, there was a reduction in the settlement in comparison with the natural
soft soil by (17 and 22) % in soil specimens CL1 and CL2 respectively. Figure 5 shows the settlement against number
of cycles, for natural soft soil (CL0) and soil reinforced with one column (CL1). Results showed the influence of cyclic
stress levels (20.44 and 27.25) kPa on the deformation pattern of CL0 and stress levels (20.44, 27.25, and 34.06) kPa on
the deformation pattern of CL1. It can be observed that for both soil samples (CL0 and CL1), the accumulative settlement
growth was significantly affected by increasing the cyclic stresses. In the range of the loading examined, CL0 is more
sensitive to increasing the number of loading cycles and cyclic stresses than CL1.
707
30
CL0- q = 20.44 kPa
CL1 q = 20.44 kPa
25 CL0- q = 27.25 kPa
Settlement (mm) CL1- q = 27.25 kPa
CL1- q = 34.06 kPa
20
15
10
5
1 10 100
Number of cycles
Figure 5. Variation of settlement with number of cycles for soil samples CL0 and CL1 under different cyclic stresses
When the tests were performed at cyclic stress of 20.44 kPa, the results showed that the soil sample (CL0) began to
stabilize after 92 cycles because of cyclic loading was within soil capacity, so it will compact the soil particles and
increase its strength. Otherwise, under cyclic stress of 27.25 kPa, the specimen settlement continues to increase. On the
other hand, the sample with one stone column was tested under cyclic stresses of 20.44 kPa, the progress of the settlement
began to stabilize approximately after 85 cycle at a value of 12.2 mm. This value increased to reach 18.6 mm by
increasing the cyclic stress to 27.25 kPa and began to stabilize after 93 cycles. But, the soil sample (CL1) when tested
under cyclic stress of 34.66 kPa, the specimen was failed in shear because the specimen continues to settle with
increasing the number of cycles. While the specimen reinforced with two stone columns (CL2) was tested under cyclic
stress of 27.25 kPa, the settlement after 80 cycles encountered to 17.6 mm as shown in the Figure 6.
25
23
21
19
Settlement (mm)
17
15
13
11 CL0 - q = 27.25 kpa
9 CL2 - q = 27.25 kPs

7 CL1 - q= 27.25 kPa
5
1 10 100
Number of cycles
Figure 6. Variation of settlement with number of loading cycles for tested soils under cyclic stress level of 27.25 kPa
Das and Shin [22] pointed out that the initial rapid adjustment resulting from the application of cyclic load occurs
during the first 10 cycles of loading, which constitute 60-80% of the total adjustment. Based on the final permanent
settlement definition, the experimental value of the critical number of cycles (Ncr) (within 100 cycles) was determined,
at which settlement stabilized for each test. The critical time and number of load cycles (Ncr) is shown in Table 5. Figure
7 shows the effect of the area replacement ratio (Ar) on the improvement in the soil under the effect of cyclic and static
loads, where the results indicated that the settlement under cyclic loads is greater than the static load in all tests especially
in light loads and this difference decreased with increasing the applied loads to be roughly equal in high load. The soil
Ac
becomes more resistant to static loads. The notations used in Figure 6 are Ar1 = ( )2= 4.9 % for test of single stone
Afot.
columns and Ar2= 9.82%. Where Ac is the column cross section and Afoot is the foundation area.
Table 5. The critical number and time of load cycles
Loading Symbol
load CL0 CL1 CL2
No. of cycles Time (sec) No. of cycles Time (sec) No. of cycles Time (sec)
20.44 kPa 92 46 85 43 - -
27.25 kPa - - 93 47 80 40
708
9
ArO
Settlement (cyclic)/settlement (static)

8
Ar1
7
Ar2
6
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Pressure (kPa)
Figure 7. Ratio of settlement at acyclic/static loading for different area replacement ratio of floating stone columns
4. Effects of Stone Columns on Porewater Pressure

4.1. Static Loading
Porewater pressure (PWP) is measured during the static loading in two methods. The first one (PP1) includes
installation of stand piezometric pipe at the bottom of soil layers and the second method (PP2) include installation of
porewater pressure transducers at different levels on the side of container (5, 20, 35) cm. The distances are measured
from the soil surface in the container of physical model. These transducers will be termed as ch1, ch2, and ch3
respectively. The transducer (ch1) didn't show any reading during the tests. Figure 8 shows the results of changes of
PWP occurred during the static loading for all soil samples and under different levels of stress. The presence of stone
columns helped to decrease the porewater pressure because they worked as drainage wells and shortening the drainage
paths. The comparison of porewater pressure values at certain stress level, for example at loading 34.05 kPa, the
porewater pressure was 4.99 kPa for SL1 and continue to decrease for SL2. These results indicate that the stone columns
provide good and easy drainage pathways and reducing the porewater pressure.
6.5
6
Excess PWP (kPa)
5.5
SL0
4.5
SL1
4
SL2
3.5
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Pressure (kPa)
Figure 8. Variation of excess porewater pressure under static loading (PP1) in tested soil samples
4.2. Cyclic Loading

Porewater pressures were measured during cyclic loading at the bottom of the soil specimen by using piezometer.
Figure 9 shows the values of PWP generated under cyclic stresses levels of (20.44 and 27.25) kPa where 20.44 kPa is
the cyclic stress at which the natural soil has stabilized and 27.25kPa is the cyclic stress in which the reinforced soil has
stabilized. Under application of cyclic loading, the excess pore water pressure was built up with increasing the cyclic
stresses. The applied cyclic stresses will help in generation high porewater pressure and when enough drainage paths are
available will help in decreasing this pressure quickly, but when the capacity of available drainage, stone columns, are
not enough to dissipate the porewater pressure, this will help in raising the PWP. Figure 9 shows the relationship between
the ratio of pore pressure in the case of cyclic loading/pore pressure in case of static loading with applied loads. From
709
the results shown in Figure 10, it is clear that in the case of the small replaced area, as in tests CL1 and CL2. Increasing
the loads lead to increase porewater pressure and PWP would decrease with increased replacement area ratio.
5
q cyclic =20.44 kPa
q cyclic = 27.25 kPa 4.5
Excess PWP (kPa)

4
3.5
2.5
2
CL5 CL4 CL3 CL2 CL1 CL0
Type of Loading
Figure 9. Values of excess PWP measured by piezometer for all soil samples under different cyclic loading levels
1.1
(PWP) cyclic/(PWP) static
1.0
0.9 Ar0
Ar1
Ar2
0.8
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Pressure (kPa)
Figure 10. The ratio of PWP (cyclic)/PWP (static) and loading for different ratios of area replacement of stone columns
5. Conclusions
 Reinforcement the soft clay with floating stone columns lead to increase the bearing capacity of the soil by a factor
of 120% (supposed the failure load corresponding to settlement equals 20% from the foundation width) for isolated
columns and 145% times for group of columns.
 The floating stone columns lead to improve settlement through reducing the settlement corresponding to the failure
load by 86% for the group of stone columns and by 57% for the single floating stone column.
 The results showed a significant improvement in soil bearing capacity under the influence of static loads despite
the small area replacement ratio. For example, in SL1 test, the replacement area is 4.9 % and column materials of
high friction angle (48°), the improvement rate was approximately 1.75 times that in the natural soft soil.
 The floating stone columns improves the threshold cyclic stress of soft soil, for example in CL2 test, the threshold
cyclic stress rises from 20.44 kPa for the natural soft to be 27.25 kPa for the soil reinforced with two stone columns.
 The floating stone column reduces the porewater pressure under both static and cyclic loading to provide water
drainage pathways. This can be one of the reasons why reinforced soil holds higher cyclic stresses.
6. Acknowledgement
The authors expressed their thanks and appreciation to the staff of soil mechanics laboratory at the Department of
Civil Engineering/University of Baghdad for their assist in conducting laboratory tests.
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8. References
[1] Abbawi, Z.W. “Evaluation of improvement techniques for ballasted railway track model resting on soft clay” Ph. D. Thesis,
Building and Construction Engineering Department, University of Technology, Baghdad, Iraq (2010).
[2] Malarvizhi, S. N., and K. Ilamparuthi. "Load versus settlement of clay bed stabilized with stone and reinforced stone columns."
In 3rd Asian Regional Conference on Geosynthetics, pp. 322-329. 2004.
[3] Mitchell, John Michael, and Finlay M. Jardine. A guide to ground treatment. Vol. 573. London: CIRIA, 2002.
[4] Verma, Shivani, Vikas Kumar, and Akash Priyadarshee. “An Experimental Test Study on Ring Footing Resting on Clay Bed
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711

Vol. 5, No. 3, March, 2019
Risk Assessment of Crisis Management in Response to Natural

Disasters with an Emphasis on Earthquakes
Seyed Mojtaba Hosseini a, Fatemeh Dirakvand a*, Omidreza Safarian a, Ali Ayoubian a
a
Department of Health Services Management, Tehran North Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran.
Received 24 June 2018; Accepted 10 February 2019
Abstract
The aim of this study was to explain the risks of the crisis management process in responding to natural disasters with the
focus on earthquakes. This quantitative, descriptive, analytic study was conducted in Doroud City, Lorestan province, Iran
in 2017. The society of the research comprises all members of the Doroud Crisis Management team, out of which 140
people were selected by stratified random sampling. In order to collect data, self-made questionnaires comprising 40
questions and 6 domains (structural, therapeutic, help and rescue, safety, hygiene, logistics)and based on the Likert Five
Option Spectrum (extremely low=1, extremely high=5)were used. To ensure the validity of the questionnaires, they were
assessed and verified by experts in the field. To assess the reliability, however, the Cronbach's Alpha Coefficient of 0.89
was applied. The data was analyzed by mean, standard deviation, and Independent T-test and variance analysis using
SPSS21. The findings showed that safety with a mean and standard deviation of 4.91±0.68 was the highest and structure
with a mean and standard deviation of 2.03±0.64 was the lowest domains under the assessment of crisis management. Also,
training courses in therapeutic and hygiene domains, and work experience in therapeutic, help and rescue, security, logistics
domains made a considerable difference (p=0.05). From the perspective of the sample under study, the domains of
therapeutic and hygiene have the highest importance factor, logistics was allocated the lowest priority. Applying the proper
assessment of different risk frameworks, the researchers reviewed each domain proportionate to the probability of an
earthquake in the study area. This way by identifying the potential hazards and risks in view of important and effective
domains, the dangers could be prioritized and management programs could be implemented.
Keywords: Risk Management; Crisis Management; Response Stage; Natural Disasters; Earthquake; Doroud City.
1. Introduction
Traditionally, looks at incidents and crises have been directed at their causes and intensities. In spite of the rising
number of these disasters, attention is seldom paid to the number of casualties [1]. A crisis is a phenomenon that comes
into existence by the functions of either humans or nature and affects the lives of people for a short period of time [2].
In cases where local administrations are not sufficiently prepared to face such sudden events, mortalities, injuries,
property loss, and a reduction in hygiene levels can occur [1]. It is in man’s best interest in facing crises to plan
beforehand and apply during the incidents to de-escalate the resultant effects [3]. Crisis management, on the other hand,
is a systematic effort of all members together with beneficiaries outside the organizations to prevent a crisis from taking
place or to reduce the effects of an event once it has already happened [4].
Some experts and scientists in social sciences believe that crises indicate the inability of systems to continue existing
in their current forms. The emergence of such a phenomenon in each and every environment shows the defects of some
* Corresponding author: dirakvand1396@yahoo.com

712
parts and systems and is bound to be reviewed in order to resume operations [5]. In general, crises are categorized into
distinct groups as those of human origin and those of a natural origin [6]. The knowledge of crisis management is said
to be the series of actions taken before, during, and after a crisis in order to reduce the effects and damage caused by the
incident [7].
Earthquakes will not be considered as a different natural incident. Just like other natural disasters, they may cause a
chain of other undesirable incidents, such as ground propulsion, land splitting, flood, fire, explosion, water
contamination, etc. [8]. Furthermore, earthquakes result in physical, human, social, financial, and economic losses
together with outbreaks of contagious diseases, inflation, famine, and problems in the tourism and aviation industries in
the area [9].
According to global statistics, Iran is among the top 10 countries with the highest disaster rates. Based on statistics
from the Earthquake Engineering Research Institute, some 83% of the population in Iran reside in areas with a medium-
high or high risk of earthquake. During the past 90 years, up to 90 significant earthquakes have occurred, 18 of which
have had magnitudes of 7-8 Richter. To be more specific, on average, there has been a serious earthquake every three
years for the past 30 years [10].
Crises resulting from an earthquake can be broken down into 3 main stages: A. crises prior to earthquakes, B. crises
emerging during earthquakes, and C. crises after the earthquake [9]. One of the most-dealt-with matters in society is
environmental crisis. Risk management, one of the most important topics in crisis management, is of utmost importance
when it comes to planning and correct decision-making in the face of such crises [11]. Crisis risk management can be
categorized based on the two main factors of contingency and vulnerability. According to the UNDP (2002), risk is
defined as “the probability of a crisis occurrence and, as a result, loss of life, health, and property in an incident in a
specific time and place.” There are three things to consider when facing risks: the intensity and magnitude, the
contingency, and the importance of the risk for the target society (vulnerability) [12].
Risk assessment process refers to an organized and systematic method for identifying and estimating risks for ranking
decisions made so as to reduce risk to an acceptable level. This process is carried out using different methods with a
range of qualitative and quantitative approaches [13]. Risk assessment is an important tool in the management field to
reduce the risk of projects and achieve sustainable development, and is currently considered in planning and policy
making of most countries worldwide. This technique has a high potential for analyzing potential malfunctions and the
resulting effects to the extent that it is used to prevent accidents in high-risk industries such as the aerospace industry
and nuclear plants [14].
Modiri (2015) stated that crisis management planning in the urban ruling of today’s mega-cities, considering the
Passive Defense Principles, is of the most necessary requirements in city planning that could reduce losses resulting
from crises and natural disasters [15]. Abdi (2016) attributed the efficiency of crisis management to direct cooperation
and coordination in intra-organizational relations and pointed out that, in spite of different disasters that have happened
in the past and the probability of such events happening in the future, no intra-organizational relations analysis has been
applied to enhance cooperation and coordination in crisis management, urban planning, and management [16].
Asgari (2016) acknowledged that a high level of preparation and empowering human resources is a key requirement
of crisis management [17]. Studying history, partial position, and at-hand local and national data, Fotouhi (2013)
discovered 31 hazards in Qayen City and assessed the risk of each hazard based on the two factors of contingency and
vulnerability [18]. Sayedin (2016) stated that crises can be viewed from 2 different aspects: the personal, team, and
social view; the psychological, geographical, and organizational view; and. Finally, the study of crisis management is
conducted through the six factors of flexibility, inclusion, trust, risk perception, impartiality, and compatibility [19].
Avvenuti (2016) articulated that the responding components following a crisis emergence aim at saving the lives and
property of people, providing partial welfare for the damaged, and preventing expansion of the losses. They include
saving and helping, hygiene, treatment, safety, transportation, burial, fast informing, and warning. This is very important
so that in the confrontation phase, the most crucial response components are known and prioritized to make the response
faster, more accurate, and suitable to the events, thereby preventing a local crisis from becoming a national one [20].
Itria (2017) pointed to the importance of editing a codified plan for preparation before an accident as one of the main
tasks of treatment center administrators in force-majeure. Doctors as well as nurses, as crucial elements of hospitals,
have a determining role in planning and maintaining readiness [21]. Since earthquake is one of the natural disasters in
Iran, and the most important factors in reducing such risk is the earthquake preparedness to deal with this phenomenon
on the one hand, and there is also no tool to assess this preparedness, on the other hand, it is necessary to carry out risk
assessment studies. Considering the foregoing, and since preparation for dealing with a disaster requires a predetermined
planning based on the above and the fact that advance preparation is essential when facing an earthquake (for which a
comprehensive agenda is needed), the current study has put forward for discussion the assessment of risk management
713
in the response stage to natural disasters with the focus on earthquakes.

The present study is a quantitative, descriptive, analytic type of research. The society of the research comprised the
member organizations of the Crisis Management Team of Doroud City, Lorestan, Iran selected by stratified random
sampling. The organizations included hospitals, healthcare centers, Red Crescent, housing foundation, police force,
electricity and gas administrations, fire administration, telecommunications center, water and sewage administration,
governor, agriculture administration, industry, and commercial affairs, out of which 140 people were asked to complete
the questionnaires based on this Equation 1:
𝑧 2 .(1−𝛼)2 .P.(1−p)
𝑛= (1)
d2
The criteria for entering the study were holding an educational certificate higher than B.A or B.S, working on the
crisis management team of member organizations, and interest in taking part in the study. Self-made questionnaires were
used to collect data. The questionnaire consists of 40 questions and 6 domains of structure (N=10), treatment (N= 6),
rescue and relief (N= 6), security (N= 6), health (N=6), and support (N=6) designed based on the Likert Five Option
Spectrum (extremely low=1 to extremely high=5). To ensure the validity of the questionnaires, they were assessed and
verified by experts in the field. The questionnaire was then provided to 10% of the subjects (N=14) who answered the
questions with two-week interval and Cronbach's alpha, and the reliability coefficient of 0.89 was later obtained. The
data is shown in Table 1.
Table 1. Questionnaire Cronbach's Alpha Coefficients of Domains
Cronbach's Alpha
Title
Coefficient
Structure 0.85
Questionnaires Therapeutic 0.74
Components Help and rescue 0.82
Safety 0.88
Hygiene 0.72
Logistics 0.89
The researcher referred to the organizations in question after obtaining necessary permissions. The questionnaires
were then provided to the respondents in person and then collected after explaining the goals of the study. The
questionnaires were distributed among the participants by the researcher and collected after they were completed. The
data was analyzed by the mean, standard deviation, Independent T-test, and variance analysis using SPSS21. The
subjects were assured that their information would remain confidential and that data was only used in this study.

Based on the collected demographic data, 75% of participants were male, 51% were between the ages of 31 to 40,
66% held a B.A. or B.S. degree, 60% had 10 to 20 years of work experience, and 68% had participated in crisis
educational courses. After calculating the average score of each of the 6 domains according to Table (2), the findings
showed that safety with a mean and standard deviation of 4.91±0.68 and structure with a mean and standard deviation
of 2.03±0.64 were the highest and lowest domains in risk assessment of crisis management, respectively.
Table 2. Mean and standard deviation of domains under risk assessment of crisis management
Domain Total Average

Structure 0.64±2.03
Therapeutic 0.84±3.11
Help and Rescue 0.79±2.93
Safety 0.68±4.91
Hygiene 0.77±1.78
Logistics 0.75±1.45
To determine the relevancy between the different domains of the study, a statistical test was conducted. After running
a one-way ANOVA test on the average scores of the domains and some of the demographic information, the results
(shown in Table 3) showed that training courses in the therapeutic, safety, and hygiene domains and work experience in
the structure, therapeutic, help and rescue, and safety domains have made a meaningful difference (p=0.05).
714
Table 3. Domains (p-value) according to demographic information
Demographic information Structure Therapeutic Help and Rescue Safety Hygiene Logistics
Gender 0.73 0.51 0.90 0.70 0.62 0.20
Educational Certificate 0.21 0.83 0.65 0.71 0.18 0.34
Training Course 0.29 0.01 0.47 0.03 0.01 0.54
Work Experience 0.01 0.03 0.04 0.04 0.36 0.02
The results shown in Table 4 proved that, from the perspective of the society under study, the greatest importance
was allocated to the therapeutic domain followed by hygiene, while logistics was given the lowest priority among the 6
domains.
Table 4. Importance and priority of each domain in risk assessment of crisis management
Importance Factor
Domain Extremely High High Average
Number % Number %
Structure 34 24.2 14 10 3.21±0.90
Therapeutic 18 12.8 87 62.1 3.79±1.01
Help and Rescue 52 37.1 12 8.5 2.91±0.84
Safety 41 29.2 35 25 2.83±0.97
Hygiene 40 28.5 58 41.4 3.65±0.89
Logistics 56 40 29 20.7 2.45±0.63
The risk of crisis management process in Doroud City, Lorestan Province was assessed using self-made
questionnaires based on the 6 domains of structure, therapeutic, help and rescue, safety, hygiene, and logistics. The
results showed that the domains’ order of importance is as follows: therapeutic, hygiene, structure, help and rescue,
safety, and logistics. The method of planning for environmental hazards in Iran must be determined so as to enable firm
decision-making when crises such as earthquakes must be faced. Risk management is one of the most important
discussions in crisis management that was considered in the present study. Bearing in mind that the degree of risk for
each area is the contingency of occurrence multiplied by vulnerability and the earthquake history, Doroud City was
chosen.
The effects of supervening incidents like earthquakes on the health of a damaged society are of the most important
negative consequences of such events. Since Iran is among the top 10 countries for natural disasters, the necessity of
paying more attention to methods of reducing the negative effects of accidents is felt more than ever. Commanding and
controlling the operations to help the damaged, recall personnel, transport crews and their lodgment in the area, change
personnel shifts, provide water and food, enhance the inventory of medicine and equipment, establish a command center
for controlling services, establish medical teams, form a center to which the injured can be transported, establish
healthcare centers, take care of the injured and the dead, forge collaboration among healthcare personnel, provide human
resources, supply medicine and food to centers and medical teams, coordinate visits to affected people by healthcare
personnel, provide water treatment, proper disposal of wastes, give special care to the old and the disabled, assess
healthcare centers, change medical teams in turns, and provide psychological healthcare are all services to be provided
to an affected society in order to reduce risks and improve conditions for the short-term.
The findings of the present study are compatible with those of Avventi (2017) regarding the importance and priority
of treatment actions taken when facing natural disasters [20].
Adini (2016) said that inter-sectoral planning and cooperation's should be taken into account in order to deal with
natural disasters. Medical organizations critically need to take into account leadership, coordination, and decision-
making, flexibility, expert teams, and multilateral relations so as to show urgent response to natural disasters, which is
consistent with the current study [22]. Gunvor (2018) states that a large number of people are affected by natural disasters
annually. Strengthening flexibility, communication, and education is also one of the most important aspects of disaster
preparedness. A good solution to the crisis is also to raise public awareness and attitudes by organizations involved,
which is consistent with the current study [23].
715
Abbasi (2018) stated that natural disasters are threatening for humans, the environment, and living organisms and
quick action is needed to reduce the subsequent risks. Changing the crisis structure, making formal and informal inter-
organizational coordination is important in the event of disasters. Healthcare organizations are among the most important
health organizations in case of disasters that need to coordinate with other organizations to respond quickly to crises
[24]. Gossip (2017) evaluated healthcare organizations in the event of disasters and states that quick actions on the part
of health organizations can have long-term effects on the severity of the disasters. These actions include planning,
implementation, and evaluation. Creating a culture of learning, education, participation, dissemination of learning,
facilitating interorganizational learning, standardized assessment reports, increased commitment to the recovery process,
having local leaders, and encouraging joint decisions were among the solutions to the natural disasters in the present
study [25].
4. Conclusion
Traditionally in most countries, organizations like the Civil Defense Organization or even the armed forces take
responsibility for crisis management. The findings of studies conducted in countries like Bangladesh, the Solomon
Islands, and India showed that personal training and asking citizens to plan their society may have significant results in
alleviating the damage to the lives and property of the people. In recent years, all macro-planning in the world, especially
by international bodies, has been developed for the benefit of using the society in order to strengthen crisis management.
The lack of proper and transparent rules and instructions increases the vulnerability and spoils the capacities of
communities.
A number of factors play a significant role in the crisis management process, including having a group-work spirit,
overcoming fear, being expertise-centered, having a spirit of sacrifice, avoiding the spread of rumors, and inclining
toward new technologies. Awareness of the risk assessment results in crisis management, accessibility to the
mechanisms of intra-organizational collaboration, and enhancing the rate and accuracy of responding in emergencies
may diminish the vulnerability of a society in the face of a crisis. It is hoped that the vulnerability of the area will be
reduced to the lowest grade possible by the authorities taking the proper measures based on the domains under study.
Moreover, with risk assessment, the operations necessary to prevent possible losses to public and private places will be
done prior, during, and after a crisis.
5. Conflict interest
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Vol. 5, No. 3, March, 2019
Enhancing the Behavior of One-Way Reinforced Concrete Slabs

by Using Laced Reinforcement
Ali Faiq Hallawi a*, Ali Hussein Ali Al-Ahmed b

a
University of Baghdad, College of Engineering, Department of Civil Engineering, Baghdad, Iraq.
b
Assistant Professor, University of Baghdad, Collage of Engineering, Department of Civil Engineering, Baghdad, Iraq.
Abstract
This paper studies experimentally the behavior of laced reinforced concrete one-way slabs under monotonic load. The
experimental program included testing three simply supported one-way slabs of dimensions (1500 mm length, 600 mm
width, and thickness 130mm. One of these slabs was the control specimen which was designed without lacing
reinforcement steel and the other two specimens designed were with two variable lacing reinforcement ratio (0.27% and
0.52%). All specimens were cast with normal of 22 MPa compressive strength. Specimens were tested under two equal
line loads applied at the third parts of the slab (monotonic load) gradually applying up to failure. The specimens showed
an enhanced in ultimate load capacity up to 40% as a result of increasing the lacing steel ratio to 0.52 %. Also, decreasing
in deflection at service and at ultimate load levels by 42% and %57 respectively. In addition, the results showed that
specimen with lacing reinforcement are more ductility than specimen without lacing reinforcement so using of lacing steel
reinforcement leads to significant improvements in ductility index which reached to about 49% with increasing the lacing
steel ratio to (0.52%).
Keywords: One-Way Slab; Lacings; Ductility Index.
1. Introduction
In the past two decades, considerable researches have been carried out to study how to increase the ductility levels
of structural elements. The ductility and shearing capacity of the traditional Reinforced Concrete (RC) beams were
enhanced with the existence of conventional vertical stirrups. However, RC slabs were suffered from flexural-shear
cracks under bending [1]. Laced reinforcement was considered as an alternative to traditional stirrups in concrete
structural elements to reduces these cracks and enhance the integrity of the structure which exposed to dynamic loads
such as blast and earthquake. Moreover, the cost of Laced Reinforced Concrete (LRC) construct technique is higher than
conventional stirrups. LRC elements consist of an equal steel reinforcement on both faces (tension and compression)
and tied by cross rod with continues inclined reinforcement, which transferring forces and holding the lacing in its
position. Lacing bars which are connected to the top and bottom longitudinal reinforcement by the cross rod will be in
tension or compression and the resistance to compression is also provided by concrete strut [2]. Lacing bars lets the
structural element to give large deflections before failure since the strain hardening region is improved. Laced element
allows maximum deflection reach to 120 of support rotation; in compared with an element with single leg stirrups which
is limited to 60 of support rotation, thus the using of laced reinforcement significantly effects in improving the ductility
of flexural element [3].
* Corresponding author: ali.faiq.eng@gmail.com

718
The advantages of laced reinforcement system contributions in the structural element are listed in the following
points [3]:
 Fully development of the strain hardening zone and ductility of the flexural reinforcement.
 Maintenance of concrete integrity between the flexural reinforcement layers despite a lot of cracking.
 Restriction of compression reinforcement from buckling.
 Controlling the speed and quantity of material fragmentation in post-failure and limited fragmentation after yield
range.
 Large support rotation can be obtained than the traditional stirrup reinforced concrete elements.
 High shear resistance rather than conventional stirrup reinforced concrete elements under transient blast loading.
 Structural integrity is also enhanced by using lacings reinforcement.
 Linking the two principal reinforcement mesh together leads to improve the performance of LRC beam in the
large–deflection zone
Extensive experimental investigations on (RC) and (LRC) beams were carried out by Parameswaran et al. (1986)
[4]. Their results revealed that the angles of support rotations are varied between 3.5 0 to 70. The continuous lacing is
normally inclined at 450 and 600 to longitudinal beam axis. The observation of large shear resistance in LRC beams
leads to enhance the ultimate load capacity and the ductility of flexure element than the conventional beam that design
without lacing steel reinforcement.
Numerical studies are approved by Thirumalaiselvi et al. (2014), on laced steel concrete composite (LSCC) slabs
exposed to blast load by using finite element method which is adopted by ABAQUS computer program. Parametric
studies were carried out on LSCC slab by changing steel plates thickness, concrete grade, diameter of lacing bars and
cross rod to study their effect on the behavior of slabs exposed to blast loading. The results revealed that plate thickness
is significantly effects the response of LSCC slabs than the diameter of the cross rod and lacing bar for same concrete
grade used in the analysis. From the numerical analysis results. It conclude that the LSCC slab has great potential
applications in the design of blast resistant structures [5].
Akshaya et al. (2015) presented experimental investigations on (LSCC) beams and fiber laced steel-concrete
(FLSCC) beams under monotonic and reverse cyclic loads. The results showed that the FLSCC beams are higher load
carrying capacity and ductility than the LSCC beams. Also, the ultimate load of LSCC was higher than of RC beams by
about 22% [6].
Allawi and Jabir (2016), studied the behavior of nine simply supported (LRC) one-way slabs subjected to static load
up to failure. From the results it indicated that using of lacing steel ratio of 0.65% lead to increase the load carrying
capacity about 57% compared with slab without lacing reinforcement .And also, it is increased by 104% when reducing
the span to depth ratio by 31.25%. Analytical study was provided for static and repeated loading specimens through
using of ANSYS computer program, the results show a good agreement with experimental results with difference of 7%
[7].
1.1. Ductility index
Ductility is known as the member's ability to deform without obvious loss of its strength. Using the ductility factor
method to determine the amount of ductility was expressed by the ultimate to the yield deflection ratio [7]. One of the
methods that used in expression of ductility index is the displacement ductility factor (𝜇). Which is defined by Equation
1.
∆𝑢
μ= (1)
∆𝑦
Where:
∆𝑢 : Mid span deflection at ultimate load.
∆𝑦 : Mid span deflection when yield is first reached.
According to previous studies, there is limited studied on LRC structures. Most of these studies focuses on studying
the structural behavior of such beams under static load or one- way slab under blast and impact load. So, this paper is
aim to study experimentally the behavior of LRC one-way slabs subject to monotonic load up to failure in terms of
cracking, load-deflection and ductility index.
719
To know the effectiveness of using laced reinforcement on the behavior of one- way RC slabs. Also, a better
understanding of the contributions of the laced reinforcement which allow designers to compare the benefits of using
(or not using) laced reinforcement. So that, the monotonic response of laced one- way RC slabs under four-point bending
test is experimentally studied in this paper. The tests is focused on the influence using of variable lacing reinforcement
ratios.
3. Mechanical Properties of Materials

The materials used in the experiments of test in this study are described as below:
3.1. Concrete
Ordinary Portland cement (Type I) was used. This cement was tested chemically and physically and are complying
with the ASTM C150 for Portland cement [8]. Coarse aggregate (crushed gravel) with a maximum size of 10 mm is
used. While, natural sand brought from Badra region (Iraqi city) was used in concrete mix after drying out and sieve
analysis is made according to ASTM C33 [9]. In order to improve certain properties. All specimens were cast by a trick
mixer to give a normal density concrete with average cylindrical strength of 22 MPa.
3.2. Steel Reinforcement
All steel rebars used in the experimental part of this research were new and deformed. The size of steel bars, yield
stress are 6mm and 720 MPa respectively. The modulus of elasticity for all steel reinforcement is assumed to be (Es =
200000 MPa). Same steel bar diameter is used for lacing reinforcement. The lacing configurations angle of 45°were
selected in order to achieve a correct bending according to the requirements of the UFC 3-340-02, (2010) [3], which
states that the bending diameter is four times the diameter of the bar table with simple element using as shown in Figures
(1and 2).
𝛼 𝑑𝑙
𝑠𝑙
Figure 1. Lacing bar details [3]
Where;
db = diameter lacing bars ,𝑅1 , 𝑅2 = bending radius , 𝛼=angle of lacing bar ,𝑠𝑙 =spacing of lacing in the direction parallel
to the main reinforcement,𝑑𝑙 =distance between center lines of adjacent lacing bends measured normal to flexural
reinforcement.
720
To fixed the bar

from movement
under bending
To give more than

four times of
diameter of steel
Laced steel bar
Figure 2 . Photograph of Lacing Bars Fabrication

4. Test Specimens
Three slabs were designed to reflect the interaction of the lacing bars with the other primary parameters. All slabs
were designed to be simply supported conditions. The dimensions and steel reinforcement were selected according to
ACI 318M-2014 [10] Code, and to satisfy and meeting with the UFC 3-340-02, 2010 [3] requirements for the laced
reinforced concrete structures. All specimens having were the dimensions of 1500 mm length, 600 mm width and 130
mm thickness with clear span of 1320 mm. The test variable is the ratio of lacing reinforcement steel (0.27%and 0.52%).
Constant ratio of flexural reinforcement ratio of 0.31% is adopted for all specimens and the reference specimen is
designed without lacing reinforcement. The cover of concrete of all specimens was 20 mm, so the effective depth was
107 mm as shown in Figure 3. Table 1 show the details of tested specimens. All specimens were cast by the trick mixer
to give a normal density concrete with average compressive Strength of 22 MPa.
Table 1. Details of test specimens

Specimens Lacing steel spacing and Ratio of lacing Flexural longitudinal steel Ratio of flexural steel
designation designation steel bars spacing and designation reinforcement
0-S 0 0 7Ø6mm at 90mm c/c 0.31%
5- S 5Ø6mm at 114mm c/c 0.27% 7Ø6mm at 90mm c/c 0.31%
9-S 9Ø6mm at 60mm c/c 0.52% 7Ø6mm at 90mm c/c 0.31%
Slab Thickness
Shrinkage and Temperature
=130
reinforcement Ø6mm at 90mm c/c
Longitudinal steel reinforcement

Ø6 mm at 90 mm c/c (Top and bottom)
(a) Specimen (0-S) (control specimen) (without lacing reinforcement)
Alternative lacing steel

bars Shrinkage and Temperature
(varied ratio) reinforcement Ø6 mm at 90 mm c/c
Longitudinal steel reinforcement

Ø6 mm at 90 mm c/c (Top and bottom)
(b) Specimens (5-S) and (9-S) (with lacing reinforcement)
Figure 3. Details of the test specimens (all dimension are in mm)
721
4.1. Instrumentation
The instrumentations used during the experimental test are strain gauges and LVDTs (Linear variable differential
transformer). While strain gauges used for both steel and concrete are foil strain gauges of (120 Ώ) resistance from TML
Japan. Two strain gauges are located at both tension and compression faces at mid-span of the specimens to measuring
the tensile and compressive train at these locations respectively. While one strain gauge is used to measure the strain in
longitudinal bottom steel bar as shown in Figure 4. In addition, three LVDTs were used to measure the deflection at
mid-span and at two-thirds part of the tested slabs. The research includes measuring the strain in steel reinforcement and
deflection of specimens connected to data logger. An Australia data logger DT85 smart model was model number
DTBSG and serial number of 100777 is used as shown in Figure 5. While, Figure6 shows the testing machine with
specimens and other instruments that used in the test.
Strain gauge to measure

concrete compressive strain Strain gauge to measure strain in
bottom longitudinal reinforcement
a) Specimen without lacing reinforcement
Strain gauge to measure Strain gauge to measure strain in

concrete compressive strain bottom longitudinal reinforcement
b) Specimen with lacing reinforcement
Figure 4. Location of the strain gauges used in the experimental test

a)
Figure 5. Photograph for Data Logger
Figure 6. Setup of a typical tested slab
722
5. Test Procedure
All specimens were tested up to failure by using hydraulic testing machine as shown in Figure 7. Four point bending
test (i.e. two line load) were adopted to give more indication about the behavior of the specimens under testing as shown
in Figure 8. The one-way slabs were restrained as simply supported with a clear span of 1320 mm. Hydraulic jack with
500 KN capacity is used to apply a gradually load until failure of specimens. The load of hydraulic jack transfer to two
line load by I-section beam with suffusion to amount of stiffeners were positioned under the load cell. Finally, the load
cell and the LVDTs tools were connected to a data-logger that was connected to computer and set to read results at each
second during testing time.
Figure 7. Hydraulic testing machine Figure 8. Test set up
6. Experimental Results
6.1. First Cracking and Ultimate Load Capacities
The experimental results of first cracking and ultimate loads for the three specimens are summarizes in Table 2. The
initial cracks for the three specimens were ranged between of (14.5-21) kN and it occurred at a load range of (29.9%-
33.2%) of their ultimate load capacities. The first initial cracks appeared at the middle third of the span where the
maximum moment occurred at the bottom face of slabs where tension stress is maximum. According to Table 2, the first
crack (flexural) for control one-way slab 0-S occurred at load (14.5) kN. While, for specimen with of 0.27% lacing ratio
(specimen 5-S) the first cracking load is increased to18.6 kN. For specimen 9-S (i.e., lacing ratio=0.52%) the first
cracking load is 21 kN. So that increasing the ratio of lacing reinforcement leads to improve the resistance of the
specimens for cracking. The percentage increasing in first cracking leads with respect to control specimens is (28.3%
and 44.8%) for slabs 5-S and 9-S respectively.
When the load was increased, the first initial crack for specimens growth slowly across the width of slabs and many
cracks accrued and developed at this region. It noticed that when increasing the load for specimen 0-S the cracks
separated and kept to develop across the width of the slab and slowly propagated throughout the thickness of the slab
until the plastic hinge occurred. While, specimens 5-S and 9-S showed that the cracks at the tension face needed more
load to occur the plastic hinge and these cracks were curved and connected to gather at bottom tension face .Also when
the load was increased, cracks for side face of the specimens with lacing reinforcement were curved and connected
through the slab thickness .Figures 9 and 10 show the cracks pattern for both bottom and side face of the tested
specimens.
Also it is clear from Table 2 that the load capacity (ultimate load) for the control is equal to 48.5 kN. While, using
lacing reinforcement of 0.27% and 0.52% (specimens 5-S and 9-S) the ultimate loads were 56kN and 68kN respectively.
So that a good enhancement in the ultimate load capacity of 15.5% and 40.2% is occurred due to using lacing ratio of
(0.27% and 0.52%) respectively compared to solid slab without lacing reinforcement.
723
Table 2. Cracking and ultimate loads of specimens
%Lacing ratio First cracking load % Increases in Ultimate % Increases in 𝑷

Specimens ( 𝒄𝒓⁄𝑷 )×100
(𝛒𝐬 ) (𝐏𝐜𝐫 ) (kN) first cracking load load(𝐏𝐮 ) (kN) ultimate load 𝒖
0-S 0.0 14.5 Ref. 48.5 Ref. 29.9

5-S 0.27 18.6 28.27 56.0 15.46 33.21
9-S 0.52 21.0 44.83 68.0 40.21 30.88
0-S Cracks 0-S Cracks kept

growth straight at
straight and advanced
separated stages of
until failure loading
5-S Curved 5-S Cracks curved

cracks and
occurred at connected at
advance advance
stages of stages of
loading loading
9-S Curved 9-S Cracks curved

cracks and
occurred at connected at
advance advance
stages of stages of
loading loading
Figure 10. Cracks pattern for tension face of specimens Figure11. Cracks pattern for side face of specimens
6.2. Load-Deflection Response

Vertical deflection is measured at the middle of the specimens by using LVDT instruments and data logger that set
up to record the deflection and load every one second during the load test. The behavior of specimens with lacing
reinforcement are compared with the control specimen at two load stages.
Stage one: Service load stage .It worth to mention that the limit of the service load is about (70-75%) of the maximum
load according to Tan and Zhao, (2004) [11]. So that the service load is taken, as 70% of the peak load of control
specimen (0-S). The influence of using lacing steel bars on the reducing the deflection at service load is relatively
adequate where the reduction in deflection is 21.8% and 41.8% for specimens 5-S and 9-S respectively compared with
the control specimen 0-S at same load level of the control specimens.
Stage two: Ultimate load stage, when load was increased, the deflection increases rapidly after initiation of first crack
and when the cracks developed, the deflection keeps to raise without an appreciable increment in load until failure as
showed in Figure 12.
Using of lacing reinforcement for enhancing one –way slabs reduces the deflection corresponding to ultimate load
level of the control specimen about 43.3% for specimen 5-S and 56.7% for specimen 9-S in comparison with the
reference slabs Table3 summaries the results of the central deflection of specimens at service load and ultimate load
stages.
724
Table 3. Central deflections of specimens at service and ultimate load stages
Deflection at service %Decreasing in deflection Deflection Deflection at ultimate %Decreasing in deflection

%Lacing ratio
Specimens load level of the control at service load level of the at ultimate load level of the at ultimate load of the
(𝝆𝒔 )
specimen (mm) control specimen load (mm) control specimen (mm) control specimen
0-S 0.0 5.5 Ref. 15.0 15.0 Ref.

5-S 0.27 4.3 21.8 20.0 8.5 43.3
9-S 0.52 3.2 41.8 24.0 6.5 56.7
80
70
Ultimate load level of the
control specimen
60
50
Load (KN)
0-S (0.0% lacing ratio)

40
5-S (0.27% lacing ratio)
30 9-S (0.52% lacing ratio)
Service load level of the
20 control specimen
10
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Central Deflection (mm)
Figure 12. Load-Central deflection response for tested slabs

6.3. Load-Strain for Steels and Concrete
During applying load, the data logger record the measurement of strain in concrete and in main steel bars every one
second of time escape .According to Figure.13, the strain in main steel bar for each specimen is plotted. It could be
noticed that the effect of lacing reinforcement for reducing the strain of the flexural reinforcement especially when the
flexure reinforcement exceed the yielding (i.e., plastic region) is sufficient. Furthermore, increasing the lacing ratio
showed more reduction in main steel bar strain because the lacing reinforcement in tension zone would cooperate with
main reinforcement.
80
9-S
70 5-S
0-S
60
50
Load (KN)
40
30
20
10
0
0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000 14000 16000
Strain in main steel bar (mm/mm)×10-6
Figure 13. Load -Strain curves for tension steel reinforcement at mid-span
725
While, the concrete strain at compression face of the specimens is shown in Figure 14. This figure reveals that both
of specimens 0-S and 5-S not reached the maximum compressive strain. While, specimen 9-S reached the concrete
maximum strain. The maximum concrete compressive strain at the top surface was recorded as (1410) microstrain at
ultimate load of specimen 0-S. While specimens 5-S and 9-S recorded (1900) and (3016) microstrain at ultimate load.
𝛆𝐜
70
9-S
60 5-S
0-S
50
40
Load (KN)
30
20
10
0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500
Concrete compressive strain (mm/mm)×10-6
Figure 14. Load-strain curves for compression surface of specimens
6.4. Ductility Index

As mentioned before, the ductility index (μ) is calculated by divided the deflection at ultimate load to the deflection
at first yielding of tension steel reinforcement. It is important to remember that the deflection at yielding of steel
reinforcement can be measured from the curves plotted in the previous section .It could be noticed that ductility index
increases as the ratio of lacing reinforcement increases compared with the specimen without acing reinforcement by
33.0% and 49.1% for specimens 5-S and 9-S respectively . All experiment of data used for calculating the ductility index
is summarised in Table 4. Figure 15 shows how the ductility index increases with the increase of lacing reinforcement
ratio.
Table 4. Ductility index of specimens
Specimens Ultimate Deflection at Load (KN) at yielding Deflection at Ductility % Increasing in

designation load (KN) ultimate load (mm) of steel reinforcement yield load (mm) index (μ) ductility index
0-S 48.5 15 37 6.5 2.30 Ref.
5-S 56 20 42 6.7 3.06 33.0
9-S 68 24 49 7 3.43 49.1
726
3.5
Ductility Index
2.5
1.5
0.00% 0.10% 0.20% 0.30% 0.40% 0.50% 0.60%
Lacing steel ratio
Figure 15. Ductility index versus lacing steel ratio
7. Conclusions
The conclusions based upon the results of the experimental test of solid slabs with or without lacing reinforcements
under monotonic load are presented in this section.
 All tested specimen failed in flexural mode by reaching the reinforcement to its yield point.
 Increasing the ratio of lacing reinforcement lead to improve the resistance of the specimens for cracking by about
(28% and 45%)for lacing ratios (0.27% and 0.52%) respectively compared with the specimen without lacing
reinforcement.
 Using lacing steel bars for enhancing solid RC one-way slabs causes an increase in ultimate load capacity by about
(16% and 40%) for lacing reinforcement ratios (0.27% and 0.52%) respectively compared with the control
specimen. Also, reducing the deflection at ultimate load level of the control specimen by about 43% and 57% and
at service load level by about 22% and 42% for same lacing ratios.
 The ductility index is increased with increasing the ratio of lacing reinforcement by about 33% and 49% for lacing
ratio 0.27% and 0.52% respectively.
8. Acknowledgement
The authors wish to thank the University of Baghdad/Iraq for offering the financial support to complete this research
and for the help to do the experimental test in the concrete laboratory at the Civil Engineering Department.
10. References
[1] Anandavalli, N., N. Lakshmanan, G.M. Samuel Knight, Nagesh R. Iyer, and J. Rajasankar. “Performance of Laced Steel–Concrete
Composite (LSCC) Beams Under Monotonic Loading.” Engineering Structures 41 (August 2012): 177–185.
doi:10.1016/j.engstruct.2012.03.033.
[2] Thirumalaiselvi, A., Anandavalli, N., Rajasankar, J. and Nagesh, R., Iyer, “Predication of Static Response of Laced Steel-Concrete
Composite beam using Effective Moment of Inertia Approach”, IOSR Journal of Mechanical and Civil Engineering (IOSR-JMCE),
(2013): 01-06.
[3] Department of Defense Washington DC. “Unified Facilities Criteria (UFC) Design Guide. Army Reserve Facilities” (February 1,
2010). doi:10.21236/ada530875.
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[4] Parameswaran, V. S., N. Lakshmanan, P. Srinivasulu, T. S. Krishnamoorthy, K. Balasubramanian, T. S. Thandavamoorthy, and

M. Arumugam. “Application of laced reinforced concrete construction techniques to blast-resistant structures”,Structural Engineering
Research Centre, Chennai. SERC Report No. RCC-SR-86-1 (1986).
[5] Thirumalaiselvi, A., N. Anandavalli, J. Rajasankar, and Nagesh R. Iyer. “Blast Response Studies on Laced Steel-Concrete
Composite (LSCC) Slabs.” Advances in Structural Engineering (December 11, 2014): 331–342. doi:10.1007/978-81-322-2190-6_29.
[6] Akshaya, S. G., Ananthakrishnan, R., Vishnupriya, B., Arunprasadh, Manikandan, G. and Sanjeevi, R. “Experimental Studies on
Laced Steel Concrete Composite Elements Extreme Loading Condition”, IOSR Journal of Mechanical and Civil Engineering, (2015):
54-61.
[7] Hussain A. Jabir, “The behavior of one-way concrete slab with lacing reinforcement subjected to static and repeated load.” Ph.D.
Thesis/ Civil Engineering department /Collage of Engineering/ University of Baghdad (2016).
[8] ASTM C150. "Standard specification for Portland cement." (2002).
[9] ASTM C33 / C33M, “Standard Test Method for Sieve Analysis of Fine and Coarse Aggregates”, West Conshohocken, PA.,
ASTM international, 2006.
[10] ACI Committee, American Concrete Institute. “Building Code Requirements for Structural Concrete (ACI 318-14) and
Commentary” (2014). American Concrete Institute. ISBN: 9780870319303.
[11] Tan, Kiang Hwee, and Haidong Zhao. “Strengthening of Openings in One-Way Reinforced-Concrete Slabs Using Carbon Fiber-
Reinforced Polymer Systems.” Journal of Composites for Construction 8, no. 5 (October 2004): 393–402. doi:10.1061/(asce)1090-
0268(2004)8:5(393).
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Vol. 5, No. 3, March, 2019
Generalized Review on EVD and Constraints Simplex Method of

Materials Properties Optimization for Civil Engineering
Kennedy Onyelowe a,b *, George Alaneme a, Duc Bui Van b, Manh Nguyen Van b,
Charles Ezugwu c, Talal Amhadi d, Felix Sosa e , Francis Orji f, Benjamin Ugorji a
a
Department of Civil Engineering, Michael Okpara University of Agriculture, Umudike, P. M. B. 7267, Umuahia 440109, Abia State, Nigeria.
b
Research Group of Geotechnical Engineering, Construction Materials and Sustainability, Hanoi University of Mining and Geology, Hanoi, Vietnam.
c
Department of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Alex Ekwueme Federal University, Ndufu-Alike Ikwo, Ebonyi State, Nigeria..
d
Department of Construction and Civil Engineering, Ecole de Technologie Superieure (ETS), University of Quebec, Montreal, Canada.
e
Department of Civil Engineering, National Autonomous University of Mexico, Mexico City.
f
Department of Agricultural and Bioresources Engineering, Michael Okpara University of Agriculture, Umudike, P. M. B. 7267, Umuahia
440109, Abia State, Nigeria.
Abstract
Extreme vertex design (EVD) has been adapted to be used in the modeling of the behavior of mixture experiments in civil
engineering. This method has been in use since the 1970s and has be prevalent in the field of medical science. Various
other methods of design of experiments have been used in engineering but neither has EVD being used particularly in civil
engineering. This review is presented to serve as a hub or guide for subsequent exercise where concrete production, asphalt
production or modification, soils stabilization and concrete improvement or water treatment would be studied with the help
EVD. Its ability to fix design points and centroids has been reviewed in this work. EVD operates with various algorithms
and depends on the order or condition of problems to be solved. The XVERT algorithm working on Minitab and Design
Expert platform was adopted in this review work because of its efficiency in handling quadratic model problems like the
four cases reviewed in the present work. From the four special cases, it can be asserted that there is a confidence in the use
of EVD to develop the constraints, design the experimental factor space, design the mix proportions, and validate the
models resulting from these procedures after experimental specimens are tested to determine the responses.
Keywords: Extreme Vertex Design; MATLAB-MINITAB-DesignExpert; Optimization; CONSIM Algorithms; XVERT and XVERT1
Algorithms; Soil-Concrete-Asphalt-Water Treatment; Constraints Simplex Experimental Region.
1. Introduction
A mixture experiment is an experiment in which the response depends on the proportions of the components, not the
total amount [1]. There are two main constraints of mixture experiments. First, the proportion of a component is between
0 and 1. Second, the sum of proportions of all components is unity.
∑𝑞𝑖=1 𝑥𝑖 = 1 (𝑖 = 1, 2, 3. . . 𝑞) (1)
* Corresponding author: konyelowe@mouau.edu.ng

729
Both constraints at the upper and lower regions affect the entire experimental region. The experimental region
becomes a (q-1) simplex. An overview of the mixture experiment methodology was given by Cornell [2]. Furthermore,
additional constraints on proportions, such as lower bounds (𝐿𝑏 ), upper bounds (𝑈𝑏 ), will affect the shape of the
experimental region.
0 ≤ 𝐿𝑏 ≤ 𝑋𝑖 ≤ 𝑈𝑏 ≤ 1, (𝑖 = 1, 2, 3 . . . . 𝑞) (2)
The experimental region becomes a regular or irregular shape. Design points of the irregular shape of the mixture
experiment of more than three components are difficult to determine by hand. It is needed for a computational approach.
To determine the design points of an irregular mixture experiment is needed for a computational approach. Algorithms
have been developed to select design points, planes, edges, vertices and centroids of experimental regions. One of such
algorithms includes the XVERT algorithm developed to find the design points in the linear model by Snee [3]. The
XVERT algorithm can be used for selecting a subset of extreme vertices when the number of candidate vertices is large
[3, 4]. The linear model can be described by Scheffe [5].
𝑞
ŷ(𝑥) = ∑𝑖=1 Ɣ1 𝑥𝑖 (3)
Subsequently, the XVERT algorithm to find the design points in the quadratic model was developed by Snee [3].
The mixture design for a quadratic model produces large experimental runs. The centroids are calculated by averaging
various subsets of vertices. The quadratic model Scheffe can be described by:
𝑞 𝑞−1 𝑞
ŷ(𝑥) = ∑𝑖=1 Ɣ𝑖 𝑥𝑖 ∑𝑖=1 ∑𝑗=𝑖+1 Ɣ𝑖𝑗 𝑥𝑖 𝑥𝑗 (4)
And,
𝑞(𝑞+1)
p= (5)
2
Equation 5 is the number of parameter in the quadratic model.

A design which minimizes the determinant of variance (Ɣ) or maximizes the determinant of the information matrix
[M] is called D-optimal design. The D-optimality criterion is defined as
𝐷 = 𝑚𝑎𝑥 |𝑀| = 𝑚𝑎𝑥|𝑋 𝑇 𝑋| (6)
Algorithms start with writing 2q-1 combinations of upper and lower bounds for all but one factor which is left blank
as in Mclean [4]. The extreme vertices also can be computed using the XVERT Algorithm steps and sequences describe
below;
 Rank the components in order of increasing Ui – Li, X1 ranges has the smallest range and Xq has the largest range.
 Consider first components q-1 with the smallest ranges. Form a two-level design from the lower - upper bounds
of these q-1 components. There are 2q-1 combinations.
𝑞
 Determine the level of the omitted component Xq with each of the 2q-1 combination in step 2 using Xq =1 - ∑𝑖=1 𝑥𝑖
 If this computed value lie within the constraint limits it is an extreme vertex called as core point. If it falls outside
the constraint limits of the corresponding component it is called as the candidate point. For the points which are
outside of the constraint limits, set Xq equal to the upper or lower limit, whichever is closest to the computed value
 Additional points are generated from the candidate points. Find the difference between computed value and
substituted upper or lower limit. Adjust this difference to one of the q-1 components. The generated point is an
extreme vertex if the level after adjustment remains within the limits of the components. Thus maximum q-1 points
can be generated from one candidate point.
In general, extreme vertices method has been used in various fields of science of experimentation and mixture
blending and more prominent in this effort is the medical sciences. Recently it has been adopted in the production and
blending of cementing materials like the geopolymer cement [6-9]. This work has targeted adapting this method in
various fields of design of experiments in civil engineering which include; concrete production and modification, soil
stabilization, asphalt production, and water treatment. To accomplish these tasks in civil engineering, components are
blended in proportion utilizing both primary and secondary components depending on the conditions of the blending.
Four technical cases were reviewed in this work; (i) a 5- component experimental mixture for concrete production
utilizing water proportion, cement proportion, palm bunch ash proportion, fine aggregate proportion, and coarse
aggregate proportion. The blending of components form an experimental space called the simplex as shown in Figure
1. This forms the space within which the behavior of the homogenous blend resulting from the mixing of the
experimental components are distributed.
730
Figure 1. Extreme vertices for; (a) 2-component simplex, (b) 3- component simplex, (c) 4- component simplex and
(d) 5- component simplex
2. Formulation of Constraints and Design of Factor Space

2.1. Constraints Formulation
Constraints are regions of lower and upper bounds established by the properties of the components that make up an
experimental blend. As soon as these components are decided on based on intended results, the constraints that would
define the experimental region are selected from available resources. In most cases and in practice, physical and
economic considerations impose most often the lower and upper limits. Snee [3] had proposed general constraints
equation as follows;
0 ≤ 𝐿𝑖 ≤ 𝑋𝑖 ≤ 𝑈𝑖 1 (i = 1, 2, 3 … q) (7)
Where; 𝐿𝑖 equals lower bound, 𝑈𝑖 equals upper bound, 𝑋𝑖 equals the 𝑖 𝑡ℎ component and q is the number of
components in the mixture. Snee [3] also suggested an equation for multiple variable constraints for the form;
𝐶𝑗 ≤ 𝐴1𝑗 𝑋1 + 𝐴2𝑗 𝑋2 + … + 𝐴𝑞𝑗 𝑋𝑞 ≤ 𝐷𝑗 (8)
Which are also found in experimentation and design of mixture where 𝐶𝑗 = 𝐷𝑗 for all j = 1, 2, 3 …, m are scalar
constants specified by multicomponent mixture and j designate the minor component proportion.
A consideration of some selected cases found in practice in various civil engineering disciplines are discussed as
follows;
Case 1: Constraints of a five (5) component experimental mixture for concrete production: the multicomponent
constraints in Eqns. 9-14 have been developed from concrete production literature references and end conditions from
earlier research results on the utilization of additives as partial replacement for ordinary cement or as an enhancer of
concrete mixes in concrete production [10-17]. Under the conditions of an additive serving as partial replacement for
cement with cementing or pozzolanic properties, it is considered a minor component in a mixture of mixture experiment
731
(MME).
0.6 ≤ 𝑋4 + 𝑋5 ≤ 0.75 (9)
0.1 ≤ 𝑋2 + 𝑋3 ≤ 0.35 (10)
0.1 ≤ 𝑋1 ≤ 0.15 (11)
𝑋1
0.45 ≤ ≤ 0.55 (12)
𝑋2 +𝑋3
𝑋
0.05 ≤ 𝑋3 ≤ 0.25 (13)
2
𝑋1 + 𝑋2 + 𝑋3 + 𝑋4 + 𝑋5 = 1 (14)
Where; 𝑋1 equals water proportion, 𝑋2 equals cement proportion, 𝑋3 equals palm bunch ash proportion, 𝑋4 equals fine
aggregate proportion, and 𝑋5 equals coarse aggregate proportion.
Case 2: Constraints of a four (4) component experimental mixture for asphalt production: in a similar operation the
multicomponent constraints in Eqns. 15-18 have been developed from asphalt production and modification literature
references and end conditions from research results on the utilization of crushed waste glasses based geopolymer cement
as a modifier [18-19]. In this case, the modifier is a proportion of the major cementing material in asphalt production
i.e. the asphalt cement particularly shown in Equation 17.
0.01 ≤ 𝑋1 ≤ 0.05 (15)
0.75 ≤ 𝑋2 + 𝑋3 ≤ 0.95 (16)
𝑋
0.15 ≤ 𝑋4 ≤ 0.45 (17)
1
𝑋1 + 𝑋2 + 𝑋3 + 𝑋4 = 1.0 (18)
Where; 𝑋1 equals asphalt cement proportion, 𝑋2 equals coarse aggregate proportion, 𝑋3 equals fine aggregate
proportion and 𝑋4 equals crushed waste glasses based geopolymer cement (asphalt concrete modifier) proportion.
Case 3: Constraints of a three (3) component experimental mixture for soil treatment: in soil stabilization protocols,
materials are blended with the treated soil to improve on its engineering properties. The utilization of quarry dust as an
admixture has been in use in various circumstances and reported in many literatures [20-23]. The results achieved from
the above operation have been helpful in the formulation of the multicomponent constraints as in Equations 19-21.
𝑋
0.1≤ 𝑋1 ≤ 0.9 (19)
3
0.1 ≤ 𝑋2 ≤ 0.15 (20)

𝑋1 + 𝑋2 + 𝑋3 = 1.0 (21)
Where; 𝑋1 equals quarry dust proportion, 𝑋2 equals water content and 𝑋3 equals test soil proportion.
Case 4: Constraints of a two (2) component experimental mixture of homogenous blend for example the
improvement of freshly mixed concrete properties with freshly synthesized quarry dust based geopolymer cement. In a
similar way, the constraints as in Equations. 22-24 have been proposed from earlier research works. It is important to
also note that the synthesized quarry dust based geopolymer cement functions as a minor component in a partial
replacement technique for the concrete or another case could serve as an additive in a side by side utilization as a major
component for the improvement of certain properties in concrete for example durability, heat resistance, sulphate
resistance, shrinkage resistance and cracking resistance [24, 25].
𝑋1 ≤ 1.0 (22)
𝑋
0.1 ≤ 𝑋1 ≤ 0.55 (23)
2
𝑋1 + 𝑋2 = 1.0 (24)
Where; 𝑋1 equals the homogenous freshly mixed concrete proportion and 𝑋2 equals the homogenous freshly synthesized
geopolymer cement.
732
2.2. Design of Simplex and Factor Space

2.3. (5) Component Simplex and Factor Space for Concrete Production
The design of factor spaces from hyper-polyhedron simplexes begins with the testing and screening of the
components constraints giving rise to an experimental points within the defined or constrained space. In the case of the
5- component factor space under review considerations, multicomponent constraints were developed from literatures on
concrete production and modification. These constraints were used to test and evaluate the degrees of freedom (df) in
the 5 factors component design experiment shown in Table 1. A recommendation is a minimum of 3 lack of fit df and 4
df for pure error. This ensures a valid lack of fit test. Fewer df will lead to a test that may not detect lack of fit (26, 27).
Table 1. Design Matrix Evaluation for Mixture Quadratic Model 5 Factors: A, B, C, D, E
Mixture Component Coding is U_Pseudo.

Degrees of Freedom for Evaluation
Model 14
Residuals 10
Lack of Fit 5
Pure Error 5
Corr Total 24
Power calculations test was also conducted on the developed constraints using the design expert and the Minitab
software to establish the deviations and variances on the design planes and vertexes and edges contained in the simplex
on 5% alpha level shown in Table 2 [26, 27].
Table 2. Power at 5 % alpha level on 5- component for concrete production
Term StdErr VIF Ri-Squared Std. Dev.

A 8.18 80.41 0.9876 5.5 %
B 1.50 7.50 0.8666 9.8 %
C 6.52 62.76 0.9841 5.7 %
D 2.41 14.50 0.9311 8.8 %
E 0.70 1.82 0.4503 10.3 %
AB 14.27 22.58 0.9557 8.0 %
AC 17.28 15.72 0.9364 7.0 %
AD 14.76 19.62 0.9490 7.8 %
AE 14.31 16.33 0.9388 8.0 %
BC 11.28 16.25 0.9385 9.9 %
BD 6.73 4.40 0.7725 19.0 %
BE 4.13 2.36 0.5759 41.8 %
CD 11.82 13.97 0.9284 9.4 %
CE 12.43 13.01 0.9232 9.0 %
DE 5.83 3.05 0.6726 23.7 %
Basis Std. Dev. = 1.0
Approximate DF used for power calculations operate under the following condition;
 Standard errors should be similar within type of coefficient. Smaller is better.
 The ideal VIF value is 1.0. VIFs above 10 are cause for concern. VIFs above 100 are cause for alarm, indicating
coefficients are poorly estimated due to multicollinearity.
 Ideal Ri-squared is 0.0. High Ri-squared means terms are correlated with each other, possibly leading to poor
models.
 For mixture designs the proportions of components must sum to one.
 This is a constraint on the system and causes multicollinearity to exist, thus increasing the VIFs and the Ri-
squareds, rendering these statistics useless.
The software further developed the conditions of the 5- component simplex shown in Figs. 2 & 3 and the results are
presented in Table 3. The 25 runs were to improve on the optimality or efficiency of the model operation. Lack of fit
733
was never recorded on any of the vertex points of the design space as shown in Table 3 rather on either the interior or
plane points. This in effect raises concern for more design points to be located on the interior and plane spaces of the
simplex to reduce the lack of fit effect on the experimental space [26, 27].
Table 3. Measures derived from the information matrix on 5- component for concrete production
Run Leverage Space Type Build Type
1 0.2731 Interior Lack of Fit

2 0.8503 Edge Model
3 0.2550 Plane Replicate
4 0.4124 Plane Lack of Fit
6 0.4771 Edge Replicate
7 0.7860 Edge Model
8 0.3999 Plane Model
11 0.8193 Vertex Model
16 0.4901 Vertex Replicate
19 0.7665 Edge Model
21 0.3989 Plane Model
Average = 0.6000
However, watch for leverages close to 1.0 because they appear to be located on the vertexes and edges and consider
replicating these points or make sure they are run very carefully. The software generates lots of other data that would be
used to test the multicollinearity of the design, the G-efficiency and the scaled D- optimality. These information and
results are needed when comparing designs.
X5
X1
X4
0.285
0.14
X3
0.05 0.285
Factor Space X2
Figure 2. Factor space simplex of a 5- component mixture experiment for concrete production
734
Figure 3. Experimental factor space of the components in a 5- component mixture space for concrete production
2.4. (4) Component Simplex and Factor Space

Table 4 shows the design evaluation for the four component mixture quadratic model conducted with the
multicomponent constraints developed from literature to determine the degree of freedom for the experimental procedure
of an asphalt production and modification exercise. A recommendation is a minimum of 3 lack of fit df and 4 df for pure
error. This ensures a valid lack of fit test. Fewer df will lead to a test that may not detect lack of fit.
Table 4. Design Matrix Evaluation for Mixture Quadratic Model 4 Factors: A, B, C, D with U_Pseudo Mixture
Component Coding [26, 27]
Model 9
Residuals 15
Lack of Fit 8
Pure Error 7
Corr Total 24
Power calculations test was also conducted on the developed constraints using the design expert and Minitab software
to find the standard deviations and variances on the design planes and vertexes and edges contained in the simplex on
5% alpha level shown in Table 5 [26, 27].
735
Table 5. Power at 5 % alpha level on 4- component for asphalt production

A 14.56 208.97 0.9952 5.1 %
B 1.42 9.63 0.8961 5.4 %
C 0.62 2.52 0.6034 5.3 %
D 34.51 510.91 0.9980 5.0 %
AB 21.04 64.80 0.9846 6.5 %
AC 20.97 73.79 0.9864 6.5 %
AD 43.66 35.04 0.9715 5.3 %
BC 3.38 2.76 0.6377 60.1 %
BD 44.85 145.55 0.9931 5.3 %
CD 43.28 132.19 0.9924 5.3 %
Approximate DF used for power calculations functions under the following;

models.
was recorded on one vertex point of the design space in this case as shown in Table 6 and on the third edge and axial
points [26, 27]. This in effect raises concern for more design points to be located on the third edge and axial spaces of
the simplex to reduce the lack of fit effect on the experimental space [26, 27].
Table 6. Measures derived from the information matrix on 4- component for asphalt production
1 0.3356 ThirdEdge Lack of Fit
2 0.1901 Center Center
3 0.3344 ThirdEdge Replicate
6 0.3344 ThirdEdge Model
10 0.4148 CentEdge Model
12 0.1747 AxialCB Lack of Fit
13 0.4417 Vertex Lack of Fit
14 0.3368 TripBlend Model
19 0.3030 PlaneCent Model
21 0.4232 ThirdEdge Replicate
22 0.3030 PlaneCent Replicate
24 0.3368 TripBlend Replicate
Average = 0.4000
736
However, watch for leverages close to 1.0 because they appear to be located on the vertexes and edges and consider
replicating these points or make sure they are run very carefully. The software generates lots of other data that would be
used to test the multicollinearity of the design, the G-efficiency and the scaled D- optimality [26, 27]. These information
and results are needed when comparing designs.
X2
0.6
X3
0.45
X4
0.03 0.05 X1
Factor Space
Figure 4. Factor space simplex of a 4- component mixture experiment for asphalt production
Figure 5. Experimental factor space of the components in a 4- component mixture space
737

The design evaluation for the three component mixture quadratic model conducted with the multicomponent
constraints developed from literature to determine the degree of freedom for the experimental procedure of a soil
stabilization protocol is as presented in Table 7. A recommendation is a minimum of 3 lack of fit df and 4 df for pure
error. This ensures a valid lack of fit test. Fewer df will lead to a test that may not detect lack of fit [26, 27].
Table 7. Design Matrix Evaluation for Mixture Quadratic Model 3 Factors: A, B, C with L_Pseudo Mixture Component
Coding [26, 27]
Model 5
Residuals 19
Lack of Fit 7
Pure Error 12
Corr Total 24
Power calculations test was also conducted on the developed constraints using the design expert and minitab software
to find the standard deviations and variances on the design planes and vertexes and edges contained in the simplex on
5% alpha level shown in Table 8
Table 8. Power at 5 % alpha level on 3- component for soil treatment
A 0.52 2.42 0.5860 6.4 %
B 11.15 131.86 0.9924 5.3 %
C 1.81 13.14 0.9239 6.1 %
AB 16.13 64.60 0.9845 7.6 %
AC 4.11 7.48 0.8663 45.5 %
BC 16.55 45.85 0.9782 7.5 %
Approximate DF used for power calculations functions as follows;

models.
presented in Table 9. The 25 runs were to improve on the optimality or efficiency of the model operation [26, 27]. Lack
of fit was recorded on three interior points of the design space in this case as shown in Table 9 and on two edge points
[26, 27]. This in effect raises concern for more design points to be located on these spaces of the simplex to reduce the
lack of fit effect on the entire experimental space [26, 27].
Table 9. Measures derived from the information matrix on 3- component for soil treatment

5 0.2377 Edge Model
6 0.2477 Edge Model
738

21 0.2460 Edge Lack of Fit
24 0.2335 Edge Lack of Fit
Average = 0.2400
However, watch for leverages close to 1.0 because they appear to be located on none of the design points in this case.
The software generates lots of other data that would be used to test the multicollinearity of the design, the G-efficiency
and the scaled D- optimality. These information and results are needed when comparing design.
Figure 6. Factor space simplex and contour space of a 3- component mixture experiment for soil stabilization
739
Figure 7. Experimental factor space of the components in a 3- component mixture space

In the final case scenario being reviewed, the design evaluation for the two component mixture quadratic model
conducted with the multicomponent constraints developed from literature to determine the degree of freedom for the
experimental procedure of a two homogenous mixture concrete modification protocol is as presented in Table 10. As
usual, a recommendation is a minimum of 3 lack of fit df and 4 df for pure error. This ensures a valid lack of fit test.
Fewer df will lead to a test that may not detect lack of fit [26, 27].
740
Table 10. Design Matrix Evaluation for Mixture Quadratic Model 2 Factors: A, B with L_Pseudo Mixture Component
Coding [26, 27]
Model 2
Residuals 4
Lack of Fit 4
Pure Error 0
Corr Total 6
Power calculations test was also conducted on the developed constraints using the design expert and minitab
software to find the standard deviations and variances on the design planes and vertexes and edges contained in the
simplex on 5% alpha level shown in Table 11 [26, 27].
Table 11. Power at 5 % alpha level on 2- component for homogeneous mixtures

A 0.92 2.07 0.5174 24.7 %
B 0.92 2.07 0.5174 24.7 %
AB 3.83 3.40 0.7055 36.0 %
Approximate DF used for power calculations.

models.
The software further also developed the conditions of the 2- component simplex shown in Fig. 8 and the results are
was not recorded on any of the design points [26, 27].
Table 12. Measures derived from the information matrix on 2- component
Run Leverage Space Type

1 0.2815 Center
2 0.8525 Vertex
3 0.2524 AxialCB
4 0.2544 ThirdEdge
5 0.2524 AxialCB
6 0.2544 ThirdEdge
7 0.8525 Vertex
Average = 0.4286
Watch for leverages close to 1.0. Consider replicating these points or make sure they are run very carefully. This
case was observed on the 7th run located on the vertex of the experimental space. The software generates lots of other
data that would be used to test the multicollinearity of the design, the G-efficiency and the scaled D-optimality [26, 27].
These information and results are needed when comparing designs.
741
Figure 8. Experimental simplex and factor space of the components in a 2- component mixture space
3. Design of Experimental Mix Proportions
Tables 13, 14, 15 and 16 present the mixes and runs for the 5-, 4-, 3-, and 2- component multiconstraints experimental
design. These mixes guide the preparation of specimens to be tested in the laboratory to achieve the responses. The
number of runs can be increased to check and screen for errors and reduce lack of fit effects within the experimental
space. The specimens are prepared with the actual components mix proportions of the different components that make
the test blend. Figures. 9-15 show the factor spaces, traces and deviations and contour of the different multicomponent
constraints mixture of mixture experiments. It would be appropriate that in a model exercise, the full simulation of the
behavior of the tested specimens are observed and shown graphically to enable engineers monitor the performance and
life service of such infrastructures. These designed mixes would guide from experimental stage to achieve laboratory
responses that enable the establishment of model equations that would determine the overall behavior of the modelled
facility. Experimental responses are key to validating and testing the accuracy of mathematical modeling exercise as
742
this under review. This research is confident that it serves as a hub to direct and guide exercises in the field of civil
engineering in adapting extreme vertex design in all mixture experimental and composite formulations in civil
engineering and even in industrial and materials mechanical engineering.
Table 13. 5- Component experimental mix proportions [26, 27]
Actual Components Pseudo Components
Runs Response
z1 z2 z3 z4 z5 x1 x2 x3 x4 x5
1 0.132 0.177 0.010 0.284 0.396 Y1 0.080 0.246 0.417 0.009 0.248
2 0.124 0.200 0.005 0.251 0.420 Y2 0.170 0.000 0.474 0.356 0.000
3 0.106 0.175 0.039 0.285 0.395 Y3 0.361 0.261 0.113 0.000 0.265
4 0.124 0.200 0.047 0.231 0.398 Y4 0.171 0.000 0.031 0.571 0.227
5 0.106 0.175 0.039 0.285 0.395 Y5 0.361 0.261 0.113 0.000 0.265
6 0.140 0.152 0.050 0.285 0.373 Y6 0.000 0.507 0.000 0.000 0.493
7 0.130 0.180 0.050 0.220 0.420 Y7 0.104 0.212 0.000 0.684 0.000
8 0.126 0.139 0.030 0.285 0.420 Y8 0.150 0.643 0.207 0.000 0.000
9 0.126 0.139 0.030 0.285 0.420 Y9 0.150 0.643 0.207 0.000 0.000
10 0.140 0.163 0.029 0.249 0.420 Y10 0.000 0.394 0.223 0.384 0.000
11 0.140 0.200 0.005 0.285 0.370 Y11 0.000 0.000 0.474 0.000 0.526
12 0.100 0.200 0.050 0.230 0.420 Y12 0.421 0.000 0.000 0.579 0.000
13 0.140 0.120 0.050 0.270 0.420 Y13 0.000 0.842 0.000 0.158 0.000
14 0.140 0.200 0.050 0.285 0.325 Y14 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 1.000
15 0.100 0.145 0.050 0.285 0.420 Y15 0.421 0.579 0.000 0.000 0.000
16 0.140 0.200 0.050 0.285 0.325 Y16 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 1.000
17 0.100 0.200 0.050 0.285 0.365 Y17 0.421 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.579
18 0.140 0.195 0.021 0.254 0.390 Y18 0.001 0.050 0.307 0.324 0.318
19 0.140 0.200 0.050 0.238 0.372 Y19 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.492 0.508
20 0.140 0.150 0.005 0.285 0.420 Y20 0.000 0.526 0.474 0.000 0.000
21 0.140 0.163 0.029 0.249 0.420 Y21 0.000 0.394 0.223 0.384 0.000
22 0.140 0.200 0.020 0.220 0.420 Y22 0.000 0.000 0.316 0.684 0.000
23 0.100 0.190 0.005 0.285 0.420 Y23 0.421 0.105 0.474 0.000 0.000
24 0.140 0.152 0.050 0.285 0.373 Y24 0.000 0.507 0.000 0.000 0.493
25 0.109 0.168 0.050 0.253 0.420 Y25 0.331 0.333 0.000 0.336 0.000
X1
0.40
0.35
0.30
0.25
0.20
0.15
X5 0.10 X2
0.05
0
X4 X3
max min
Figure 9. Array factor space of the 5- component simplex of concrete production
743
Trace (Piepel)
Design-Expert Software
1.20
Component Coding: Actual
Highs/Lows inverted by U_Pseudo coding
Std Error of Design
1.00
Std Error of Design

Actual Components
A: water = 0.128308
B: cement = 0.176615 B
0.12
C: rice husk ash = 0.0368462 B
D: fine aggregate = 0.266 0.80 0.2 C
0.05
D: coarse aggregate = 0.392231 D E
0.22 0.325
E D
0.42 0.285
0.14
A A0.1
0.60 C 0.005
0.40
- 0.40 - 0.20 0.00 0.20 0.40 0.60 0.60 0.80

Deviation from Reference Blend (U_Pseudo Units)
Figure 10. Trace and deviation factor space of the 5- component mixture for concrete production
Table 14. 4- Component experimental mix proportions [26, 27]

Runs Response
z1 z2 z3 z4 x1 x2 x3 x4
1 0.010 0.540 0.420 0.030 Y1 0.308 0.462 0.231 0.000
2 0.031 0.545 0.409 0.016 Y2 0.147 0.424 0.319 0.110
3 0.030 0.500 0.450 0.021 Y3 0.158 0.769 0.000 0.073
4 0.010 0.539 0.450 0.002 Y4 0.308 0.473 0.000 0.219
5 0.031 0.545 0.409 0.016 Y5 0.147 0.424 0.319 0.110
6 0.030 0.500 0.450 0.021 Y6 0.158 0.769 0.000 0.073
7 0.010 0.600 0.379 0.011 Y7 0.308 0.000 0.546 0.146
8 0.031 0.545 0.409 0.016 Y8 0.147 0.424 0.319 0.110
9 0.010 0.570 0.390 0.030 Y9 0.308 0.231 0.462 0.000
10 0.030 0.600 0.340 0.030 Y10 0.154 0.000 0.846 0.000
11 0.050 0.500 0.420 0.030 Y11 0.000 0.769 0.231 0.000
12 0.040 0.522 0.429 0.009 Y12 0.074 0.597 0.165 0.164
13 0.010 0.600 0.360 0.030 Y13 0.308 0.000 0.692 0.000
14 0.023 0.580 0.396 0.002 Y14 0.205 0.158 0.418 0.219
15 0.050 0.600 0.320 0.030 Y15 0.000 0.000 1.000 0.000
16 0.010 0.510 0.450 0.030 Y16 0.308 0.692 0.000 0.000
17 0.050 0.600 0.320 0.030 Y17 0.000 0.000 1.000 0.000
18 0.050 0.600 0.349 0.002 Y18 0.000 0.000 0.781 0.219
19 0.050 0.550 0.384 0.016 Y19 0.000 0.385 0.506 0.110
20 0.010 0.559 0.430 0.002 Y20 0.308 0.315 0.158 0.219
21 0.010 0.600 0.379 0.011 Y21 0.308 0.000 0.546 0.146
22 0.050 0.550 0.384 0.016 Y22 0.000 0.385 0.506 0.110
23 0.050 0.567 0.353 0.030 Y23 0.000 0.256 0.744 0.000
24 0.023 0.580 0.396 0.002 Y24 0.205 0.158 0.418 0.219
25 0.050 0.500 0.449 0.002 Y25 0.000 0.769 0.012 0.219
744
X1
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
X4 0 X2
X3
max min
Figure 11. Array factor space of the 4- component simplex of asphalt production
Trace (Piepel)
1.00
Component Coding: Actual
Std Error of Design
0.90
Actual Components 0.80

A: asphalt = 0.03085
Std Error of Design
B: coarse aggreate = 0.54485 0.70 D

C: fine aggregate = 0.01575 0.03
C
D: modifiers = 0.01575 0.60 B D 0.0015 0.32
0.6 A B
C A 0.01
0.5
0.45 0.05
0.50
0.40
0.30
- 0.60 - 0.40 - 0.20 0.00 0.20 0.40 0.60 0.80

Deviation from Reference Blend (U_Pseudo Units)
Figure 12. Trace and deviation factor space of the 4- component mixture for asphalt production
Table 15. 3- Component experimental mix proportions for soil stabilization [26, 27]

Runs Response
z1 z2 z3 x1 x2 x3
1 0.333 0.143 0.524 Y1 0.551 0.289 0.159

2 0.300 0.100 0.600 Y2 0.333 0.000 0.667
3 0.325 0.125 0.550 Y3 0.500 0.167 0.333
4 0.400 0.100 0.500 Y4 1.000 0.000 0.000
5 0.352 0.100 0.548 Y5 0.679 0.000 0.321
6 0.371 0.129 0.500 Y6 0.804 0.196 0.000
7 0.300 0.100 0.600 Y7 0.333 0.000 0.667
8 0.298 0.129 0.573 Y8 0.322 0.193 0.485
9 0.350 0.150 0.500 Y9 0.667 0.333 0.000
10 0.400 0.100 0.500 Y10 1.000 0.000 0.000
11 0.250 0.150 0.600 Y11 0.000 0.333 0.667
12 0.325 0.125 0.550 Y12 0.500 0.167 0.333
745
13 0.400 0.100 0.500 Y13 1.000 0.000 0.000

14 0.350 0.150 0.500 Y14 0.667 0.333 0.000
15 0.325 0.125 0.550 Y15 0.500 0.167 0.333
16 0.275 0.125 0.600 Y16 0.165 0.169 0.667
17 0.371 0.129 0.500 Y17 0.804 0.196 0.000
18 0.308 0.150 0.542 Y18 0.390 0.333 0.277
19 0.308 0.150 0.542 Y19 0.390 0.333 0.277
20 0.373 0.105 0.522 Y20 0.818 0.032 0.149
21 0.275 0.125 0.600 Y21 0.165 0.169 0.667
22 0.325 0.125 0.550 Y22 0.500 0.167 0.333
23 0.325 0.125 0.550 Y23 0.500 0.167 0.333
24 0.325 0.100 0.575 Y24 0.497 0.000 0.503
25 0.250 0.150 0.600 Y25 0.000 0.333 0.667
X1
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
X3 X2
max
min
Figure 13. Array factor space of the 3- component simplex of soil stabilization
Trace (Piepel)
Component Coding: Actual 1.00
Std Error of Design
Actual Components 0.08

Std Error of Design
A: quarry dust = 0.325

B: water content = 0.125 A
C: soil = 0.55 0.06
B B A
C C
0.04
0.02
0.00
- 0.60 - 0.40 - 0.20 0.00 0.20 0.40 0.60

Deviation from Reference Blend (L_Pseudo Units)
Figure 14. Trace and deviation factor space of the 3- component mixture for soil stabilization
746
Table 16. 2- Component experimental mix proportions for concrete modification [26, 27]
actual components pseudo components

Runs response
z1 z2 x1 x2
1 0.315 0.685 Y1 0.500 0.500
2 0.280 0.720 Y2 0.000 1.000
3 0.333 0.668 Y3 0.750 0.250
4 0.303 0.697 Y4 0.333 0.667
5 0.298 0.703 Y5 0.250 0.750
6 0.327 0.673 Y6 0.667 0.333
7 0.350 0.650 Y7 1.000 0.000
Design-Expert Software Two Component Mix

Component Coding: Actual 1.000
Std Error of Design
Design Points
0.900
X1 = A: concrete
Std Error of Design
X2 = B: geopolymer cement 0.800
0.700
0.600
0.500
0.400
A: concrete 0.28 0.2975 0.315 0.3325 0.35
B: geopolymer cement 0.72 0.7025 0.685 0.6675 0.65
Figure 15. Trace and deviation factor space of the 2- component mixture for homogenous mixtures
4. Experimental Program
This is the laboratory investigation phase of the optimization exercise where the component mixes or mix proportions
generated from the Minitab and design-expert manipulation of the constraints situations of the different combinations
would be used to prepare laboratory specimens according to the number of runs and replicates. The tables of mix
proportions are the fundamental guide in the operation. For the purpose of exactness and error proof exercise, the
specimens are to be replicated three over and an average value estimated in the end. This value becomes the responses
to be utilized in the future modeling exercises. To begin with, all the materials characterization investigations are to be
carried out to enable proper materials classification and behavioral observation. The four cases being reviewed in this
work have their peculiar characteristics. Soils stabilization, concrete production study, asphalt production and concrete
improvement or water treatment exercises have been cited as special and general case scenarios in civil engineering
works and this serves as a hub and guide to all other works of component mixture experimentation design in civil
engineering.
5. Results Validation and Adequacy Tests
The analysis of variance (ANOVA) is the tool to be adopted to test for validity and adequacy of the experimental
and mathematical modeling operation. With a tested hypothesis under 95% confidence level, the design of experimental
protocol would be validated or not [26, 27]. The test for adequacy of the model is usually done using Fischer test at 95%
confidence level on the behavioral properties being studied. In this test, two hypotheses would be set as follows:
Null Hypothesis: this states that “there is no significant difference between the laboratory tests and model predicted
and the Alternative Hypothesis: states as follows “there is a significant difference between the laboratory test and model
predicted”. A two-tail test (inequality) will be conducted in this case and if t Stat < -t Critical two-tail or t Stat > t Critical
two-tail, we reject the null hypothesis [26, 27]. In ANOVA validation of designs, if F > F crit, we reject the null
hypothesis [26, 27]. The developed models can also be tested by writing a representative MATLAB program and observe
the running efficiency of the program.
747
6. Conclusion
This work has reviewed the use of extreme vertex design in the modeling of the behavior of multicomponent mixture
of mixture experiments in civil engineering and composite materials formulation of mechanical engineering designs.
Four special cases were cited which were 5-, 4-, 3-, and 2- component mixture experiments of concrete production,
asphalt production, soil stabilization and concrete improvement or water treatment exercises. It has shown that these
cases can be extrapolated to deal with similar cases in not only civil engineering designs but also in materials
engineering, agricultural and bio-resources engineering, chemical engineering, mechanical engineering, polymer and
textile engineering, optimization of most production operations in engineering, etc. The cases reviewed yielded results
that would eventually guide future users of this optimization technique in civil engineering works and other mixture
component modeling works as a hub. The development of constraints is an interesting part of this exercise because it
helped in defining the factor space within which experimental points are to be studied for optimal mixture effects.
7. Funding
This work was supported by the Ministry of Education and Training of Vietnam based on the decision No. 5652/QD-
BGDDT on December 28, 2018.
8. Conflict of Interests
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749

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Civil Engineering 2019

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Contents Vol. 5, No. 3, March, 2019

Pedestrians’ Speed Analysis for Two-Stage Crossing at a Signalized Intersection

The Impact of Vibration on the Accuracy of Digital Surveying Instruments

Hossam El-Din Fawzy

Maroua Mohammed Majeed, Aamer Najim Abbas

Utilization of Demolished Waste as Coarse Aggregate in Concrete

Abdulsamee M Halahla, Mohammad Akhtar, Amin H. Almasri

The Responses of an End-Bearing Pile to Adjacent Multipropped Excavation: 3D Numerical Modelling

Dildar Ali Mangnejo, Naeem Mangi, Hemu

Finite Element Modelling of RC T - Beams Reinforced Internally with GFRP Reinforcements

Balamuralikrishnan R., Saravanan J.

Mirbahador Yazdani, Amir Abbas Rassafi

Mahammed Mazouz, M. Merbouh

Mohammed Neamah Ahmed, Sawsan Rasheed Mohammed

Contents Vol. 5, No. 3, March, 2019

Assessment of Change Orders Attributes in Preconstruction and Construction Phase

Stabilization of Expansive Soils Using Polypropylene Fiber

Sarah Adnan Hussein, Haifaa Abd Al-Rasool Ali

Ahmed Waad Abdulsattar, Hayder Amer Al-Baghdadi

Multi-Level Crash Prediction Models Considering Influence of Adjacent Zonal Attributes

The Effect of Lining Material on the Permeability of Clayey Soil

Arwa Ossama Shakir, Haifaa Abd Al-Rasool Ali

Balamuralikrishnan R., Saravanan J.

Muyasser M. Jomaah, Diyaree J. Ghaidan

Mahdi O Karkush, Anwar Jabbar

Seyed Mojtaba Hosseini, Fatemeh Dirakvand, Omidreza Safarian, Ali Ayoubian

Contents Vol. 5, No. 3, March, 2019

Ali Faiq Hallawi, Ali Hussein Ali Al-Ahmed

• Building Materials and Structures • Coastal and Harbor Engineering

• Earthquake Engineering • Environmental Engineering

• Road and Bridge Engineering • Structural Engineering

 Civil Engineering Journal (C.E.J) is published monthly.

Civil Engineering Journal (C.E.J) Indexing & Abstracting

 This is an open access journal under the CC-BY license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

Civil Engineering Journal

Pedestrians’ Speed Analysis for Two-Stage Crossing at a

* Corresponding author: yongqing.guo@sdut.edu.cn

2. Definition and Model

Figure 1. Directions A and B of pedestrian two-stage crossing

2.2. Modeling Pedestrian Twice-Crossing Behavior (Speed Analysis)

Figure 2. The goal-oriented and time-driven model of pedestrian two-stage crossing

Figure 4. Dimensions of the selected pedestrian two-stage crossing

Figure 5. The framework of data collection and analysis

4. Results and Discussion

Figure 6. Pedestrians’ average speeds of two-stage crossing in the two directions

4.2. Pedestrian Twice-Crossing Speed by Age Group

Figure 7. Pedestrians’ average speeds by age group

Figure 8. Pedestrian speed changes of the two stages by age group

4.3. Pedestrian Twice-Crossing Speed by Group Size

1.50 1.24 1.32 1.30

Figure 9. Pedestrians’ average speeds by group size

4.4. Pedestrian Twice-Crossing Speed by Gender Group

Figure 11. Pedestrians’ average speeds by gender group

4.5. Effects of Gender and Group Size on Pedestrian Twice-Crossing Speed

1.4 Male team

0.9 Mixed-sex team

1.6 Male team

Civil Engineering Journal

The Impact of Vibration on the Accuracy of Digital Surveying