Remote Sensing of Environment 85 (2003) 1 – 20

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Review article
Remote sensing of soil salinity: potentials and constraints
G.I. Metternicht a,*, J.A. Zinck b
a
Department of Spatial Sciences, Curtin University of Technology, GPO Box U 1987, Perth, WA 6845, Australia
b
International Institute for Geo-Information Science and Earth Observation (ITC), Department of Earth Systems Analysis (ESA),
PO Box 6, 7500 AA Enschede, The Netherlands
Received 24 June 2002; received in revised form 29 October 2002; accepted 2 November 2002

Abstract

Soil salinity caused by natural or human-induced processes is a major environmental hazard. The global extent of primary salt-affected
soils is about 955 M ha, while secondary salinization affects some 77 M ha, with 58% of these in irrigated areas. Nearly 20% of all irrigated
land is salt-affected, and this proportion tends to increase in spite of considerable efforts dedicated to land reclamation. This requires careful
monitoring of the soil salinity status and variation to curb degradation trends, and secure sustainable land use and management.
Multitemporal optical and microwave remote sensing can significantly contribute to detecting temporal changes of salt-related surface
features. Airborne geophysics and ground-based electromagnetic induction meters, combined with ground data, have shown potential for
mapping depth of salinity occurrence. This paper reviews various sensors (e.g. aerial photographs, satellite- and airborne multispectral
sensors, microwave sensors, video imagery, airborne geophysics, hyperspectral sensors, and electromagnetic induction meters) and
approaches used for remote identification and mapping of salt-affected areas. Constraints on the use of remote sensing data for mapping salt-
affected areas are shown related to the spectral behaviour of salt types, spatial distribution of salts on the terrain surface, temporal changes on
salinity, interference of vegetation, and spectral confusions with other terrain surfaces.
As raw remote sensing data need substantial transformation for proper feature recognition and mapping, techniques such as spectral
unmixing, maximum likelihood classification, fuzzy classification, band ratioing, principal components analysis, and correlation equations
are discussed. Lastly, the paper presents modelling of temporal and spatial changes of salinity using combined approaches that incorporate
different data fusion and data integration techniques.
D 2003 Elsevier Science Inc. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Review; Salinity; Alkalinity; Videography; Remote sensing; Hyperspectral; Microwave; Image classification; Modelling; Monitoring

1. Introduction approximately 10 times the size of a country like Venezuela

Soil salinity might not be as dramatic and damaging as
earthquakes or large-scale landslides, but it is certainly a
severe environmental hazard. This results in increasing
impact on crop yields and agricultural production in both
dry and irrigated areas due to poor land and water manage-
ment and expansion of the agricultural frontier into marginal
drylands.
Statistics relating to the extent of salt-affected areas vary
according to authors, but estimates are in general close to 1
billion hectares, which represent about 7% of the earth’s
continental extent (Ghassemi, Jakeman, & Nix, 1995) or
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +61-892663935; fax: +61-892662703.
E-mail addresses: Metternicht@vesta.curtin.edu.au (G.I. Metternicht),
Zincka@itc.nl (J.A. Zinck).
or 20 times the size of France. In addition to these naturally
salt-affected areas, about 77 M ha have been salinized as a
consequence of human activities, with 58% of these con-
centrated in irrigated areas. On average, 20% of the world’s
irrigated lands are affected by salts, but this figure increases
to more than 30% in countries such as Egypt, Iran and
Argentina (Ghassemi et al., 1995). In the future, more
drylands will be put into agricultural production because
of increasing population pressure. This will mainly be
achieved with irrigation and will thus expand the saliniza-
tion hazard.
Furthermore, salinity also affects other major soil degra-
dation phenomena such as soil dispersion, increased soil
erosion, and engineering problems. When soil salinization is
assessed in economic terms, reasons to be concerned about
it become more apparent. For instance, the economic
damage caused by secondary salinization was estimated at

0034-4257/03/$ - see front matter D 2003 Elsevier Science Inc. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/S0034-4257(02)00188-8
2 G.I. Metternicht, J.A. Zinck / Remote Sensing of Environment 85 (2003) 1–20

US$750 million per year for the Colorado River Basin in the
USA, US$300 million per year for the Punjab and North-
west Frontier Provinces in Pakistan, and US$208 million
per year for the Murray– Darling Basin in Australia (Ghas-
semi et al., 1995). Frequently, these costs do not consider
the losses on property values of farms with degraded land,
and other indirect costs such as eutrophication of rivers and
estuaries, damage to infrastructure (including roads and
buildings), and the social cost of farm businesses. A study
focussed on dryland salinity risk assessment in Australia
(National Land and Water Resources Audit, 2000) estimates
that some 20,000 km of major roads and 1600 km of
railways are already at risk, with a potential increase to
52,000 and 3600 km, respectively, by 2050, unless proper
measures to halt degradation are taken. However, remedial
actions require reliable information to help set priorities and
to choose the type of action that is most appropriate in each
case. Decision-makers and growers need confidence that all
technical estimates and data provided to them are reliable
and robust, as the economic and social effects of over- or
underestimating the extent, magnitude, and spatial distribu-
tion of salinity can be disastrous.
To keep track of changes in salinity and anticipate further
degradation, monitoring is needed so that proper and timely
decisions can be made to modify the management practices
or undertake reclamation and rehabilitation. Monitoring
salinity means first identifying the places where salts con-
centrate and, secondly, detecting the temporal and spatial
changes in this occurrence. Both largely depend on the
peculiar way salts distribute at the soil surface and within
the soil mantle, and on the capability of the remote sensing
tools to identify salts (Zinck, 2001).
This paper attempts, from an end-user’s point of view, to
review some of the key issues concerning the use of remote
sensing data for soil salinity mapping and monitoring from a
set of recent papers selected, among others, because they
provide appropriate supporting data to the points addressed.
Salts tend to concentrate on the soil surface in dry and
irrigated areas. As salinity increases, more salts will appear
at the soil surface, favouring the use of conventional remote
sensing tools. At the same time, the proper nature of the
salts, the way they distribute at the terrain surface, and the
fast rate of change over time place some constraints on
using remote sensing technologies because not all remote
sensing data offer the same possibilities for identifying salt-
affected areas and monitoring their evolution.
The first part of this paper highlights constraints on the
use of remote sensing data, advantages of the various data
sources, and data transformation and classification techni-
ques usually implemented for detection of salt-affected
areas. The second part deals with modelling of temporal
and spatial changes of salinity, and alternative approaches
that incorporate different data fusion and data integration
techniques to overcome some constraints of current remote
sensing technologies.
2. Constraints on the use of remote sensing data
The presence of salts at the terrain surface can be
detected from remotely sensed data either directly on bare
soils, with salt efflorescence and crust, or indirectly through
vegetation type and growth as these are controlled or
affected by salinity (Mougenot, Pouget, & Epema, 1993).
Surface salinity is a highly dynamic process, causing
identification constraints derived from the proper behavior
of the salt features, spectrally, spatially, and temporally. Salt
detection can also be blurred by the presence of vegetation
and other surface features, which might contribute to creat-
ing spectral confusions with the salt reflectance properties.
2.1. Spectral behaviour of salt types
Ground observations and radiometric measurements
show that quantity and mineralogy of salts, together with
soil moisture, colour, and roughness, are the main factors
affecting salt reflectance. Mougenot et al. (1993) mention
reflectance variations according to variable terrain surface
conditions, including crusts with or without low salt evi-
dence, salt crusts less than 1 mm to 1 m thick, puffy
structures containing soil aggregates and salt crystals
(0.5 – 5 mm) derived from salty clays and sometimes from
salt crusts, and wind erosion of puffy structure layers. Fig. 1
shows some examples of salt- or sodium-related surface
features that influence salt identification from remote sens-
ing data.
Salts also cause variations in surface roughness. Fig. 2
illustrates the influence of different salt types and land
management practices on the reflectance of crusted surfaces.
Salt mineralogy produces distinctive macromorphological
features at the soil surface. For instance, puffy crusts form
because of the abundance of sodium sulphates, while
smooth salty crusts are due to the presence of chlorides
(Driessen & Schoorl, 1973; Eghbalm, Southard, & Whittig,
1989). In general, salty crusts are smoother than nonsaline,
usually cultivated surfaces and have an overall higher

Fig. 1. Examples of surface features, or combinations thereof, that influence salt identification from remotely sensed imagery because of distribution pattern,
morphology, spectral similarity, spectral interference, and temporal change. (a) Puffy sodium sulphate-rich crust, characteristic of alkaline areas; (b) puffy crust
containing soil aggregates, spots of thin salt crust, and salt-tolerant Chenopodiaceae; (c) sodium sulphate-rich crust broken by cattle or sheep trampling, leaving
the underlying dispersed soil material exposed to wind erosion; (d) alkaline areas with pH values up to 9, used for cultivation of salt-tolerant crops (e.g. barley,
alfalfa); (e) salt crust maximized at the end of the dry season; (f) chloride sulphate-dominated surface, with patches of salt-tolerant Cynodon dactilon; (g)
surface roughness caused by ploughing; (h) irrigated agricultural field with local salt concentration impeding alfalfa growth; (i) dispersed patches of halophytic
vegetation on soils severely affected by salinity – alkalinity; (j) poor barley development in a salt-affected paddock; (k) dark reddish saline crust; (l) structural
crust.
 G.I. Metternicht, J.A. Zinck / Remote Sensing of Environment 85 (20032002) 1–20 3

reflectance in the visible and near-infrared wave bands. tively higher roughness produced by large clods in ploughed
Cracks, common in silt- and clay-rich nonsaline crusts, areas (Fig. 1).
lower the overall crust reflectance. Similarly, reflectance Salt mineralogy (e.g. carbonates, sulphates, chlorides)
of cultivated nonsaline surfaces decreases because of rela- determines the presence (or absence) of absorption bands in
4 G.I. Metternicht, J.A. Zinck / Remote Sensing of Environment 85 (2003) 1–20

Fig. 2. Reflectance variations of surface features due to differences in crusting and land management practices. Data recorded with a ground-based Crop Scan
radiometer.

the electromagnetic spectrum. For instance, pure halite
(NaCl) is transparent and its chemical composition and
structure preclude absorption in the visible and near to
thermal infrared bands (Hunt, Salisbury, & Lenhoff,
1972), as shown in Fig. 3. On the contrary, carbonates
present absorption features in the thermal range (between 11
and 12 Am) due to internal vibrations of the CO32 group,
whereas sulphate anions have an absorption band near 10.2
Am caused by overtones or combination tones of internal
vibrations of constitutional water molecules, as reported by
Mulders (1987) and Siegal and Gillespie (1980), and shown
in Fig. 3. Carbonate absorption features are also reported at
2.34-Am wavelength (Siegal & Gillespie, 1980). Middle-
infrared bands, reflecting water and OH absorption, allow
differentiating between chlorides (as halite) and sulphates
when both are dry. Mulders (1987) reports the 1.50– 1.73-
Am range as one of the absorption bands for soil surface
features containing gypsum (CaSO4
H2O).

Fig. 3. (a) Spectra of gypsum (CaSO4
2H2O), halite (NaCl), calcium carbonate (CaCO3), sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3), and sodium sulphate (Na2SO4) in the
visible, near, and midinfrared (0.4 – 2.5 Am), as recorded by the GER 3700 spectroradiometer. Redrawn from Hovari (2002). (b) Spectra of carbonates,
chlorides, and sulphates (gypsum, anhydrite, apatite, and halite) in the thermal infrared (6 – 20 Am). Modified from Lane and Christensen (1997, 1998).
 G.I. Metternicht, J.A. Zinck / Remote Sensing of Environment 85 (20032002) 1–20
Under laboratory conditions, Csillag, Pásztor, and Biehl
(1993) identified six spectral ranges characterising the
salinity status of soils exposed to different salinization and
alkalinization processes, including the visible (0.55 –0.77
Am), near-infrared (0.9 –1.3 Am) and middle-infrared (1.94 –
2.15, 2.15 –2.3, 2.33 –2.4 Am) bands. With low moisture
content, salts have high reflectance values in the visible
(especially the blue) region of the spectrum. Low reflectance
occurring in the middle-infrared bands is attributed to the
presence of hygroscopic water in salt minerals or high
moisture content of fresh salts. Likewise, the type of salt
crystallization pattern and salt mineralogy interfere, as more
light is trapped in coarse lattices (e.g. gypsum) than in fine
lattices (e.g. halite).
2.2. Spatial patterns of salinity
The tendency of salts to concentrate locally, in patchy
spots, creates variable mixtures of features within individual
pixels. In addition, saline crusts vary considerably in struc-
ture, from smooth to rough, and in colour, from white to
dark. These cause large variations in reflectance (Epema,
1992; Escadafal, 1989; Metternicht & Zinck, 1996). Fig. 4
shows the influence of surface roughness and crust colour
on reflectance in the visible and near-infrared regions of the
spectrum (450 –800 nm), as recorded from ground-based
measurements, with an eight-band Crop Scan radiometer, of
soil surfaces belonging to very strongly saline and slightly
alkaline class. A decrease of two chroma units in the
Munsell soil colour chart, from 10 YR 6/5 to 10 YR 6/3,
causes reflectance reduction in all bands. The saline crust
Fig. 4. Influence of surface morphology and colour on the reflectance of very strongly saline crusts. Data recorded with a ground-based Crop Scan radiometer.
5
has higher reflectance than the nonsaline soil surface.
However, alteration of the saline crust by trampling
increases the surface roughness, which causes reflectance
to decrease at similar salt contents. The shape of the spectral
curve does not change, but the overall reflectance does.
2.3. Temporal changes in salinity
Good timing for passive (e.g. optical and infrared) remote
sensing data acquisition must take into account that salt
identification is easiest at the end of the dry season (Fig. 1),
as salts dissolve during the rainy season. In contrast to white
saline surfaces, pure alkaline soils are usually dark at surface,
because excess sodium causes organic matter to disperse
when the soil is moist. On the other hand, the character-
isation of saline soils using active (radar) imagery and
complex dielectric constants determined by radar backscat-
tering inversion techniques requires some soil moisture, as
the measurements depend principally on dielectric constant
and permittivity determined by moisture conditions, chem-
ical and biological compositions (Mougenot et al., 1993).
For optical remote sensing, the possibility to identify
salt-affected soils varies largely with moisture content, salt
pureness, coatings, and spectral contrast with other surface
features. In general, moderately to highly saline areas are
easily detected, while low salinity levels and initial stages of
salinization frequently cause identification failures. For
instance, McGowen and Mallyon (1996) report significant
overestimation of saline areas when using Landsat TM data
and a maximum likelihood classification. The reasons are
adduced to land management practices, native vegetation
6 G.I. Metternicht, J.A. Zinck / Remote Sensing of Environment 85 (2003) 1–20
and soil types present across the study area. The problem
was resolved by combining multitemporal imagery of differ-
ent cropping periods. On the other hand, underestimation of
salt-affected surfaces using remote sensing has been attrib-
uted to confusion between slightly saline and nonsaline soils
(Jain, Sharma, Manchanda, & Singh, 1988; Manchanda &
Iyer, 1983). Hence, detection accuracy can be improved by
combining field data and multitemporal or multispectral
(e.g. optical, infrared, and microwave) image data, sup-
ported by geographic information system technology.
2.4. Interference of vegetation
Salt- and sodium-affected areas are usually free of
vegetation, but at lower concentrations specialized plant
communities can be present in natural conditions (e.g.
Salicornia spp.), and salt-tolerant crops such as barley,
cotton, and alfalfa, can be cultivated (Fig. 1). Salt-tolerant
vegetation modifies the overall spectral response pattern of
salt-affected soils, especially in the green and red bands
(Metternicht, 1998a; Rao et al., 1995).
Halophytic salt-tolerant vegetation, such as Cynodon
dactilon and Chenopodiaceae, is common in saline and
alkaline areas. Data collected with a ground-based radio-
meter (Skye Instruments, UK) in Bolivia shows the spectral
curve of salt-tolerant Chenopodiaceae to be comparable to
that of chlorophyll-rich vegetation, with strong absorption in
the visible range of the spectrum and higher reflectance in
the near-infrared (Fig. 5). In contrast, the spectral curve of
Fig. 5. Reflectance curves of salt-tolerant vegetation and saline crust. Data recorded with a ground-based Crop Scan radiometer.
C. dactilon increases monotonically throughout the visible
and near-infrared wave bands, indicating lower chlorophyll
content. Metternicht (1996) found that halophytic vegetation
was a good indicator to separate saline– alkaline areas from
nonaffected ones but caused spectral confusion among
salinity – alkalinity classes. Very strongly saline – alkaline
areas, with soil reaction (pH)>9.5 and electrical conductivity
(EC)>32 dS/m, were mistakenly labelled as strongly saline,
slightly alkaline areas with pH 7 –8 and EC 8.1 – 32 dS/m
because they had the same herbaceous cover of C. dactilon.
Although the presence of vegetation interferes with the
reflectance of salinity features, it can also be used as an
indirect indicator to correlate remote sensing data with soil
salinity (Szabo, Pásztor, Suba, & Varallyay, 1998; Zhang,
Ustin, Rejmankova, & Sanderson, 1997). For instance, high
correlation was found between NDVI values and soil
electrical conductivity, allowing to separate saline– alkaline
soils from nonaffected ones, but not to discriminate between
saline and alkaline soils (Wiegand, Anderson, Lingle, &
Escobar, 1994; Wiegand, Rhoades, Escobar, & Everitt,
1994).
Some researchers propose to detect salinity distribution
by using contrasted associations of vegetation and bare soils
(Metternicht & Zinck, 1997; Szabo et al., 1998; Zhang et al.,
1997), while others recommend procedures of classification
that take into account vegetation types at macroscale level
and vegetation status, as influenced by salinity stress, at a
microscale level (Dale, Hulsman, & Chandica, 1986; Wie-
gand, Anderson, et al., 1994; Wiegand, Rhoades, et al.,
 G.I. Metternicht, J.A. Zinck / Remote Sensing of Environment 85 (20032002) 1–20
1994). A range of optical, infrared, or microwave sensors, or
combinations thereof, can be used to this end, as shown in
Section 3.
Among cultivated crops, cotton appears to be the ideal
indicator because it is largely cultivated in irrigated dry-
lands. The health status of cotton plants and cotton yield
have been used as salinity indicators because of their strong
correlation with electrical conductivity. Both criteria can be
estimated from colour infrared aerial photographs, video
images, and multispectral images using spectral brightness
coefficients, photo densities, and NDVI (Golovina, Minskiy,
Pankova, & Solovyev, 1992).
2.5. Spectral confusions with other terrain surface features
Features quite different in nature and dynamics can
generate high levels of reflectance, similar to those of areas
with high salt concentration. This is the case of surface
features common in drylands, such as braided stream beds,
eroded terrain surfaces with truncated soils, and nonsaline
silt-rich structural crusts which cause spectral confusions
because of their spectral similarity with salt-related features
(Fig. 6).
Structural crusts are thin layers formed on the soil surface
after a rainstorm (or irrigation) event takes place (Gold-
shleger, Ben-Dor, Benyamini, Agassi, & Blumber, 2001),
and it significantly changes the soil color. The soil aggre-
Fig. 6. Influence of soil properties on the reflectance of saline and nonsaline crusts. Data recorded with a ground-based Crop Scan radiometer.
7
gates are destroyed during the process of crust formation
and the finer soil particles form a seal or crust at the surface,
leading to an increase of the overall reflectance of a soil (De
Jong & Epema, 2001). Fig. 1l shows the increased albedo of
a crusted surface. De Jong (1992) and Goldshleger et al.
(2001) conducted controlled spectral investigations of the
behaviour of these structural crusts across the NIR and
SWIR spectral regions, and reported that these crusts cause
an overall increase in reflectance (e.g. up to 12%). Gold-
shleger et al. found spectral information to be related to
changes in particle size distribution and texture at the soil
surface, suggesting the crust might bias thematic remote
sensing of soils.
Fig. 6 shows spectral curves of different crust types
collected in the Cochabamba area of Bolivia using a Crop
Scan multiband radiometer, with eight bands of 7– 12-nm
bandwidth located in the range between 450 and 800 nm
(Metternicht, 1996). Spectral confusions occur between
salty crusts and bright silt loam structural crusts in the blue
and green regions of the spectrum (450 – 550 nm). Surface
brightness due to high silt content determines higher reflec-
tance than that of a puffy or smooth salty crust. In general,
nonsaline crusts have lower reflectance and slightly different
curve shape than salty crusts. The puffy, sodium sulphate-
rich crusts seem to respond more to the influence of silt than
to salt content, as the curve shape and level of reflectance
are similar to those of the bright silt loam crust. A clear
8 G.I. Metternicht, J.A. Zinck / Remote Sensing of Environment 85 (2003) 1–20

Table 1
Ground-based air- and satellite-borne sensors reported in the literature for detection and mapping of salt-affected areas
Sensor No. of bands Spectral range (Am) Spatial resolution
Satellite-borne sensors
Landsat TM4 and TM5, 7 (1 – 7), 8 (1 – 8) Visible, NIR, mid- and Bands 1 – 5 and 7: 30 m,
Landsat TM7-ETM + thermal infrared Band 6: 120 m, Band 8: 15 m
B1: 0.45 – 0.52
B2: 0.52 – 0.60
B3: 0.63 – 0.69
B4: 0.76 – 0.90
B5: 1.55 – 1.75
B6: 10.40 – 12.50
B7: 2.08 – 2.35
B8: 0.52 – 0.90 (pan)
SPOT 1 – 3 4 (Xs1 – 3 and Pan) Visible, NIR Xs and Xi: 20 m,
Xs1: 0.50 – 0.59 Pan and Mono: 10 m
Xs2: 0.61 – 0.68
Xs3: 0.79 – 0.89
SPOT 4 5 (Xi1 – 4 and Mono) Xi4: 1.58 – 1.75
Pan: 0.51 – 0.73
Mono: 0.61 – 0.68
LISS-III 4 Visible, NIR, midinfrared Bands 1 – 3: 23 m,
B1: 0.52 – 0.59 Band 4: 70 m
B2: 0.62 – 0.68
B3: 0.77 – 0.86
B4: 1.55 – 1.70
LISS-II 4 Visible, NIR 36.25 m
B1: 0.45 – 0.52
B2: 0.52 – 0.59
B3: 0.62 – 0.68
B4: 0.77 – 0.86
IRS-1C 1 0.5 – 0.75 (pan) 5.8 m
JERS-1 1 Microwave 18 – 12.5 m
L-band (23 cm)-HH pol

Airborne sensors
Aerial photographs B/W; colour infrared variable, depending on
flight height
Narrow-band videography 3 Visible, NIR 3.4 m
0.54 – 0.55
0.64 – 0.65
0.84 – 0.85
DMSV (digital multispectral 4 Visible, NIR variable: 0.25 – 2 m
video systems) 0.44 – 0.46
0.54 – 0.56
0.64 – 0.66
0.74 – 0.76
AIRSAR – TOPSAR 3 Microwave 10 m
P-, L-bands (full polarimetric),
C-band (VV polarization)
Hyperspectral Hymap 128 Visible, NIR, midinfrared 2 – 10 m
0.45 – 2.5
Hyperspectral DAIS-7915 79 0.4 – 12 3 – 20 m
0.4 – 1 (32 bands)
1.5 – 1.8 (8 bands)
2 – 2.5 (32 bands)
3 – 5 (1 band)
8.5 – 12.3 (6 bands)
Airborne geophysics Gravity
Magnetic
Electromagnetic
Gamma ray
 G.I. Metternicht, J.A. Zinck / Remote Sensing of Environment 85 (20032002) 1–20
Table 1 (continued)
Sensor No. of bands
Ground-based sensors
Electromagnetic induction meter
(EM31, EM34-3, EM38, EM39)
Crop Scan multiband radiometer 8 Visible, NIR
(Skye Instruments, UK)
decrease in reflectance is observed as the crusts become
nonsaline, together with lower contents of silt and clay.
3. Sources of remote sensing data
A variety of remote sensing data has been used for
identifying and monitoring salt-affected areas, including
aerial photographs, video images, infrared thermography,
visible and infrared multispectral and microwave images,
and even remotely sensed data collected by airborne geo-
physics and electromagnetic induction (Table 1).
3.1. Aerial photographs
Delineation of salt-affected soil units on aerial photo-
graphs usually proceeds from a combination of geomorphic
features and grey tones or colours. Field verification allows
relating these units to variations in salt content. Despite all
the advances in spectral and spatial resolutions of satellite
and airborne remote sensing imagery, aerial photographs
remain useful for detailed or historical studies. They have
been intensively used in soil salinity mapping, especially
colour-infrared photographs in which barren saline soils (in
white) and salt-stressed crops (in reddish brown) can be
easily discriminated from other soil surface and vegetation
features (Rao & Venkataratnam, 1991; Wiegand, Rhoades,
et al., 1994). Colour infrared aerial photography has also
been used in small areas requiring high resolution, which
cannot be provided by current satellite sensors, or to
validate satellite data (Everitt, Escobar, Gerbermann, &
Alaniz, 1988; Manchanda & Iyer, 1983). Colour infrared
has proven to be most useful to identify variations in
salinity-induced plant stress. Because the response of crops
to salinity severity usually varies from season to season and
from crop to crop, infrared photographs are a good means
for recording multitemporal and crop-to-crop responses to
salinity and changes in management practices (Ghassemi et
al., 1995).
3.2. Airborne videography and digital multispectral cam-
eras
Videography appears as a promising means because of its
advantages in terms of recording ease, immediate playback,
and real-time display, enabling preliminary identification
9
Spectral range (Am) Spatial resolution
Electromagnetic conductivity meter
measures the bulk electrical
conductivity of soils
0.36 – 1.1
and assessment of saline problem areas. Multispectral video
systems, recording spectral responses of vegetation in the
visible and infrared regions of the spectrum, have been
applied for mapping crop variations due to salinity. Everitt
et al. (1988) used narrow-band videography to detect and
estimate the extent of salt-affected soils in Texas. Wiegand,
Everitt, and Richardson (1992), Wiegand, Rhoades, et al.
(1994) and Wiegand, Richardson, Escobar, and Gerbermann
(1991) analyzed and mapped the response of cotton to soil
salinity using colour-infrared photographs and videography
in three bands covering the 0.84– 0.85-, 0.64 –0.65-, and
0.54 – 0.55-Am ranges of the spectrum, with a spatial reso-
lution of 3.4 m. By relating video data and field data, such
as soil electrical conductivity, plant height, and percent bare
area, they determined the interrelations between plant, soil
salinity, and spectral observations. More precisely, for
detecting salt-affected areas, colour-infrared composite and
red narrow-band images have proven to be better than green
and near-infrared narrow-band images (Escobar, Gerber-
mann, & Alaniz, 1988; Wiegand et al., 1992; Wiegand,
Rhoades, et al., 1994).
Other airborne sensors, such as the digital multispectral
video (DMSV) or the digital multispectral imaging (DMSI)
systems developed by SpecTerra Systems (2000), operate in
similar regions of the spectrum but provide a wider cover-
age, with one extra band in the 0.44– 0.46-Am range, and
variable pixel resolution as a function of the flight height
(0.25 –2 m). These systems have been tested for agricultural
applications in Western Australia (Delfos, 2001; Drysdale,
2001; Islam & Metternicht, 2002; Metternicht, Gonzalez,
Beeston, & Honey, 2002; Metternicht, Hageman, Beeston,
& Honey, 2001; Stovold, Steber, & Smith, 1994). Due to
their flexibility in frequency and time of data acquisition,
near real-time display and high spatial resolution (see Table
1), these systems have shown potential for qualitative
monitoring and rapid detection of vegetation degradation
in agricultural landscapes, for keeping track of the effect of
farm management practices (e.g. fertilizer application, lim-
ing), and for assessing the performance of revegetation
programs in saline areas where the rate of tree survival is
an important factor to consider.
3.3. Satellite sensors covering the visible to middle infrared
Extensive research on the application of satellite imagery
covering the visible to infrared regions of the spectrum for
10 G.I. Metternicht, J.A. Zinck / Remote Sensing of Environment 85 (2003) 1–20
identification and mapping of saline areas has been con-
ducted in countries like Australia, Bolivia, China, Egypt,
India, Iran, and USA. Works by Csillag et al. (1993), Epema
(1990), Evans and Caccetta (2000), Everitt et al. (1988),
Kalra and Joshi (1996), Metternicht (1996), Metternicht and
Zinck (1996), Mougenot et al. (1993), Mulders (1987), Rao
et al. (1995), Srivastava, Tripathi, and Gokhale (1997), and
Verma, Saxena, Barthwal, and Deskmukh (1994) provide
illustrative application examples. In general, good results
are reported when discriminating only two surface types,
namely, saline and nonsaline (Evans & Caccetta, 2000).
Attempts have also been made to verify the efficiency of this
kind of remote sensing data in mapping salinity types and
degrees (Kalra & Joshi, 1996; Metternicht, 1998; Metter-
nicht & Zinck, 1996).
In general, reflectance increases with increasing quantity
of salts at the terrain surface. This is particularly true for the
blue band, in which the interference caused by ferric oxides
is masked. Salt-affected soils show relatively higher spectral
response in the visible and near-infrared regions of the
spectrum than nonsaline soils do, and strongly saline-sodic
soils present higher spectral response than moderately saline-
sodic soils (Rao et al., 1995). Conversely, reflectance de-
creases and salts are difficult to identify with increasing
moisture, the presence of ferric oxides, and the inclusion of
clay. Moreover, the presence of water and OH groups in the
crystal lattice contributes to decreasing the reflectance in the
middle- and near-infrared bands (Epema, 1990; Mougenot,
1993).
The use of multispectral images for detecting salts is
hampered by a set of factors. Among them, the quantity of
salts concentrated on the soil surface plays a primary role. It
seems to be that below 10 – 15% salt content, salts are
difficult to discriminate from other soil surface components
(Mougenot, 1993). Thus, ground validation is indispensable
to correlate surface features, salt content, and reflectance.
3.4. Satellite and airborne sensors covering the thermal
infrared
The thermal infrared is commonly used to estimate
moisture and salinity. This range of the electromagnetic
spectrum registers features caused by energy absorption of
different salt types such as sulphates, phosphates, and
chlorides (Mulders, 1987). Moderate to poor results were
obtained when using the thermal range of the spectrum
alone (Metternicht, 1996). In case studies from Iran and
Egypt, the inclusion of thermal band 6 into selected (best)
Landsat TM band combinations improved the separation of
saline soils from gypsiferous and coarse-textured desert
soils, and substantially increased both the overall and the
class accuracies (Goossens, Alavi Panah, De Dapper, &
Kissyar, 1999; Goossens & Van Ranst, 1998).
In irrigation schemes, infrared thermometry is commonly
used to detect salt-affected areas from the relationship
between crop water stress and temperatures of the crop
canopy measured by infrared thermometers. It has also been
used to monitor saline seeps from irrigation channels by
estimating the temperature difference between wet and dry
soils (Prathapar et al., 1990).
3.5. Microwave sensing
With the availability of space-borne synthetic aperture
radar (SAR) systems (e.g. ERS 1/2, JERS-1, Radarsat),
much research has been conducted on detecting, assessing,
and mapping agriculture, forest, wetland, rangeland, and
urban features (Metternicht, 1999). However, relatively few
studies have investigated the possibility of using air- and
space-borne microwave data for mapping areas degraded by
salinization. In general, microwave C-, P- and especially L-
bands are considered adequate for detecting salinity in
different settings (Carver & Bush, 1979; Chaturvedi et al.,
1983; Metternicht, 1998; Schmullius & Evans, 1997; Singh,
Kumar, & Srivastav, 1990; Taylor et al., 1996).
Compared to optical sensing, microwave sensing
presents advantages in special soil conditions, which turn
out to be in general also salt-affected (Taylor et al., 1996), as
is the case of sandy coastal and desert zones, waterlogged
areas, and places with irregular microtopography such as
puffy crusts and cloddy surfaces (Metternicht, 1998; Singh
& Srivastav, 1990). Furthermore, the independence from
atmospheric conditions offers an advantage over the optical
and infrared satellite-borne sensors that can be exploited for
developing operational tools to support the mapping and
management of salt-affected areas.
Because of the differential behaviour of the real and
imaginary parts of the dielectric constant, microwaves are
efficient in detecting soil salinity. While the real part is
independent of soil salinity and alkalinity, the imaginary
part is highly sensitive to variations in soil electrical con-
ductivity, but with no bearing on variations in alkalinity.
This allows the separation of saline soils from others
(Sreenivas, Venkataratnam, & Rao, 1995). Previous studies
have focused on the following features: (a) saline water
detection by analysing the dependence of microwave
responses on salinity and temperature (Singh et al., 1990;
Singh & Srivastav, 1990), (b) soil salinity identification by
relating salinity levels to the imaginary part of the complex
dielectric constant (Bell, Menges, Ahmad, & Van Zyl, 2001;
Carver & Bush, 1979; Sreenivas et al., 1995), and (c) soil
salinity mapping, including discrimination of salinity levels
by mapping surface roughness and vegetation types related
to salinity, and then using this information as ancillary data
to estimate the extent of salinity at regional level (Metter-
nicht, 1998; Taylor et al., 1996).
3.6. Hyperspectral sensing
The capabilities of hyperspectral imagery for salinity
mapping have been recently investigated by Ben-Dor,
Patkin, Banin, and Karnieli (2002) and Taylor and Dehaan
 G.I. Metternicht, J.A. Zinck / Remote Sensing of Environment 85 (20032002) 1–20
(2000). Using the Hymap airborne sensor that acquires
images over the spectral range of 450 –2500 nm (i.e. visible,
near- and mid-infrared) in 128 bands, Taylor and Dehaan
mapped saline areas characterised by salt scalds, halophytic
vegetation, and soils with varying salinity degrees and
types. Using spectral unmixing, they found that saline
endmembers presented a pronounced high reflectance at
800 nm, a shallow and wide hydroxyl feature at 2200 nm,
and broad absorption features at 1450 and 1900 nm. Wet
saline soils presented barely distinguishable hydroxyl fea-
tures at 2200 nm. Spectral features in the visible and near-
infrared parts of the spectrum, related to combined water in
hydrated evaporite minerals, allowed saline soils to be
mapped by the Hymap scanner. Further tests showed that
the subtle hydrate absorption features at 980 and 1170 nm
are crucial for correct mapping of salt-affected soils.
Likewise, Ben-Dor et al. (2002) report successful results
in using the hyperspectral DAIS-7915 sensor and the Visible
and Near-Infrared Analysis (VNIRA) approach to produce
quantitative soil surface maps of organic matter, soil field
moisture, and soil salinity.
3.7. Airborne geophysics data
Airborne geophysics offers new possibilities for detect-
ing salt-affected areas. Measurements are made with instru-
ments mounted on or towed by an aircraft. A variety of
geophysical methods is available, including seismology,
gravity, magnetics, and electrical, electromagnetic, and
gamma-ray spectrometry (George, Campbell, Woodgate,
Farrell, & Taylor, 2000). For instance, the National Airborne
Geophysics project in Australia (George et al., 1998)
analyzed the performance of airborne electromagnetic, mag-
netic, and gamma-ray spectrometry techniques for rapidly
obtaining data over large areas that can assist salinity
investigations. The study shows that surface salinity hazard
maps can be generated provided the remotely sensed data
are integrated with proper ground data (e.g. electromagnetic
ground survey), bore hole information (e.g. water table
depth and salinity data), and Landsat TM images.
In general, good correlation exists between the apparent
electrical conductivity as measured by an electromagnetic
induction meter, mounted on an airplane, and electrical
conductivity from field samples (Hallett, 1994). According
to airborne EM surveys in Western Australia (Street &
Duncan, 1992), distribution patterns and values of conduc-
tivity similar to those gathered by ground-based systems
(e.g. chloride concentrations from drill hole data) were
obtained, confirming that apparent electromagnetic conduc-
tivity responded to variations in salt stored in the regolith.
However, a report of the Waters and Rivers Commission of
Western Australia found that the system was not able to
identify all salt hazard sites and that some areas identified as
having low conductivity were indeed highly saline, espe-
cially where a thin soil layer covered the rock substratum
(Metternicht, 1998b).
11
3.8. Electromagnetic induction
The electromagnetic induction meter (McNeill, 1986)
estimates soil salinity by measuring the bulk electrical
conductivity of the soil, which depends on the salinity of
the soil solution, porosity, and the type and amount of clay
in the soil. By inducing an electromagnetic field, the instru-
ment is able to measure the electrical conductivity of the
bulk soil (ECa), also referred to as the apparent soil salinity,
in a volume of soil below the transmitter and receiver coils
(Johnston, Savage, Moolman, & du Plessis, 1997).
The instrumentation has evolved from geophysical
equipment, with a large number of electromagnetic con-
ductivity meters being manufactured by Geonics, Canada
(e.g. EM31, EM34-3, EM38, EM39). Its value for rapid
diagnosis and mapping of soil salinity has been recognised
in works by George, Bennett, Arkell, and Vukelic (1994)
and Mackenzie, Bellamy, Fraser, and Ellis (1989) in Aus-
tralia, Rhoades (1992) in USA, Cannon, McKenzie, and
Lachapelle (1994) in Canada, and Johnston et al. (1997) in
Africa. In the agricultural belt of Western Australia, conven-
tional EM salinity measurements have been carried out with
the unit mounted on a nonmagnetic vehicle such as an all-
terrain vehicle, allowing to survey around 120– 150 ha per
day, but this varies largely according to terrain conditions,
such as topography and land use (Metternicht, 1998b).
Correct interpretation of measurements presents a major
challenge. Some authors directly correlate the apparent
electrical conductivity (ECa) with salinity levels to deter-
mine salinity hazards, while others convert the measure-
ments into saturated paste extract equivalents (ECe) through
regression equations. Different calibration models and cor-
relation factors have been developed, which show that the
accuracy of the measurements (e.g. from F 1 to F 7.59 dS/
m) and the correlation between the estimated and real depth
of salinity occurrence are highly variable (Cannon et al.,
1994; Johnston et al., 1997). Accuracy is affected by
variations in soil texture and water content and, therefore,
most investigations suggest establishing proper calibration
between EM values and electrical conductivity (ECe) for the
specific soil and moisture conditions of a particular survey
area. Despite this accuracy issue, EM series have the
potential to collect nondestructive soil samples for rapid
assessment, mapping, and monitoring soil salinity.
4. Image processing of remotely sensed data
Raw data acquired from ground-, air-, or satellite-borne
sensors are usually transformed to allow for better discrim-
ination between saline and nonsaline soils or among salinity
classes. A variety of transforms of remote sensing data has
been used in soil salinity studies, including best band
selection, principal components analysis, the Kauth –Tho-
mas transform, intensity – hue – saturation transformation,
image ratioing, image differencing, and pattern recognition
12 G.I. Metternicht, J.A. Zinck / Remote Sensing of Environment 85 (2003) 1–20
techniques using maximum likelihood classifier, neural
networks, decision trees, unmixing of surface features,
fuzzy classification, and radar backscattering inversion
techniques.
4.1. Selection of best band combination
Selection of the best band combination is usually the first
step to compress remote sensing data, while securing class
separability. The optimum index factor (OIF) was applied to
remote sensing data covering salt-affected areas in the Indo-
Gangetic plain, and revealed that the best TM three-band
combination was 1 –3 – 5, but band combinations 3 –5 – 7
and 3– 4– 5 could serve as well because their OIF values
were close to that of the first ranked. Recurrent bands 3 and
5 seemed to contain the most important part of the infor-
mation. However, there was a lack of consistency between
OIF values and field salinity estimates, as shown by band
combination 1 –2 – 7, which ranked last-but-one while giv-
ing 96% interpretation accuracy (Dwivedi & Rao, 1992).
Transformed divergence (TD) analysis was applied to
evaluate the separability among salinity classes and select
the best band combination to be used for the classification
of a Landsat TM image of a salt-affected area in Bolivia
(Metternicht & Zinck, 1996, 1997). Two band combina-
tions, comprising six (1, 2, 4, 5, 6, 7) and five (1, 2, 4, 6, 7)
bands, resulted with very high TD values of 1957 and
1959, respectively, thus, close to the maximum possible of
2000.
4.2. Image transformations
4.2.1. Band ratios and principal components analysis
Band ratios of visible to near-infrared and between
infrared bands have proven to be better for identifying salts
in soils and salt-stressed crops than individual bands (Craig,
Shih, Boman, & Carter, 1998; Hick & Russell, 1990; Hick,
Davies, & Steckis, 1984).
Theoretically, principal components analysis offers an
interesting approach to deal at the same time with salt
identification and change detection. The stable brightness
of PC1 and the stable greenness of PC2 allows the separa-
tion of saline from nonsaline soils, while the differential
brightness in PC3 and the differential greenness in PC4
accounts for the changes occurring in surface salinity. A
case study in the Indo-Gangetic plain showed that PC1 was
very effective in identifying salt-affected areas, but changes
taking place between two reference dates (1975 and 1992)
could not be detected from PC3 and PC4 (Dwivedi, 1996;
Dwivedi & Sreenivas, 1998). This shortcoming is attributed
to the fact that PCA uses the spectral response pattern of the
entire scene. It can be removed using the Kauth – Thomas
transform, which deals separately with soil and vegetation
reflectances to generate individual brightness and greenness
images. The higher the brightness, the lower the humidity
and the higher the salinity (Peng, 1998).
Csillag et al. (1993) used a modified stepwise principal
components analysis to assess the effectiveness of individ-
ual bands for discriminating salinity states from high-reso-
lution spectra provided by narrow absorption bands (10 nm)
within the range of 495– 2395 nm. Working with a large
data set from California and Hungary, they achieved 80–
90% overall recognition accuracy.
4.2.2. Intensity– hue –saturation transformation
The intensity –hue – saturation (IHS) transformation, with
subsequent supervised classification using per-pixel max-
imum likelihood classifier, was the approach adopted by
Dwivedi et al. (2001) for mapping salt-affected soils in the
Indo-Gangetic alluvial plains of northern India. The IHS
transform was applied for merging high-spatial resolution
panchromatic data of the IRS-1C (5.8 m) sensor with low-
resolution multispectral data of the LISS-III (23.5 m) and
LISS-II (36.5 m) sensors. The IRS-1C and LISS-III data
without any transformation ranked last in terms of overall
accuracy. After transformation using the IHS approach,
accuracy figures for LISS-II, LISS-III and IRS-1C, and
LISS-III hybrid data were 89.5%, 85.9% and 81.5%,
respectively.
4.3. Unmixing of surface features
One major drawback to the use of remote sensing data
for salinity and alkalinity mapping is the intricate distribu-
tion of salts on the terrain surface, causing frequent occur-
rence of heterogeneous pixels. The mixed surface
components can be separated using linear mixture model-
ling from the reflectance of ‘pure’ pixels corresponding to
selected endmembers. A variety of techniques, including
minimum noise fraction, principal components analysis, and
identification of average pure pixels representing a partic-
ular surface component from false colour composites, can
be applied for identifying endmembers directly from the
imagery (Metternicht & Fermont, 1998; Taylor & Dehaan,
2000).
The output of the unmixing analysis is represented in a
proportion map for each of the considered surface compo-
nents, one image representing the sum of all the abundances
and a root –mean –square (RMS) image. The RMS image
represents the error between the original mixed spectrum
and the best-fit spectrum computed from the resulting
endmember abundances (Smith, Ustin, Adams, & Gillespie,
1990). The error ranges generated by the spectral unmixing
allow to reclassify the image and improve its interpretability
(Metternicht & Zinck, 1996, 1997).
According to Taylor and Dehaan (2000), who derived
salinity maps from hyperspectral data, image endmembers
can efficiently illustrate the distribution of salinity, though
they are likely to have different compositions within multi-
temporal data. They should be combined with maps of field-
derived endmembers to be useful for monitoring changes in
salinity and implementing remedial measures.
 G.I. Metternicht, J.A. Zinck / Remote Sensing of Environment 85 (20032002) 1–20 13

Fig. 7. Framework for fuzzy modelling of saline and alkaline classes, and approach to fuzzy classification of remotely sensed data (source: Metternicht, 1998).
14 G.I. Metternicht, J.A. Zinck / Remote Sensing of Environment 85 (2003) 1–20
4.4. Fuzzy classification
Successful discrimination of saline and alkaline areas
from remotely sensed data requires correct determination of
information classes. The traditional approach to soil salinity
mapping is based on rigid information classes with crisp
boundaries, using soil reaction (pH) and electrical conduc-
tivity ranges as established, for instance, by the US Salinity
Staff Laboratory (Richards, 1954). However, in nature, salt
contents vary in gradual manner, horizontally as well as
vertically, even when conspicuous white patches of salt
crust appear at the soil surface. As a consequence, broad
zones of gradual transition may be misrepresented because
of the arbitrary assignment of sharp class boundaries. Fuzzy
classification, based on the fuzzy set theory proposed by
Zadeh (1965), where a given class has a continuum of
membership grades, can cope with the diffuse spatial dis-
tribution of salts and sodium, better than crisp classification.
Expanding the concepts highlighted by Burrough (1989)
for soil classification to the issue of soil salinity, Metternicht
(1998) proposes the determination of transitional ‘fuzzy’
class boundaries, derived from continuous salinity classes
that intergrade gradually, to better represent real-world
situations. Fig. 7 illustrates the approach devised for deter-
mining fuzzy classes and the fuzzy classification applied to
a JERS-1 SAR data image from Cochabamba, Bolivia. This
method provided a reliable detection of salt-affected areas,
with an overall accuracy of 81% (Metternicht, 1998). In all
cases, fuzzy classification improved, or at least equalled, the
crisp classification. One main drawback was that surface
roughness produced by the cultivation of slightly alkaline
land affected the radar backscattering, causing erroneous
allocations of alkaline and saline – alkaline soils to non-
affected areas.
4.5. Decision trees and neural networks
The performance of maximum likelihood classifiers,
nonparametric decision trees, neural networks, and condi-
tional probabilitistic networks for discriminating saline areas
from nonaffected ones has been tested using Landsat TM
data, landform data derived from a digital elevation model,
and conditional statements about salinity – landscape rela-
tionships (Evans, 1998). Conditional probabilitistic net-
works, enabling the inclusion of prior knowledge about
the relationships between input attributes and salinity in the
classification of Landsat TM data, showed the best techni-
que for salinity mapping in the southwest of Western
Australia (Evans, 1998). This research highlights one sig-
nificant disadvantage of decision trees and neural networks,
which is their inability to incorporate prior knowledge about
the relationships between input attributes and the relation-
ships between these input attributes and the output classes.
This might significantly affect the accuracy of mapping,
leading to over- or underestimate the extent of salt-affected
areas.
4.6. Radar backscatter inversion techniques
In addition to fuzzy supervised classification of SAR
satellite images (Metternicht, 1998), radar backscattering
inversion techniques have been applied for characterisation
of saline areas using airborne radar imagery (Taylor et al.,
1996). They found a good agreement between anomalous
complex dielectric constants determined by inversion of the
polarised returns of AIRSAR images acquired in wet con-
ditions and saline areas as defined by electrical conductivity
and dielectric constants determined in the field.
5. Assessing temporal and spatial changes of salinity
Monitoring salinity changes from past to present faces
the difficulty that, in general, there is no ground-truth
information available for past situations. Thus, validating
historical remote sensing data involves uncertainties. To
overcome this difficulty, fusion of multisource remote
sensing data and their integration with field and laboratory
data have been advocated.
5.1. Issues in soil salinity monitoring
Moving from simple spatial identification of salt-affected
areas to the monitoring of temporal changes in salinity
requires at least two identification dates along a given time
span. As salt-related surface features drastically change with
seasons, time series of remote sensing data must be captured
in similar periods of the year to be comparable, preferably at
the end of the dry season, if passive remote sensors are used.
Georeferencing and co-registration of multitemporal data
are essential to enable ground sites to be traced over time
and satellite data to be compared with ancillary data.
Approaches, such as those developed by the Land Monitor
project in Western Australia, require calibration between
images to ‘like-values’ so that digital numbers from differ-
ent dates can be compared (Campbell, Furby, & Fergusson,
1994). In addition to that, ground-truth data must be
collected contemporaneously to validate the spectral signa-
tures from the satellite images. These include radiometric
field measurements, surface features description and map-
ping, as well as soil sampling for laboratory analyses.
5.2. Uncertainties in soil salinity monitoring
Errors can arise from inaccurate image registration, poor
pixel identification and matching, and feature misclassifica-
tion. There are also error sources when the two images do
not represent similar field conditions at the selected dates.
This creates uncertainties concerning the likelihood, nature,
and magnitude of the changes.
To cope with these uncertainties, expert knowledge can
be mobilized and formalized as ‘if – then’ rules in a mon-
itoring model, as discussed by Metternicht (2001). In
 G.I. Metternicht, J.A. Zinck / Remote Sensing of Environment 85 (20032002) 1–20
particular, expert judgement allows us to assess whether
given changes, as detected from the difference image, might
really occur or are rather artifacts resulting from inaccurate
map overlay. For example, increases of two degrees in
salinity or changes from full saline to full alkaline are
unlikely to take place in a short time interval. This infor-
mation is incorporated in the model as degrees of likelihood
(Fig. 8). The expert grades the likelihood of occurrence in
terms of certainty factors within a range of 0 – 1, from
absolutely unlikely to very likely. The values so obtained
are further used to generate a map of likelihood of changes
between two selected reference dates. Changes unlikely to
occur are corrected to validate two difference maps. One
shows the nature of the changes: for example, from non-
affected to saline or from saline to saline– alkaline. The
other shows the magnitude of the changes: for example, one
class in alkalinity or two degrees in salinity.
5.3. Salinity –alkalinity hazard prediction
The monitoring procedure based on fuzzy logic (Metter-
nicht, 2001) highlights areas where major changes in salinity
and/or alkalinity have taken place between the current
situation and some date in the past. This retrospective
monitoring shows trends, which can be extended into the
future, within given possibility ranges. Thus, change detec-
Fig. 8. Graphic representation of the likelihood of changes. Numbers in the matrix boxes indicate information classes. Arrows show the likelihood or certainty
of change (source: Metternicht, 2001).
15
tion can be the basis for change prediction. Such an attempt
of change prediction has been done for the Cochabamba
region in Bolivia. Areas which have undergone significant
changes in the recent past are considered as particularly
prone to potential increase in salinity and present, therefore,
a severe hazard of salinization (Metternicht, 1996, 2001).
The degree of probability for such an evolution to occur can
be attached to the mapped areas, as was done for a region in
Russia (Krapilskaya & Sadov, 1987).
Other methods for predicting areas at risk of dryland
salinity use a combination of multitemporal satellite
imagery, information derived from large-scale DEMs, and
subjective probability (Evans & Caccetta, 2000; Florinsky,
Eiler, & Lelyk, 2000). Evans and Caccetta (2000) used
decision trees based on the relationships between salinity
risk and variables describing landscape features to repro-
duce expert opinions about the future extent of salinity in a
certain area, whereas Florinsky et al. (2000) assumed that
the build-up of salts at macrotopographic scale occurs in
depressions.
6. Data fusion and data integration
Current mapping and prediction approaches can benefit,
in terms of improved salinity mapping and prediction, from
16 G.I. Metternicht, J.A. Zinck / Remote Sensing of Environment 85 (2003) 1–20
the synergistic use of airborne and satellite-borne sensors
covering different regions of the spectrum, and or the
integration of soilscape information into the modelling
process, as described hereafter.
6.1. Spectral confusions and spectral efficiency (data
fusion)
In salt-affected areas, spectral confusions between differ-
ent surface features are common. For example, a white
saline crust and a shiny silty crust have both similar high
reflectance values. This hampers the spectral separability of
salt-affected areas. In an attempt to evaluate the efficiency of
the different regions of the electromagnetic spectrum in
allowing for good spectral separability, Metternicht (1996)
obtained the following results for the Cochabamba area in
Bolivia.
(a) The visible range performed well in separating non-
affected areas from saline and saline – alkaline ones.
(b) The infrared range provided the lowest spectral
confusion when separating saline– alkaline areas from
pure alkaline areas.
(c) The thermal range improved the separability of the
alkaline areas because alkalinity is controlled by the
amount of free carbonates, which have a strong
absorption feature in TM band 6.
(d) Overall, the microwave region (L-band) had low
amounts of spectral confusion and the best separability
between saline and alkaline areas, nonaffected, and
saline –alkaline areas, as well as among saline and
saline –alkaline areas.
Thus, the different regions of the electromagnetic spec-
trum have complementary capabilities for spectral separa-
bility of the salinity –alkalinity classes. This calls for data
fusion to increase the efficiency of the remote sensing data.
The research of Metternicht showed that the merging of
visible and infrared with microwave data achieved a better
discrimination of the alkaline and nonaffected areas than
Landsat TM or JERS-1 SAR alone, with 35 –40% increase
in accuracy (Metternicht, 1996).
6.2. Landscape and soilscape information (data integra-
tion)
It is not enough to separate classes of salinity and
alkalinity. The reclamation, rehabilitation, and management
of salt-affected areas require that not only classes but also
severity levels of salinity –alkalinity be determined. This
cannot be achieved from remote sensing data alone and
needs full synergy between remote sensing, field, and
laboratory data (De Dapper, Goossens, Gad, & El Badawi,
1996; Khalil, Fahim, & Hawela, 1995; Metternicht & Zinck,
1997; Mongkolsawat, Thirangoon, & Eiumnoh, 1991; Peng,
1998; Younes, Gad, & Rahman, 1993).
A first step of improvement consists in incorporating
contextual landscape information. For example, in the
Cochabamba region, Bolivia, highly saline– alkaline areas
are strongly correlated with specific geomorphic positions,
in particular with playas and lagunary flats, while non-
affected areas are mainly on piedmont glacis. The inclusion
of this relationship in spatial analysis and modelling led to
better spatial discrimination of salinity (Metternicht &
Zinck, 1996, 1997). However, by doing so, we are still
looking at salt-affected areas as mere surfaces, as 2D spaces.
This is one dimension short, as soils are 3D bodies and
salinity can substantially change with depth, even more that
surface salinity is frequently controlled by subsoil or sub-
stratum salinity and by the seasonal fluctuations of the water
table.
According to McGowen and Mallyon (1996), highest
accuracy in detecting dryland salinity in New South Wales,
Australia, was obtained when using multitemporal Landsat
TM imagery and ground salinity data measured with an
EM31 instrument providing information on salinity at sub-
soil level, and geo-referenced with a GPS. The different data
sets were integrated within a GIS. A similar approach was
implemented by Mackenzie et al. (1989) to map dryland
salinity recharge areas from the combination of EM34
measurements, vegetation information, infiltration rates,
and airborne scanner imagery.
Another effective approach for mapping salt-affected
soils that combines digital Landsat TM image and ancillary
data such as topographic maps, geologic maps, soil maps,
land use maps, ground water quality, and historical data on
salinity was developed by Sah, Apisit, Murai, and Parkpian
(1995). GIS-assisted data integration was found effective in
classifying low-salinity and potential saline areas, as well as
correcting areas misclassified as extremely or moderately
saline. Likewise, Eklund, Kirkby, and Salim (1998) used
GIS modelling for monitoring salinization, by isolating
proper indicators and determining their ‘weight’. They
found certain attributes to be more significant than others
for discriminating salinity classes. Ground-water depth, in
particular, was a prime discriminator of saline discharge.
Yet, one very effective monitoring approach consists in
comparing historical and current soil salinity maps, when
historical field and laboratory data are available. This is the
case for a region of the Golestan province in northeast Iran
(Naseri, 1998). Soil salinity/alkalinity maps of several
irrigation schemes were available for 1972, providing elec-
trical conductivity and pH data from composite samples
taken at three depths (0– 50, 50 –100 and >100 cm) on a
regular grid of 500-m intervals. The same points were
visited again in 1995 and sampled for electrical conductivity
and pH determinations. The values of the two dates were
compared and the differences expressed as discrete map
units, in terms of percent salinity/alkalinity increase or
decrease and in terms of class changes. This method
requires accurate interpolation techniques to generate con-
tinuous salinity maps from field point observations and the
 G.I. Metternicht, J.A. Zinck / Remote Sensing of Environment 85 (20032002) 1–20
design of proper sampling strategies to cater for the spatial
variations proper of salt-affected soils, as shown by Utset,
Ruiz, Herrera, and Deleon (1998). This kind of information,
resulting from monitoring along the third dimension of the
soil cover as a volume, lies largely beyond the current
technical capabilities of satellite-based remote sensing. Air-
borne geophysics (e.g. EM surveys) show some promise in
measuring soil salinity in the third dimension (e.g. depth), as
shown by studies conducted in Australia by George et al.
(1998) and Street and Duncan (1992).
It is, thus, obvious that monitoring soil salinity and early
warning of salinization cannot be achieved from remote
sensing data alone and require a solid synergy between
remote sensing data, field observations, and laboratory
determinations, as sources of data, and GIS facilities for
processing, transforming, and displaying the data (Tóth,
Kertesz, & Pásztor, 1998).
7. Conclusion
By providing fast, timely, relatively cheap, and repetitive
data, remote sensing plays an important role for detecting,
mapping, and monitoring salt-affected surface features.
Ground validation remains necessary to determine relation-
ships between reflectance and salt type and degree in soil
and groundwater, deduced from surface characteristics
directly on bare soils or indirectly on vegetation. Likewise,
sensors with capabilities to penetrate the soil surface (e.g.
airborne electromagnetic, magnetic, and gamma-ray spec-
trometry, or ground-based electromagnetic induction
meters) require integration of field data (e.g. water table
depth and salinity data) and data from other regions of the
spectrum to provide reliable information on the distribution
of salt-affected areas.
As earlier summarized by Mougenot et al. (1993), direct
and precise estimation of salt quantities from satellite remote
sensing is rather difficult because of:
(a) Lack of specific absorption bands of some salt types
(e.g. halite) and occurrence of spectral confusions.
(b) Low spectral resolution of satellite bands.
(c) Vertical, spatial, and temporal variability of salinity in
the soil mantle and substratum.
(d) The presence of other soil chromophores1 (e.g. structural
crusts, soil surface texture, soil colour, soil surface
roughness as determined by different salt types) as
discussed in Section 2 of this paper.
Soil salinization represents an increasing environmental
hazard, especially in irrigated areas. This calls for monitor-
ing to support timely decision making on land management,
1
The term chromophore has been used to describe parameters and
substances (chemical or physical) that significantly affect the shape and
nature of a soil spectrum (Ben-Dor, Irons, & Epema, 1999).
17
reclamation, and rehabilitation. Monitoring soil salinity is
greatly enhanced when using multispectral remote sensing
data, which however need transformation before being used
for identification and change detection. Detecting and
assessing changes between a current and a past situation
involve uncertainties about the likelihood, nature, and
magnitude of the changes, which can be solved using expert
knowledge.
The best monitoring results are obtained when integrat-
ing remote sensing data with field and laboratory data. In
this regard, geographic information systems offer the
advantage of integrating data of diverse nature in terms of
scale, time, source, and structure. It is the researcher’s
challenge to identify the most adequate salinity indicators
for a particular area, so that appropriate ground and remote
sensing techniques can be applied to extract information in
an accurate and cost-effective manner.
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