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DOI 10.1007/s10064-016-0898-y
ORIGINAL PAPER
Received: 19 October 2015 / Accepted: 5 May 2016 / Published online: 24 May 2016
Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2016
Abstract The hydraulic properties of hard rock and karst Keywords Lugeon Uncertainty Stochastic simulation
formations are typically highly heterogeneous. Quantifi- Karst Sequential indicator simulation Iran
cation of the groundwater flow in these media is a com-
plicated process with numerous uncertainties. There are
several approaches to overcome this problem. Stochastic Introduction
simulation is one of the promising approaches for quan-
tification of the intrinsic uncertainty in karst formations. In Karstification is a complicated process, and several factors,
the present research, the sequential indicator simulation such as faults, bedding planes, depth, lithology, hydraulic
was used as a tool for the simulation of the hydrogeological gradient, hydrochemistry, and the depth of groundwater
and geotechnical properties of a karstic formation at the circulation, take part in this process (Ford and Williams
Karun IV dam site, Iran. In this regard, two variables of 2007; Orndorff et al. 2001). Quantification of the effect of
interest, RQD and Lugeon, were considered as criteria for these factors on the development of karst is difficult
the development of karst. One hundred realizations of these because these factors do not function independently, and
variables were produced and then combined to obtain an their interrelationship does play an important role on the
expected value and the probability of exceeding a threshold solution and enlargement of fractures and cavities. There-
value for each cell. The results showed a weak negative fore, as a result of the karst development process, the
correlation between the expected values of RQD and permeability parameter is highly variable in space. Karst
Lugeon. Also, it was determined that the geologic struc- aquifers are extremely heterogeneous and have conduc-
tures (i.e., faults) and lithology play an important role in tivities ranging from 10-8 m/s in the matrix to more than
the development of karst in the study area. A decrease in 1–10 m/s in conduits (Hiller et al. 2011). Hydrogeological
the simulated values of Lugeon was observed with parameters, such as the transmissivity and hydraulic con-
increasing depth of karstic layers and the distance from ductivity, may show significant uncertainties because they
faults. The results of this study helped to overcome the have complex spatial variations (Lin et al. 2001; Tar-
intrinsic uncertainty in karst media and to present a con- takovsky 2013). In addition, the spatiotemporal distribution
ceptual model of karst development. This approach can be of variables is very important to subsequent stages of the
applied in other dams for the evaluation of risk and scientific studies (Christakos 2012). Measurements of the
uncertainty of hydrogeological parameters. hydrogeological data in tunnels and other underground
structures such as mines, quarries, tunnels, and all types of
foundation excavations is a vital task. Estimation and
simulation of the hydrogeological data are usually done
with different approaches. Several methods have been used
& Zargham Mohammadi for the simulation and estimation of the hydrogeological
zmohammadi@shirazu.ac.ir
data, from which the inverse modeling and geostatistics are
1
Department of Earth Science, Faculty of Science, Shiraz most popular. Although there is a large body of research
University, Shiraz, Iran that has investigated the use of estimation and simulation
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772 A. Assari, Z. Mohammadi
methods in alluvial aquifers (De Smedt 2007; Feyen and network of conduits in a karst system by using the
Caers 2006; Lee et al. 2007; Painter et al. 2007; Patriarche stochastic simulation and reproducing the direction rose,
et al. 2005), few works have focused on the application of histogram of conduit density etc. First, they created the
stochastic algorithms in hard rock properties. In hard rock geometry of conduits and then defined the connectivity of
aquifers, complex geological terrains are dominant, thus them in order to generate a network of conduits that is
kriging of various parameters should be done carefully and statistically similar to observed karst networks. Esfahani
incorporate the available geological datasets (Ahmed and Asghari (2013) used the sequential Gaussian simula-
2007). Santos et al. (2000) used geostatistical techniques to tion to generate 100 realizations of RQD parameter in
analyze and characterize the rock massif on which the Gazestan ore deposit located in the central Iran structural
Castanhao dam was being built, which is composed of zone. They found that the simulation results can be useful
Precambrian metamorphic rocks intruded by igneous rocks. for determination of fault locations and their trends, and
They used core recovery, RQD, and water-loss tests in their they can be used to propose new locations for further
work for the evaluation of spatial variability of these drilling. Akhondi and Mohammadi (2014) used simple
variables. They concluded that variograms and spatial kriging and simulated annealing methods to examine the
variability of geotechnical variables can be used to deter- spatial variation of permeability in a karst formation at
mine the spacing of drill holes in locations where there is a Tangab dam site, Iran. For this purpose, they used Lugeon
lack in the datasets. Öztürk and Nasuf (2002) applied the values from exploration and grouting wells. Results from
regionalized variable techniques for the estimation of this study showed that a combined use of geological,
mechanical properties of rock zones in sewer tunnels in hydrogeological, and statistical methods can be helpful for
Istanbul. They used three different rock properties of characterization of karst systems.
compressive strength, RQD, and Schmidt hammer hardness As shown by previous studies, the geostatistical simu-
to accomplish this task. The net cutting rate parameter was lation algorithms are very useful in quantification of risk
also used to predict the speed of excavation in the Eyup and uncertainty analysis and they can be used in karst
sewer tunnel in Istanbul. Jaquet et al. (2004) developed a systems with high spatial variability of hydrogeologic
stochastic model for the generation of the geometry of parameters.
karstic networks on a regional scale. The model used the The study area is located 180 km from Shahrkord City
physical processes governing the development of karstic in Chaharmahal and Bakhtyari province in southwest Iran.
networks. They used a stochastic model jointly with The dam axis is located at 670 km downstream of Karun
groundwater-modeling techniques to resolve surface pol- River on the southwest flank of Kuh-e-Sefid anticline.
lution issues at a regional karst aquifer in France. Razack This research is focused on the following subjects: (1)
and Lasm (2006) used a geostatistical approach in the simulation of RQD and Lugeon values at the abutments
crystalline and metamorphic rocks of western Ivory Coast and the foundation of Karun IV Dam using sequential
(West Africa) to estimate the transmissivity of highly indicator simulation approach; (2) comparison of simu-
fractured hard rock aquifers. They showed the usefulness lated values for different lithologies at the dam site; and
of the geostatistical methods for reliable estimation of (3) evaluation of the effect of the faults, the bedding
transmissivity parameter. Cherubini et al. (2008) generated planes, and the depth on the simulated values. The results
stochastic realizations of joint and fracture distributions, of this study were used for an assessment of karst
cavities, and ‘‘terra rossa’’ lenses using finite Fourier development, groundwater-circulation paths, and uncer-
transform properties. This study showed the strength of tainty of Lugeon values.
stochastic models in the generation of high heterogeneity
observed in real systems. The distribution of simulated
cavities and corresponding calculated head values were Geological setting
also consistent with the head values measured in situ. Yu
(2010) used six geostatistical estimation methods, two The study area is a part of the Zagros Zone with parallel
deterministic techniques, and two simulation methods to anticlines and a NW–SE trend. This structural zone is
select the best method for the interpolation of RQD dataset located in southwest Iran. There are two major anticlines in
having a highly negatively skewed distribution. It was the area of study that control the topographic features:
found that the universal kriging is the best method for the Kuhe Sefid and Badamestan anticlines (Fig. 1).
estimation of RQD dataset and that the sequential indicator These anticlines have a NW–SE trend. The Karun River
simulation is not dependent upon the normality of variables flows through the Zagros anticlines and at the plunge of
and is more appropriate than the sequential Gaussian Kuhe Sefid anticline crosses its flanks (Fig. 2). The Karun
simulation. Pardo-Igúzquiza et al. (2012) generated a IV Dam was constructed near the plunge of Kuhe Sefid, on
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Analysis of rock quality designation (RQD) and Lugeon values in a karstic formation using… 773
the southwest flank of this anticline (Fig. 2). Geologic study of the hydrogeological characteristics of the Asmari
formations, in decreasing order of age, are the Ilam and formation close to the dam site (Fig. 2). Karun IV dam is a
Sarvak (Upper Cretaceous), Gurpi and Pabdeh (Upper concrete double arch dam with a height of 230 m from the
Cretaceous–Oligocene), Asmari (Lower Miocene), Gach- foundation. Catchment area of Karun River is nearly equal
saran (Upper Miocene), Aghajari (Upper Miocene–Plio- to 12,813 km2 and mean annual precipitation at this
cene), and Bakhtyari (Pliocene) formations (Fig. 1). The catchment is equal to 680 mm (Mahab Ghods Consulting
dam was constructed on the Asmari formation, which has a Engineers 2009).
limestone lithology and is prone to karstification. Mahab The Asmari and Pabdeh Formations are the two most
Ghods Consulting Engineers (2009) did a comprehensive important formations in the area of study. The Pabdeh
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774 A. Assari, Z. Mohammadi
Formation outcrops in the upstream part of the Karun River faults have been identified at the location of dam. These
(Fig. 2). This formation is composed of alternating layers faults include F1, F2, F3, F4, F6, F7, and F9 at the left
of marly limestone, marl, and shale, creating a relatively an abutment and F13, F15, and F19 at the right abutment
impermeable barrier to the flow of groundwater. (Fig. 3). The density of faults in the left abutment are more
The Asmari Formation can be divided into two mem- than the ones in the right abutment and, in addition, these
bers: lower and upper member. The lower member, has faults have diverse angles relative to the bedding plane in
been differentiated into three sub-members named (in the left abutment (Fig. 3). It seems that the left abutment
decreasing order of age): AS1, AS2, and AS3 (Mahab has more potential for karstification. F3, F4, and F13 are
Ghods Consulting Engineers 2009). The AS1 submember the only faults that continued to the foundation of dam,
is the most important part of the study area because all the thus making these places a favorable path for the circula-
galleries, at the right-left abutments and the foundation, tion of groundwater at depth. The bedding planes are
have been excavated in this submember. Therefore, this nearly vertical at the left abutment, but this is not true for
submember has been divided into ten layers, which include the right abutment.
in decreasing order of age: AS1-A, AS1-B, AS1-C, AS1-D,
AS1-E, AS1-F, AS1-G, AS1-H, AS1-I, AS1-J (Mahab
Ghods Consulting Engineers 2009). The lithological char- Materials and methods
acteristics of these layers are presented in Table 1. These
layers change laterally, from the AS1-H to Pabdeh For- Two variables of interest, RQD and Lugeon, were selected
mation, at the left abutment (because of nearly vertical as indicators of karst development in Asmari Limestone
layers), but at the right abutment, this change is toward the and used for the stochastic simulation of karst development
depth. Solution caverns and cavities have been observed in in the study area (Fig. 3). RQD parameter was introduced
some parts of the Asmari formation. The AS1-F, G and H by Deere (1962), and it is calculated by the sum of core
are the main layers, which contain several solution lengths larger than 100 mm and dividing by the total length
features. of cores. RQD is a characteristic of rock formations, and it
The main faults and discontinuities are visible on either can be used as a criterion for assessment of fissures, frac-
side of the valley. These faults and discontinuities have tures, and discontinuities. As RQD decreases, the quality of
affected the process of karst development. Twenty faults, rock decreases and the chance for karst development is
122 joints, and four sets of discontinuities were registered enhanced.
at the dam location. Monj Fault is a 14-km long reverse Lugeon is another important attribute of rock forma-
fault situated at the south of Karun IV dam (Fig. 2). Ten tions, which represents the ability of media to transmit
Table 1 Lithological properties of the Asmari and Pabdeh formations (Mahab Ghods Consulting Engineers 2009)
Layer Lithology
AS1-A Limestone (90 %), thick to very thick, no noticeable karstic features are evident in this layer. Some surface erosion exists that is
due to the marly limestone (10 %)
AS1-B Limy marlstones that are mainly overburdened with alluvial debris and talus. No noticeable karstic features are evident in this
layer
AS1-C Thick to very thick layers of limestone, no noticeable karstic features are evident in this layer
AS1-D Similar to AS1-B
AS1-E Limestone with some outcrops of marly limestone, very thick, no noticeable karstic features are evident in this layer
AS1-F This layer starts from AS1-E and ends at the first keybed of porous limestone (AS1-G). Mainly limestone with karstic features
(cavity). In some parts of this layer, porous limestone (10 %) are visible
AS1-G Porous limestone with solution cavities are the main feature of this layer. This layer is easily recognized based on its lithological
characteristics (high porosity)
AS1-H Limestone, very thick, in the upper part of this layer solution cavities exist
AS1-I, AS1-J Limestone and marly limestone. The lower part of this layer is mainly marly limestone. Thick to very thick. No noticeable
karstic features evident in this layer
Transition A transition zone between Asmari formation and Pabdeh formation. It is composed of alternating layers of marl and limestone
zone and gradually replaced by carbonates of Asmari formation
Pabdeh Alternating layers of marly limestone and marlstone, limy marlstone, limestone, thin to thick layers, and mainly have medium
thickness
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Analysis of rock quality designation (RQD) and Lugeon values in a karstic formation using… 775
groundwater. It represents the volume of water (l) that can whole population. To overcome this problem, one can use a
be injected into a 1-m interval of a borehole during one well-known declustring method such as cell declustring
minute under 1 MPa pressure (l m-1 min-1) (Lugeon and polygonal declustring (Isaaks and Srivastava 1989). In
1933). High values of Lugeon indicate places with devel- this study, the cell declustering method was used to
oped karst conduits. RQD and Lugeon are usually deter- decluster the RQD and Lugeon values. At the second step,
mined in a 5-m section of the test wells. For the current the histograms of the left–right abutments and the foun-
research, 1866 and 1605 records of RQD and Lugeon dation of the dam were assessed and compared to each
values were used for the geostatistical simulations. Several other. Ultimately, the indicator variograms of RQD and
aspects of the exploratory data analysis such as cell de- Lugeon values were computed and modeled for nine
clustering, examination of histograms, calculation, and thresholds. There is no absolute method to decide about
modeling of indicator variograms were accomplished thresholds, but they can be selected based on the goals of
before the simulations. The exploratory data analysis (e.g. the study and spatial continuity of the extreme values. For
Caers 2011; Bivand 2010) was performed separately for example, it may be important for us to determine the
different parts of the dam (e.g., the right and left abutments probability of exceeding the threshold value of 15 Lugeon.
and the foundation of the dam). The reason for the sepa- Thus, an indicator variogram should be modeled for this
ration of simulation domain into three parts, including the threshold. The considered thresholds of RQD and Lugeon
left and right abutments and the foundation, is attributed to values are different for the left–right abutments and the
the fact that these domains have different statistical foundation of the dam and are coincident with their deciles.
parameters of RQD and Lugeon values (Fig. 4) and also These thresholds are so comprehensive which are repre-
due to the geometrical structure of data points which are sentative of the detailed spatial continuity of RQD and
constrained into three separate planes (Fig. 3). Dividing the Lugeon variables for a wide range of values.
simulation domain into three separate regions is an After the exploratory-spatial data analysis, the obtained
important decision in the simulation process because it results were used for the simulation of variables. The
applies the stationarity hypothesis, which is inherent in sequential Gaussian simulation method generates realiza-
several estimation and simulation methods. tions that minimize connectivity of high permeability val-
In every sampling campaign the samples are clustered ues that may not correspond to true reality of data
around the locations where variables of interest show high (Goovaerts 1997). However, the sequential indicator sim-
values (because of concentrated sampling in these loca- ulation works better for reproduction of spatial continuity
tions), thus their histograms an unreliable estimate of the of extreme values. Another reason for the selection of
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776 A. Assari, Z. Mohammadi
Fig. 4 Histograms of RQD and Lugeon values for the right-left abutments and the foundation of the dam. These results show the non-stationarity
of the considered variables within the study area
sequential indicator simulation is the appropriateness of mentioned constraints are the imposed conditions to the
this method for the simulation of non-normal distributions sequential indicator simulation in this research.
such as Lugeon values. Although normality could be In order to obtain an uncertainty index, 100 realizations
achieved through the use of normal score transformation, of RQD and Lugeon variables were produced and then
but two-point and multivariate normality is another issue, these realizations were combined. The number of realiza-
which is important in some methods such as sequential tions is an important factor that should be selected with
Gaussian simulation (Goovaerts 1997). care. Given that increasing the number of realizations over
The sequential indicator simulation is performed in 100 did not change the results considerably, the number of
several steps, including: realizations was set to 100. In this study, we did not per-
form a three-dimensional simulation, but instead the RQD
1. Modeling the variograms: in this step, several indicator
and Lugeon values were simulated in three vertical planes
variogram are modeled with the use of basic standard
(shown in Fig. 3) including the right and left abutments and
models (e.g. spherical) for each desired threshold.
the foundation, separately. These planes were considered
2. Indicator kriging: a conditional cumulative distribution
along the galleries where RQD and Lugeon variables
function (ccdf) is computed for each cell in the
measured in numerous boreholes. For each cell of the
simulation boundary, using the indicator kriging of
simulation, an expected value was computed using the
original and previously simulated values.
arithmetic average (mean) of the 100 realizations. The
3. Simulation: a random path passing through all cells is
probability of exceeding a threshold value (cutoff) was
selected, and for each cell within the simulation
calculated for each cell in the simulation sections. These
boundary, a simulated value is drawn from the ccdf
probability values can help in describing and characterizing
using the Monte-Carlo method. The simulated value is
the cells (i.e., zones) with high development of karst.
added to the conditioning dataset and used for the
As mentioned earlier, there are several important factors
estimation of ccdf in other cells.
which control the spatial distribution of RQD and Lugeon
In sequential indicator simulation, three constraints must values. From these controlling factors, the effect of
be met: (1) the original data values and corresponding lithology, faults, and depth are more conspicuous. To
locations must be honored at final results of simulation, i.e. define if lithology has affected the spatial distribution of
data conditioning; (2) the cumulative distribution function simulation results, boxplots of RQD and Lugeon simulated
(cdf), or corresponding histogram, of each variable must be values were created for each stratigraphic unit and then
reproduced; and (3) the modeled indicator variograms must compared to each other. A quantitative approach was used
be reproduced for each desired threshold. The above- to ascertain the impact of faults on simulated values.
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Analysis of rock quality designation (RQD) and Lugeon values in a karstic formation using… 777
Several buffer zones with various distances were created for the fifth and ninth deciles of Lugeon in the foundation.
around the faults and the mean of RQD and Lugeon The ninth decile was fitted with two basic models, i.e. a
expected values was calculated for each distance. Also, the spherical and a hole effect structure. The fifth decile was
arithmetic average of RQD and Lugeon expected values for also fitted with two basic structures, i.e. a spherical and an
each depth was calculated and then plotted against each exponential model. As evident from Fig. 6, the quality of
other to examine the variation of these variables with fitted models to the experimental variograms is good, and
depth. all other variograms (Fig. 5) also have a similar quality of
In this research, WinGSLIB and SGeMS softwares were fitting. Indicator variograms have various shapes (i.e., the
used for variogram modeling and stochastic simulations. The different Nugget, range, model, and sill). These differences
GSLIB software is a geostatistical software library which has show a distinct spatial continuity of RQD and Lugeon for
been developed by Deutsch and Journel (1998). WinGSLIB small to large values. These differences are more con-
is a graphical user interface (GUI) to the GSLIB code, and it spicuous for the left abutment and the foundation of the
contains all the functionality of GSLIB programs. This dam in comparison to the right abutment. The indicator
software is a flexible tool for the estimation and simulation of variograms of Lugeon values in the left abutment (Fig. 5)
variables, and it was used for the calculation of variograms, indicate a wide range of nugget values from the 0.3 (the
their modeling, and also performing of the sequential indi- first deciles) to 0.98 (the eighth deciles). This wide range of
cator simulation. The SGeMS software (Remy et al. 2009) nuggets shows a different spatial continuity of Lugeon for
has several capabilities form which one can mention the the small and large values of this variable.
exploratory data analysis tools, stochastic simulations, and The exploratory data analysis of RQD and Lugeon data-
post-processing of the realizations. The expected value of sets revealed different statistical parameters of these vari-
realizations and probability of exceeding the threshold value ables at right-left abutments and the foundation of the dam.
were computed using the post processing tools in the SGeMS Therefore, the stochastic simulation of RQD and Lugeon
software and then transferred to the Arc GIS software and R were performed separately for the left–right abutments and
programming language for further exploratory analysis. the foundation of the dam. The expected values (arithmetic
average of 100 realizations) of RQD and Lugeon are pre-
sented in Fig. 7. The expected values of Lugeon exhibit
Results several characteristics: (1) the higher values (more than 48
Lugeon) belong to the left abutment and the foundation, as
Histograms of RQD and Lugeon values are presented in was previously shown by the histograms of the original data;
Fig. 4. Although the right and left abutments have similar (2) at the left abutment, there is a lateral trend from large
histograms for RQD, this is not true for the foundation. The values (about 35 Lugeon near the surface) to small values
mean parameter is nearly equal for the right and left (about five Lugeon near the end of galleries); (3) the expected
abutments (52.59 vs. 53.86), but the foundation has a values of Lugeon do not show any regular pattern at the
higher mean (76.28). All of the histograms exhibit a neg- foundation; and (4) at the right abutment, the expected values
ative skewness, although this is more pronounced for the of Lugeon are mainly belong to the class of 0–23. For RQD
foundation. Another important difference between these expected values (Fig. 7b), the following results can be
histograms is that the coefficient of variation is smaller at deduced: (1) the foundation has the highest values of RQD at
the foundation (0.26) relative to the right-left abutments all places with the exception of some patches to the left part
(0.47 and 0.43). The histograms of Lugeon for the foun- of the foundation; (2) at the left abutment, there is a lateral
dation and the left abutment exhibit a similar shape and trend from low values of RQD, near the surface, to the left
their summary statistics are nearly equal. However, the margin. At this place, the F2, F3, and F4 faults also have
right abutment has a smaller mean and coefficient of influenced the RQD expected values; and (3) at the right
variation (9.63 and 1.38 respectively). abutment, the F15 and F19 faults have influenced the RQD
Experimental indicator variograms of RQD and Lugeon values in such a way that low values of RQD are concentrated
variables were calculated for different parts of the study close to these faults. However, some exceptions also exist.
area and fitted with basic models such as spherical, expo-
nential. These models are permissible in that they are all
positive definite. The fitted models to the RQD and Lugeon Discussion
variables for different parts of the study area are shown in
Fig. 5. Some of these models contain more than one The potential for karst development is higher at the left
structure, i.e. a linear combination of basic models called abutment and the foundation of the dam in relative to the
nested structures. For example, Fig. 6 shows two models right abutment. This conclusion can be justified by the
fitted to the experimental indicator variograms calculated higher number of faults, more outcrops of AS1-F, G, and H
123
778 A. Assari, Z. Mohammadi
Fig. 5 Models fitted to the indicator variograms of RQD (top graphs) and Lugeon (bottom graphs) for different thresholds from first decile to
ninth decile
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Analysis of rock quality designation (RQD) and Lugeon values in a karstic formation using… 779
At the right abutment, the high values of Lugeon are existence of voids, for the development of karst features.
concentrated around F15 and F13 faults. Another important Evidences from field surveys also showed that at these
factor at this abutment is the effect of lithology such that submembers there are more karstic features (Table 1).
the high values of Lugeon are mainly located in AS1-B, To determine if there is any relationship between RQD
AS1-F, AS1-G, and AS1-H submembers. and Lugeon expected values, a scatter-plot of these vari-
The left part of the foundation is coincident with the ables against each other may be useful. Scatterplot of these
location of F4-Down fault (Fig. 3), and this fault has variables with their histograms is shown in Fig. 10. As is
affected the RQD values at this place. This location is also clear, there is a poor relationship between these variables,
coincident with the locality of high values of Lugeon but the overall trend is negative with the correlation
(Fig. 7a). coefficient of -0.34. One of the reasons for this poor
The low values of RQD at the right part of the left relationship is that RQD is a point variable, but Lugeon is a
abutment may be due to the existence of several faults at regional variable, with larger support volume, that depends
this place, such as the F4-Up, F2, F3, and F6 faults. These on the permeability of rock on a larger volume, thus such a
faults have a clear effect on RQD values. As it was found, relationship is logical and can be justified.
there are several important factors, which control the RQD
and Lugeon values. From these controlling factors, the Effect of faults
effect of lithology, faults, and depth are more conspicuous.
All the results presented in the next section are calculated Since the faults have a major role in the quality of rock, i.e.
from the realizations generated by the sequential indicator RQD, and also in the permeability of rock, it is important to
simulation method. consider the effect of them on the simulated values.
Figure 11 shows the relationship between the RQD-
Effect of lithology Lugeon expected values and distance from faults. It is
evident that there is a negative linear relationship between
In order to determine the effect of lithology on RQD and Lugeon and distance from faults. This correlation is logical
Lugeon variables, boxplots of expected values were pro- because along the faults there is less resistance to
duced. Boxplots of RQD expected values are shown in groundwater flow, and therefore, water can move easily
Fig. 8. As can be seen from these boxplots, the Pabdeh with a low hydraulic gradient. With increasing distance
formation, AS1-A and AS1-B submembers have higher from the faults, their effect on Lugeon values becomes less
values of RQD, but the AS1-F, AS1-G, and AS1-H have evident. For example, at a distance of 50 m from the faults,
the lowest RQD simulated values, thus the lithology has an the Lugeon expected value is equal to 12.5, but at a dis-
important effect on RQD values. tance of 100 m from the faults, it’s reduced to 6. At a
Boxplots of Lugeon expected values is shown in Fig. 9. distance of 135 m from the faults, the effect of them is
Pabdeh formation, that is an impermeable geological unit, completely vanished. One of the applications of such
has the lowest values of Lugeon. The AS1-B, AS1-G, and graphs is that they can be used for the determination of the
AS1-H have the highest values. Thus, these submembers distance from which Lugeon values become less than a
have the most favorable lithology, in terms of solubility or practical threshold.
Fig. 8 Boxplots of RQD for different geological units of the Asmari Fig. 9 Boxplots of Lugeon for different geological units of the
formation Asmari formation
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780 A. Assari, Z. Mohammadi
Fig. 10 Scatter plot of RQD and Lugeon expected values with assess the effect of depth on the development of high
corresponding histograms permeability zones. Figure 12 shows the variation of
Lugeon expected values with depth for the left and right
abutments. Two power functions were fitted through the
plotted points. As can be seen from Fig. 12, there is a
negative exponential relationship between the Lugeon
expected values and depth. With increasing depth, the
Lugeon expected values become smaller at both abutments,
but there are also some deviations from the overall trend.
For example, at a depth of 130 m, the Lugeon expected
values start to increase at both abutments. Although the
simulations were performed separately for both abutments,
this trend is visible in both, with the exception that the left
abutment has larger expected values in comparison to the
right abutment. This increase in the permeability can be
Fig. 11 Relationship between expected values of Lugeon-RQD and
distance from faults
justified by several reasons. First, mixing of two or more
groundwaters with different chemical characteristics leads
to under saturation of water with respect to the calcite or
It is expected that there also would be a relationship dolomite, and consequently increases the aggressiveness of
between RQD and distance from the faults. Figure 11 shows groundwater. Second, intrusion of hypogene fluids from the
that this expectation is appropriate and there is a linear deep faults into the bedrocks, which culminates to the
dependency between these two variables, but with a positive solution of limestone and developing of high permeability
correlation. With increasing distance from the faults, the RQD zones, is also important. Some evidence exists that may
expected value becomes larger. For example, at a distance of confirm the role of deep faults on the observed deviations
50 m from the faults, the RQD expected value is equal to in Fig. 12. During the excavation of the Monj diversion
58 %, but at a distance of 100 m, it increases to 67 %. tunnel, a large solution cavity (2500 m3) was found
(Shirvani et al. 2004). Detailed studies showed that this
Effect of depth cavity may have been formed by hypogene fluids origi-
nated from the Monj reverse fault. Thus, the observed
Another important factor that influences on the develop- increase in Lugeon expected values may be originated by
ment of karst is the effect of depth, i.e. depth of circulation this mechanism. The third reason that may explain the
and percolation of groundwater. For this reason, a graph of observed deviation from the overall trend is the effect of
depth against the Lugeon expected values was created to faults. For example, along the F15 Fault at the right
123
Analysis of rock quality designation (RQD) and Lugeon values in a karstic formation using… 781
Conclusion
Fig. 13 Probability of exceeding the threshold value of 15 Lugeon
for the right and left abutments
The goal of this study was to quantify the risk and uncer-
tainty of hydrogeological and geotechnical properties of a
karst system using a stochastic simulation method. For this
reason, the obtained results from the water pressure tests,
i.e. Lugeon values, and geotechnical records (RQD), were
used for this purpose. Spatial distribution of RQD and
Lugeon variables were simulated using the sequential
indicator simulation approach in a highly heterogeneous
karstic terrain at Karun IV Dam Site in SW Iran. The
results showed that the left abutment and the foundation of
the dam have more potential for karst development in
comparison to the right abutment. The high values of RQD
(with an average of 73) belong to the foundation, but the
abutments exhibit smaller RQD values with an average
value of 54. The results show that the sub layers of AS1-B,
AS1-G, and AS1-H have more potential for karstification.
The results reveal a clear negative relationship between
Lugeon values and the distance from major faults. This
relationship was explained by the fact that the movement of
Fig. 14 Relationship between RQD expected values and depth
groundwater along the faults are easier than the body of
solid rock. Lugeon values are higher along the faults zones
in relation to other parts of the study area. In contrast, a
abutment, there is a local increase in Lugeon values at a positive trend was observed between the distance from
depth of 925 m asl. This fault can act as a route for deep faults and RQD values, indicating low quality of rock near
percolation of water from surface recharge. the faults.
According to the preceding discussion, it would seem The simulation results suggest that the Lugeon values
that the role of local faults is the most logical reason for the exponentially decrease with increasing depth. There is an
observed deviation of Lugeon values at depth. unexpected increase of Lugeon values at about 130 m
The probability of exceeding the threshold value of 15 depth. It was concluded that this exceptional increase of
Lugeon for different depths is shown in Fig. 13. Two Lugeon values might be due to the effect of faults or
points can be mentioned about this graph: (1) the deviation hypogene fluids. Lastly, it was concluded that the devel-
of points from the overall trend at a depth of 130 m (similar opment of karst in the study area was controlled by several
to what we observed in Fig. 12); and (2) at depths lower major factors including the lithology of limestone sub
than 90 m, the probability of exceeding the threshold value layers, vicinity to the faults zones and the depth of favor-
is higher in the right abutment than the corresponding able lithology.
123
782 A. Assari, Z. Mohammadi
The results from this study show that this approach can Ford D, Williams PD (2007) Karst hydrogeology and geomorphol-
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Acknowledgments The authors would like to acknowledge Shiraz Lee S-Y, Carle SF, Fogg GE (2007) Geologic heterogeneity and a
University for continuing support, Mahab Ghods Consulting Engi- comparison of two geostatistical models: Sequential Gaussian
neers and Iran Water and Power Resources Development Company and transition probability-based geostatistical simulation. Adv
for providing valuable data and information. Also, helpful comments Water Resour 30:1914–1932
from three anonymous reviewers on an earlier version of manuscript Lin Y-P, Tan Y-C, Rouhani S (2001) Identifying spatial character-
are gratefully acknowledged. istics of transmissivity using simulated annealing and kriging
methods. Environ Geol 41:200–208
Lugeon M (1933) Barrages et géologie. Dunod, Paris
Mahab Ghods Consulting Engineers (2009) Final report of engineer-
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