Materials For The 21st Century PDF

MATERIALS FOR THE 21 ST CENTURY
Dedicated to my brother, Jeffrey Segal

Materials for the 21st Century
David Segal
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3
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Preface
There are many pressing issues facing nations in the 21st century and materials
have a role in finding solutions to these issues. For example, there is much concern
among governments with established healthcare systems with the potential growth
of Alzheimer’s disease among ageing populations and the associated costs to these
systems. Alzheimer’s disease is associated with protein fibres or fibrils that associ-
ate to form plaque in the brain. There is much interest in the 21st century in the
development of personalised medicine to improve the health of individuals while
the emergence of diseases such as Ebola in West Africa in 2014 can have devas-
tating consequences for populations. There is an increasing search for antimicro-
bial agents in the 21st century to combat drug-resistant infections. While the
modern pharmaceutical industry dates to the end of the 19th century novel techni-
ques based on recombinant DNA technology offer potential for new classes of
drugs known as biopharmaceuticals. A growing world population in the 21st
century requires sources of pure water that may be obtained from brackish and
salty waters.
The requirement for reliable sources of energy to mitigate the effects of global
warming has highlighted the role of nuclear power and renewable energy sources
such as wind, solar, geothermal, hydroelectric and tidal. Throughout the 20th
century many materials in particular synthetic polymers have been derived from
petrochemical sources. There has been increasing emphasis in 21st century on the
development of materials from renewable sources such as bioethanol from crops
for blending with petrol and on the development of biodegradable plastics in order
to limit the amount of plastics that litter the environment, as well as reducing the
reliance on petrochemical sources for production of synthetic polymers. Biomass,
namely natural materials such as plants, agricultural wastes and wood chips, are
sources of lignocellulose, which is composed of cellulose, hemicelluloses and
lignins that are potentially valuable sources of materials and biofuels, thus reducing
a dependency on petrochemical sources.
The 21st century is one of digital communication and in everyday life smart-
phones and computers such as desktop, laptop and tablets are ubiquitous and all of
these devices are characterised by displays while new forms of energy-efficient
lighting are increasingly used in the home, in offices and in the environment.
Increasing ranges of consumer products are available to the general public,
whether televisions, games consoles, digital cameras, ink-jet printers or in-vehicle
navigation systems as examples. Compact lithium-ion batteries are widely used in
smartphones and portable devices while there is continuing development of fuel
cells as a clean source of electricity for applications including transport. Medical
diagnostic techniques include magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and computerised
vi Preface
tomography while self-testing for measuring blood glucose concentrations is

widely used. New ways of communication such as social media proliferate, allow-
ing people from across the world to interact with each other. Personal products
such as cosmetics are widely advertised and the vast range of cheap and mass-
produced foods are visible to all in advanced nations. Nickel-based superalloys for
blades in gas turbines, nickel-titanium alloys for use in implantable coronary stents,
Zircaloy alloys as fuel rods for nuclear fuels in thermal nuclear reactors and super-
conducting metallic alloys for generating magnetic fields in MRI are examples of
speciality materials. Textiles, whether based on natural products or on synthetic
fibre, are produced in a wide range of colours and are widely available. Surfaces
and their modification affect material properties and throughout the text are
examples of coating processes to modify surfaces. Surfaces are also important in
the biological area, for example in the interaction of viruses with cells.
The threat of international terrorism using homemade explosives is an ever-
present threat in the 21st century while personal protection is worn by police and
members of the armed forces.
It may come as a surprise to members of the general public as well as to
specialists that a common theme to the pressing issues in the 21st century involves
materials that have the potential to contribute to the issues’ solutions.
The purpose of this monograph is to show how materials can contribute to
solve problems facing nations in the 21st century. In order to do this a glossary of
500 materials is included that gives descriptions of the materials, some historical
details on their development, their uses or potential uses, and a range of references
that the interested reader may wish to follow up. The choice of materials reflects in
part my interests in ceramic materials but I have attempted to widen the range of
materials to cover diverse applications and potential applications. In addition to
this Glossary I have prepared a set of thirteen chapters on what I consider to be key
topics that are important to everyday life, healthcare and the economies of nations
in the 21st century.
The technical level of this book is aimed at the interval between school and
university. The primary readership will be students at secondary school who are
concentrating on examinations such as ‘A’ levels in the United Kingdom or
equivalent examinations elsewhere with a view to seeking a career in the physical
sciences, life sciences or engineering, or indeed students who have completed their
‘A’ levels. The first part of the book can be read as a whole by them to gain an
overview of materials that will be important throughout their lives. They may also
want to refer to selected entries in the glossary for clarification. In this book I have
included examples from many disciplines and the entries can complement more
detailed descriptions in specific reference books. Although a list of references are
supplied in each chapter I have, where appropriate, included simplified descrip-
tions of technical terms for clarity.
However, the book will also appeal to other groups of people. Undergraduates
who want to continue their careers through higher degrees will find the entries in
the glossary of interest as these entries may help them to crystallise their thoughts
Preface vii
on which direction of research to follow. The book will also be of interest to

postgraduate students who may want to follow up on entries they may not be
familiar with through the references. Finally, in an age when information has never
been more available because of access to the Internet, members of the general
public will find the book a useful reference work to clarify areas of science and
technology they may have encountered in their lives.
David Segal
Abingdon, UK
About the Author
David Segal has maintained an interest in materials chemistry and patent literature
throughout his working life. He has researched and worked on a variety of materials
and their applications, including high-temperature ceramic superconductors, gas-
to-liquid technology for the synthesis of synthetic diesel, the treatment of diesel
emissions from vehicles by use of non-thermal plasmas, activity transport in
pressurized water reactors, sol-gel chemistry for the synthesis of a wide range of
ceramic materials in the form of powders, coatings and fibres, ceramic nanofiltra-
tion membranes and inorganic phosphors. He has analysed patent portfolios in
diverse technologies, including three-dimensional printing, light-emitting diodes,
medical devices and electronic devices. David is the author of Exploring Materials
through Patent Information (Royal Society of Chemistry, 2014) and Chemical
Synthesis of Advanced Ceramic Materials (Cambridge University Press, 1989).
David read natural sciences at Trinity Hall, Cambridge University, and completed
a PhD on foaming in lubricating oils at the University of Bristol. He has worked for
the UK Atomic Energy Authority at the Harwell Laboratory, AEA Technology
and Coller IP Management. He is an author or co-author of over forty scientific
papers and an inventor or co-inventor of over twenty-five patent families.
Contents
Approximate Timeline for Developments in Materials xiii

1 Introduction: The Importance of Materials for
21st-Century Economies 1
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 The significance of surfaces on material properties 2
1.3 The 20th century: A golden age for synthetic polymers 3
1.4 The 21st century: A golden age for natural polymers? 4
1.5 From candy floss (cotton candy) to composites 4
1.6 Biopharmaceuticals: From small to large molecules 5
1.7 Chips with everything 6
1.8 Energetic materials and terrorism 6
1.9 Speciality metallic alloys 7
1.10 Renewable energy 8
1.11 Renewable materials 8
1.12 The importance of microstructure 9
1.13 Lighting technology 10
1.14 Sugars and foods 10
1.15 Intellectual property and materials 10
1.16 Summary 11
1.17 Further reading 11
2 Candy Floss, Cellulose, Sugars and Foods 13
2.1 Introduction 13
2.2 Cellulose 13
2.3 Candy floss (cotton candy) 15
2.4 Sugars and carbohydrates 15
2.5 Storage of sugar in the body 17
2.6 Summary 18
3 Chips with Everything 21
3.1 Introduction 21
3.2 Cat’s whisker, vacuum tubes and relays 21
3.3 Computability and the foundations of digital computers 22
3.4 Transistors 23
3.5 Silicon chips 25
3.6 Moore’s Law 27
x Contents
3.7 Directed self-assembly of block copolymers 27

3.8 Quantum computing 27
3.9 DNA computer 28
3.10 Summary 28
4 Polymers 31
4.1 Introduction 31
4.2 Polymers 31
4.3 Vulcanisation of rubber 32
4.4 Polymers in the 20th century 33
4.5 Polymers in the 21st century 39
4.6 Silicon-based polymers 40
4.7 Polyphosphazenes 40
4.8 Summary 40
5 Healthcare: The Benefits of Materials 43
5.1 Introduction 43
5.2 Lasers in medicine and surgery 43
5.3 Magnetic resonance imaging 44
5.4 Biopharmaceuticals 45
5.5 Drug delivery 47
5.6 Nanotechnology and healthcare 47
5.7 Coronary stents 48
5.8 Bioprinting 49
5.9 Implants 50
5.10 Hydrogels 50
5.11 Biodegradable materials 50
5.12 The search for antimicrobial agents 51
5.13 Summary 51
6 Let There Be Lights 53
6.1 Introduction 53
6.2 Light-emitting diodes 53
6.3 Quantum dots 55
6.4 Liquid crystals 57
6.5 Organic light-emitting diodes 58
6.6 Summary 59
Contents xi
7 Energy Supplies for the 21st century 61

7.1 Introduction 61
7.2 Global electricity consumption 62
7.3 Nuclear power 62
7.4 Solar cells 64
7.5 Wind energy 65
7.6 Geothermal energy 65
7.7 Tidal energy 65
7.8 Hydroelectric power 66
7.9 Carbon capture 66
7.10 Lithium-ion batteries 67
7.11 Fuel cells 68
7.12 Summary 69
8 The Preparation of Materials 71
8.1 Introduction 71
8.2 Critical materials 71
8.3 Pure materials 72
8.4 Fine powders 73
8.5 Thin films in the semiconductor industry 73
8.6 Synthetic polymers 76
8.7 Polymerase chain reaction 76
8.8 Fibres 77
8.9 Summary 78
9 Disruptive Technologies 81
9.1 Introduction 81
9.2 Disruptive technologies 82
9.3 Wonder materials 82
9.4 Summary 84
10 The Importance of Microstructure on Material Properties 87
10.1 Introduction 87
10.2 Microstructure: a definition 87
10.3 Toughness 87
10.4 Composite materials 88
10.5 Opals, butterflies and photonic crystals 89
10.6 Traditional ceramics 90
10.7 Metamaterials 90
10.8 Shape memory alloys 90
10.9 DNA 91
xii Contents
10.10 Optical properties 91

10.11 Summary 91
11 Patents, Patent Trolls and Intellectual Property 93
11.2 Patents 93
11.3 Patents and intellectual property 95
11.4 Patents as a source of technical information 96
11.5 Summary 97
12 Everyday Products: The Role of Materials 99
12.2 Sunscreens 99
12.3 Washing-up liquids and surfactants 100
12.4 Cosmetics 101
12.5 Disposable nappies (diapers): the role of hydrogels 101
12.6 Hard candy (boiled sweets) and fudge: the role of microstructure 102
12.7 Liquid crystal thermometers 103
12.8 Breathable garments 103
12.9 Acrylic textiles and carbon fibre 103
12.10 Decaffeinated coffee 104
12.11 Spider silk 105
12.12 Stainless steel 105
12.13 Summary 106
13 Conclusions 107
13.2 The commercial exploitation of materials 107
13.3 The Silicon Age? 108
13.4 The age of specialist alloys 109
13.5 The Genomic Age? 109
13.6 The Polymer Age 110
13.7 The role of climate change in materials development 110
13.8 The role of international conflicts and wars 111
13.9 Summary 111
Glossary: Listing of 500 materials in alphabetical order 113

Appendix 1: Suggestions for Further Reading 304
Appendix 2: Selected Patent Documents Referred to in the Text 308
Index 313
OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 26/4/2017, SPi
Approximate Timeline for

Developments in Materials
Note that in many cases teams of people are involved in materials development and
omission of people’s names in this list should not be interpreted as meaning that
their contribution was unimportant.
600 AD—Chinese soft porcelain

1709—Meissen porcelain produced for the first time in Europe ( Johann Böttger)
1745—Bone china produced for the first time in England
1824—Portland cement (Joseph Aspdin)
1824—Waterproof clothing using natural latex rubber (Charles Mackintosh)
1844—Vulcanisation of rubber (Charles Goodyear)
1846—Cellulose nitrate (Frederick Schönbein)
1856—Bessemer process for low-carbon steel (Sir Henry Bessemer)
1856—Parkesine (Alexander Parkes)
1856—Purple dye mauveine (Henry Perkin)
1860s—Vulcanite (ebonite)
1861—Identification of colloidal systems (Thomas Graham)
1869—Celluloid (John Hyatt Jr)
1884—Acetate rayon (Hilaire de Chardonnet)
1886—Extraction of yellow textile dye from eucalyptus leaves (J. H. Maiden)
1887—Initial theoretical study of photonic materials (Lord Rayleigh)
1888—Liquid crystals (Friedrich Reinitzer)
1892—Viscose rayon (Edward Bevan and Charles Cross)
1890s—Cellulose acetate
1897—Diesel compressor engine using biodiesel (peanut oil) (Rudolf Diesel)
1897—Synthetic indigo (BASF)
1899—Patent for a machine to produce candy floss (J. C. Wharton and
W. J. Morrison)
1900—Acetylsalicylic acid (Felix Hoffmann)
xiv Approximate Timeline for Developments in Materials
1907—Bakelite (Leo Baekeland)

1907—First observation of electroluminescence (Henry Round)
1910—Ammonia synthesis in the Haber–Bosch process (Fritz Haber)
1911—Detection of superconductivity in mercury (H. Kamerlingh Onnes)
1912—Stainless steel invented (Krupp Steelworks, Germany)
1913—Development of the plastic laminate Formica (US Formica)
1915—Synthetic diesel in Fischer–Tropsch synthesis
1916—Production of biobutanol (Chaim Weizmann)
1918—Cellophane (Jacques Brandenberger)
1921—Isolation of insulin (Frederick Banting and Charles Best)
1921—Polysilanes (F. S. Kipping)
1931—Synthetic rubber (neoprene) (Julius Nieuwland)
1932—Silica aerogels (Samuel Kistler)
1933—Polyvinylchloride (Waldo Semon)
1933—First preparation of low-density polyethylene (Reginald Gibson and
Eric Fawcett)
1933—Poly (vinylidene chloride) (Ralph Wiley)
1935—Nylon (Wallace Carothers)
1937—Polyurethane (Otto Bayer)
1938—Polytetrafluoroethylene (Roy Plunkett)
1938—Polystyrene
1938—Xerographic process (Charles Carlson)
1939—Polymethylmethacrylate (Otto Rohm)
1940s—Ionic liquids
1940s—Superalloys
1947—Acrylic fibres
1947—Transistors (John Bardeen, Walter Brattain and William Schockley)
1948—Polyesters Terylene (Rex Whitfield and James Dickson, UK Calico
Printers Association) and Dacron (Du Pont)
1950s—Styrene-acrylonitrile-butadiene
1950s—Float glass process (Sir Alistair Pilkington and Kenneth Bickerstaff )
1952—Concept of integrated circuits proposed (Geoffrey Dummer)
1952—X-ray crystallography of DNA fibres results in photograph 51 (Rosalind
Franklin and Raymond Gosling)
1953—Structure of DNA (Francis Crick and James Watson)
1953—Polycarbonate
Approximate Timeline for Developments in Materials xv
1953—High-density polyethylene
1954—Ziegler–Natta catalysts (Karl Ziegler and Guillo Natta).
1956—Living polymers
1956—Reactive textile dyes (ICI)
1958—Integrated circuits developed on a practical scale (Jack Kilby)
1960—Ruby laser (Theodore Maiman)
1960—Phase-change chalcogenide memories (Stanford Ovshinsky)
1961—Velcro (George de Mestral)
1960s—Red light-emitting diodes (N. Holonyak)
1964—Kevlar (Stephanie Kwolek)
1965—Moore’s Law (Gordon Moore)
1965—Nitinol shape memory alloys for stents (W. Buehler)
1967—Polyphenylene oxide (Allan Hay)
1967—Poly (p-phenylene sulphide)
1968—Initial theoretical studies on metamaterials (V. Veselago)
1969—First commercial quartz wristwatch (Seiko)
1970s—Recombinant DNA technology (Stanley Cohen and Herbert Boyer)
1970s—Three-way automotive catalysts
1972—Adhesive for Post-it notes (Spencer Silver)
1973—Superconductivity in niobium-germanium alloys, Nb3Ge (Gavaler)
1974—Twisted nematic liquid crystals (W. Helfrich and M. Schadt)
1975—Monoclonal antibodies (Cesar Milstein)
1975—Silicon carbide fibre
1976—Cyanobiphenyl liquid crystals (George Gray)
1976—Gore–Tex (Robert W. Gore)
1976—Discovery of sucralose artificial sweetener (Leslie Hough)
1977—PEEK, polyether ether ketone (Imperial Chemical Industries)
1978—Sialons (Kenneth H. Jack)
1979—Development of lithium-ion batteries (John Goodenough)
1980—Polyacetylene (Alan Heeger)
1980s—Macro-defect free cement
1980s—MRI equipment with superconducting magnetic metal coils for medical
imaging
1982—Quasicrystals (Daniel Schectman)
1984—Stereolithography (Charles Hull)
xvi Approximate Timeline for Developments in Materials
1985—Fullerenes (Harold Kroto)

1986—High-temperature superconducting oxide ceramics (J. Bednorz and
K. Muller)
1987—Polymerase chain reaction (Kary Mullis)
1989—First reference to the phrase ‘three-dimensional printing’ (Emanuel Sachs)
1989—Biodegradable starch-based plastics (Ferruzi spA)
1991—Carbon nanotubes (Sumio Iijima)
1991—Commercial launch of lithium-ion batteries (Sony Corporation)
1990s—Bio-based chemicals, e.g. biodiesel, bioethanol, bio-succinic acid
1990s—Blue light-emitting diodes (Shuki Nakamura)
1990s—Auxetic materials
1990s—Metamaterials
1993—Poly-(p-phenylenevinylene) (Richard Friend)
1997—First reference to the ‘Lotus effect’ of surfaces (Wilhelm Barthlott)
2000s—Biopharmaceuticals e.g. Humira
2004—Graphene (Andre Geim and Konstantin Novoselov)
2010s—Bioprinting
2012—Development of gene editing technology (CRISPR)
2014—ZMapp for treatment of Ebola virus
2015—Continuing development of lithium-air batteries
2015—Continuing development of two-dimensional materials
2015—Continuing development of synthetic biology
2015—Continuing development of self-healing materials
2015—Continuing development of scaffolds for tissue engineering
2015—Continuing worldwide development of gene-editing technology (CRISPR)
1
Introduction
The Importance of Materials for 21st-Century Economies
1.1 Introduction
At the start of The Graduate, a film directed by the late Mike Nichols and released
in 1967, the character Benjamin Braddock played by Dustin Hoffman is advised
by a family friend to seek a career in ‘plastics’ in order to secure financial and
professional success. If this film was to be remade in the 21st century then
Benjamin may well be advised to seek a career in ‘materials’, although whether
financial and professional success would follow is debatable. Materials are often
taken for granted in everyday life. For example, millions of non-degradable plastic
bags have been issued annually to shoppers in supermarkets and other shops
although since 5 October 2015 a charge of 5 pence per bag has been levied in
the United Kingdom in order to cut down on the disposal of the bags. These bags
are often made out of the synthetic polymer polythene (polyethylene) but there was
a time before polythene and it is unlikely that the general public will be aware that
polythene was first invented in 1933. Indeed it was prepared accidentally and was
not the intended reaction product. In fact, polythene had a very important role
in the Second World War when it was used as an electrical insulator for cables in
fighter aircraft of the Royal Air Force for the newly developed compact radar
systems based on magnetron cavities. There is no rigid definition of the word
materials and while materials are frequently associated with objects made out of
metal, ceramic or plastic the range of materials goes far beyond these narrow
categories. If Benjamin had sought a career in materials in the 21st century he
would soon realise that they underpin many industries, are critical for the devel-
opment of consumer goods, are key components of medical diagnostic techniques
and offer hope for the treatment of currently incurable diseases. In this introduc-
tory chapter an overview of the range of materials important for 21st century
economies of nations is given. The study of materials is interdisciplinary. An
appreciation of materials can be made by having an open mind and looking beyond
the specific interests of an individual whether in chemistry, physics or engineering
while retaining an awareness that basic concepts such as thermodynamics, chemical
Materials for the 21st Century. David Segal.

© David Segal 2017. Published 2017 by Oxford University Press.
DOI: 10.1093/oso/9780198804079.001.0001
2 Materials for the 21st Century
kinetics and solid-state phenomena are often relevant to many different types of
materials. The reader may want to peruse the glossary for more detailed descriptions
of selected materials.
1.2 The significance of surfaces on

material properties
Entries in the glossary do not highlight in an obvious way the important role
surfaces have in material properties independent of the material composition.
For example, superhydrophobicity is a property of a surface and superhydropho-
bic materials are not wetted easily by water. In fact, they have contact angles
greater than 140 . The leaves of certain plants, in particular the lotus plant, are
superhydrophobic and this property arises because their surfaces have a hierarch-
ical structure with protrusions on the microscale and nanoscale which prevent
contact of water droplets with the surface so that droplets roll off the plant carrying
dirt particles with them. Hence the leaves are self-cleaning. There is much interest
in developing materials that mimic the surface structure of plant leaves to produce
self-cleaning structures such as self-cleaning glass, textiles and buildings. Hetero-
geneous catalysis is also an area where chemical reactions take place on the surfaces
of catalytic particles and examples of these reactions include the Fischer–Tropsch
reaction for the production of synthetic diesel from synthesis gas, the treatment of
vehicle emissions of unburnt hydrocarbons, nitrogen oxides and carbon monoxide
in so-called three-way automobile catalysts and the treatment of diesel emission
that include nitrogen oxides and particulate carbon. As the particle size of materials
decreases, an increasing percentage of atoms reside in the surface and when
systems have a dimension around 1 micrometre or less they are referred to as
colloidal. Nowadays the phrase nanotechnology is often used to describe systems
that have dimensions similar to that of colloidal systems and nanomaterials or
nanoparticles are words associated with the term nanotechnology. The properties
of nanoparticles, in particular their optical properties, are a function of their size
and this effect is utilised in stained glass windows that incorporate small gold
particles. Also the optical properties of quantum dots, in particular the emitted
wavelengths from these phosphors, are a function of their particle size. Surfaces are
important in adhesion processes, for example the attachment of Post-it notes to
noticeboards and the use of Super Glue. But not all adhesives are applied from a
container as illustrated by the ability of the gecko lizard to climb walls and hang
upside down from ceilings. The feet of this lizard contain millions of extremely thin
protruding protein fibres and during contact between the feet and the wall or
ceiling, an attractive van der Waals force between the fibres and wall or ceiling
hold the lizard in place. Material properties can be affected by coatings, for
example coatings that act as thermal barriers in gas turbines that enable the turbine
blades to operate at temperatures above their melting points, antireflectance coat-
ings on spectacle lenses and yellow coatings of titanium nitride on cutlery.
Introduction 3
Van der Waals force is an attractive force between atoms and molecules. It arises
from electrostatic interactions between two molecules with permanent dipole moments
and from dipole-induced dipole interactions in which the dipole of a molecule induces a
dipole in a neighbouring molecule. The force can also be considered to arise from
fluctuations within dipoles.
1.3 The 20th century: A golden age

for synthetic polymers
Polymers are macromolecules in which monomers are joined together chemically
by polymerisation to form larger molecules. Homopolymers are derived from one
type of monomer while heteropolymers or copolymers are made from two or
more different monomers.
If a molecule is designated by the letter A, then a homopolymer formed from this

monomer is represented by . . . A-A-A- . . . . If two different molecules are represented
by the letters A and B then a copolymer can be represented by . . . A-B-A-B-A . . . .
Synthetic polymers are derived from petrochemical sources and throughout

the 20th century oil has been a source of intermediate chemicals for conversion
to polymers. Synthetic polymers are frequently referred to as plastics. Some
synthetic polymers have been discovered accidentally, for example polyethyl-
ene and polytetrafluoroethylene, although a common misconception is that
the latter was developed during the ‘Space Race’ in the 1960s, whereas it was
first produced in 1938. Nylon had spectacular success as a substitute for silk
in women’s stockings when it was introduced as a commercial product while
Kevlar, poly (p-phenylene terephthalamide), is associated with bullet-proof vests
for anti-terrorist activities. Many synthetic polymers are commodity products that
are produced on the industrial scale and common usage includes packaging (e.g.
polystyrene beads, polythene), foamed products for furniture (polyurethane) and
textiles (e.g. polyester and acrylic fibres). However, there are niche markets, thus
for Kevlar, while poly (vinylidene fluoride) is used as a porous separator in
lithium-ion batteries to prevent electrical shorting of the electrodes. In reverse
osmosis, a process for purification of salty or brackish waters that is thermodynam-
ically driven and not kinetically driven, polysulphone membranes have been used
in the separation process. Synthetic polymers, with the exception of polyvinyl
chloride, are potentially flammable and when used in consumer products flame
retardants are often incorporated. The polymers do not degrade easily when
disposed and there are concerns with pollution of land and oceans by plastic
bags and other plastics. This concern has led to the search for biodegradable
polymers and one such polymer is polylactic acid that can be produced from
petrochemical sources or by fermentation of corn starch. Biodegradable polymers
also have medical applications, for example as sutures in surgical operations.
Biodegradable materials will decompose in the environment over time to carbon

dioxide and water.
1.4 The 21st century: A golden age for natural

polymers?
There is increasing interest in healthcare delivering personalised medicine to people
in which the genome of an individual would be sequenced; that is, the sequence of
nucleic acids in an individual’s DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) would be determined.
DNA can be considered to be a polymer, in particular a heteropolymer. Proteins are
also natural polymers and they are made up of sequences of amino acids.
Natural polymers are found in nature and not prepared by chemical synthesis in a
laboratory.
A pressing medical condition in the 21st century is the potentially increasing

number of elderly people developing Alzheimer’s disease, which is associated
with protein fibres or fibrils that associate to form plaque in the brain. Other
natural polymers include collagen, elastin, carbohydrates, starches and cellulose.
The latter is a major component of biomass that includes plants and wood chips
and which is a source of biofuels and materials with a reduced dependency on
petrochemical sources. For example, cellulose can be converted to a textile fibre
that has a silk-like texture and is marketed under the name of Tencel or Lyocell by
first dissolving it in a solvent, followed by extruding the solution from a rotating
disc known as a spinerette, after which the solvent can be recovered.
Petrochemical sources are derived from oil.
1.5 From candy floss (cotton candy) to composites

Many materials are produced in the form of fibres. Children and their parents have
enjoyed candy floss while at a funfair or at the seaside. Candy floss consists of
fibres of a sugar glass and is made by extruding molten granulated sugar (sucrose)
through a spinning disc with holes in it known as a spinerette or through holes in
the base of a rotating drum. This method of making fibres has been applied to the
manufacture of short glass fibres from a melt and for the production of continuous
Kevlar fibres. Glass fibres have been used to reinforce polymer matrices such as
those based on polyester and the product known as fibreglass has been used as
panels in vehicles, for the hulls of small boats and for bathtubs.
The matrix is the material, for example the polymer, into which fibres are
dispersed.
Introduction 5
Reinforcement of a matrix with fibres increases the toughness of the composite,

that is, its resistance to fracture. Oxide fibres have also been manufactured by
solution processes rather than from a melt and involve sol-gel precursors; an
example of such a fibre is Nextel, a boric oxide-doped aluminosilicate material.
Oxide fibres have applications as thermal insulation in buildings and for fibre-
reinforced metals such as aluminium as combustor liners in gas turbine engines.
Polymer matrices can be reinforced with flakes rather than with fibres, for example
with graphene flakes for use in sporting equipment such as tennis rackets. Carbon-
fibre-reinforced composites have applications where lightweight, strong and tough
structural components are required particularly in space, military and civilian aircraft.
1.6 Biopharmaceuticals: From small

to large molecules
The modern pharmaceutical industry dates from the late 19th century with the
successful synthesis of acetylsalicylic acid that was sold and continues to be
marketed under the trade name aspirin. Throughout the 20th century pharma-
ceutical compounds were usually synthesised in chemical laboratories and they are
characterised by having a low molecular weight. For example, acetylsalicylic acid
has a molecular weight of 180. Biopharmaceuticals (or biologics) are a new class of
pharmaceutical compounds that are not prepared by conventional chemical syn-
thesis. They are monoclonal antibodies, they contain sequences of amino acids in
their structure and their synthesis involves recombinant DNA technology. An
example of a biologic drug is Humira for the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis. It
contains over 1,000 amino acids and has a molecular weight around 40,000.
Antibodies are a class of proteins known as immunoglobulins. They are produced
in vivo and bind to antigens in order to destroy them.
In vivo means within the body in contrast with in vitro, which means outside the
body, for example a cell culture in a Petri dish.
An antigen is an organism, for example a virus or bacterium that attacks another
organism.
A key feature of pioneering work carried out by Cesar Milstein and co-workers was
to show how specific antibodies could be produced in large quantities. These
specific antibodies are known as monoclonal antibodies so that all antibodies
produced are identical. There is much interest in industrial processes such as
those in the chemical and pharmaceutical industries in reducing the generation
of waste products as well as in recovering and recycling solvents. This approach is
sometimes referred to as utilising ‘green chemical’ processes. One class of material
that has potential applications in green chemistry are ionic liquids which are salts
that are liquid at room temperature. They have low vapour pressures, a useful
property when recycling solvent vapours is required, and have applications includ-
ing scrubbing gases.
1.7 Chips with everything

The 21st century is an age of digital communication. Smartphones and computers,
whether desktop, laptop or tablet, proliferate, business processes migrate to the
digital economy and are carried out over the Internet while social media allow
people to communicate with each other and share information across the world.
None of these devices or processes would be possible without silicon chips, which
are key components of computers. A silicon chip is a piece of semiconducting
silicon that has been doped with impurity atoms and contains electronic circuits
that carry out logical operations in an algorithm. Silicon chips contain millions of
transistors, resistors and capacitors and the transistors act as switches for carrying
out the logical operations. Photolithography and curable organic resins known as
photoresists, combined with the controlled addition of dopant or impurity atoms
and etching, are used to fabricate the transistors and other components. The
development of silicon chips is a triumph for materials research, requiring contri-
butions from chemistry, physics, engineering and mathematics.
1.8 Energetic materials and terrorism

Cellulose, a natural polymer made up of glucose molecules that are joined together,
is a major component of biomass, that is, natural materials such as plants, agricul-
tural wastes and wood chips that are nowadays potentially valuable sources of
materials and biofuels, thus reducing a dependency on petrochemical sources.
However, in the 19th century cellulose was viewed as a chemically inert material
until it was found that it would react with nitric acid to form nitrocellulose, or
guncotton, which was an energetic material, that is, an explosive when dry. When
the ratio of nitric acid to cellulose was reduced, useful reaction products that were
not explosive were obtained. These products included celluloid, which had appli-
cations in the expanding film industry and also as buttons, combs and dentures as
examples; collodion, which was used as a wound dressing; and Parkesine, which
could be shaped into ornamental products. Developments with explosives have
taken place since nitrocellulose was discovered but an emerging threat to societies
in the 21st century is the use of unstable explosives that can be made from
household materials. An example of such an explosive is triacetone triperoxide
(TATP). Protective equipment worn by police and army personnel often contains
Kevlar in the form of bullet-proof vests. Kevlar is a synthetic polymer, hence a
plastic, and it is not obvious why it should be such a strong material. This plastic
contains polymer molecules which form liquid crystals that have a higher degree of
molecular ordering than the liquid state. Qualitatively the entropy of the system
Introduction 7
decreases as the liquid crystals form but close packing of polymer chains and
hydrogen bonding between chains lowers the free energy of the system, favouring
formation of the liquid crystalline phase. This combination of close packing and
hydrogen bonding contributes to the strength of the plastic. Governments are also
concerned that terrorists may acquire highly radioactive fission products and
construct a ‘dirty bomb’ or even obtain fissile material such as 239Pu.
A hydrogen bond is an interaction between molecules that have hydrogen atoms

bound to electronegative atoms such as oxygen, nitrogen and fluorine. Electronegative
atoms can be viewed as atoms of elements that tend to gain electrons and form negative
ions. Hydrogen bonding represents an attractive force between atoms.
1.9 Speciality metallic alloys

People encounter synthetic polymers, that is, plastics, in all aspects of their lives, for
example in clothing and in packaging, in furniture and in consumer goods, and may
conclude that plastics are the most important materials in 21st century economies.
But many plastics are commodity items and there are a number of speciality metallic
alloys that have important roles but remain hidden from everyday life.
Alloys are materials that consist of two or more metals.
Manufacturers of aircraft and airlines seek more efficient aircraft with improved
fuel economy. Nickel-based superalloys are used to fabricate turbine blades in gas
turbines and the blades are often coated with a thermal barrier of a ceramic material
that increases the operating temperature of the turbine, increasing its efficiency.
The blades operate at about 200 C above their melting point by use of a combin-
ation of a thermal barrier coating and internal cooling passages. The use of single-
crystal casting technology maximises creep resistance and the removal of grain
boundaries removes sources of weakness in the blades.
Creep is the continuous deformation of a material, usually a metal, by a constant stress

while grain boundaries refer to the interface between crystals in a solid body, such as a metal.
The single-crystal casting technology aids the design and fabrication of the cooling
passages which allows cooler air from the compressor to be fed into the turbine
blades during operation. Alloys of zirconium (with iron, chromium and tin) known
as Zircaloy are used as fuel rods in thermal nuclear reactors while alloys are used in
superconducting coils to generate large magnetic fields in magnetic resonance
imaging. Nickel–titanium compositions are used as shape memory alloys in im-
plantable coronary stents while light-emitting diodes contain metallic alloys, for
example those formed from gallium and arsenic.
Note that superalloys contain a number of metallic additives to nickel, in particular

aluminium and chromium. The additives have atoms with a different size to nickel
and they disrupt the ordered crystalline structure of nickel, a process that can reduce
deformation of the component.
1.10 Renewable energy

There is worldwide research to develop technologies that can reduce carbon dioxide
emissions in order to limit the effects of global warming and to use renewable energy
sources such as solar, hydroelectric, wind, geothermal and tidal. Materials have an
important role in developing these renewable sources. For example, components used
in wind turbines require high strength and fracture toughness to avoid catastrophic
failure. Overhead cables on pylons that transmit electricity need to be strong and
electrically conducting. The conventional material that is used in solar or photovoltaic
cells is polycrystalline silicon in the form of panels that are mounted in modules.
Polycrystalline silicon is distinct from a silicon component that is a single crystal

with no grain boundaries.
Dye-sensitised materials have the potential to increase the efficiency of the cells.
The dyes are often based on ruthenium complexes. An alternative approach for
fabrication of solar cells is to deposit a thin film of a photosensitive material such as
copper indium gallium diselenide onto a low-cost substrate such as stainless steel
or glass. This latter approach is often referred to as using thin film photovoltaics.
Nuclear power is strictly not a source of renewable energy but as emissions of
carbon dioxide from thermal nuclear reactors are minimal and do not contribute to
global warming, this source of electricity is under active consideration worldwide.
Materials have an important role in the construction and operation of thermal
nuclear reactors. Thus, materials for structural components of the reactor, the
pressure vessel and the reactor shell as well as materials for the fuel rods and the
enriched uranium fuel. While not a renewable energy source it is worth mention-
ing here that compact lithium-ion batteries are widely used in smartphones and
portable devices while there is continuing development of fuel cells as a clean
source of electricity for applications including transport.
Enriched means a higher concentration of fissionable 235U in the uranium oxide fuel
than occurs in uranium ores. Fissionable means that thermal neutrons will split this
atom into smaller atoms with the release of energy.
1.11 Renewable materials

There is a desire to move away from petrochemical sources as routes to materials
and derive useful products from renewable materials such as biomass, which refers
Introduction 9
to natural materials such as plants, agricultural wastes and wood chips. Biomass is
a source of lignocellulose which is composed of cellulose, hemicelluloses and
lignins, which are potentially valuable sources of materials. Cellulose is a natural
polymer consisting of glucose molecules that are joined together chemically. An
example of a process using renewable materials is the production of bioethanol
from fermentation of sugar extracted from sugarcane and the bioethanol is then
blended with conventional fuels. Bioplastics such as polylactic acid can be pre-
pared from glucose in a process that involves a fermentation step with genetically
engineered bacteria. During the First World War biobutanol was obtained by
fermentation of molasses, the residue left over from sugar refining, and acetone
was obtained by fermentation on the industrial scale and converted to cordite, an
explosive used by the British Army. Biodiesel can be obtained from vegetable oils
or animal fat and is associated with its production from rapeseed oil. Bioethanol
and biodiesel are known as biofuels.
In fermentation, enzymes, for example in yeast, catalytically convert sugar to

alcohol, a process used for brewing beer.
1.12 The importance of microstructure

Wings of a butterfly may appear to be blue but in fact they are colourless and do
not contain pigments. The colours arise because there is a periodic structure of
particles in the wing made out of proteins and other components of the wing
and this structure acts as a diffraction grating as light falls onto the wing.
Similarly, the colours in the mineral opal arise from a periodic structure of
close-packed silica particles. These periodic structures are examples of micro-
structures and such periodic structures, whether natural or artificial, are
referred to as photonic crystals. The latter have the potential to direct light in
specific directions. Traditional ceramics such as earthenware or porcelain have
microstructures consisting of glassy phases, crystalline regions and pores that
are produced during the calcination process in a kiln. Composite materials can
consist of fibres dispersed in a matrix of polymer, ceramic or metal. The fibres
increase the toughness of the material as they deflect cracks and prevent crack
propagation and hence composites have a specific microstructure. Many organ-
isms including molluscs have shells made out of composite materials that
can withstand attack from a predator. DNA has a double-helical structure in
which hydrogen bonding occurs between pairs of four bases but the pairing of
bases is not random and this structure would not arise if the pairing was
random. Thus, the helical structure is the microstructure that is characteristic
of DNA and these examples highlight how material properties can depend
on microstructure. Conversely microstructural control can be used to modify
material properties.
1.13 Lighting technology

There have been rapid changes to lighting technology in recent years. Conven-
tional incandescent light bulbs and fluorescent lights have been replaced by
solid-state lighting, which is underpinned by developments in materials.
Incandescent light bulbs are light bulbs with a tungsten filament.
For example, light-emitting diodes are increasingly used in the home and in
business environments as they are energy-efficient. These devices rely on the
semiconducting properties of materials, for example gallium arsenide and gallium
nitride. Organic light-emitting diodes (OLEDs) are based on semiconducting
organic molecules, either small molecules or polymers, and semiconducting quan-
tum dots, which are small nanoparticles which behave as phosphors, are also being
used in lighting technology. The increasing use of portable devices such as smart-
phones and tablet computers requires compact light sources for their displays and
light-emitting diodes and quantum dots are used in these displays. OLEDs have
the potential to be used as light sources in flexible electronics. It is worth stating
here that while liquid crystals are used in displays such as televisions, the liquid
crystals do not emit light and require a backlight in use.
1.14 Sugars and foods

There is much debate in countries with established health services such as the
United Kingdom on rising levels of obesity and its role in the increase of Type 2
diabetes among the populations with the resulting additional costs to the health
services for treatment of this disease. This debate often refers to sugars, carbohy-
drates, starches and foods generally and it is often overlooked that foods can be
considered to be a class of materials. Thus, carbohydrates are polymers made up of
glucose monomer units joined together chemically while starches are also polymers
based on glucose molecules but can contain linear and branched molecules,
whereas glucose is a component of sucrose that is widely used in everyday life as
granulated sugar. While carbohydrates are broken down in vivo into smaller
molecules including glucose they are often described as sugars, which spreads
confusion among people concerned over issues relating to their weight. Consider-
ation of foods consisting of materials such as natural polymers will aid the debate
on obesity. Artificial sweeteners, either synthetic, such as sucralose, or natural
products including those from the stevia plant, are widely used.
1.15 Intellectual property and materials

Companies, universities and other organisations that carry out research and devel-
opment on materials will want to obtain a return on their investments. Patent
Introduction 11
coverage is often taken out and this confers a monopoly to the patent owner for a
limited period of time in exchange for disclosing the invention in the public
domain. The effect of the expiry of a patent, often twenty years after the filing
date, can be observed in the pharmaceutical industry, as an example, when generic
drugs can be produced by a third party and sold to governments at much lower
prices than the patented version. Expert advice from qualified practitioners is
required for anyone interested in obtaining patent protection and litigation relating
to patent infringement is a frequent occurrence. Litigation can involve non-
practicing entities (NPEs), which are individuals or firms who own patents but
who do not use them to produce goods or services. Instead NPEs assert their
patents against companies that do produce goods or services. Non-practicing
entities are sometimes referred to as patent trolls although this phrase has deroga-
tory overtones when used in this way. Trademarks that are words and logos are
used to distinguish goods or services of one business from another and can
continue to be used even when a patent has expired, as is the case for the material
Lycra, which is also known by the names spandex and elastane.
1.16 Summary
Materials have an important role in 21st century economies and have the potential
to contribute to solving issues in those economies. Examples where materials can
make a positive contribution include renewable energy, renewable materials, light-
ing technology, biopharmaceuticals, semiconducting materials and the fabrication
of silicon chips, synthetic and natural polymers, speciality metallic alloys for
specialist applications, foods and their role in obesity, medical diagnostics, com-
posite materials based on polymers, ceramic and metal and control of surface
structure for tailored properties, as in superhydrophobic materials.
1.17 Further reading

Akhaven, J. The Chemistry of Explosives, 3rd edn. Cambridge: Royal Society of Chemistry,
2011.
Askeland, D. R., and Wright, W. J. The Science and Engineering of Materials, 7th edn. Boston,
MA: Cengage Learning, 2011.
Atkins, P. Atkins’ Molecules, 2nd edn. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003.
Bansal, N. P., and J. Lamon (eds). Ceramic Matrix Composites: Materials, Modelling and
Technology. London: Wiley, 2015.
Basile, A., and C. Charcosset (eds). Integrated Membrane Systems and Processes. London:
Wiley, 2016.
Brook, R. J. (ed.). Concise Encyclopaedia of Advanced Ceramic Materials. Oxford: Pergamon
Press, 1991.
Burrows, J. Turbine technology. Materials World (2015), 23(5), 40–2.
Christie, R. M. Colour Chemistry, 2nd edn. Cambridge: Royal Society of Chemistry, 2015.
Felice, M. Materials for aeroplane engines. Materials World (2013), 52–3.

Fried, J. R. Polymer Science & Technology, 3rd edn. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall,
2014.
Ginley, D. S., and D. Cahen (eds). Fundamentals of Materials for Energy and Environmental
Sustainability. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2012.
Goldstein, D. (ed.). The Oxford Companion to Sugar and Sweets. Oxford: Oxford University
Press, 2015.
Jones, R. A. L. Soft Condensed Matter. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2013.
Kerton, F., and Marriot, R. Alternative Solvents for Green Chemistry, 2nd edn. Cambridge:
Royal Society of Chemistry, 2013.
Lecce, L., and A. Concilio (eds). Shape Memory Alloy Engineering for Aerospace, Structural
and Biomedical Applications. Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann, 2015.
Ngo, C., and van de Voorde, M. Nanotechnology in a Nutshell: From Simple to Complex
Systems. Amsterdam: Atlantis Press, 2014.
Novotny, L., and B. Hecht. Principles of Nano-optics, 2nd edn. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press, 2006.
Papachristodoulou, D., A. Snape, W. H. Elliott, and D. C. Elliott. Biochemistry and Molecu-
lar Biology, 5th edn. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2014.
Price, G. Thermodynamics of Chemical Processes. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009.
Sarin, A. Biodiesel: Production and Properties. Cambridge: Royal Society of Chemistry, 2012.
Schneider, S. J. (gen. ed.), updated by I. H. Smith. 1000 Movies You Must See before You
Die, 460–1. London: Cassell Illustrations, 2015.
Solymar, L., D. Walsh and R. A. Syms. Electrical Properties of Materials, 9th edn. Oxford:
Oxford University Press, 2014.
Tilley, R. J. D. Understanding Solids: The Science of Materials. London: Wiley, 2013.
Walton, D., and P. Lorimer. Polymers. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005.
2
Candy Floss, Cellulose, Sugars
and Foods
2.1 Introduction
Many children and adults have eaten candy floss (cotton candy) at a funfair or at
the seaside. Candy floss has a combination of properties. It is made in fibrous form,
it is a glass, namely a sugar glass and glucose is a component of granulated sugar
used in its preparation. Its method of preparation is relevant to other materials and
as a food it can be enjoyable to eat. Glucose has a central role in the structure of
some natural products in particular cellulose and starches and initial studies in the
19th century showed how cellulose could be converted into useful products
including plastics. Although the 20th century saw the development of polymers
and plastics from petrochemical sources, cellulose has an increasing role in the
21st century as a renewable material and a source of useful products. This chapter
describes some material aspects of cellulose and other natural products with
particular reference to the role of glucose in their chemical structures and the
uses for the materials.
2.2 Cellulose
Cellulose is the most abundant biorenewable material on earth and consists of
linear polymeric chains formed by repeated connection of β-D-glucose building
blocks through a 1-4 glycoside linkage.
A simple definition of cellulose is that it a natural polymer of glucose molecules,

where glucose is the monomer.
Together with hemicellulose and lignin, cellulose is the third component of ligno-
cellulose, often referred to as biomass. Lignocellulose is the major structural
component of plants and is found in sawdust, wood chips, straw and bagasse
(sugar cane residue). Cellulose is crystalline and polymer chains are held tightly

DOI: 10.1093/oso/9780198804079.001.0001
together by hydrogen bonding and the van der Waals force and this structure
makes cellulose insoluble in water and common solvents. This tightly bound
structure cannot be digested, that is broken down into smaller molecules by
humans. However, it was found around the middle of the 19th century that
cellulose (e.g. wood pulp) could be nitrated with concentrated nitric acid to form
nitrocellulose, also known as guncotton. Strictly speaking nitrocellulose, also
known as cellulose nitrate, is not an organic nitrate but an ester and was an unstable
material that exploded when dry. A number of people had been involved in the
development of nitrocellulose at that time but it has been reported that a leading
researcher, Frederick Schönbein, first produced nitrocellulose when he spilled
nitric acid onto one of his wife’s cotton aprons which he was wearing while carrying
out experiments in his kitchen. The apron promptly burst into flames. Nitrocellu-
lose could be handled in a more stable form when soaked in boiling water and then
converted to a pulp and was relatively safe to handle when wet. Naval vessels were
then able to carry ‘guncotton’ torpedoes quite safely.
Useful materials besides explosives were obtained by reducing the amount of
nitric acid used to react with cellulose, especially when plasticisers such as camphor
were added to the reaction product. For example, collodion was a liquid used as a
wound dressing that left a thin film of cellulose nitrate over the wound. Parkesine,
which can be considered to be a plastic, was a mixture of cellulose nitrate and a
plasticiser and was used for ornamental objects and also for making combs and
buttons, as examples. However, successful exploitation of celluloid on the com-
mercial scale was made by John Hyatt, who referred to a mixture of cellulose
nitrate and camphor as celluloid. One reason for the commercial success of
celluloid was because John Hyatt and his brother developed an injection
moulding machine which allowed bars and sheets of celluloid to be produced
that could then be worked into products. Celluloid found a niche market in the
nascent film industry as the substrate and reels for films that were shown on
projectors in cinemas but its flammability resulted in many fires in projector
rooms and it was eventually phased out in this application. Celluloid was also
used to produce billiard balls as a substitute for balls made out of ivory because
hunting threatened the survival of elephant populations. Spectacle frames, foun-
tain pens, dentures and dolls were all manufactured from celluloid. It has been
reported that some billiard balls made out of celluloid exploded on collision
during games of billiards because too much nitric acid had been used in the
preparation of cellulose nitrate.
In injection molding, a process often associated with the shaping of plastics, a sheet
or paste of material is subject to pressure so that the material takes the shape of a die.
Injection molding is used to produce plastics bowls in kitchenware.
Other plastics and fibres could be obtained from cellulose following experiments
carried out towards the end of the 19th century. Thus, cellulose sources such as
wood pulp were dissolved in glacial acetic acid to form solutions of cellulose
Candy Floss, Cellulose, Sugars and Foods 15
acetate. The solutions were spun into the textile fibre known as acetate rayon and
formed into sheets of a thermoplastic that could be shaped by pressing a hot sheet
in a mold. Applications for cellulose acetate besides textile fabrics included lac-
quers and shatterproof glass for windscreens. Another type of rayon known as
viscose rayon was prepared by first dissolving, for example, wood pulp in alkaline
carbon disulphide, a process yielding cellulose xanthate solution. The latter was
converted to continuous regenerated cellulose fibres of viscose rayon by extru-
sion through fine nozzles into sulphuric acid. The fibres of viscose rayon could
be woven into fabrics. Extrusion of cellulose xanthate solution through a narrow
slit produced sheets of cellophane, which is used as a wrapping material although
it is flammable. Plastics and fibres derived from cellulose are known as cellulo-
sics. The preparation of synthetic fibres from petrochemical sources in the 20th
century has to some extent overshadowed the early work on cellulosics but a new
cellulosic fibre was developed by the company Courtaulds in the 1970s. Here,
wood pulp could be dissolved in a specific solvent and the solution was spun into
a water bath that regenerated the cellulose as continuous fibre. The fibre has a
silk-like texture and is known as Lyocell and by its trade name of Tencel.
2.3 Candy floss (cotton candy)

Candy floss is made by dropping molten granulated sugar onto a spinning disc or
rotating drum where the disc or base of the drum contains small holes so that
continuous fibres or threads of molten sugar are extruded from the holes. The
rotating disc is known as a spinerette. The streams of molten sugar solidify to a
sugar glass in the colder air. This general method of making fibres was applied to
glass fibres in the 1930s and glass-fibre-reinforced polymers such as polyester
resins, known as fibreglass, have been used in lightweight structures, such as
bathtubs and the hulls of small boats. Continuous fibres of Kevlar are also made
by using a spinerette.
2.4 Sugars and carbohydrates

There is much debate in the public domain, often acrimonious, on the causes of
obesity. The debate frequently highlights sugars as the culprit and during the
discussion reference is made to carbohydrates. Articles on food and diets also
refer to sugars and carbohydrates as well as what foods should or should not be
avoided but very rarely are definitions given to the materials of interest, such as
glucose and sugars generally. Simple sugars such as glucose and fructose are also
known as monosaccharides and cannot be chemically broken down into simpler
molecules (Table 2.1). Glucose forms the polymer backbone of cellulose but
humans are unable to digest cellulose as they do not possess the enzymes for
saccharification, the process by which cellulose is hydrolysed to smaller molecular
Table 2.1 Common sugars and their classification

Sugar Classification
Deoxyribose Monosaccharide, a component of DNA
Fructose Monosaccharide
Galactose Monosaccharide, stereoisomeric with glucose
Glucose Monosaccharide
Lactose Disaccharide between glucose and galactose
Maltose Disaccharide between two glucose molecules
Mannose Monosaccharide, stereoisomeric with glucose
Ribose Monosaccharide, a component of RNA
Sucrose Disaccharide between glucose and fructose
species, such as monosaccharides. Sucrose, which is used as granulated sugar in

everyday life, consists of a molecule of glucose chemically joined to a molecule of
fructose. The latter can be commercially prepared by enzymatic action on glucose
from corn syrup. Other simple sugars include ribose and deoxyribose that form the
backbone of ribonucleic acid (RNA) and deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). Mono-
saccharides are carbohydrates as are polysaccharides that have a larger molecular
weight than simple sugars and are polymers consisting of long chains of monosac-
charides. Polysaccharides have molecular weights up to several million and include
starches and cellulose. In contrast with these very high molecular weights, oligo-
saccharides are produced as intermediates during the digestion of polysaccharides
and are carbohydrates containing up to twenty monosaccharide units; hence they
are polymers. Raffinose is an example of an oligosaccharide. However, carbohy-
drates are not sugars even if they are built up from glucose molecules, as is the case
for cellulose. So anyone eating a bread roll that contains carbohydrates is not eating
sugar as such.
Starches are a mixture of the linear polysaccharide amylose, which is soluble in
hot water, and the insoluble branched polysaccharide amylopectin. Amylase
enzymes can cleave the polysaccharide chains in starch, producing glucose and
the sugar maltose that is important for the manufacture of beer and malt whisky.
The absence of tightly bound structures in cooked foods containing starch allows
starch to be digested in contrast with the inability of humans to digest cellulose.
Thus, the absence or presence of hydrogen bonding between neighbouring
polymer chains can have an important role on whether polysaccharides are useful
products for foods. Chitin is a naturally occurring polysaccharide found in the
exoskeletons of shellfish such as crabs and insects where it strengthens these
structures and has a chemical structure similar to cellulose. Chitosan is a deriva-
tive of chitin, is soluble in acidic media and has applications in pharmaceuticals
and cosmetics.
Exoskeletons are their shells.
Bioethanol, a biofuel, is produced in commercial quantities by the enzymatic

fermentation of sugars derived from crops and blended with conventional fuels.
Animal fats are mixtures of lipids, mainly triglycerides that are esters of glycerol
(also called glycerine). Biodiesel, also a biofuel, refers to the mono-alkyl esters of
long-chain fatty acids derived from vegetable oils or animal fat, for example the
methyl ester of rapeseed oil. It can be derived from waste household cooking oils
and added to petroleum-based diesel to produce a biodiesel blend.
Many foods contain artificial sweeteners, for sugar-free products including
carbonated soft (fizzy) diet drinks, chewing gum, desserts, yoghurt and cough
mixtures. Saccharin, the first artificial sweetener, was identified in 1879. Sodium
cyclamate was discovered in the 1930s. Both cyclamate and saccharin were dis-
covered accidentally because a researcher in a laboratory either licked his finger
and noticed a sweet taste or lit a cigarette that was contaminated with cyclamate,
giving the cigarette a sweet taste. Aspartame that is marketed as Nutrasweet is a
combination of two naturally occurring amino acids, aspartic acid and phenyl-
alanine, and was discovered in 1965. Another synthetic artificial sweetener is
sucralose, which is a chlorinated sucrose and sold under the name of Splenda,
which is not heat sensitive and can be used in cooking, baking and frying. There are
trends for using sweeteners that are natural products such as those derived from
the stevia plant and sold under the name Truvia.
2.5 Storage of sugar in the body

When sugar is consumed, the sugars are broken down into monosaccharides such
as glucose, fructose and galactose (stereoisomeric with glucose) by a combination
of stomach acids and enzymes.
An enzyme is a biological catalyst, usually a protein, but some enzymes are made
of RNA.
For example, the enzyme lactase breaks down lactose in milk into glucose and
galactose, while the enzyme sucrase breaks down table sugar. Monosaccharides are
converted into glucose in the body. However, free glucose is not stored directly in
cells. This is because the osmotic pressure of a solution is proportional to the
number of molecules and the osmotic pressure of a solution of the monosaccharide
glucose in the body would be dangerously high and result in cell damage and
possibly cell rupture as water would migrate from regions of low-sugar to high-
sugar concentrations, that is from regions of low osmotic pressure to regions of
high osmotic pressure. Instead glucose is stored as the polysaccharide glycogen, a
highly branched starch with a chemical structure similar to amylopectin. Glycogen
is stored in the liver and also in muscle cells while some is metabolised immediately
to produce a source of energy. The high molecular weight of glycogen compared to

glucose produces a low osmotic pressure.
Note that when two solutions of different concentrations are separated by a membrane
that allows molecules of solvent but not solute to pass through, that is a semipermeable
membrane. Then the solvent, for example water, will pass from the dilute to the more
concentrated solution. This process is known as osmosis and is thermodynamically
driven. Osmosis stops when the concentrations of solute (e.g. sugar) are equal or by
applying a hydrostatic pressure, the osmotic pressure.
The hormone insulin, which is a protein, is produced in the pancreas and

promotes the uptake of glucose by cells in the liver and muscles and controls its
concentration in the blood. A shortage of insulin will increase blood sugar levels
and can lead to Type 2 diabetes.
Many foods, for example ice cream and mayonnaise, fall into the category of
soft matter (also known as soft material) or more formally soft condensed matter
(or soft condensed material). Soft matter is a general name for non-crystalline
condensed matter and is a state that is neither a simple liquid or crystalline solid.
Examples of soft matter include colloidal dispersions, liquid crystals and poly-
mers that are not in a crystalline state, such as polymer melts. Soaps, paints and
glues are also examples of soft matter. Common features of soft matter are length
scales between atomic sizes and macroscopic scales (e.g. colloidal dispersions),
particles that exhibit Brownian motion and the ability to self-assemble as in
block copolymers. Soft matter represents disordered systems. Examples of soft
matter are described throughout this book (e.g. colloidal dispersions, liquid
crystals) but these examples have not specifically been referred to as soft matter
as such.
Brownian motion is the continuous random movement of microscopic solid par-

ticles around 1 μm in diameter when suspended in a fluid medium.
Disorder systems are systems that are non-crystalline or amorphous.
2.6 Summary
Carbohydrates and polysaccharides are polymers and include cellulose, the
most abundant biorenewable material and a component of lignocellulose, or
biomass, which is the major structural component of plants. Glucose monomer
has an important role in the formation of these polymers, particularly cellulose.
Carbohydrates also include starches. There is much debate on the causes of
obesity and sugars, which are also carbohydrates or monosaccharides, are
considered to have a role in this condition; sugars are also a source of biofuels
such as bioethanol. There is much interest in the use of artificial sweeteners,
either natural products or those derived from chemical synthesis. When con-
sumed, sugars are broken down into the monosaccharide glucose that is stored
in the body, in particular in the liver and muscle cells. The protein hormone
insulin controls the blood sugar concentration and a lack of insulin can result in
Type 2 diabetes. Many foods, for example ice cream and mayonnaise, fall into
the category of soft matter.
2.7 Further reading

Akhaven, J. The Chemistry of Explosives, 3rd edn. Cambridge: Royal Society of Chemistry,
2011.
Brazil, R. The sweet and the low. Chemistry World (2015) 11, 50–63.
Coultate, T. Food: The Chemistry of its Components, 6th edn. Cambridge: Royal Society
of Chemistry, 2016.
Emsley, J. Molecules at an Exhibition. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999.
Fried, J. R. Polymer Science and Technology, 3rd edn. Upper Sadddle River, NJ: Prentice
Hall, 2014.
Press, 2015.
Morrison, W. J., and J. C. Wharton. Candy Machine. United States Patent 618428, 1899.
Papachristodoulou, D., A. Snape, W. H. Elliott and D. C. Elliott. Biochemistry and
Molecular Biochemistry, 5th edn. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2014.
Rennie, R. (ed.). Oxford Dictionary of Chemistry, 7th edn. Oxford: Oxford University Press,
2016.
Sarin, A. Biodiesel: Production and Properties. Cambridge: Royal Society of Chemistry, 2012.
3
Chips with Everything
3.1 Introduction
The development of the Internet in recent years has brought about a revolution in
business practices and the way people communicate. For example, social media
has allowed people across the world to communicate with each other and exchange
information in the form of text or photographs or video. Online banking, online
shopping, music downloads, video-on-demand, streaming services, online dating
agencies and estate agents are services that were not available just a few years ago.
There has been a large increase in the range of consumer goods in recent years,
thus smartphones, desktop, laptop and tablet computers, digital cameras, in-
vehicle navigation systems and games consoles, as examples. Schoolchildren use
the Internet to help with their schoolwork and governments transfer information on
their services to the Internet. Unfortunately, novel ways of carrying out fraudulent
activities have been invented and used. However, none of these goods, services or
activities would be possible without the use of silicon chips that are at the heart of
computer systems. In this chapter aspects of the fabrication of silicon chips and
how they came to be developed are described with particular reference to the role
of materials in their manufacture.
3.2 Cat’s whisker, vacuum tubes and relays

In the first two decades of the 20th century amateur radio enthusiasts used a fine
wire known as a ‘cat’s whisker’ in contact with a specific point on the surface of a
crystalline material, a semiconductor. The cat’s whisker acted as a rectifier that
changed an alternating current radio signal into a direct current, allowing it to be
converted into sound. Note that Henry Round who discovered electrolumines-
cence in 1907 had applied a small voltage to a piece of silicon carbide, a semicon-
ductor. Vacuum tubes (also known as thermionic valves) could do the same
function as the cat’s whisker and vacuum tube-based radio sets became common
throughout the 1920s and later years. Vacuum tubes resemble small incandescent
light bulbs. Electrons flow from a glowing wire that passes through a vacuum to the
other electrode. Vacuum tubes could amplify and switch on and off the signals they

DOI: 10.1093/oso/9780198804079.001.0001
received. It was shown that a zero could be represented by an off-state and a one by
an on-state. This ability to have a switch that operates in two states is crucial to how
digital computers work. There is a historical link in the development of digital
computers between vacuum valves and switching mechanisms used in telephone
exchanges. Throughout the 1930s and 1940s exchanges used electromechanical
devices known as relays to connect telephone calls but they were slower switches
than vacuum tubes. Thus, electromechanical relays operated as switches that
could have an off position and an on position.
Some further details of the historical role vacuum tubes had in the development
of the electronic age are given here. The production, distribution and use of
electricity throughout the United States took place in the last two decades of the
19th century and the creation of electric power is associated with Thomas Edison
of the General Electric Company and George Westinghouse of Westinghouse
Electric. Nikola Tesla had an important role in the development of motors and
generators for the distribution of alternating current supplies over large distances.
The earlier industrial age was transformed into an electrically driven era. The novel
technology of wireless communication developed at the turn of the 20th century
relied on electric power and allowed information to be sent through the air. Thus,
wireless telegraph messages from shore to ship and back, two-way voice transmis-
sions and one-way transmission by radio broadcasting. It was the vacuum tube that
characterised the new era of electronics. As previously stated they act as on–off
switches, producing electrical signals that can be amplified.
Lee de Forest, an employee of the Federal Telegraph Corporation in Palo Alto,
California, discovered by accident that if the outgoing current from a vacuum tube
was fed back into the input then the signal was significantly amplified. It has been
stated that ‘if one dropped a handkerchief a few inches from a telephone transmit-
ter, there was a loud thud in the earphones’. This discovery that was made around
1906 had a big effect on the development of communications, because the ability to
amplify enabled devices to be made and used for long-distance telephone and
wireless communications. The work of de Forest helped to usher in the age of
electronics and technologies dependent on vacuum tubes, namely telephone trans-
mission, telegraphy and radio.
Production of vacuum tubes in the United States grew from the 1920s to 1940s,
from 1 million to nearly 100 million per year. Ownership of telephones spread
throughout the nation and radio captivated the public. By 1940 nearly 40 per cent
of American homes had a telephone and almost three-quarters of households had a
radio compared to the presence of a radio in 5000 homes in 1920.
3.3 Computability and the foundations

of digital computers
The mathematical description of computability was described in the 1930s by Alan
Turing in the United Kingdom and Alonso Church in the USA and it underpins
Chips with Everything 23
the development of digital computers in the 1940s and later years. The subject of
computability is beyond the scope of this book but some aspects of digital
computers are summarised. A modern computer carries out logical operations
on an input of information in the form of a binary sequence, that is a string of
ones and zeros. The information can be text, numbers, pictures, music,
speech, video or any quantity as long as it can be represented by a binary
sequence and the information can be transmitted by computers, mobile phone
and over the Internet, as examples. Logic circuits carry out the operation and
are based on Boolean algebra. The key feature of the computer that allows the
operations to be carried out is that it must be able to distinguish between a one
and a zero in the binary sequences and this can be achieved by using compo-
nents that act as switches. Early computers in the 1940s and 1950s were bulky
and contained many valves that could be switched electronically from a zero
(off) to a one (on) by sending a signal to the valve. These early mainframe
computers were housed in their own rooms and inputs of data were made by
the use of punched cards.
Digital computers consist of three parts: (i) logic, (ii) main memory and (iii)
storage. In early computers, the main memory consisted of thousands of
doughnut-shaped magnetic ferrite beads that could be magnetised or not magne-
tised so that these two states correspond to binary one or binary zero. Logic refers
to the digital circuitry (central processing unit, or CPU) that carries out logical
operations on binary inputs. Information from the CPU was stored in the main
memory as binary ones or binary zeros depending on the magnetised state of the
cores. Storage holds data for long periods and transfers it to the main memory
when required.
However, the invention of transistors as electronic switches in the late 1940s
eventually resulted in transistors replacing vacuum tubes in digital computers and
gave rise to the development of the silicon chip, or microchip.
3.4 Transistors
Transistors are semiconductors that can carry out all of the operations that valves
and electromechanical relays do, that is, amplify and switch on and off signals sent
to them. They are much smaller than valves and operate at ambient temperatures
without the necessity to use hot filaments. They are solid-state semiconductors
whose electrical conductivity can be modified by the incorporation of elemental
dopants from the gas phase into specific regions so that each region or junction
exhibits their own electrical behaviour. The development of transistors led to the
miniaturisation of electronic logic circuits. The first type of transistor that was
invented in 1947 and known as a point-contact transistor consisted of applying a
voltage across two wires in contact with a doped semiconductor made out of
germanium. Dopants can change the electrical properties of the crystal from
conductor to insulator. Point-contact transistors are discrete devices with wire
contacts but have been superseded by transistors based on doped semiconducting

silicon in silicon chips.
A more detailed description of transistors is given here as they have such a
crucial role as electronic switches for carrying out logic operations in digital
circuits. (The references by Hummel and Nixon in this chapter’s Further Reading
section are recommended to the interested reader.) Transistors have three ter-
minals. In a bipolar transistor two p-n semiconductor diodes are effectively joined
together back-to-back so that, for example, a region of p-type semiconductor is
connected to n-type regions to give an npn transistor. In practice dopants are
introduced into a substrate such as silicon by techniques including metal–organic
chemical vapour deposition (MOCVD) to produce the p-type and n-type regions.
The base terminal is connected to the p-type region and the emitter and collector
terminals are connected separately to n-type regions. If the diode configuration
consisting of the base and emitter is forward biased and the diode configuration of
base and collector is reversed biased, then electrons entering the emitter region can
diffuse through the base area and are then accelerated into the collector region. The
acceleration causes amplification of the input alternating current signal. However,
the electron flow, hence current from emitter to collector, can be switched on or off
by changes in the base-emitter voltage. This role of the transistor as a switch is used
for logic and memory functions in computers. The name bipolar transistor arises
because the current passes through both n-type and p-type semiconductor mater-
ials so that conduction involves both holes and electrons as charge carriers.
A disadvantage of bipolar transistors is their relatively high power consumption
and nowadays the dominant transistor used is the field effect transistor (FET),
which has one type of charge carrier, electrons or holes controlled by the doping
process. The method used for construction is known as metal-oxide-semiconductor
(MOS) and the transistors are known as MOSFETs. Compared to the bipolar
transistor, the terminals on a MOSFET are the drain (replaces the collector), the
source (replaces the emitter) and the gate (replaces the base). The gate is insulated
from the p-type substrate and the gate–substrate configuration acts as a capacitor.
The aim of the device is to control the current flow from source to drain and this is
achieved by varying the voltage applied to the gate. No current flows when the
voltage is absent. However, when a voltage is applied between the gate and source,
electrons flow into a channel between the drain and source, the channel conductivity
increases, current flows between source and drain and the device is switched on.
MOSFETs are unipolar transistors because the electron path from source to drain
through the channel involves just one type of semiconductor.
There are two types of MOSFET. The first is a depletion-type, or NMOSFET,
which has highly doped source and drain regions and a lightly doped channel of the
same polarity (e.g. n-type) deposited on a p-type substrate. The high doping
lowers the resistance for electrical connections. The second type, enhancement-
type MOSFETs, or positive-type MOSFETS (PMOSFETS), depends on holes
as the majority charge carrier. PMOSFETS do not have a built-in channel and
when a voltage is applied to the gate, holes below the gate are repelled into the
substrate, allowing electrons to flow into a so-called inversion channel and flow
between the source and drain. A key feature of PMOSFETS is their high input
impedance that reduces Joule heating in use and they are widely used in the integrated
circuit industry. Integration of NMOSFETs and PMOSFETs on one chip is the
main approach used in manufacturing integrated circuits and the technology
is known as CMOSFET, or CMOS, namely complementary MOSFET. CMOS
technology produces devices with low operating voltages (0.1 volts), low-power
consumption (less heat) and short channels that give a higher speed for processing.
Details of other transistors are given in the Further Reading section.
3.5 Silicon chips

An outline description of the stages used to manufacture silicon chips may help to
understand how they operate:
(a) A single crystal of semiconducting silicon is grown from a melt using a seed
crystal in what is known as the Czochralski method. Circular slices or wafers
are cut from the cylinder and polished to obtain a smooth surface on the
silicon substrate (Fig. 3.1).
(b) The wafer is heated in an oven to deposit a layer of silica (SiO2) onto the
wafer.
(c) A photocurable resin known as a photoresist is coated onto the wafer and
photolithography is used to project a shrunken image of the desired digital
circuit onto the wafer using a photomask. In photolithography, ultraviolet
light from a laser, usually an argon-fluoride (ArF) excimer gas laser with a
wavelength of 193 nm is used. Areas of the photoresist that are exposed to
radiation form solid regions.
(d) Solid regions of cured photoresist are removed with a solvent and exposed
regions of silica are also removed by etching using gaseous reactants so that
areas of silicon are exposed. The remaining resist is then removed from the
wafer by use of a solvent.
(e) Dopants can be introduced into the exposed regions of silicon to modify the
electrical conductivity. Both n-type and p-type dopants are used and these
are deposited by techniques including diffusion from the gas phase, ion
implantation, molecular beam epitaxy and MOCVD.
(f) Exposed regions of silicon are made conductive by depositing metallic
‘wires’ from gas phase reactants. These wires are known as interconnects.
(g) A layer of insulating silica is then deposited onto the wafer and further layers
of circuitry are then fabricated. The final layer is of silica.
(h) Holes known as vias are etched onto the substrate that allow electrical
connections to be made between different layers.
(i) The wafer is packaged for protection and the silicon chip, after testing for
reliability, is ready for use. The plastic or ceramic or package has the size of a
postage stamp.
The smallest feature that can be obtained by current photolithographic pro-

cesses is about 32 nm, which corresponds to the width of the deposited lines on the
wafer. Reduction of the minimum feature size allows more transistors to be placed
on a chip, hence increasing the computing power. About 2 billion (2 109)
transistors can be packed onto a silicon wafer with a size of 1 cm2.
An integrated circuit is a silicon chip that has been doped with elemental
impurities and which has a surface pattern or surface topography of intercon-
nected components, thus transistors, resistors, diodes and capacitors that carry out
the logic operations in digital computers. In contrast with point-contact transistors,
integrated circuits are made out of a solid block of material, here silicon with no
connecting wires. It is the development of integrated circuits that has led to the
miniaturisation of electronic circuits so essential for the manufacture of portable
Seed crystal
Molten silicon
Silica crucible
Carbon crucible
Radio-frequency coils
Fig. 3.1 Schematic diagram for growth of single crystals by the Czochralski method.
(R. E. Hummel. Electronic Properties of Materials, 4th edn, p. 161. Berlin: Springer, 2013 and Wacker
Siltronic AG.)
electronic devices such as mobile phones. The development of the silicon chip is a
triumph for interdisciplinary research across areas of chemistry, physics, materials
science and engineering.
3.6 Moore’s Law

Gordon Moore, the founder and president of Intel Corporation, suggested in 1965
that the number of components such as transistors on a silicon chip in an inte-
grated circuit would increase exponentially over time; in particular, they would
double every two years. This suggestion is known as Moore’s Law and since the
suggestion was made the law has been followed and the number of transistors that
have been fabricated on a silicon chip has doubled nearly every two years.
3.7 Directed self-assembly of block copolymers

Reduction of the minimum feature size allows more transistors to be placed on a
chip, hence increasing the computing power. Directed self-assembly of block
copolymers has the potential for increasing resolution of existing lithographic
tools for semiconductor fabrication. Phase separation can occur in a block copoly-
mer, for example in polystyrene-polymethylmethacrylate copolymers that result in
spheres or cylinders of a colloidal dimension that can align into ordered arrays or
domains. These domains can be formed on a silicon wafer and can be selectively
removed. In this way, there is the potential for increasing the line density on the
surface of wafers.
3.8 Quantum computing

Digital computers encode data as binary sequences using binary digits of one or
zero. Quantum computers are computers that carry out processing using quantum
effects, in particular quantum entanglement. Quantum computers would store
data as quantum bits or qubits. These computers, if constructed in the future,
would be much faster than digital computers currently in use and would rely on
properties of atoms, ions or photons, as examples, rather than the semiconducting
properties of silicon. One area where quantum computers would have a large
impact is cryptography. Encryption of information sent over the Internet is widely
used but it is difficult to break the encryption codes in a realistic time scale.
A quantum computer may have the capability of breaking computer codes used
for encryption that currently appear to be unbreakable.
Quantum entanglement refers to a particle or system that does not have a definite
state but exists as an intermediate form of two entangled states.
A bit or binary digit is the smallest unit of information and can only take one of
the values zero or one. The qubit is the smallest unit of information in quantum
computing, has two quantum mechanical states and as such can, because of
superposition, have values of zero and one. An example of a quantum mechanical
state is spin angular momentum or spin that can have a spin-up or spin-down state.
Spin is associated with protons in the technique of magnetic resonance imaging
and also with electron spin although it should be stressed that electrons do not spin
in the way an ice skater spins. Coloured diamonds are mentioned in the Glossary.
In these materials, for example pink diamonds, the insertion of nitrogen atoms into
the carbon lattice results in a vacancy and a single trapped electron. The latter
interacts with the unpaired electrons in three neighbouring carbon atoms and the
two unpaired electrons from the nitrogen atom. The resulting six-electron system
has an electronic ground state that has split energy levels associated with two
different values of electron spin. Coloured diamonds are examples of materials
that have a colour centre and this class of materials has potential and exciting
applications in the development of practical quantum computers as they have two
quantum states (spin), a requirement for quantum computing.
Note that superposition refers to the effect of interacting waves at a point and the
effect is obtained by adding the amplitudes of the waves at a point. In quantum
mechanics the interacting waves correspond to wave functions.
3.9 DNA computer

The four bases in DNA, abbreviated to A, T, C and G, encode the information in
the human genome. In a DNA computer, at present only a theoretical concept,
strands of DNA represent the data for solving problems and these would be
codified by sequences of the four bases just as binary sequences are used in digital
computers. Just as logic gates based on transistors are used in current computers,
biological logic gates based on genetic material may be available. The area of
biological computing illustrates how developments in one technical area can have
potential applications in a totally unrelated area.
3.10 Summary
The development of digital computers has developed from the use of electromech-
anical relays and vacuum valves that act as switches to the use of silicon chips.
The latter are fabricated by use of photolithography combined with photoresists.
Dopants are introduced into the silicon substrates from the gas phase in order to
modify the semiconducting properties. The suggestion known as Moore’s Law
that the number of transistors on a silicon chip would increase exponentially was
made in 1965 and it has been followed since that time. Directed self-assembly of
block copolymers has the potential for increasing the line density on the surface of
wafers. Quantum computers and biological computers based on DNA are under
consideration as future computing systems.

Askeland, D. K., and W. J. Wright. The Science and Engineering of Materials, 7th edn.
Boston, MA: Cengage Learning, 2011.
Church, A. An unsolvable problem of elementary number theory. American Journal of
Mathematics (1936) 58, 345–63.
Cockshott, P., L. M. Mackenzie and G. Michaelson. Computation and its Limits. Oxford:
Copeland, B. J. Turing: Pioneer of the Information Age. Oxford: Oxford University Press,
2014.
Fox, M. Optical Properties of Solids, 2nd edn. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010.
Hummel, R. E. Electronic Properties of Materials, 4th edn. New York: Springer, 2012.
Ince, D. The Computer: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011.
Isaacson, W. The Innovators. London: Simon and Schuster, 2015.
Lee, J.-H., J-H. Cho, J.-S. Cho and D.-J. Lee. Spin-on glass composition and method of
forming silicon oxide layer in semiconductor manufacturing process using the same.
United States Patent 7,270,886, 2007.
Nixon, M. Digital Electronics: A Primer. London: Imperial College Press, 2015.
Russell, T. P., S. Park, D. H. Lee and T. Xu. Self-assembly of block copolymers on
topographically patterned polymeric substrates. United States Patent 8,247,033, 2012.
Segal, D. Exploring Materials through Patent Information. Cambridge: Royal Society of
Chemistry, 2014.
Thackray, A., D. C. Brock and R. Jones. Moore’s Law. New York: Basic Books, 2015.
Turing, A. M. On computable numbers with an application to the Entscheidungs problem.
Proceedings of the London Mathematical Society (1936–7) 42, 230–65.
Whitaker, A. The New Quantum Age. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2015.
4
Polymers
4.1 Introduction
The successful preparation of polymers and plastics known as cellulosics and
derived from cellulose in, for example, wood pulp was achieved around the middle
of the 19th century. At around the same time success was achieved on the
vulcanisation of natural rubber that greatly aided the development of the transport
industry with the use of vulcanised rubber in tyres. Throughout the 20th century a
series of synthetic polymers were prepared from petrochemical sources and plas-
tics and polymers are widely used in everyday life, for example for packaging,
furniture and textile fabrics. The growth of molecular biology since the second half
of the 20th century and the sequencing of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) as well as
structure determination for proteins highlighted that genetic material such as DNA
as well as proteins can be viewed to be polymers. There is much interest in the 21st
century on developing products such as plastics from renewable sources as well as
biodegradable plastics. Details of the preparation of polymers are given in the
Glossary and they are not repeated here. Instead some salient features for selected
polymers are described in this chapter.
4.2 Polymers
Polymers are macromolecules in which monomers are chemically joined together
by polymerisation to form larger polymer molecules.
For example, a molecule designated as A, a monomer can form a polymer designated

as . . . A-A-A . . . . Another way to view a polymer is to make an analogy with a
necklace. The latter consists of small identical rings that are joined together. If each
ring is described as a monomer than the necklace can be described as a polymer. If there
are two types of ring than the necklace can be described as a copolymer.
They include biopolymers that are naturally occurring as well as synthetic poly-
mers derived from petrochemical sources. Synthetic polymers are often referred
to as plastics.

DOI: 10.1093/oso/9780198804079.001.0001
Synthetic means not occurring naturally.
Bioplastics are derived from renewable sources and some are biodegradable. In
homopolymers only one type of monomer is used, for example ethylene monomer
in polyethylene. Heteropolymers or copolymers are made from two or more
different monomers. Nylon, styrene-acrylonitrile-butadiene and Kevlar are
examples of heteropolymers. DNA is a heteropolymer as there are sequences of
four bases, adenine, cytosine, guanine and thymine, along the backbone so that
these bases can be considered to be the monomers. Block copolymers consist of
two polymer chains or blocks that are covalently bonded to each other and which
are chemically different. For example, polystyrene-polymethylmethacrylate, which
is derived from styrene and methylmethacrylate monomers, contains polystyrene
and polymethylmethacrylate.
If two polymers are designated as C and D, then a block copolymer is designated

as . . . C-D-C-D-C . . . . .
The stereochemistry of polymers, that is, the relative spatial positions of side
groups on the polymer chains affects the material properties. For example, natural
rubber for use in tyres and gutta percha are both isomers of polyisoprene; that is,
they have the same chemical composition. However, rubber is in the cis form while
gutta percha is in the trans form and while rubber behaves as an elastomer, gutta
percha is a hard material. Thermoplastics are polymers that can be re-shaped by
heating while thermosetting plastics are shaped initially by a heat treatment that
causes a polymerisation process in a resin but the resulting cross-linked chains in
the solid plastic are resistant to softening and deformation. In 2011 about 1 million
tonnes of bioplastics were produced compared to a total of 280 million tonnes for
all plastics, corresponding to about 5 per cent of global oil production. Annual
production of polyethylene was about 5 107 tonnes, polystyrene about 2 107
tonnes and polyester about 107 tonnes. These figures compare with about 3 107
tonnes for natural fibres (e.g. wool).
4.3 Vulcanisation of rubber

Charles Goodyear showed in 1844 that natural rubber latex from trees could be
converted into solid products known as elastomers, that is, materials which can be
deformed but retain their original shape when deformation forces are removed.
The process by which solid material was produced is known as vulcanisation and
involved heating the latex suspension of polymeric isoprene molecules with about
3 weight per cent sulphur. The addition of sulphur crosslinked polyisoprene
molecules and it has been reported that Goodyear discovered the process acciden-
tally when a mixture of latex and sulphur was accidentally spilled onto a hot stove.
The vulcanisation process opened up the possibility of using solid rubber for
Polymers 33
making tyres for automobiles at the end of the 19th century. Use of higher sulphur
contents produced a hard non-deformable solid known as vulcanite that was used
to produce ornaments.
Crosslinked means joining together different polymer chains.
Another latex liquid with the same chemical structure as polyisoprene but with a
different isomeric form could be cured to a hard non-deformable solid known as
gutta percha. The latter was exploited commercially for use as a durable insulator
for long-distance underwater telegraph cables and promoted communication tech-
nologies in the latter half of the 19th century. Neoprene, a synthetic rubber first
prepared in 1931, is a polychloroprene. Nowadays the main synthetic rubber used
in automotive tyres is based on styrene-butadiene copolymers and blends of these
elastomers with natural rubber.
4.4 Polymers in the 20th century

Leo Baekeland invented Bakelite at the beginning of the 20th century and was one
of the first commercially successful synthetic plastics. Note that celluloid was a
commercially successful plastic in the 19th century. It was obtained through the
condensation reaction between phenol and formaldehyde. Similar products were
obtained as condensation products from the reaction between urea and formaldehyde
and melamine and formaldehyde. Whereas phenol-formaldehyde resins were only
available in dark colours, the other condensation products could be obtained in a range
of colours, a desirable feature for consumer products such as laminates for table tops.
Synthetic polymers tend to be flammable and when used in consumer products
flame retardants are blended into the polymer before forming the product such as
electrical plugs (Table 4.1). They have relatively low melting points and molten
plastics can cause serious burns. Many flame retardants are based on halogen-
containing compounds but polyvinyl chloride is one plastic that has a ‘built-in’
flame resistance.
Plastics are taken for granted in everyday life, for example polythene bags and
food packaging. Many plastics do not degrade in the environment and to reduce
the number of bags that are thrown away annually and litter the land and the
oceans, governments such as that in the United Kingdom have introduced charges
for polythene bags in supermarkets and shops. Polythene, formally polyethylene,
was discovered in the early 1930s by Reginald Gibson and Eric Fawcett. They
reacted the monomer ethylene with benzaldehyde at 170 C and 1900 atm. The
intention was to produce ethyl phenyl ketone but in fact the ethylene unexpectedly
underwent polymerisation to form polyethylene. Polythene obtained under high
pressure is known as low-density polyethylene (LDPE). A more economic route
was developed in the early 1950s based on the use of so-called Ziegler–Natta
catalysts and the key feature of this route is that it is a low-temperature,
Table 4.1 Examples of polymeric materials

Class of polymer Example
Cellulosics Acetate rayon
Cellulose nitrate
Celluloid
Gun cotton
Parkesine
Tencel
Viscose rayon
Synthetic polymers Acrylic
Kevlar
Nylon
Phenol-formaldehyde
Polycarbonate
Polyester
Polyethylene
Polymethylmethacrylate
Polypropylene
Polytetrafluoroethylene
Polycarbosilanes
Polyphosphazenes
Polysilanes
Polysilazanes
Polystyrene
Polyurethane
Urea-formaldehyde
Biodegradable polymers Polylactic acid
Natural polymers DNA
Proteins
Ribonucleic acid (RNA)
low-pressure route that yielded high-density polyethylene. Ziegler–Natta catalysts

can be used for the synthesis of other polymers, for example polypropylene. An
important application for polythene in the Second World War was as electrical
insulation for cables used in compact radar systems installed in aircraft of the Royal
Air Force. While thin low-density polythene film is used to wrap sandwiches and
other foods and is sometimes referred to as Clingfilm, the original Clingfilm was
based on poly (vinylidene chloride) that was invented by Ralph Wiley in 1933 and
has also been called Saran Wrap.
A well-known polymer is nylon, invented in the 1930s by Wallace Carothers,
and nylon is known as an aliphatic polyamide. The polymer is a condensation
product between two different monomers that react at near ambient temperatures in
an interfacial reaction. The polymer could be spun into fibres but unlike Kevlar,
nylon does not form liquid crystalline phases. An early application that was a
Polymers 35
spectacular success was as a substitute for silk in women’s stockings at the beginning
of the Second World War but it has many uses including textile fabrics, toothbrushes
and parachute cords.
Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) is a polymer derived from the monomer tetra-
fluoroethylene and is associated with its use as a non-stick coating for cooking
utensils such as frying pans. These coatings have been marketed under the name
Teflon. It is sometimes assumed among the general public that PTFE was
developed during the ‘Space Race’ of the 1960s but in fact it was first prepared,
unexpectedly, by Roy Plunkett in the late 1930s (Table 4.2). A gas cylinder
containing the monomer under pressure was left overnight and the next morning
it was noticed that the pressure in the cylinder had fallen to zero. When the
cylinder was cut open a white waxy solid, PTFE, was observed. The applications
for PTFE are very dependent on its surface properties. Hence, it has a low
coefficient of friction, a useful property for bearings and chemical inertness due
to the C–F chemical bond. In fact, its first application was in the Manhattan
Project for the separation of isotopes of uranium hexafluoride in the development
of the atomic bomb as it was chemically resistant to hydrogen fluoride and vapours
of uranium hexafluoride.
Table 4.2 Timeline for the development of synthetic polymers

Year Synthetic polymer
1846 Cellulose nitrate
1856 Parkesine
1907 Bakelite (phenol-formaldehyde)
1918 Cellophane
1931 Neoprene (synthetic rubber)
1933 Polyvinyl chloride
1933 Polyvinylidene chloride
1933 Low-density polyethylene
1935 Nylon
1937 Polyurethane
1938 Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE)
1938 Polystyrene
1939 Polymethylmethacrylate
1953 High-density polyethylene
1953 Polycarbonate
1956 Living polymers
1964 Kevlar
1977 Polyether ether ketone (PEEK)
Acrylic textiles are based on polyacrylonitrile fibres that are spun from solutions
of acrylonitrile and acrylic fibres can be blended with natural or synthetic fibres
such as cotton. Polyacrylonitrile fibres can undergo a controlled pyrolysis to yield
carbon fibres for the production of composites.
Kevlar is an aramid fibre also referred to as an aromatic polyamide which was
invented by Stephanie Kwolek in 1964 and as with many other synthetic polymers
it is produced as a condensation product from two or more monomers. In everyday
language Kevlar can be described as a plastic. The polymer can be spun using a
spinerette into continuous fibre but Kevlar has a property that is not observed in
all polymers; namely, the polymer molecules aggregate in the liquid phase to form
liquid crystals during the spinning process. This means that the polymer molecules
align themselves in a parallel direction and hydrogen bonding between polymer
chains forms a compact and strong structure. It is reasonable to enquire why such
association structures form. Qualitatively it can be said that when a liquid crystal
forms, the entropy of the system decreases and this decrease will tend to make the
Gibbs free energy positive. In order to maintain a thermodynamically stable system
this free energy needs to be negative. This can be achieved if close packing of
polymer chains and hydrogen bonding between adjacent chains are favourable
configurations. The strength of Kevlar is essential for its best-known application
in bullet-proof body armour. There is considerable concern among governments
in the 21st century about international terrorism and the use by suicide bombers of
homemade, unstable but powerful explosives such as triacetone triperoxide
(TATP). Bullet-proof vests consist of layers of woven Kevlar and larger protective
structures can be made by using alternate layers of steel and Kevlar. In use the
polymer fibres absorb energy from a projectile, and woven sheets deform in order
to dissipate the energy from a bullet. Another aramid fibre known as Nomex is
used in fire-resistant clothing and gloves and has a chemical structure similar but
not identical to Kevlar.
While many polymers are commodity products such as polythene, polystyrene,
polyester, polymethylmethacrylate and polycarbonate, others are speciality mater-
ials with niche markets. For example, polysulphones for use as membranes in
reverse osmosis for purification of sea water and brackish water, polyvinylidene fluoride
(PVdF) for use as porous separators in lithium-ion batteries to prevent electrical
shorting of the electrodes and the semi-conductor polymer poly-(p-phenylenevinylene)
for potential use as organic light-emitting diodes (OLEDs). The latter are particularly
attractive for applications of flexible electronics as coatings of them do not crack and
lose adhesion with the polymer substrate.
Injection-molded styrene-acrylonitrile-butadiene (ABS) thermoplastic resins
have many applications, including the body shells of office equipment such as
computers, home appliances and toys. Acrylonitrile imparts strength, butadiene
imparts impact resistance and styrene aids the processing of the polymer.
The latter part of the 20th century and the first part of the 21st century have seen
the growth of studies in molecular biology and genomic research. There is much
interest in personalised medicine in which an individual’s genome would be
Polymers 37
sequenced; that is, the order of the four bases in DNA would be identified. The
100,000 Genomes Project in the United Kingdom aims to sequence the genome
for 100,000 people and combine the data with information from health records. In
this way, it is hoped that individuals will receive targeted medical treatment based
on specific drugs. Proteins that are expressed by DNA are made up of combin-
ations of up to twenty amino acids and hence the amino acids can be considered to
be monomers as can the four bases in DNA. Thus, DNA and proteins are
considered to be naturally occurring polymers. The shape and folding of proteins
are important for understanding diseases. For example, Alzheimer’s disease is
associated with protein fibres or fibrils that are mis-folded and form what are
referred to as amyloid plaques in the brain with devastating effects on health.
The sequencing of bases in DNA, the order of amino acids in proteins and the
factors affecting the shape of proteins can be considered to fall within the area of
polymer chemistry (Table 4.3).
Some more details of protein structure are given here as there are analogies with
other polymers. Amino acids have the general formula H2N–CHR–COOH where
R represents the side chain and they are linked together by a condensation reaction
with the elimination of water by a peptide bond, thus –CO–NH–, although the
actual mechanism of how linkages are formed in vivo is complicated. Note that the
preparation of nylon and Kevlar involves condensation reactions. The primary
structure of proteins is represented by a linear sequence of the order in which
amino acids are linked together to form a polypeptide. The secondary structure of
proteins consists of an α-helix in which the polypeptide backbone is arranged in a
spiral (Fig. 4.1) or β-pleated sheet in which extended polypeptide backbones are
side by side (Fig. 4.2), or it consists of a random coil or loop of polypeptide.
Table 4.3 Genome size for different organisms

Genome size
Type of organism Species (106 base pairs)
Fungi Saccharomyces cerevisiae 12.1
(Baker’s yeast)
Nematode worm Caenorhabditis elegans 100
Fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster 180
Mosquito Anopheles gambiae 278
Rice Oryza sativa 400
Chicken Gallus gallus 1200
Mouse Mus musculus 3454
Dog Canis familiaris 2500
Human Homo sapiens 3165
Source: A. M. Lesk. Introduction to Protein Science: Architecture, Function and Genomics, 3rd edn, p. 15.
Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2016.
••• hydrogen bond

R
O
® = amino-acid side chain
H
C ®
H C N H O
N C O
H C H
C N C N
H H C
R O N H C
C H O
R O C
H R
C O H
H C R
C N H C R
N H C
C C N N H
R C H
O H C
O H C N
R
C R
H O R O
H H
N H O R
H C C C H
N O
H N H C N C
O N
C H C
C H O
C
R
R R
Fig. 4.1 Structure of beta sheets.

(R. S. Hine (ed.). Oxford Dictionary of Biology, 7th edn, p. 62. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2015.)
O
H N
C
C H
N
H
® O
H
C
O C
N
C
®
H
O
O
H
N
C hydrogen bond
C
H ® = amino-acid side chain
®
Fig. 4.2 Structure of alpha helix.

A polypeptide chain can be arranged as a mixture of the different secondary

structures and these separate structures can be folded and packed together to
form the tertiary structure of the protein molecule. In some proteins, for example
haemoglobin, different tertiary structures can be held together in a larger unit and
when this happens the protein is said to have a quaternary structure.
Polymers 39
The disruptive technology known as gene editing, or CRISPR (clustered regu-

larly interspaced short palindromic repeats), in which a cutting enzyme can
selectively remove a DNA fragment and insert a different DNA sequence into
the genome, may have a significant effect on the direction taken by molecular
biology in the 21st century as change to the genome can be passed from generation
to generation.
4.5 Polymers in the 21st century

There has been growing interest in using renewable sources such as crops for the
production of materials such as polymers in order to reduce the dependence on
petrochemical sources of materials. In the case of biodegradable materials, pres-
sures on the disposal of non-degradable plastics on land and in the ocean are
reduced. Carbon dioxide, water and biomass are the products of decomposition of
biodegradable polymers. Fermentation processes are known in everyday life, for
example the use of yeast, a fungus, to enzymatically-catalyse the conversion of
sugar to alcohol in the production of beer. This process supplies energy to the
organism for growth. Genetically modified yeasts and bacteria are used in biotech-
nology in fermentation processes to express recombinant compounds. Lactic acid
can be produced by fermentation of corn starch by bacteria or obtained from
conventional resources. Lactic acid can be converted to polylactic acid (PLA), a
biodegradable polymer in a conventional chemical process although polylactic acid
can also be obtained directly from fermentation of food wastes. Polylactic acid can
be spun into fibres for use in clothing. It is a biocompatible polymer and applica-
tions include sutures for stitching together the edges of a wound in surgical
procedures and nanoparticle-based medicines for targeting diseased cells in vivo.
Another application is in biodegradable stents that are inserted into an artery to
prevent its narrowing and which slowly dissolve over a period of months. A further
example of how renewable sources can be used to produce polymers relates to
Sorona. Here, glucose extracted from corn is digested by genetically engineered
organisms and metabolised to 1,3 propanediol. The latter is reacted with tereph-
thalic acid to produce a polymer, Sorona, that can be spun into fibres for clothing
and carpets. This example shows how biomass can be converted to higher-value
products. Fermentation of glucose from corn by genetically engineered yeast or
Escherichia coli yielded the commodity chemical succinic aid, an intermediate for
the production of polyesters and polyimides. Sugars derived from the hydrolysis of
cellulose can be converted chemically to hexane, thus avoiding the use of petro-
chemical sources for making this hydrocarbon.
Bioethanol has been produced by fermentation of sugars by enzymes and when
produced in this way bioethanol is referred to as a first-generation biofuel. Bioetha-
nol obtained from lignocellulose in agricultural waste is known as a second-
generation biofuel. Development of second-generation biofuels is at an early
stage. In principle lignin can be separated from cellulose and hemicellulosic
feedstocks. Cellulase enzymes then break down cellulose and hemicellulose into
smaller molecules with five or six carbon atoms and these C5 and C6 sugars are
then fermented by bacteria or yeasts into ethanol for use as a chemical feedstock.
4.6 Silicon-based polymers

Silicones are polymers that contain alternating silicon and oxygen atoms in the
polymer backbone, for example polydimethylsiloxanes. Silicones can be water-
soluble or water-insoluble depending on the nature of the side groups on the
polymer backbone. Applications for silicones include foaming agents in tooth-
pastes and hair shampoos, sealants for bathroom tiles and potting agents for
securing electrical wires and cables. Fluorosilicone elastomers have applications
as seals, gaskets and valves in the auto and aerospace industries as they have good
chemical resistance to oil and fuel as well as good thermal stability. Polycarbosi-
lanes have repeating silicon–carbon linkages and can be derived from polysilanes,
polymers with silicon–silicon linkages by a thermal treatment. Polycarbosilanes
have an important industrial use as they can be spun into fibres that are converted
into continuous fibres of silicon carbide in a heat treatment. Silicon carbide fibres
are strong and are used in the fabrication of composite structures. Polysilazanes are
polymers with Si–N–Si bonds, for example perhydropolysilazane. Films of poly-
silazanes can be hydrolysed by steam to form layers of silica and this approach is
used in the fabrication of silicon chips to produce insulating layers to prevent
electrical interference between layers of metal wiring on the wafers.
4.7 Polyphosphazenes
Polyphosphazenes, or polyorganophosphazenes, are polymers with a phosphorus–
nitrogen repeat unit of alternating phosphorus and nitrogen atoms. Potential
applications for these polymers include hydrophobic thermoplastics, hydrophobic
elastomers, fibre-forming materials and superhydrophobic coatings.
4.8 Summary
Synthetic polymers, namely plastics, are derived from petrochemical sources and
are widely used in everyday life. Many plastics used nowadays were invented in
the 20th century. Annual production of plastics was around 280 million tonnes
in 2011, of which about 1 million tonnes were bioplastics. There is increasing
interest in the 21st century in using renewable resources such as sugar from corn
syrup as feedstocks for bioplastics, some of which such as polylactic acid are
biodegradable. This interest arises from the requirement to move away from the
use of petroleum resources as feedstocks for polymers. Deoxyribonucleic acid
Polymers 41
consists of sequences of four bases, and proteins that are expressed by DNA
consist of sequences made out of twenty amino acids. Both DNA and proteins
are considered to be naturally occurring polymers. Polymers based on silicon
include polysilanes, polycarbosilanes and polysilazanes while polymers based on
phosphorus include polyphosphazenes.
4.9 Further reading

Ashby, M. F., D. F. Balas and J. S. Coral. Materials and Sustainable Development. Oxford:
Butterworth, 2015.
Askeland, D. K., and W. J. Wright. The Science and Engineering of Materials, 7th edition.
Baekeland, L. H. Method of making insoluble products of phenol and formaldehyde. United
States Patent 942,699, 1909.
Baldwin, G., T. Bayer, R. Dickinson, T. Ellis, P. S. Freemont, R. I. Kitney, K. Polizzi and
G.-B. Stan. Synthetic Biology: A Primer. London: Imperial College Press, 2012.
Barber, J., and C. Rostron (eds). Pharmaceutical Chemistry. Oxford: Oxford University
Press, 2013.
Carmichael, H. Gene genius. Chemistry and Industry (2015), 79, 32–35.
Carothers, W. H. Diammine-dicarboxylic acid salts and process of preparing them. United
States Patent 2,130,947, 1938.
Ebnesajjad, J. (ed.). Handbook of Biopolymers and Biodegradable Plastics. Amsterdam: Elsevier,
2013.
Fried, J. R. Polymer Science and Technology, 3rd edn. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall,
2014.
Kwolek, S. L. Optically anisotropic aromatic polyamide dopes. United States Patent
3,671,542, 1972.
Lesk, A. M. Introduction to Protein Science: Architecture, Function and Genomics, 3rd edn.
Maccioni, R. B., L. P. Navarrete and A. S. Martin. Method for preventing tau protein
aggregation and treating Alzheimer’s disease with a quinoline derivative compound.
Milmo, S. Celebrating ICI. Chemistry and Innovation (November 2016), 7–11.
Nieuwland, J. A. Vinyl derivatives of acetylene and method of preparing the same. United
Papachristodoulou, D., A. Snape, W. H. Elliott and D. C. Elliott. Biochemistry and Molecu-
Plunkett, R. J. Tetrafluoroethylene polymers. United States Patent 2,230,654, 1941.
Querfurth, H. W., and F. M. Laferia. Alzheimer’s disease. New England Journal of Medi-
cine (2010) 362(4), 329–44.
Theyson, T. Changing face of innovation in the US chemical industry. Chemistry and
Innovation (November 2016), 42–6.
Walton, D., and P. Lorimer. Polymers. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005.
5
Healthcare
The Benefits of Materials
5.1 Introduction
Early identification of diseases can aid the treatment of patients as the requirement
for surgical procedures may be reduced and treatment with courses of drugs can
start at an early stage. In recent years a range of diagnostic methods, for example
those based on techniques such as magnetic resonance imaging and computerised
tomography, has been increasingly used and new classes of pharmaceutical com-
pounds have been developed. The costs of healthcare in ageing populations with
chronic diseases such as diabetes and Alzheimer’s disease are of concern to
governments in countries with public health services. In addition, there is much
debate on the causes of obesity and possible links between obesity and the types
of food that people eat. Materials have an important role in the development of
medical diagnostic techniques and in the treatment of patients and examples of
how materials contribute to healthcare are described in this chapter.
5.2 Lasers in medicine and surgery

Albert Einstein is remembered for his Special Theory of Relativity published in
1905 and his General Theory of Relativity published in 1915. However, in 1917 he
also proposed a new mechanism known as stimulated emission by which atoms
and molecules could emit electromagnetic radiation. Atoms or molecules can
adsorb a photon of radiation and be elevated from a ground state to an excited
state with higher electronic energy. The atom can return to its ground state by
spontaneous emission of light and the emitted light is incoherent; that is, there is no
phase relationship between the emitted photons. In stimulated emission a photon
whose energy is exactly equal to the difference between the ground and excited
states can interact with the atom in its excited state, causing it to emit an identical
photon and return to the ground state. Hence, the light output is amplified and the
emitted light is monochromatic and coherent so that the emitted light is in the same

DOI: 10.1093/oso/9780198804079.001.0001
direction as the incident photon and in phase with it. Stimulated emission is a
resonance phenomenon. The word laser is an acronym for ‘light amplification by
the stimulated emission of radiation’ that can produce monochromatic, coherent
radiation with wavelengths ranging from the infrared to ultraviolet. Two physical
criteria need to be met to obtain lasing action: stimulated emission and a popula-
tion inversion where there are more atoms in the excited state than in the ground
state. The population inversion can be obtained by optical pumping as was used when
the first practical laser was invented in 1960 by Theodore Maiman, a ruby laser based
on a ruby rod whose composition corresponds to chromium-doped aluminum oxide.
Lasers can be continuous or pulsed and examples include argon–fluoride (Ar–F)
excimer lasers used in conjunction with photolithography in the manufacture of
silicon chips while solid-state lasers based on semiconducting diodes are used to
read barcodes in supermarkets and to read information on compact discs. Lasers
have applications in medicine and surgery, including the reattachment of detached
retinas, diabetic retinopathy, the removal of skin blemishes and tattoos.
Resonance is an oscillation of a system at its natural frequency of vibration. It is

characterised by large amplitude vibrations that will result from low initial oscilla-
tions. An example refers to soldiers breaking step when marching across a suspension
bridge to prevent large oscillations of the structure. Resonance can occur in atoms,
molecules, mechanical systems and electrical circuits.
5.3 Magnetic resonance imaging

Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is a widely used diagnostic technique for
producing images of soft tissue in the body. It is based on the interaction of the
nuclear spins of protons in water molecules with powerful magnetic fields and how
the spins are perturbed when subjected to a burst of electromagnetic radiation
corresponding to wavelengths in the radio wave region. The basic principles are the
same as used in nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), an analytical technique used
to determine the structure of organic chemicals and widely used in research
activities in chemistry. Superconductors are materials that have no electrical
resistance, and superconductivity in metals, namely in mercury, was first observed
by Onnes in 1911 where there was a superconducting transition or critical tem-
perature of 4.2 K for mercury immersed in liquid helium. A gradual increase in the
superconducting transition temperature took place over the following decades, for
example 22.3 K for films of niobium–germanium alloy. Magnetic fields are gen-
erated by passing an electric current through superconducting metals when im-
mersed in liquid helium. The ability to fabricate superconducting metallic alloys
into coils so that the patient lies within the coil was an important development in
the construction of equipment for carrying out MRI. An explanation of supercon-
ductivity in metals known as conventional superconductivity assumes that electric
Healthcare: The Benefits of Materials 45
current in the superconductor is carried by bound pairs of electrons known as

Cooper pairs.
In a Cooper pair, mobile electrons are coupled in pairs with opposite spins. Electrons
repel each other at normal temperatures, but at lower temperatures a weak attractive
force between pairs of electrons becomes significant.
Ceramic superconductors were discovered in 1986 and become superconducting

when immersed in liquid nitrogen at around 77 K. An example of a composition
for these high-temperature superconductors is a mixed oxide of yttrium, barium
and copper. As liquid nitrogen is much cheaper than liquid helium there are
potential economic benefits in using ceramic superconductors for producing
magnetic fields in MRI, although it is more difficult to fabricate ceramic powders
into coils than metallic alloys.
5.4 Biopharmaceuticals
The painkiller acetylsalicylic acid, also known as aspirin, was the first drug to be
prepared synthetically and has a chemical structure very similar to that of salicin, a
natural product isolated from willow tree bark (Table 5.1). The initial synthesis
took place at the end of the 19th century and at that time the pharmaceutical
industry grew in parallel with the synthetic dye industry. Many aniline-based dyes
Table 5.1 Examples of small molecule pharmaceuticals and biopharmaceuticals

Type of pharmaceutical Name
Small molecule pharmaceuticals Acetylsalicylic acid
Amaryl (glimepiride)
Cozaar (losartan potassium)
Cymbatta (duloxetine hydrochloride)
Methotrexate
Morphine
Nexium (esomeprazole)
Nicotinic acid
Paracetamol
Penicillins
Simvistatin
Tenormin (atenolol)
Biopharmaceuticals Avastin (bevacizumab)
Cimzia (certolizumab)
Enbrel (etanercept)
Humira (adalimumab)
Remicade (infliximab)
Symponi (golimunab)
and their derivatives were explored for their pharmaceutical properties. Through-
out the 20th century potential drugs either were prepared by synthesis in a
chemical laboratory or were natural products isolated from plants, soil bacteria
or fungi. For example, morphine and codeine were initially obtained from the seed
head of the opium poppy while the anticancer agent vincristine is found in the
Madagascan periwinkle. Penicillin G was discovered by Alexander Fleming as the
product of the mould Penicillium notatum while cephalosporins, a class of antibiot-
ics, are produced by fungi of the Acremonium species. The antibacterial agent
erythromycin was isolated from soil bacteria and once isolated attempts can be
made to synthesise the active agents. The antibiotic vancomycin, which is effective
against methicillin-resistant strains of Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), was first
isolated from a fermentation broth of a soil bacterium and synthesised chemically
in 1998. The anticancer drug paclitaxel (Taxol) has been isolated from the Pacific
yew tree but can be prepared in a semi-synthetic approach in which a chemical
intermediate, 10-deacetylbaccatin, which is isolated from needles and twigs of the
European yew tree, can be chemically converted to relatively large quantities of
paclitaxel. Whether prepared in a chemical laboratory or isolated as natural prod-
ucts the molecular weights of these pharmaceutical compounds are low, on the
order of hundreds at most.
In recent years, new approaches have been developed for obtaining effective
drugs. In recombinant deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) technology, specific genes
are incorporated into the DNA of fast-growing bacteria or yeast to express large
quantities of proteins such as human insulin for the treatment of diabetes. This
approach is more commonly referred to as genetic engineering and underpins
the biotechnology industry. As proteins are polymers they can be considered to
be a class of material. Biopharmaceuticals which are monoclonal antibodies
are attracting much attention in the 21st century as a new class of drug for the
treatment of currently incurable diseases. Antibodies are a class of proteins
known as immunoglobulins and are hence natural polymers based on sequences
of amino acids. They are produced in B cells in the immune system and bind to
antigens that enter the body in order to destroy them. A particular B cell
produces one antibody in terms of binding specificity while other B cells produce
other antibodies. Cesar Milstein and co-workers showed in the 1970s how to
isolate the B cells that produce the desired antibody. They were fused with
cancerous cells known as myeloma cells that do not themselves produce anti-
bodies but which can multiply uncontrollably so that large quantities of anti-
bodies could be produced. Antibodies made in this way are known as
monoclonal antibodies and examples of pharmaceutical compounds based on
them include Avastin and Humira. These pharmaceuticals are known as bio-
pharmaceuticals or biologic drugs and have molecular weights in the tens of
thousands, much higher than the low molecular weights of drugs such as aspirin
or paracetamol synthesised in laboratories. Humira is used for the treatment of
rheumatoid arthritis and targets a protein believed to be involved in the inflam-
mation in this disease.
5.5 Drug delivery

About 80 per cent of all drug dosages are taken in oral form. Orally administered
drugs must be transported to the stomach and small intestine for absorption across
the gastrointestinal mucosal membrane into the blood. The efficiency of absorp-
tion can be low because of metabolism within the gastrointestinal tract. Hence,
improved methods for drug delivery are being sought. For example, biodegradable
nanoparticles have been considered for encapsulating and delivering nucleotide-
based drugs containing DNA or ribonucleic acid (RNA) for treatment of
human diseases. Gold nanoparticles have been used for the treatment of
rheumatoid arthritis and if they have a particle size less than around 50 nm
they can cross the brain–blood barrier. While not a drug, sliver nanoparticles
have antimicrobial properties. Magnetic nanoparticles, such as iron oxide, have
been used as contrast agents in MRI and, when coated with pharmaceutical
agents, can target tumour sites to destroy malignant cells. Liposomes are
assemblies of phospholipids consisting of a permeable lipid bilayer surrounding
an aqueous core; the bilayer acts as a membrane. Liposomes can be used to
encapsulate a drug in the core and transport it inside the body of a patient and
they are also used to deliver cosmetic compositions to the skin. Micelles are
association structures formed from surface active agents and are analogous to
liposomes except that they do not have an aqueous core. Micelles are formed,
for example, when washing-up liquids that contain surface active agents are
added to water. The exploitation of nanoparticles in medicine is an example of
the application of nanotechnology.
5.6 Nanotechnology and healthcare

The word nanotechnology is frequently mentioned in the media and is advertised
as promising a future based on materials with properties not currently available.
Nanotechnology is often associated with small particles that can be referred to as
nanoparticles, nanomaterials and nanocrystals. There is no rigid definition of
nanoparticles but particles with a diameter less than 100 nm are often referred
to as nanoparticles. In order to have a clearer idea of the size of nanoparticles
consider a human hair that has a diameter of around 25 µm. This diameter is
equivalent to 25,000 nm, so if 1,000 nanoparticles each with a diameter of 25 nm
are placed next to each other, the overall length of the assembly of nanoparticles
would be approximately equal to the width of a human hair. There is much
concern about the effect of carbon particulates from diesel emissions on human
health. If it is assumed that potentially dangerous particles have a diameter of
2.5 nm then it can be seen that 10,000 of these particles placed next to each
other would correspond to the width of a human hair. Carbon particulates are
indeed very small particles. As the particle size decreases, a larger number of
atoms reside in the surface and the properties of nanoparticles are affected by
their particle size. Although of not direct relevance to healthcare, this size-
dependency effect on properties is particularly noticeable with optical properties
as observed in the change in colour with particle size for light emitted from
quantum dots.
There is an overlap between nanotechnology and colloid science. Colloidal
systems are those that have a dimension in the range 1 nm to 1 µm and include
dispersions (sols) of particles in a liquid, emulsions where liquid droplets are
suspended in a liquid, foams where the colloidal dimension is the thickness of the
foam films, aerosols of liquid droplets in a gas and smokes for solid particles
dispersed in a gas. Aerosols are important in the delivery of drugs to patients
with asthma and breathing problems while many pharmaceutical formulations are
prepared as emulsions. An important theme in colloid science is stability; hence,
emulsions of pharmaceutical compounds need to be stable with respect to settling
out so that consistent doses of drugs can be delivered via aerosols to patients with
breathing problems.
5.7 Coronary stents

Implantable coronary stents are usually made out of an alloy of nickel and
titanium known as Nitinol. This alloy undergoes a phase transition at a trans-
formation temperature that can be varied by changing the relative amounts of
nickel and titanium in the alloy. Below the transformation temperature the
alloy has the martensitic phase and above the transformation temperature it
has the austenitic phase. The low-temperature martensitic phase is malleable
while the high-temperature austenitic phase retains the original stiff shape of
the component. This alloy is an example of a shape memory alloy as the low-
temperature phase ‘remembers’ the shape of the high-temperature phase. In
use the transformation temperature is below body temperature and the stent is
inserted in a compressed state with the martensitic phase. The stent then
expands to its final shape with the austenitic phase as it warms up. Shape
memory alloys have many applications particularly where a tight fit is required
between components such as for connectors in aircraft hydraulic systems,
valves, seals and even jewellery. Nitinol has good wear resistance, good erosion
resistance and good corrosion resistance and is biocompatible. The austenitic
phase has a body-centred cubic crystal structure while the martensitic phase
has a monoclinic structure.
Table 5.2 compares the mechanical properties of the austenitic phase with the
martensitic phase. The values for Young’s modulus show that the austenitic phase
represents a stiffer material than the martensitic phase.
Young’s modulus, also known as the elastic modulus, is the ratio of the stress
applied to a body to the strain produced, in particular the longitudinal stress and
strain. Tensile stress is a measure of the force per unit cross-sectional area to break a
Table 5.2 Comparison of mechanical properties for the austenitic and martensitic
phases of Nitinol
Mechanical property Magnitude of property
Young’s modulus (GPa) 83 (austenitic)
28–41 (martensitic)
Yield strength (MPa) 195–690 (austenitic)
70–140 (martensitic)
Tensile strength (MPa) 895
Source: C. M. Agrawal, J. L. Ong, M. R. Appleford and G. Mani. Introduction

to Biomaterials: Basic Theory with Engineering Applications, p. 127. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 2014.
material. If an increasing stress is applied to say a wire, the yield strength corresponds
to the value of stress when the wire breaks. Stress refers to the force per unit area
applied to a body that causes it to deform.
Shape memory polymers are known and have potential applications in facial
reconstruction surgery although they are best known for applications as shape
memory foams for mattresses.
5.8 Bioprinting
Three-dimensional, or 3D, printing has attracted much attention in recent years.
This is because as an additive manufacturing technique, it allows components of
intricate shapes to be fabricated without the generation of waste material. The
general approach is to scan the object to be made and store its image as a
computer-aided design on a computer. The image is mathematically sliced into
layers and the motion of a printer is aligned to the coordinates of each layer. The
component is built up layer by layer from the printer’s ‘ink’, which is either
solidified droplets of molten plastic or sintered powders of ceramic or metal,
where sintering is usually achieved by scanning a high-powered laser over the
surface of each layer before deposition of the next layer. A variant of three-
dimensional printing of particular relevance to healthcare is bioprinting. Here the
‘ink’ is a cell culture that is printed as layers in the presence or absence of a substrate
such as a hydrogel that is printed as alternate layers. The substrate can be removed
as the cells continue to grow and multiply. Although at an early stage of develop-
ment, bioprinting has the potential to produce organs and skin for skin grafts or for
testing new drugs but this technique may grow in importance in the 21st century.
Sintering is a process in which a compacted powder is heated, sometimes under pressure.

During the heat treatment diffusional processes of atoms occur that reduce the porosity,
that is voids within the compact so that a dense non-porous compact is produced.
5.9 Implants
A wide variety of materials—polymer, ceramic and metal—are used in surgical
implants. For example, polymers are used in interaortic balloons, coated stents for
drug delivery, hydroxyapatite (a calcium phosphate) coatings on metallic hip
implants and shape memory alloys for manufacture of coronary stents. In the
case of hip implants, thermal spraying techniques such as plasma spraying are
used to deposit porous coatings of hydroxyapatite that enable new tissue to grow
into the pores. In plasma spraying, ceramic powders with a controlled particle size
are passed through a high-temperature plasma and semi-molten particles deposit
onto the substrate. Thermal spraying is also used to deposit thermal barrier
coatings of, for example, yttria-stabilised zirconia onto nickel-based superalloys
used for the manufacture of turbine blades.
If zirconia is heated to a high temperature, around 1000 C, it undergoes a phase

change and on cooling a component will crack because of a change in dimensions
associated with the reversible phase change. The addition of yttrium oxide (i.e. yttria)
stabilises the zirconia in one crystallographic phase, hence eliminating the change in
dimensions when heated.
5.10 Hydrogels
Hydrogels are three-dimensional porous networks of cross-linked polymers that
can be swollen by absorption and retention of water. They exhibit both liquid
properties, because the major constituent is water, and solid properties, because of
cross-linking during polymerisation. They can be prepared by polymerisation of
acrylic acid but can also be made from natural products such as sodium alginate
found in seaweed. They are often used in a dry powder form where they are known
as superabsorbents and an important use is in disposable baby nappies (diapers).
The ability to absorb and retain large quantities of fluid relative to their weight
makes them candidates for wound dressings. Materials with potential use as wound
dressings include polyurethane gels and hydroxyethyl cellulose gels, as examples.
5.11 Biodegradable materials

Polylactic acid (PLA) and polyglycolic acid (PGA) are biodegradable and are used
as fixation devices for bone and soft tissue in the form of biodegradable plates,
screws and anchors. PLA is a chiral compound, that is, it is not superimposable on
its mirror image and exists in several so-called enantiomeric forms, designated D or
L, or as a racemic mixture with equal amounts of the D and L forms. The rate of
degradation of PLA in vivo depends on which enantiomer is used for the implant.
PGA exists in only one form. Copolymers of PLA and PGA can be produced with
various ratios of each polymer and the copolymers which have the trade name
Vicryl are used as biodegradable sutures.
5.12 The search for antimicrobial agents

Antimicrobial resistance is a major public health threat in the 21st century. Every
year 25,000 deaths in Europe are caused by drug-resistant infections, two-thirds
due to Gram-negative bacteria such as Escherichia coli. There is a desperate need
for new anti-bacterial agents. Some potentially promising agents are summarised
here. Synthesis of analogues of spectinomycin, a naturally occurring antibiotic, has
potential for treatment of tuberculosis (TB). This class of antibiotics works against
TB by disrupting the function of the ribosome, the main site for protein synthesis
in a cell, and binds to a site on the ribosome not shared by other TB drugs.
Antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) are under development for the treatment of
TB. AMPs can break through cell walls of tuberculosis cells and kill Mycobacterium
tuberculosis. Computer modelling and simulation experiments have indicated that
oxadiazoles inhibit the biosynthesis of the cell wall that enables it to resist other
drugs. Oxadiazoles have shown promise in treating vancomycin- and linezolid-
resistant MRSA in mouse models of infection. Another approach for the treatment
of TB has been to consider the carbohydrate coating that all cells possess. In the
case of TB, galactofuranose residues in the cell walls of mycobacteria cause
TB. The approach has been to design small molecule inhibitors that block enzymes
responsible for synthesis of galactofuranose and the growth of mycobacterial cells.
Intelectin is a protein that binds to galactofuranose (not found in human cells) and
has the potential to act as an antimicrobial agent. Lectins, of which intelectin is an
example, are found in plants, animals, bacteria and viruses. They bind covalently
to portions of sugars in cell coatings and have specificity; that is, they bind to
specific regions or sequences of the sugar molecule. An example of a viral glycan-
binding protein is the influenza virus lectin which binds to sialic acid-containing
glycans. These are targeted by the influenza treatments Tamiflu and Relenza.
Gram-negative bacteria have thicker cell walls than Gram-positive bacteria and
include Salmonella and Escherichia coli and are resistant to many antibiotics.
5.13 Summary
Materials—polymer, ceramic and metal—have an important role in healthcare.
For example, superconducting metallic alloys are used for generation of magnetic
fields in magnetic resonance imaging while other alloys are used for the fabrication
of coronary stents. Novel techniques based on recombinant DNA technology are
under development for a new class of drugs known as biopharmaceuticals while
porous hydrogels find uses as wound dressings. Lasers for surgical applications
rely on suitable materials that undergo lasing action. Nanotechnology has an
increasing role in drug delivery through the use of nanoparticles while bioprinting,
a variant of three-dimensional printing, is under evaluation as a method for
producing tissue such as layers of skin and replacement organs.

Agrawal, C. M., J. L. Ong, M. R. Appleford and G. Mani. Introduction to Biomaterials: Basic
Theory with Engineering Applications. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2014.
Baldwin, G., T. Bayer, R. Dickinson, T. Ellis, P. S. Freemont, R. I. Kitney, K. Polizzi and
G.-B. Stan. Synthetic Biology: A Primer. London: Imperial College Press, 2012.
Barber, J., and C. Rostron (eds). Pharmaceutical Chemistry. Oxford: Oxford University
Press, 2013.
Davies, E. Sweet medicine. Chemistry and Industry (2015), 79(8), 36–39.
Dorey, E. Antibiotics revival. Chemistry and Industry (2014), 78(5), 24–7.
O’Driscoll, C. Bone filler for faces. Chemistry and Industry (2014) 78, 13.
Extance, A. Cosmetics deals push skin 3D printing. Chemistry World (2015) 12, 20–1.
Gavaler, J. R. Superconductivity in Nb-Ge films above 22 K. Applied Physics Letters (1973)
23, 480–2.
Hehenberger, M. Nanomedicine: Science, Business and Impact. Singapore: Pan Stanford,
2015.
Jelinkova, H. (ed.). Lasers for Medical Applications, Diagnostics, Therapy and Surgery. Cambridge:
Woodhead, 2013.
Kresin, V., H. Morawitz and S. Wolf. Superconducting State. Oxford: Oxford University
Press, 2013.
Langer, R. S. Biodegradable poly (β-amino esters) and uses thereof. United States Patent
8,287,849, 2012.
Melham, Z. (ed.). High-Temperature Superconductors (HTS) for Energy Applications.
Cambridge: Woodhead, 2012.
Ngo, C., and M. van de Voorde. Nanotechnology in a Nutshell: From Simple to Complex
Onnes, H. K. Further experiments with liquid helium. G. On the electrical resistance of pure
metals. VI. On the sudden change in the rate at which the resistance of mercury
disappears. Konink Akad van Wetenschappen (Amsterdam) (1911) 14, 818–21.
Palmer, P., T. Schreck, L. Hamel, S. Tzannis and A. Pouiatine. Small volume oral trans-
mucal dosage forms containing sufentanil for treatment of pain. United States Patent
8,535,714, 2013.
Papachristodoulou, D., A. Snape, W.H. Elliott and D.C. Elliott. Biochemistry and Molecular
Biology, 5th edn. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2014.
Chemistry, 2014.
Wolfson, M. M. Resonance: Applications in Physical Science. London: Imperial College Press,
2015.
6
Let There Be Lights
6.1 Introduction
It has been estimated that over 20 per cent of the total U.S. electric energy
production is consumed for lighting applications and that significant savings can
be made by the introduction of high-performance illumination sources. In add-
ition, there has been a proliferation of electronic devices that contain a screen or
display. For example, smartphones, computers, whether desktop, laptop or tablet,
in-vehicle navigation systems, digital cameras and game consoles. The appeal of
consumer goods is made up in part by their design rather than the materials used
for construction. This is evident in the appeal of certain models of smartphones
and also in the availability of thin large-screen televisions compared to the bulkier
television models previously available. The light sources are hidden from view and
it is rapid technological changes that have given rise to novel sources of solid-state
lighting that are more energy-efficient than earlier light sources, such as incandes-
cent light bulbs and fluorescent lights, and which contribute to product designs
that appeal to the consumer. This rapid technological change is underpinned by
developments in materials and an overview of these changes is described in this
chapter. Solid-state lighting is based on the use of light-emitting diodes, quantum
dots, organic light-emitting diodes and liquid crystals. The chapter also highlights
that there can be a considerable time delay between initial identification of useful
materials and their commercial exploitation.
6.2 Light-emitting diodes

It is common nowadays to encounter light-emitting diode (LED) lights promoted
as energy-efficient for use in the home, for consumers to purchase a LED televi-
sion, to buy a LED torch or to purchase a car with LED headlamps. Toys for
children can also contain LEDs. Also, it will be noticeable to purchasers of
consumer goods that televisions are available in much thinner models than they
were available just a few years ago. While many people are familiar with the
acronym LED and the phrase ‘light-emitting diode’, it is not obvious what LEDs
are as they do not contain incandescent wires or glass tubes characteristic of

DOI: 10.1093/oso/9780198804079.001.0001
conventional light bulbs or fluorescent tubes. In fact, the principle of operation of

LEDs is electroluminescence, which was first observed by Henry Round in 1907
and refers to the emission of light from a material under an applied voltage. In this
early work, a bright yellowish glow was noticed when a small voltage, around 10
volts, was applied to a crystal of carborundum (silicon carbide) which was impure
and is a semiconductor. The glow was produced from a semiconductor diode
although at the time it was not appreciated that this was the cause of the light
emission. In fact, Henry Round referred to the light emission as a curious phe-
nomenon. Advances in the development of LEDs were slowed until methods for
fabrication of high-purity semiconductors were achieved in the 1950s and 1960s.
These methods included metal-organic chemical vapour deposition (MOCVD),
molecular beam epitaxy (MBE) and ion implantation.
A diode is an electronic device that allows the flow of an electric current in one
direction only.
Electroluminescence is associated with electron–hole recombination at a p–n

junction in a semiconductor diode. A n-type semiconductor is prepared by doping
a semiconductor usually in the form of a wafer with dopant atoms, particularly
those of Group V elements including arsenic, phosphorus and antimony. The
doping process that can be achieved by MOVCD introduces an excess of free
electrons into the semiconductor. Also, p-type semiconductors are prepared by
introducing acceptor atoms, typically Group III elements such as indium, alumin-
ium, gallium and boron, into the semiconductor and this process introduces an
excess of holes or an electron deficit into the semiconductor. In practice one layer
of semiconductor is grown and deposited onto another layer of semiconductor
and a p–n junction is formed at the boundary between p- and n-type semicon-
ductors. Electron–hole recombination takes place in the region of the p–n junc-
tion under a forward electrical bias. Examples of crystalline semiconductor alloys
used for generating electroluminescence include gallium arsenide (GaAs) and
indium arsenide (InAs). The recombination process involves electron transfer
from conduction bands to valence bands in the semiconductor and the colour
of the emitted light is determined by the bandgap energy, the energy difference
between the conduction and conduction bands. It can be seen how materials
expertise underpins the development of LEDs. Small changes in the preparative
methods used to make the semiconductors can result in a spread of frequencies
for a particular colour through changes in bandgap energy. Hence, there may be
several different types of ‘white’ when using LEDs. Quantum dots that behave as
nanophosphors and do not have an electronic band structure are more appro-
priate than LEDs for tuning their output for a specific colour. Colours from
quantum dots can be ‘cleaner’ than those from LEDs. Methods used to manu-
facture LEDs are the same as those used for semiconductor fabrication, whereas
much development is required to produce quantum dots with a controlled particle
size in the nanometre range.
Let There Be Lights 55
While a range of colours had been produced from LEDs, obtaining a blue light-
emitting diode proved to be initially elusive. Examples of compositions for specific
colours are indium gallium aluminium phosphide (InGaAlP) for red light
(633 nm), gallium arsenic phosphide/gallium phosphide (GaAsP/GaP) for yellow
light (585 nm) and gallium phosphide (GaP) on a GaP substrate for green light
(565 nm). The breakthrough for blue LEDs came with incorporation of magne-
sium as a p-type dopant into a gallium nitride (GaN) substrate by Nakamura and
co-workers. The availability of LEDs with emissions across the visible spectrum
has expanded the use of LEDs since the 1970s and about 30 109 chips are made
each year. LEDs are manufactured in wafer form and the latter are cut up or diced
into pieces around 1 mm2 in area when used in torches and lighting and the
semiconductor chip is packaged for protection.
White light can be obtained in several ways in lighting applications. Red, green
and blue emissions from LEDs can be combined to form white light. Another
approach is to use ultraviolet emissions from a LED that causes fluorescence in a
white-emitting diode. In the third method, a blue LED is covered with cerium-
doped yttrium aluminium garnet crystals. Some of the blue light is converted to
yellow light by the phosphor. As yellow is a combination of red and green wave-
lengths, the mix of blue and yellow produces white light. A particular application
noticeable to consumers is in LED televisions. Liquid crystals are often used for
displays in televisions but as liquid crystals do not emit light they require a
backlight that has traditionally been a compact fluorescent tube. However, these
tubes are bulky so that the television sets are also bulky. Replacement of the
fluorescent tube by a LED panel for use as a backlight enables the manufacture
of thin television sets. The exploitation of LEDs highlights the potential long time
lag between identification of a previously unknown phenomenon and utilisation of
that phenomenon in a commercial product.
6.3 Quantum dots

Phosphors are materials that emit visible light when supplied with a source of
energy and this emission is known as luminescence. If the energy source
is electromagnetic radiation then the emission is known as photoluminescence. If
the latter process is immediate then fluorescence occurs but if the conversion of
exciting radiation is slow then phosphorescence occurs. In fluorescence the emitted
radiation has a longer wavelength than the exciting radiation. Many phosphors are
inorganic oxides or sulphide powders and can be considered to be a class of
electroceramic material. Their conventional synthesis involves mixing oxide or
carbonate powders, comminution by milling followed by a high-temperature heat
treatment to form a material containing a single crystalline phase. An example of
phosphor compositions is europium-doped yttrium oxide that absorbs ultraviolet
radiation and emits visible light, a process used in fluorescent tubes. Terbium-doped
yttrium aluminium oxide is a cathodoluminescent phosphor that emits visible light
on electron bombardment. The particle size for phosphors in use is in the range
1–2 µm and crystal quality is important for phosphors as defects such as dislocations,
grain boundaries and impurities encourage non-radiative recombination of electron–
hole pairs with a subsequent reduction in brightness. Features such as dislocations,
grain boundaries and impurities contribute to the microstructure of phosphors.
Note that comminution means a reduction in particle size, for example by grinding.
In ball milling a powder is contained in a sealed jar that contains ceramic balls, for
example alumina. The jar is rotated and the particles size of the powder is reduced.
The electronic and optical properties of metals and semiconductors change

sharply as the particle sizes are reduced to the nanometre range. In this size region,
the electronic wave function is restricted to small regions of space in a material and
this restriction is known as quantum confinement. Quantum dots, which are also
referred to as quantum boxes or artificial atoms, are semiconductors where the
confinement is in three dimensions. A particle with very small dimensions such as a
quantum dot has discrete energy levels like an atom or molecule, in contrast to
semiconductor crystals that have electronic energy bands. Quantum dots are
nanoparticles and fall within the scope of nanotechnology (and colloid science)
and can be called nanomaterials. Semiconductor nanocrystals such as quantum
dots are referred to as artificial atoms as their structures fall between isolated atoms
with discrete energy levels and semiconducting crystals that have energy bands.
Properties of quantum dots, particularly optical properties, depend on both the
composition and particle size.
Successful exploitation of materials depends on the ability to manufacture the
materials reproducibly and in a reproducible way. Many methods have been used
for the preparation of quantum dots, at least in the laboratory. For example,
hydrothermal processing routes involve heating reactants such as metal salts,
oxides or hydroxides as a solution or suspension in a liquid, usually water at
elevated temperature. This approach has been used for synthesis of cadmium
sulphide (CdS), cadmium selenide (CdSe) and cadmium telluride (CdTe).
Core–shell nanoparticles have been prepared with a core of one semiconductor
surrounded by a shell of a different semiconductor: for example, cadmium selen-
ide/zinc sulphide (CdSe/ZnS), cadmium selenide/cadmium sulphide (CdSe/CdS)
and indium nitride/zinc sulphide (InN/ZnS) nanocrystals. Hydrothermal process-
ing and aerosol synthesis fall within the area of wet chemical routes to quantum
dots and wet routes include sol-gel processing. In aerosol synthesis, small liquid
droplets react with a gas, for example hydrogen sulphide, and this approach has
been used to make cadmium sulphide particles with a diameter of 6 nm. Gas phase
reactions have also been used to fabricate quantum dots, thus ion implantation,
MOCVD, MBE and focused ion beams (FIB). These approaches, which are used
for the fabrication of doped semiconductors for LEDs, especially MOCVD,
involve deposition of a thin layer with thicknesses up to around 300 nm onto a
substrate, after which regions of the layer are selectively removed or etched.
Quantum dots are semiconductor phosphors and as for all phosphors they emit
wavelengths longer than that of the exciting radiation and exhibit fluorescence.
Nanophosphors are fluorescent materials with diameters characteristic of quantum
dots, hence between 2 and 10 nm, and particles this small contain between 10 and
5000 atoms. Quantum dots are attractive materials for solid-state lighting appli-
cations because the presence of discrete energy levels allows ‘clean’ colours to be
produced and the wavelength (i.e. colour) of the fluorescent radiation to be tuned
by control of the particle size for a particular material composition. As the size of
the quantum dot increases, the colour of emitted light changes from blue to red;
that is, the wavelength increases. Quantum dots with a polydisperse size distribu-
tion allow light of any wavelength to be produced. When illuminated with light
from a blue diode based on a gallium nitride semiconductor with a wavelength of
450 nm, 5.5-nm cadmium selenide nanoparticles were red emitters, 4.0-nm were
green emitters while 2.3-nm nanoparticles were blue emitters. It is difficult to
obtain light with a pure single frequency from LEDs because tight control of
semiconductor chemistry is required. Quantum dots have the potential to over-
come this drawback of LEDs. White light can be obtained by primary colours of
red, green and blue light emitted from quantum dots. At the time of writing
quantum dots have not reached the level of commercial exploitation that has
been achieved by LEDs although they have the potential, when used in displays,
to produce cleaner colours than LEDS and as they can be used as a coating
contribute to the design of thin portable devices. As semiconductors, quantum
dots have potential for use in solar or photovoltaic cells.
6.4 Liquid crystals

Molecules in solution can form association structures. For example, solutions of
surface active agents (surfactants) such as sodium dodecyl sulphate form spherical
micelles for concentrations above the critical micelle concentration. The micelles
have diameters of several nanometres and have a structure in which hydrocarbon
chains of the surfactants point inward to the core and the head groups of the
surfactants point outwards and interact with the aqueous phase. Surface active
agents are components of washing-up liquids and the role of micelles is to solubilise
dirt and fats from surfaces. Molecules in solution can also form association
structures known as liquid crystalline phases that exist between crystalline solid
phases and the fully disordered liquid state. Crystals have a long-range positional
order while liquids have neither positional nor orientational order. Molecules in
liquid crystalline phases exhibit liquid-like properties such as low viscosity together
with crystal-like properties such as anisotropy. Qualitatively the formation of liquid
crystals can be described according to thermodynamic considerations. Hence, the
entropy of a system decreases with the formation of liquid crystals, hence raising
the free energy, but hydrogen bonding, or the attractive van der Waals force
between molecules, is maximised when molecules are aligned and formation of a
preferred close-packed array of aligned molecules contributes to lowering the free

energy of the system, maintaining thermodynamic stability. In the smectic phase,
molecules are arranged side by side in layers and have an elongated or cigar-like
structure. The smectic phase has orientational order and one-dimensional pos-
itional order. The nematic phase has orientational order but no positional order
and ordering is along the long molecular axis and these liquid crystals have a
thread-like structure. So, in a nematic liquid crystal, molecules or polymers are
aligned parallel to each other in the same direction but in a random way. In the
cholesteric phase, molecules are ordered in nematic layers, each layer rotated
relative to the layers above and below. Polymer molecules can form liquid crystals
and Kevlar fibres contain nematic phases.
Liquid crystals, when used in liquid crystal displays, do not emit light and
require a backlight. The latter has traditionally been a compact fluorescent tube
but increasingly LED panels are being used as backlights in electronic devices,
enabling thinner devices to be manufactured, for example thinner television sets.
The key property of liquid crystals that makes them attractive for use in displays is
their birefringence and ability to cause a rotation of the angle of polarisation in the
incident light of 90 . Cyanobiphenyls that were developed by George Gray and co-
workers in the 1970s form stable nematic phases at or near room temperature and
these phases allowed liquid crystal displays to operate at these temperatures. When
nematic liquid crystals are used in a display, switching an electric field on and off
changes the orientation of the liquid crystals in a thin layer and this effect changes a
rotation of the angle of polarisation of incident light. The overall effect is that the
display screen will appear either bright or dark to an observer. Twisted nematic
liquid crystals such as n-4-ethoxybenzylisene-4-aminobenzonitrile (PEBAB) has
been used in displays where its optical activity is controlled by an applied voltage
that causes the helical structure to untwist and control light transmission that
determines the image seen by an observer.
6.5 Organic light-emitting diodes

Materials underpin the development of solid-state lighting technology for use in
the home, in business, in the environment and in electronic displays such as
smartphones and televisions (Table 6.1). Any material that gives sharper images
and a wider range of colours can give a competitive advantage to manufacturers,
improving product design that will appeal to potential purchasers. The acronym
OLED refers to organic light-emitting diode and emits light by the process of
electroluminescence. OLEDs are based on organic molecules, both small mol-
ecules and polymers. OLEDs are particularly attractive for use on flexible elec-
tronic displays or on curved monitors that have a wider field of view. Work on
small molecule OLEDs, known as SMOLEDs, dates to the early 1950s and these
species include anthracene and naphthalene. Flexible polycrystalline films of poly-
acetylene could be doped by exposure to vapours of electron–acceptor dopants
Table 6.1 Materials with use or potential use in solid-state lighting

Application Material
Light-emitting diodes Doped gallium nitride
Doped gallium arsenide
Indium gallium aluminium phosphide
Quantum dots Cadmium sulphide
Cadmium selenide
Cadmium selenide/zinc sulphide
Liquid crystals Cyanobiphenyls
SMOLED Anthracene
Naphthalene
PLED Poly (p-phenylenevinylene)
such as arsenic pentafluoride (AsF5) so that electrical conductivities could be

adjusted to lie between the conductivities or semiconductors and metals. In gen-
eral, SMOLEDs had to be deposited onto substrates from the vapour phase.
The polymer poly (p-phenylenevinylene) (PPV), which was identified in the
early 1990s, laid the foundations for a new generation of flat panel displays based
on electroluminescence from conjugated polymers. PPV is known as a polymer
light-emitting diode (PLED) and unlike SMOLEDs it can be applied to a substrate
by spin-coating from solution. The potential flexibility of organic polymers makes
them ideal candidates for coating flexible substrates. While electroluminescence in
inorganic semiconductors such as gallium nitride can be explained in terms of
valence and conduction bands this approach does not apply to conjugated poly-
mers. Injected electrons and holes recombine in the organic layer and emit light
whose wavelength is dependent on the properties of the organic material when the
OLED is subject to forward bias. Electroluminescence in semiconductor polymers
is described in terms of the highest occupied molecular orbital (HOMO) and
lowest unoccupied molecular orbital (LUMO) rather than valence and conduction
bands whereby electron–hole pairs form excitons which exhibit electrolumines-
cence on decay.
An exciton is an electron–hole pair in a solid that is bound in a way analogous to the

electron and proton in a hydrogen atom.
6.6 Summary
Developments in materials underpin the growth of solid-state lighting in the home,
in offices and in the environment as well as the use of solid-state lighting sources in
electronic devices such as smartphones, tablet computers and televisions. It has

taken approximately one hundred years since the discovery of electroluminescence
for the widespread use of energy-efficient light-emitting diodes, illustrating the
potential large time lag before commercial exploitation of discoveries. Liquid
crystals have been used widely in displays such as in televisions, and backlights
of light-emitting diodes are increasingly replacing compact fluorescent tubes,
enabling thinner models to be produced. It is anticipated that quantum dots and
organic light-emitting diodes will be increasingly exploited as solid-state lighting in
future years.
6.7 Further reading

Dunmur, D., and T. Sluckin. Soap, Science and Flat-Screen TVs: A History of Liquid Crystals.
Hack, M., M-Hao M-Lu and M. S. Weaver. Organic light-emitting devices for illumination.
Helfrich, W., and M. Schadt. Optical device. United Kingdom Patent Application 1 372
868, 1974.
Nakamura, S., N. Iwasa and M. Senoh. Method of manufacturing p-type compound
semiconductor. United States Patent 5,468,678, 1995.
Ngo, C., and M. Van de Boorde. Nanotechnology in a Nutshell: From Simple to Complex
Systems. Amsterdam: Atlantic Press, 2014.
Segal, D. Chemical Synthesis of Advanced Ceramic Materials. Cambridge: Cambridge Univer-
sity Press, 1989.
Segal, D. Exploring Materials Through Patent Information. Cambridge: Royal Society of
Chemistry, 2014.
Segal, D. L., and A. Atkinson. Wet chemical synthesis of cathodoluminescent powders.
British Ceramic Transactions (1996) 95(3), 103–6.
Tilley, R. J. D. Understanding Solids: The Science of Materials. London: Wiley, 2013.
7
Energy Supplies for the
21st Century
7.1 Introduction
Greenhouse gases, in particular carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide,
absorb infrared radiation (heat) that is reflected from the Earth’s surface, atmos-
phere and clouds so that the radiation does not escape into space. Global
warming results from an increase in the temperature of the Earth’s atmosphere
and contributes to climate change. There is a worldwide quest to identify tech-
nologies that can reduce carbon dioxide emissions into the environment for
limiting the effects of global warming and an increasing desire among govern-
ments to utilise renewable energy source such as solar, hydroelectric, wind, tidal
and geothermal, thus the use of clean energy sources. In addition, nuclear power
is under active consideration as it is not a source of carbon dioxide, a contributing
gas for global warming. This approach involves decarbonisation, thus reducing
the dependency on fossil fuels such as coal and oil which are considered to be
major polluters with respect to the amounts of carbon dioxide they produce. The
use of clean energy sources is carried out in parallel with the increased interest in
using renewable sources as feedstocks for materials, thus reducing dependency
on oil in petrochemical sources that have been used as feedstocks for synthetic
polymers, namely plastics throughout the 20th century and for power generation.
An aspiration that was agreed upon by participants at the Government’s Com-
mittee on Climate Change in Paris in December 2015 was to limit a rise in the
Earth’s temperature to 1.5 C by the end of the 21st century, a reduction from a
2 C rise that had previously been considered necessary to limit global warming.
Indeed, the United Kingdom has already made a commitment to phase out coal-
fired power stations by 2025. Rigorous adherence to these targets may result in
phasing out gas-fired power stations unless a way of capturing their CO2 emis-
sions in what is known as carbon capture and storage. In this chapter aspects
of selected energy sources are described with particular reference to the role of
materials in their operation.

DOI: 10.1093/oso/9780198804079.001.0001
7.2 Global electricity consumption

Global electricity consumption in 2014 was 21 1012 kWh (21,000 TWh),
equivalent to an average continuous power consumption of 2.4 TW. Over 80
per cent of electricity is generated by burning fossil fuels releasing about 10 billion
tonnes of carbon emissions per year. In 2011, 75 per cent of electricity generation
in the United Kingdom was achieved by burning fossil fuels, 19 per cent from
nuclear power and 6 per cent from renewable sources. In Norway 1 per cent of
electricity was generated from burning fossil fuels and the remaining 99 per cent
from renewables. In the USA 71 per cent of electricity was generated from burning
fossil fuels, 19 per cent from nuclear and 10 per cent from renewables. The United
Kingdom is legally committed to obtaining 15 per cent of its energy demand from
renewable sources by 2023.
7.3 Nuclear power

The first civilian nuclear power station was opened at Calder Hall in the United
Kingdom in the early 1950s and since then a variety of reactors have been built and
operated and all use fuel based on enriched uranium oxide. Uranium ores contain
about 99.3 weight per cent of non-fissionable 238U and about 0.7 weight per cent of
fissionable 235U.
The superscripts 238 and 235 refer to the atomic weight.
The fuel contains uranium dioxide pellets enriched with about 3 weight per cent
of 235U. Enrichment can be achieved by first converting the ore into uranium
hexafluoride, UF6, and then separating out the lighter 235UF6 by high-speed
centrifugation. The pellets are fabricated in a shielded facility to protect operators
from radiation. It is interesting to note that the first application of the newly
invented polymer polytetrafluoroethylene was for the separation of uranium
isotopes by gaseous diffusion in the Second World War in the Manhattan Project
as this polymer was chemically resistant to corrosive fluorine-containing gases.
Neutron bombardment of fissile material produces a range of highly radioactive
fission products such as 92Kr and 141Ba and the difference in masses between the
fission products and 235U is converted to energy. The release of energy is used to
convert water to steam and drive turbines in order to generate electricity. The
following nuclear reaction also occurs in thermal nuclear reactors in which
fissionable 239Pu is produced by neutron bombardment of non-fissionable 238U
along with β-decay:
238
U- --- -nβ-- -- -→ 239U-- -- -→239Np--- --→239Pu (7.1)
Energy Supplies for the 21st Century 63
Another nuclear fuel cycle is based on thorium which is more abundant than
uranium in the Earth’s crust. Thorium is found in the mineral monazite. In this
fuel cycle non-fissile 232Th is converted to fissile 233U through the reaction
232
Th- --- -nγ-- -→ 233Th-- --β- -- --→233Pa- -- β--→233Pu (7.2)
The half-life for decay of 233Th to 233Pa is 23.5 minutes and the half-life for decay
of 233Pa to 233U is 274 days. The decay of 232U that is associated with 233U is
associated with daughter products, for example 208Tl and 212Bi, that emit high-
energy γ-rays. In a thermal nuclear reactor neutrons are slowed down by a
moderator which, depending on the type of reactor, can be water, graphite or
heavy water. However, commercial nuclear reactors are not based on the use of
this thorium fuel cycle.
The time for half of an initial number of radioactive atoms to decay is known as the
half-life for that particular atom or nuclide. A radioactive atom or nuclide, after
radioactive decay, can result in formation of a daughter atom. The daughter atom is
formed from the decay of a parent atom. In beta decay, often written as β-decay, an
unstable atomic nucleus decays into a nucleus of the same atomic weight but different
atomic number with the release of beta particles, namely electrons.
Note that heavy water is deuterium oxide, D2O, in which deuterium and hydrogen
are isotopes. They have the same atomic number but different atomic weights.
Materials are of crucial importance in the operation of nuclear reactors.

Thus, zirconium alloys (with iron, chromium and tin) known as Zircaloy are
used as fuel rods to contain fuel pellets. Zircaloy has a low neutron-capture
cross-section, which means it does not absorb neutrons that are intended to take
part in the fission process. In pressurised water reactors the pressure vessel must
be constructed of high-quality steel that clearly must not fail over a working
reactor lifetime of many years and the outer concrete shell of the reactor
building needs structural integrity. While spent fuel rods are stored under
water to cool down before possible reprocessing, existing stockpiles of highly
radioactive waste will need to be immobilised for long-term storage. It should be
noted that exposure of materials to radiation such as neutrons in a nuclear
reactor can cause radiation damage; that is, the crystalline structure of struc-
tural materials can change on irradiation. This irradiation can weaken the
materials such as steels. A family of materials known as oxide-dispersion-
strengthened steels in which oxide particles are embedded in alloys such as
high-chromium iron-based alloys has potential as radiation-tolerant structural
materials for nuclear reactors. The oxide particles are based on compositions of
yttrium and titanium.
The use of nuclear-generated electricity produces highly radioactive fission
products as well as fissionable 239Pu. There will be continuing concerns among
governments that so-called ‘dirty bombs’ might be constructed from radioactive

fission products and that weapons-grade 239Pu (approximately 93 per cent of
239
Pu) will fall into the hands of those with criminal intent.
7.4 Solar cells

The demand for solutions to worldwide concerns over global warming and energy
supplies has generated much research and development on solar or photovoltaic
cells. In a solar cell, photons emitted from the sun are absorbed by a semiconductor
and excite electrons from the semiconductor’s valency band across the bandgap
and into the conduction band. Electron–hole pairs are separated in the solar cell
to generate a photocurrent and photovoltaic effect. Photons with energies equal
to or greater than the bandgap energy are absorbed but absorption does not take
place if the photon energy is less than the bandgap energy. Single crystal silicon
has traditionally been used as a rigid substrate for photovoltaic panels. Because
silicon is an indirect bandgap semiconductor and hence not an efficient absorber
of light, a thick layer of silicon is required for its use in solar cells. Commercial
solar panels have an efficiency of around 20 per cent and a lifetime of 25 years.
Single crystals of silicon are made by the Czochralski technique that involves
growing the crystal from a melt onto a seed crystal and there is a search for
materials that can be produced economically and have high efficiencies for
conversion of solar energy to electricity when used in a photovoltaic cell. Copper
indium gallium diselenide, a semiconductor, is one such material that can be
deposited onto cheap flexible substrates. Examples of cheap substrates include
glass, stainless steel and plastics and this area is known as thin film photovoltaics.
Quantum dots are semiconductors and also have potential for use in solar cells
and examples of these quantum dots are lead sulphide (PbS), lead selenide
(PbSe) and lead selenide sulphide (PbSSe). In dye-sensitised photovoltaic
cells, a dye, for example a ruthenium complex, is adsorbed onto nanoparticles
of a semiconducting oxide such as anatase titanium dioxide. The dye absorbs
light which releases an electron into the conductor band of the semiconductor
and then into an external circuit. Dye-sensitised materials have the potential to
increase the efficiency of solar cells. Another class of material that has the
potential to increase the efficiency of solar cells are perovskites, for example
the semiconductor methylammonium lead triiodide. The perovskite is adsorbed
onto anatase particles that form the anode in the photovoltaic cell and absorbs
light that releases electrons into an external circuit. The perovskite can be
deposited by spin-coating a solution, a relatively easy process.
A perovskite is a specific type of crystal structure represented by the formula ABO3.

Examples of minerals with this structure are calcium titanate and barium titanate,
CaTiO3 and BaTiO3, respectively.
7.5 Wind energy

Many conventional materials are used in wind turbines, for example carbon steel,
stainless steel, concrete, copper aluminium and polymer matrix composites.
However, the generators in wind turbines use neodymium-boron magnets and
it has been stated that a 2-MW wing turbine contains 25 kg of neodymium.
Neodymium is considered to be a critical material with respect to its supply so
annual construction of 50,000 new turbines per year would require a supply of
1,250 tonnes of neodymium per year.
7.6 Geothermal energy

Geothermal energy arises from heat generated within the Earth from volcanic activity
and decay of radioactive isotopes over long periods of time and it is abundant and
sustainable. Electricity generated from geothermal sources does not directly produce
emissions as no combustion is used, unlike the combustion of fuels in power plants.
Geothermal energy is associated with columns of hot water and steam emerging from
fissures in the ground. There are several ways in which electricity is generated. In the
first method, superheated hydrothermal water flashes to steam that drives turbine.
Another approach uses hot water to vaporise a secondary liquid which drives a turbine
while combinations of these two methods can also be used to drive turbines. A fourth
approach uses dry steam obtained directly from the ground to drive turbines. The
oldest geothermal plant in the USA is at the Geysers in California and was built in
1960 and uses dry steam to drive turbines for electricity generation. From a materials
perspective, corrosion is a potential problem for geothermal energy power plants due
to species in the superheated water. Carbon steel, copper and its alloys and stainless
steels are used as well as non-metallics including polymers. Dissolved chloride salts,
carbon dioxide, hydrogen sulphide species, microbes and sulphate ions can contrib-
ute to corrosion of a geothermal plant. Corrosion can be controlled by the use of
material selection, protective coatings, chemical treatment to inhibit corrosion and
cathodic protection. Conventional hydrothermal geothermal energy sources are,
however, limited to the presence of particular geological conditions that trap steam
or pressurised hot water in permeable geological formations.
7.7 Tidal energy

Oceans cover 70 per cent of the Earth’s surface and a number of technologies have
been proposed for extracting energy from the oceans:
(a) Wave energy—Wave energy is the energy carried by movements of the

ocean surface.
(b) Tidal energy—Tidal energy is driven by the gravitational force between the
Earth and the Moon. The available potential energy is based on the differ-
ence between low tide and high tide.
(c) Current energy—Current energy is generated due to ocean water flow.
Submerged turbines can in principle capture kinetic energy from the
water flows.
(d) Ocean thermal energy conversion (OTEC)—Ocean thermal energy con-
version uses differences in ocean temperatures from the surface to the
depths to extract energy through a heat engine.
(e) Osmotic energy—This approach uses the difference in salinity between
seawater and freshwater and generates power by use of an ion-specific
membrane.
While extraction of energy from the oceans is not at an advanced stage, materials
that can withstand the harsh conditions in the oceans will be required to exploit this
energy source.
7.8 Hydroelectric power

Pumped hydroelectric technology is a mature technology and its application is
constrained to regions where there is a significant difference in elevation between
the upper and lower reservoirs. No special materials of construction are required
and standard materials such as steel, copper and concrete are used.
7.9 Carbon capture

The quest for clean renewable energy sources runs in parallel with decarbonisa-
tion. The latter process refers to reducing or eliminating carbon dioxide emissions
from burning fossil fuels particularly in power plants (i.e. coal, gas and oil) as these
emissions contribute to global warming. The aim of this reduction is to move from
a high-carbon to low-carbon economy. The phrases carbon capture and seques-
tration are often used in conjunction with carbon capture.
Sequestration refers to trapping carbon dioxide emissions in underground geo-
logical formations. Sedimentary basins are porous and consist of layers of sand,
silt, clay and carbonates such as chalk and have been built up over a period of
millions of years and are often filled with salt water. Sedimentary basins are found
near reserves of oil and gas. There is much worldwide experience in pumping
carbon dioxide into oil reservoirs during enhanced oil recovery. In the future it is
possible that geological sequestration of carbon dioxide could take place in deep
sedimentary basins.
There are three current approaches for capturing carbon dioxide emissions from
power plants that burn fossil fuels:
(a) Post-combustion capture—Chemical solvents or organic amines remove

carbon dioxide from flue gases in a power plant, after which the solvents
can be regenerated. Note that ionic liquids also have the potential for
selectively absorbing gases. Post-combustion capture units can be retrofit-
ted to existing power plants. Post-combustion capture is a mature
technology.
(b) Pre-combustion capture—Fossil fuel is reacted with steam, air or oxygen
to produce synthesis gas, a mixture of carbon monoxide and hydrogen.
Carbon monoxide then reacts with steam to produce carbon dioxide
and hydrogen and the latter is separated from the mixture and used for
electricity generation while carbon dioxide undergoes sequestration.
(c) Oxygen combustion—The fossil fuel is burned in oxygen rather than in air
to generate electricity. In this way flue gases consist mainly of carbon
dioxide and water so that carbon dioxide can be separated relatively easy.
However, an electricity supply is required to separate oxygen from air.
7.10 Lithium-ion batteries

Lithium-ion batteries are secondary batteries; that is, they are rechargeable. They are
lightweight with a high specific energy, have a small self-discharge and can be
manufactured in different shapes. They are widely used in mobile phones, laptop
and tablet computers, power tools and electric cars. They are a source of ‘clean’
electricity although the electricity used to recharge them may come from conventional
fossil-fuel power plants. In a lithium-ion cell, the negative electrode (anode) is a porous
carbon whereas the cathode (positive cathode) is a metal oxide, frequently lithium
cobalt oxide (LiCoO2). The electrolyte is a lithium salt such as LiPF6 dissolved in a
polar solvent, for example a mixture of ethylene carbonate and dimethylcarbonate.
Lithium cobalt oxide is an example of an intercalation compound.
A intercalation compound is a compound that can trap atoms, ions or molecules

between layers in a crystal lattice.
During discharge, lithium ions (Li+) are extracted from the cathode, move
through the electrolyte and are inserted or intercalated into the carbon anode.
Here, during discharge means ‘while in use’.
The reverse process takes place during charging. These processes can be repre-
sented by the equations
LiCoO2 ‐ ‐‐ ‐ →xLi þ þLiX 1 CoO2 þ xe ð7:3Þ
xLiþ þ xe þ 6C‐ ‐‐ ‐ →LiX C6 ð7:4Þ
Pioneering work on the intercalation of lithium ions was carried out by John
Goodenough at the University of Oxford in the 1970s. There have been some
safety concerns over lithium-ion batteries relating to fire or explosion caused by
overheating in thermal runaway and overcharging but protective electronic circuits
are included in the design to prevent overcharging. Thus, in a lithium-ion battery
the lithium ions move in both directions between the anode and cathode.
7.11 Fuel cells

Fuel cells are, in the context of energy supplies for the 21st century, a source of
clean electricity. All fuel cells require a continuous supply of oxygen and hydrogen
to a cathode and anode, respectively, separated by an electrolyte. While oxygen can
be extracted from the air, different sources of hydrogen have been considered, for
example storing hydrogen as liquid or a pressurised gas, in a metal hydride or as a
source that can be catalytically converted to hydrogen, thus methanol, methane or
petrol as examples. Fuel cells rely on the overall reaction of hydrogen and oxygen
to give water and a cell voltage and the different types of fuel cell are described
according to the electrolyte used:
(a) Alkaline fuel cell (AFC)—The electrolyte is aqueous potassium hydroxide

that transports hydroxyl ions (OH) between electrodes. The anode reac-
tion is
H2 ðgÞ þ 2OH ðaqÞ‐ ‐‐ ‐ →2H2 O ðlÞ þ 2e ð7:5Þ
And the cathode reaction is

O2 ðgÞ þ 2H2 O ðlÞ þ 4e ‐ ‐‐ ‐ →4OH ðaqÞ ð7:6Þ
The overall reaction is represented by

2H2 ðgÞ þ O2 ðgÞ‐‐ ‐ ‐→2H2 O ðlÞ ð7:7Þ
Catalysts are deposited onto the electrodes to speed up the reactions, for example
dispersed platinum particles.
(b) Proton exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC)—This uses a solid polymer
electrolyte that conducts hydrogen ions (H+).
(c) Phosphoric acid fuel cell (PAFC)—This uses phosphoric acid as the elec-
trolyte that is distributed within a silicon carbide matrix to transport H+.
(d) Molten carbonate fuel cell (MCFC)—This uses molten lithium carbonate
as electrolyte in a lithium aluminate (LiAlO2) matrix transporting carbon-
ate ions (CO32).
(e) Solid oxide fuel cell (SOFC)—This uses a solid yttria-stabilised zirconia
electrolyte that allows transport of oxygen ions (O2). The operating tem-
perature is around 650 C as diffusion of oxygen ions at room temperature
is slow.
7.12 Summary
There is a worldwide quest to identify technologies that can reduce carbon dioxide
emissions into the environment in order to limit the effects of global warming and
an increasing desire among governments to utilise renewable energy sources such
as solar, hydroelectric, wind, tidal and geothermal. While nuclear power does not
contribute to carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere, highly radioactive fission
products as well as the production of fissile plutonium in thermal nuclear reactors
need to be stored in secure environments and eventually encapsulated for long-
term disposal. Solar or photovoltaic solar cells represent an established technology,
based initially on silicon panels. However, developments in materials have allowed
the production of solar cells using cheap or flexible substrates. Wind turbines are
increasingly used for power generation but a critical material, neodymium, is a
component of magnets used in the generator and is not available in unlimited
quantities. Hydroelectric and geothermal power generation are established tech-
nologies and conventional materials of construction are used, whereas tidal energy
is at an early stage of development. Carbon capture and carbon sequestration are
under consideration for treatment of emissions from power plants or long-term
storage of carbon dioxide in underground formations of sedimentary rocks.
Carbon capture is an established technology and can be retrofitted to existing
power plants and chemical absorbents such as amines are important in the removal
of carbon dioxide from flue gases.

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8
The Preparation of Materials
8.1 Introduction
A recurring theme throughout this book is the importance in the 21st century of
materials in the lives of people and national economies. But very little has been said
on the preparation of materials and the time lag from isolation of new materials to
commercial exploitation. Hence while solid-state lighting, in particular the use of
light-emitting diodes, is used in everyday life for home use and in offices and also
for light sources in electronic displays, the underlying physical process, electro-
luminescence, was discovered in 1907. Certain materials have been described
as ‘wonder materials’, for example high-temperature ceramic superconductors
that were discovered in 1986 and graphene that was isolated in 2004; the promise
of successful exploitation of ‘wonder materials’ have not been realised at the time of
writing. Some materials, particularly certain metals, are designated as critical
materials and their long-term supply cannot be guaranteed. There is a drive to
use environmentally friendly methods to produce materials by the use of ‘green
chemistry’. Without the ability to produce materials with exceptional chemical
purity the age of digital electronics in the 21st century would not have been
possible. In this chapter some aspects of material preparation are discussed for
selected entries in the Glossary.
8.2 Critical materials

Critical materials are those that are essential for national security or important
economically and Table 8.1 lists materials that are considered to be critical by the
U.S. government. Table 8.2 lists the amounts of some critical elements used in
mobile phones.
Indium is a critical material and it has an important role as a transparent
electrically conducting electrode especially for portable devices where it is coated
onto the back surface of the glass display. Worldwide production of indium was
around 640 tonnes per year (in 2011). Neodymium, a component of magnets used
in wind turbines, is also a critical material. It may be necessary to consider carefully

DOI: 10.1093/oso/9780198804079.001.0001
Table 8.1 The U.S. list of critical materials
Antimony Beryllium Bismuth

Cerium Chromium Cobalt
Dysprosium Erbium Europium
Gallium Germanium Indium
Iridium Lanthanum Lithium
Manganese Neodymium Osmium
Palladium Platinum Praesodymium
Rhodium Ruthenium Samarium
Scandium Tantalum Tellurium
Terbium Thulium Tin
Tungsten Yttrium
Source: Ashby, M. F., D. F. Balas and J. S. Coral. Materials and Sustainable

Development. Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann, 2015.
Table 8.2 Concentrations of five critical elements in mobile phones

Critical elements Grams per tonne in mobile phones
Platinum 70
Gold 140
Silver 1,300
Cobalt 19,000
Copper 70,000
Source: Ashby, M. F., D. F. Balas and J. S. Coral. Materials and Sustainable

Development. Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann, 2015.
the availability of critical materials as the 21st century progresses, especially as the
number of electronic devices increases.
8.3 Pure materials

Silicon of exceptional chemical purity is required for fabrication of silicon
chips; otherwise, impurities will have a deleterious effect on the electronic prop-
erties of the semiconductor and semiconductor grade silicon is made in the
Czochralski process. Here a single crystal is pulled from a melt using a rotating
seed crystal and the crystal is then cut into slices or wafers for use in semicon-
ductor fabrication. In recent years, ionic liquids have been considered as solvents
for purification of elemental materials such as sulphur, phosphorus, selenium
and tellurium.
The Preparation of Materials 73
8.4 Fine powders

Interest in the use of quantum dots for solid-state lighting has highlighted the
requirement to produce powders with sizes around 1 µm or less, in particular
with sizes in the nanometre range. Two methods with the potential to produce
small particle sizes are the following:
(a) Hydrothermal synthesis—Hydrothermal synthesis involves heating

reactants often metal salts or oxides or hydroxides as a solution or suspen-
sion in a liquid, usually but not necessarily water at elevated temperature
and pressure up to around 573 K and 100 MPa. For non-oxide materials,
chemicals such as thiourea or thioacetamide that decompose to give
sulphur-containing gases can be used as reactants. Nucleation and growth
processes takes place under hydrothermal conditions.
A hydrothermal reactor is similar to a pressure cooker.
(b) Aerosol synthesis—Aerosols are colloidal systems and consist of liquid or
solid droplets in a gaseous dispersion medium. Aerosol routes to powders
fall into two categories. In the first, a supersaturated vapour of reactant is
produced followed by homogeneous nucleation. The second method
involves generation of liquid droplets by, for example, ultrasonic atomisa-
tion or electrostatic atomisation. The liquid droplets are then subjected to a
heat treatment. The diameter of droplets generated by ultrasonic cavitation
of a solution can be written in the form
d ¼ 0:34ð8πγ=ρf 2 Þ1=3 ; ð8:1Þ
where d is the calculated droplet size, γ is the surface tension, ρ is the density of the
solution and f is the ultrasonic frequency used for cavitation. A general problem
associated with all methods for preparing powders is to obtain powders with a
controlled particle size in an economic way.
8.5 Thin films in the semiconductor industry

The fabrication of integrated circuits frequently depends on the deposition of thin
films onto a silicon wafer or injection of ions into the surface region of the wafer
(Table 8.3). For example, sputtering, which is an example of physical vapour
deposition (PVD), is carried out in a vacuum chamber. A gas such as argon at
low pressure in the chamber is ionised and accelerated towards the material to be
deposited and atoms from this material are dislodged and deposit onto the sub-
strate. In this way, metallic coatings can be produced and sputtering is used to
deposit interconnects onto silicon wafers. In physical vapour deposition a low-
pressure vapour of the material to be deposited (e.g. a vapour of metal atoms) is
Table 8.3 A range of techniques used for deposition of coatings

Technique Description
Chemical vapour deposition Gaseous reactants in a vacuum chamber adsorb onto
(CVD) a hot substrate and react to form a coating. The
gaseous reactants can also undergo chemical
reactions in the gas phase before deposition onto the
substrate or react on the substrate after absorption.
CVD is used in the semiconductor industry for
introducing dopants into a substrate.
Metal-organic chemical vapour Gas molecules such as trimethyl gallium are used to
deposition (MOCVD) carry in metal elements at low temperature onto a
surface.
Evaporative deposition The target is melted in a vacuum and vapour then
deposits onto the substrate.
Ion implantation Energetic ions are injected into the surface of a solid
target to modify or change the chemical composition
near the surface of the substrate. Ion implantation is
used in the semiconductor industry to introduce
dopant atoms into a semiconductor and is also used to
modify the hardness of metals.
Physical vapour deposition A range of techniques in which the material to be
(PVD) deposited (the target) is vaporised and the vapour is
then deposited onto the substrate.
Plasma spraying A thermal spraying technique where a direct current
gas plasma is generated between a water-cooled
tungsten cathode and a water-cooled copper anode.
The temperature in the plasma can be around
5000 C. Powder particles in the carrier gas are fed
through the plasma, partially melt and deposit onto
the cold substrate. Plasma spraying is used to deposit
thermal barrier coatings, for example yttria-stabilised
zirconia or alumina onto turbine blades and coatings of
hydroxyapatite onto orthopaedic implants. Coatings
made by plasma spraying tend to be porous. Plasma
spraying is carried out at atmospheric pressures
although a variant is known as vacuum plasma
spraying where a reduced atmosphere is present
which affects the microstructure of the deposited
coatings, such as their density.
Plasma-enhanced chemical A variation of the CVD process, chemical reaction
vapour deposition (PECVD) rates are enhanced in the presence of a plasma that
is generated by application of a radiofrequency field
to a low-pressure gas. Reactants collide with electrons
in the gas phase, producing energetic species through
ionisation and these species adsorb onto the substrate.
PECVD is used in the semiconductor industry and is a

lower-temperature process than CVD. It is suitable for
substrates that do not have chemical stability at high
temperature. PECVD has been used for producing
diamond-like coatings (DLC), which are hard coatings
with high electrical resistivity and a low coefficient of
friction.
Pulsed laser deposition A form of physical vapour deposition in which the
target material is evaporated by a focused pulsed
laser beam.
Radiofrequency (RF) sputter This technique uses an alternating current source
deposition compared to a direct current source in the sputtering
process. It is useful for deposition of non-conducting
target materials such as ceramics.
Radiofrequency (RF) magnetron The efficiency of RF sputter deposition is enhanced in
sputter deposition the presence of a moving magnetic field.
Sol-gel processing A wet chemical technique for preparation of ceramic
materials in the form of coatings, powders, fibres and
monoliths. Starting reactants are either aqueous
colloidal dispersions of oxides or solutions of metal
alkoxides. For both types of reactants, a gelation
process is promoted followed by a calcination step to
yield the oxide. Sol-gel processes, particularly when
based on aqueous sols, have been used to fabricate
porous coatings of catalyst support materials, for
example alumina supports. Anti-reflectance coatings
for architectural glass have been manufactured using
alkoxide solutions. Coatings can be deposited by
dipping, spinning and spraying.
Sputtering A type of PVD process carried out in a vacuum
chamber. Atoms are dislodged from the target by an
ionised gas such as argon in a vacuum chamber and
deposit onto the substrate.
Thermal spraying Powders are carried in a gas stream through a plasma
and deposit onto a substrate. Thermal spraying
includes the techniques of plasma spraying.
produced in a vacuum chamber and the vapour condenses onto the substrate. Ion
implantation is a method for injecting energetic ions into the surface region of a
target to modify or change the surface composition near the surface. Modifications
can occur in mechanical properties such as hardness, stiffness and corrosion
behaviour and in the case of integrated circuits electronic properties can be
modified as implanted elemental atoms can be concentrated in a specific region
of the surface. In chemical vapour deposition (CVD) the material to be deposited
is present as a gas and heated in a vacuum chamber in the presence or absence of

other reactants. Chemical reactions can take place between gas-phase species and
the product of the reaction then deposits onto the substrate. Metal-organic vapour
chemical deposition (MOCVD) is a variant of chemical vapour deposition. In
electrodeposition, coatings are electrochemically deposited from an electrolyte.
8.6 Synthetic polymers

Detailed methods for the preparation of polymers are given in reference books but
comments on several general methods are given here. Aliphatic polyamides are known
as nylons that are condensation polymers. In the latter, two monomers A and B react
to form a product with the repeat unit A-B in a step-growth polymerisation.
Step-growth means monomers added to a growing polymer chain.
There are many types of nylon and one type, nylon-6, 6, is made by the conden-
sation of adipic acid with hexamethylene diammine in an interfacial reaction.
(The nomenclature for nylon 6, 6 means that there are six carbon atoms between
the amine groups for both monomers.) The initial product is a crystalline salt,
hexamethylene diammonium adipate, that undergoes polymerisation with the
repeat unit
ðCO ðCH2 Þ4 CO NH ðCH2 Þ6 NHÞ ð8:2Þ
Aromatic polyamides are known as aramids and an example is Kevlar (poly

(p-phenylene terephthalamide)) prepared by a condensation reaction between
terephthaloyl chloride and p-phenylene diamine to give the repeat unit
ðNH C6 H4 NH CO C6 H4 COÞ ð8:3Þ
In contrast with condensation reactions, in emulsion polymerisation monomer

droplets are dispersed in an aqueous medium containing a surface active agent
that forms micelles and also contains a solution of an initiator such as potassium
persulphate. Monomer molecules from the droplets and initiator diffuse through
the aqueous environment into the micelles where polymerisation takes place even-
tually, leading to a latex dispersion.
8.7 Polymerase chain reaction

The polymerase chain reaction, which was invented by Kary Mullis, is used to
amplify, that is copy, a strand of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) in vitro so that
millions of copies can be produced. Single strands of DNA are separated by
heating duplex DNA, after which chemically synthesised DNA primers are
added. The primers are oligonucleotides containing about twenty base pairs and
attach themselves to priming sites at each end of the separated DNA strands so that
they flank the section to be amplified. The process of attachment is known as
hybridisation. A heat-sensitive enzyme, DNA polymerase, for example Thermus
aquaticus (known as Taq polymerise), enzymatically replicates the selected section
using four added deoxynucleotide triphosphates (dNTPs) namely dATP, dGTP,
dCTP and dTTP. The primer is required as DNA polymerase cannot by itself
initiate new chains.
Note that names for enzymes end in -ase.
In practice the amplification process requires cycles of heating and cooling, the first
to separate the duplex DNA and the second to carry out the amplification step.
In this context, amplification means copying.
The process is automated and if there are N cycles of heating and cooling the
number of copies equates to 2N so that millions of copies can be produced. The
polymerase chain reaction can be viewed as a method for polymer synthesis and
has various applications. It is particularly associated with forensic science in the
techniques known as DNA fingerprinting.
8.8 Fibres
Many materials are in the form of fibres and examples are shown in Table 8.4.
Oxide fibres have been prepared by ‘blowing’ from a melt and these so-called
blown fibres (e.g. aluminosilicates) have applications as thermal insulation but the
ability to blow fibres from a melt is limited by the viscosity of the molten oxide.
Continuous oxide fibres such as those based on alumina and silica have been
Table 8.4 Examples of materials in fibrous form

Subject area Examples of fibre
Foods Candy floss (cotton candy) made by spinning
Medicine Amyloid fibrils in Alzheimer’s disease
Oxide fibres Glass fibres from a melt by spinning
Oxide fibres such as Nextel from solution precursors
Non-oxide fibres Continuous silicon carbide fibres from polycarbosilanes
Carbon fibre from carburisation of polyacrylonitrile fibres (PAN)
Polymers Continuous Kevlar fibres made by spinning
Polyester fibres by spinning
prepared from solution precursors in sol-gel processes, for example Nextel. Oxide
fibres have been used as thermal insulating tiles on the Space Shuttle. Non-oxide
fibres, for example silicon carbide, have been made by spinning solutions of
polycarbosilanes that are then pyrolysed in an inert atmosphere while carbon
fibres are obtained on carbonisation of continuous polyacrylonitrile fibres (PAN)
in a controlled temperature range in an inert atmosphere.
Polycarbosilanes contain carbon–silicon bonds in the polymer backbone.
Applications for non-oxide fibres include carbon–carbon composites for brake

pads in aircraft and racing cars and silicon carbide–silicon carbide composites
for protection of hot components of spacecraft. Textile fibres can be spun from
solutions of synthetic polymers, for example polyester and polyacrylonitrile, the
latter known as acrylic fibres, while Kevlar is produced from spinning continuous
fibres from solutions of polymer in concentrated sulphuric acid. When fibres of a
polymer are produced, they are often placed under a tensile stress to orientate
molecules in the damp fibre in the spinning process in order to enhance the
strength of the fibres.
Acrylic fibre are fibres that are derived from acrylonitrile monomers.
In a completely different area, protein fibres known as amyloid fibres are

associated with Alzheimer’s disease. Proteins have a secondary and tertiary
structure in which the protein chains can form helical structures (α-helix) and
folded β-sheets. While folding of proteins into compact structures is essential
for their normal functioning, in Alzheimer’s disease mis-folding of proteins
occurs, resulting in aggregation of protein fibrils to form plaque in the
brain with devastating consequences for the patient’s health. The search
for solutions to Alzheimer’s disease has become a pressing medical quest in
the 21st century.
8.9 Summary
While materials are important in the lives of people and nations, some materials
known as critical materials are essential for national security or important econom-
ically. Indium is an example of one such material. The ability to prepare materials
with high chemical purity is crucial in the semiconductor industry that underpins
the manufacture of electronic devices. In the biological sciences, the polymerase
chain reaction, which is a way of amplification or copying DNA sequences, is
particularly associated with forensic science, in particular DNA fingerprinting.
Many materials are often used in the form of powders. In the case of powders,
the ability to reproduce them with a controlled size is important particularly for
quantum dots.

Butterworth-Heinemann, 2015.
Askeland, D. H., and W. J. Wright. The Science and Engineering of Materials, 7th edn.
Earle, M. J., E. Boros, K. R. Seddon, M. A. Gilea and J. S. Vyle. Elemental solvents, United
States Patent Application 2010/0178229, 2010.
2014.
Lang, R. J. Ultrasonic atomization of liquids. Journal of the Acoustic Society of America (1962)
34, 6.
Page, T. J. Ion implantation. In Concise Encyclopaedia of Advanced Ceramic Materials, edited
by R. J. Brook, pp.252–7. Oxford: Pergamon Press, 1991.
Papachristodoulou, D., A. Snape, W. H. Elliott, and D. C. Elliott. Biochemistry and Molecu-
9
Disruptive Technologies
9.1 Introduction
The expansion of the Internet in the past twenty years has seen many businesses,
both established and new, migrate to the Internet in order to develop digital
formats. Some of these businesses have been disruptive in the sense that they
have impacted on existing businesses and business models. For example, elec-
tronic mail (email) has resulted in a decrease in the numbers of letters delivered
manually, electronic books have affected sales of paper books, online banking has
removed the necessity for having physical branches while online shopping allows
peoples to shop from home without visiting shops. Online services have also
created job opportunities and while the number of letters that are delivered may
be decreasing, goods that are purchased online must be delivered by delivery
drivers or by existing or new postal services. The ability to purchase and download
music files or hear music streamed on specific websites has over the years signifi-
cantly reduced the sales of conventional records. One area where competition has
been particularly acrimonious relates to the use of taxis. In a city such as London
there has always been competition between conventional taxi drivers and minicab
drivers but in recent years a new way of requesting a vehicle for transport has
increased in popularity in London and in cities across the world. The mobile phone
app from the company Uber has the potential to affect the livelihoods of existing
drivers. Hence disruptive technologies are proliferating across business areas
fuelled by the increasing use of the Internet and ways of carrying out transactions
that were unavailable just a few years ago. Disruptive technologies also occur in the
area of materials and receive much attention in the media although it can be
difficult for the layman and also the specialist to ascertain whether the publicity
is ‘hype’ or genuine. When assessing the claims made for disruptive technologies it
is appropriate to recall the words spoken by the White Queen to Alice in the book
Through the Looking Glass by Lewis Carroll: The rule is, jam tomorrow and jam
yesterday—but never jam today. Examples of potentially disruptive material tech-
nologies are described in this chapter.

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9.2 Disruptive technologies

Gene editing, also known as genome editing, allows the introduction of deoxyribo-
nucleic acid (DNA) sequences into a gene to correct a genetic defect. Its formal
name is clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats, or CRISPR, in
which a cutting enzyme known as CAS9 can target a region of the genome with
precision, remove a DNA fragment and insert a different DNA sequence into the
genome. Thus, the technique, more formally CRISPR/CAS9, is an editing tool
that involves cut and paste processes for selected DNA targets. While a potentially
disruptive technology there are ethical questions associated with it, because while
editing DNA in humans could provide cures for diseases, changes to the human
genome could be introduced that would be passed from generation to generation.
CRISPR is not the only gene-editing technique and other methods include zinc finger
nucleases (ZFNs) and transcription activator-like effector nucleases (TALENs).
It may not be obvious why CRISPR is mentioned in a monograph on materials. Its
presence arises because DNA can be considered to be a polymer, in particular a
heteropolymer, and polymers generally, such as nylon, polyester and polytetra-
fluoroethylene, are considered to be materials although these are synthetic materials.
Three-dimensional (3D) printing has attracted much publicity in recent years
and has been described as a disruptive technology. It allows manufacture of an
object to be made layer by layer out of plastics, ceramics or metal powders and also
by use of living cells. When the latter are used, there is the long-term potential for
producing artificial organs and this approach is sometimes referred to as bioprint-
ing. 3D printing is an additive manufacturing method or rapid prototype technique
and a feature of the process is that there is minimal wastage of material compared
to conventional subtractive manufacturing techniques such as milling and drilling.
It is particularly suited for high-value, low-volume specialist products such as
turbine blades made out of nickel-based superalloys that have intricate assemblies
of cooling channels and also for metallic implants for patients undergoing recon-
struction surgery. However, 3D printing is not a new technique and its origins
reside in stereolithography, a process in which a photopolymerisable liquid is cured
layer by layer by the controlled movement of a laser across the liquid surface to
build up the object.
9.3 Wonder materials

The discovery of high-temperature ceramic superconductors in 1986 resulted in
unprecedented worldwide research interest and the materials were frequently
described in national newspapers. The almost frenzied interest arose from poten-
tial applications and the temperature at which they develop superconductivity, that
is zero electrical resistance, which was around liquid nitrogen temperatures. Up
until their discovery superconductivity in metals was observed around liquid
helium temperatures and in fact the large magnetic fields generated in magnetic
Disruptive Technologies 83
resonance imaging (MRI) that is widely used nowadays involve coils of metallic
alloys immersed in liquid helium. The latter is more expensive than liquid nitrogen.
Potential applications for ceramic superconductors included magnetically levitated
trains, power transmission without energy losses and compact, powerful and
efficient electric motors. The new materials were truly ‘wonder materials’. How-
ever, since their discovery it is fair to say that these future applications have not yet
been realised.
Graphene, a two-dimensional sheet of carbon that is one atomic layer thick, has
attracted much publicity in the public domain and was isolated in 2004 by
Sir Andre Geim and Sir Konstantin Novoselov at the University of Manchester
in the United Kingdom. It also has been described as a wonder material. Graphene
is the thinnest known material and has a hexagonal array of carbon atoms. The
excitement surrounding graphene is related to its potential applications based on
its electronic and mechanical properties. Hence, some applications include as
components of electrodes in fuel cells, lithium-ion batteries and supercapacitors;
conductive transparent coatings to replace indium tin oxide coatings in electronic
displays; integrated circuits; field effect transistors; solar cells; flexible display
devices; protective coatings and fillers or reinforcements for composites. A sheet
of graphene that is rolled up into a cylinder forms a carbon nanotube. Whether
graphene lives up to its description as a wonder material remains to be seen.
Another class of material that is mentioned here relates to auxetic materials
although these have never been referred to as wonder materials. The inclusion
relates to their negative Poisson ratio, which means that the materials become
thicker in the direction perpendicular to the direction of stretch, which is a counter-
intuitive concept. Certain alloys of copper and brass exhibit auxetic behaviour as
do some polymer foams.
The interaction of electromagnetic radiation with materials occurs in a number
of ways. Hence, MRI involves radio waves, radar utilises microwaves and the
optical properties of stained glass windows relies on the interaction of visible light
with small metallic particles such as gold. Metamaterials are a class of materials that
have not been referred to as wonder materials but have intriguing properties that
would probably qualify for their description as wonder materials. The refractive
index, n, of a material at a particular frequency can be expressed by the equation
n ¼ ðεμÞ1=2 ; ð9:1Þ
where ε is the permittivity and µ is the permeability. The refractive index is often
assumed to be positive. A theoretical study by Viktor Veselago that was published
initially in Russian in 1967 discussed the properties of a material that would arise if
both the permittivity and permeability were negative. He concluded that the
material would have a negative refractive index and such a material is known as a
metamaterial. However, this study remained largely unknown for many years until
the early years of the 21st century and interest in metamaterials has grown since
then. Metamaterials are artificial materials in the sense that they do not occur in
nature and have the potential ability to render objects invisible by deflecting
radiation around them and generating an invisibility cloak as associated with the
fictional character Harry Potter in the novels by J. K. Rowling. Metamaterials have
been constructed by using elements smaller than the wavelength of the electro-
magnetic wave in which a combination of metallic rods and split-ring resonators
are used in combination to modify the permittivity and permeability, respectively.
Clearly, as the wavelength decreases, the dimensions of the rods and resonators
need to decrease also. The split-ring resonators are analogous to the resonators
used for the magnetron cavity that had a central role in the development of radar.
Metamaterials have the potential to be used as flat lenses with improved optical
properties compared to those of existing lenses.
A split-ring resonator consists of two concentric rings with gaps on opposite sides
and has an inductance and capacitance. They were invented in 1981 and a detailed
description is given in W. H. Hardy and L. A. Whitehead, Split-ring resonator for use
in magnetic resonance from 200–2000 MHz, Review of Scientific Instruments
(1981) 52, 213–16.
It is envisaged that other wonder materials will be prepared throughout the 21st
century that will generate excitement and promises of widespread application.
A quotation from the eminent physicist Ernest Rutherford made to the British
Advancement of Science in 1933 is relevant when considering the exploitation of
wonder materials: ‘We cannot control atomic energy to an extent which would be
of any value commercially, and I believe we are not likely ever be able to do so.’
9.4 Summary
Developments on materials do not usually receive much publicity in the public
domain. However, the technique of three-dimensional printing and very recently
the analytical method known as CRISPR have attracted much attention. Both of
these techniques represent disruptive technologies; the first relates to the manu-
facture of components while CRISPR has profound implications on the sequen-
cing of the human genome. High-temperature ceramic superconductors and
graphene have received much publicity and been described as wonder materials
because of their potential applications, but their promises have yet to be realised.
Auxetic materials and metamaterials have not been described as wonder materials
but have intriguing properties that justify their description as wonder materials.
9.5 Further reading

Anonymous. CRISPR. In Oxford Dictionary of Biology, ed. by R. S. Hine, 7th edn, p.148.
Disruptive Technologies 85
Boot, H. A. H., and J. T. Randall. Historical notes on the cavity magnetron. IEEE Trans-
actions on Electronic Devices (1976) 23(7), 724–9.
Carmichael, H. Gene genius. Chemistry and Industry (Oct. 2015) 79, 32–5.
King, A. Gene editing fears. Chemistry and Industry (Nov. 2015), 79, 6.
Megget, K. The cutting edge of gene editing. Chemistry World (Feb. 2016) 13, 62–6.
Narlikar, A. V. Superconductors. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2014.
Papachristodoulou, D., A. Snape, W. H. Elliott and D. C. Elliott. Biochemistry and Molecu-
Parrington, J. Redesigning Life: How Genome Editing Will Transform the World. Oxford:
Qiu, X. G. (ed.). High-Temperature Superconductors. Cambridge: Woodhead, 2011.
Sachs, E. M., A Curodeau, T. Fan, J. F. Bredt, M. Cima and D. Brancazio. Three
dimensional printing system. United States Patent 5,807,437, 1998.
Solymar, L., and E. Shamonina. Waves in Metamaterials. Oxford: Oxford University Press,
2014.
Veselago, V. G. The electrodynamics of substances with simultaneously negative values of €
and µ. Soviet Physics-Uspekhi (1968) 10, 509–14.
Warner, J. H., F. Schaffel, A. Bachmatiuk and M. H. Rummeli. Graphene: Fundamentals and
Emerging Applications. Amsterdam: Elsevier, 2013.
10
The Importance of Microstructure
on Material Properties
10.1 Introduction
The colours observed in the wings of butterflies can be an enchanting sight but it
may come as a surprise to those observers that the wings of butterflies are in fact
colourless and do not contain pigments. A vase when dropped onto the floor can
break into many pieces while a plastic, Kevlar, can stop a bullet when used in
protective body vests and molluscs have shells that behave as ceramic armour.
The behaviour of materials is affected by a property known as microstructure and
just as superhydrophobicity is a property of surfaces rather than material compos-
ition, two identical material compositions can have different microstructures and
hence different properties. Plastics, ceramics and metals are characterised by their
microstructures and many living organisms have complex microstructures in their
bodies; in many materials microstructures are often associated with the concept of
toughness. Microstructural control can, in principle, allow the properties of mater-
ials to be tailored. In this chapter a brief overview of the concept of microstructures
is given with particular reference to entries mentioned in the Glossary.
10.2 Microstructure: a definition

The properties of a material are determined by its microstructure, that is, the
nature, quantity and distribution of structural elements or phases that make up
the material. These properties include optical properties, strength, toughness,
stiffness (Young’s modulus), hardness, elasticity and electronic properties such
as conductivity.
10.3 Toughness
Consider ceramic systems. They are strong under compression, a property used in
steel reinforcement of concrete structures, but weak in tension and are brittle

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materials. A. A. Griffith explained the low tensile strengths of brittle solids com-
pared to theoretical values who considered growth of a crack with an elliptical
cross-section through such a material. He showed that when the surface energy for
formation of new fracture faces was balanced by release of elastic strain energy
then the tensile fracture strength, S, could be written as
S ¼ ð2Eγ=πCÞ1=2 ; ð10:1Þ
where E is Young’s modulus for the material, γ the surface energy and 2C the crack
length corresponding with the major elliptical axis. The fracture toughness or
stress intensity factor, KIC, for a solid was defined as
KIC ¼ ð2EγÞ1=2 ð10:2Þ
when the energy balance used for deriving Eq. (10.1) is applicable. Fracture
in ceramics occurs after crack initiation and growth until a critical size is
reached, several tens of micrometres. Applied forces are concentrated up to
1000 times at the crack tip, sufficient for rupturing atomic bonds in the solid.
The significance of toughness to materials is that while a ceramic cup or saucer
may break when dropped onto the floor, the toughness of ceramic and metallic
matrices can be increased through reinforcement with fibres through changes
in microstructures. Ductile metals can absorb around 100,000 times more
energy when a crack grows through the material compared to brittle ceramics,
and approaches to increase the ability of ceramics to absorb energy of an
advancing crack involve the development of fibre-reinforced matrices or
particle-reinforced materials.
10.4 Composite materials

Composite materials or ceramic matrix composites are widely used. Some
examples include silicon carbide fibre/silicon carbide composites (SiC/SiC) as
potential replacements for superalloys in gas turbines due to their higher operating
temperatures, alumina fibres in an alumina matrix, glass fibres in a a polyester resin
known as Fibreglass, glass-fibre felts and mats impregnated with epoxy resins for
fairings and trailing edge panels on the Boeing 747 and carbon fibre/carbon
composites for brake discs.
In a composite, one component, for example fibres, is dispersed into a medium

known as the matrix.
A feature of all of these systems is that fibres deflect cracks and increase the
fracture toughness, thus limiting crack propagation and fracture. Many living
organisms contain intricate structures of minerals obtained by a mineralisation
The Importance of Microstructure 89
process from soluble species interspersed with proteins. These structures are often
natural composites whose toughness and strength help to protect the organism.
For example, egg shells contain ordered crystals of calcium carbonate in a matrix
of natural polymers and the skeletons of sponges comprise silica rods. A composite
structure of alternating layers of protein and calcite (calcium carbonate) in the
abalone shell has a high fracture toughness compared to calcite alone and helps to
protect the mollusc from predatory attack. In terms of nomenclature, biomaterials
refer to materials found in living or dead organisms while biomimetic materials are
materials made in the laboratory with the aim of utilising the structures of naturally
occurring materials in organisms in order to develop improved material properties.
Some fibres contain liquid crystals. For example, the aramid fibre Kevlar contains
polymer molecules that are closely aligned in the fibre with hydrogen bonding
between fibres. This combination of closely packed fibres with attractive forces
between fibres contributes to the strength of the material.
Transformation toughening is another way of controlling the microstructure to
tailor the properties of materials and is associated with the dispersion of fine
zirconia particles in an alumina matrix. Toughening is associated with the phase
change from the tetragonal to monoclinic phase of zirconia particles dispersed in a
brittle ceramic. The volume and shape changes associated with the martensitic
transformation of discrete zirconia particles reduce the stress intensity at the crack
tip. Although the examples shown here relate to ceramics, microstructural control
is just as important in metals for tailoring material properties.
10.5 Opals, butterflies and photonic crystals

The gemstone opal has an opalescent milky-white appearance and a range of
colours due to impurities. Its microstructure consists of a three-dimensional
array of close-packed spheres of silica in a periodic structure. Wings in a butterfly
contain structures of small protein struts interspaced with small air gaps in periodic
structures. The structures in opal and butterflies act as diffraction gratings for
incident light that gives rise to optical interference and the colours seen by obser-
vers. These periodic structures are characteristic of photonic materials in which
optical diffraction occurs with visible light within the materials in which the
periodicity is on the order of the wavelength of light. Photonic materials are also
known as photonic crystals and the latter have a photonic gap that is analogous to
the bandgap in semiconductors. Photons that have energies within the photonic
gap cannot propagate through the crystal and are confined to defect regions.
Hence, photonic crystals act as waveguides for transporting light around corners
as light is repelled from the bulk crystal. Interference takes place between diffracted
components of visible light. Photonic crystals can be made in the laboratory, for
example by forming a close-packed structure of silica spheres around 1000 nm in
diameter. Mica is an aluminosilicate material and mica flakes with a thickness
around 300–600 nm, when coated for example with titanium dioxide, are used
as an iridescent pigment, for example as an ‘effect’ pigment in car paints. In these

pigments which are not photonic crystals, interference between components of
incident light gives rise to the colours.
10.6 Traditional ceramics

Chemical reactions occur between reactants during heating in a kiln in the manufac-
ture of traditional ceramics such as tableware. The microstructure of cups and saucers
as examples consist of crystalline material such as mullite, pores and glassy phases that
act as a glue to hold components together. The presence of pores lowers the strength of
the products, which helps to explain why tableware breaks easily when dropped. In
contrast with the porosity in tableware, porcelain such as Meissen porcelain is dense.
A consequence of the absence or presence of porosity is that glazes are used on
tableware before applying decoration and to prevent ingress of water into the body
of the ceramic, whereas glazes are not necessarily required for porcelain.
Macro-defect-free cement, unlike Portland cement, has a lower fraction of voids
(i.e. pores) and the resulting microstructure enables coiled springs to be produced.
Whereas conventional cements contain pores with sizes around 1 mm, the pore
size in macro-defect-free cements is around a few micrometres. The effect of this
drastic reduction in pore size is reflected in a comparison in the values of strength
for conventional cements that are around 5 MPa compared to 150 MPa for macro-
defect cements. Hence it can be noted that the method of processing material can
affect their properties.
Defect refers to pores or impurities.
10.7 Metamaterials
Metamaterials have an engineered microstructure or nanostructure where the
structure does not occur in nature and the structure has a periodicity. They can
be referred to as artificial materials. Metamaterials have a negative refractive index
and have the ability to guide electromagnetic radiation, visible or other wave-
lengths, for example microwaves around an object rendering it invisible. While
an ‘invisibility cloak’ can be produced in theory and has been much publicised by
the fictional character Harry Potter, such cloaks have not been made in practice.
10.8 Shape memory alloys

Coronary stents made out of a nickel–titanium alloy known as Nitinol are used for
implantable coronary stents. The key microstructural feature of this alloy that
makes them stable for stents is a reversible phase transition from the martensitic
to the austenitic phase at around body temperatures.
The Importance of Microstructure 91
10.9 DNA
There is much interest in the 21st century on personalised medicine that involves
sequencing the genome of an individual, that is, in determining the sequence of
four bases, adenine, cytosine, guanine and thymine in the polymer chain of the
nucleic acid. In the double helical structure of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA),
hydrogen bonds link adenine to thymine and cytosine to guanine. The linkages
can be considered to be essential in forming the microstructure of DNA, that is, in
promoting the helical structure.
10.10 Optical properties

Optical properties of materials such as metals and quantum dots depend not just
on their composition but on their particle size. The optical properties of small
particles such as gold are utilised in stained-glass windows. Quantum dots behave
as nanophosphors where the wavelength of emitted light depends on the particle
size, moving to longer wavelengths as the particle size increases as a result of
quantum effects known as quantum confinement.
Quantum confinement means the electronic wave function is confined to small

regions of space.
10.11 Summary
The properties of a material are determined by its microstructure, that is, the
nature, quantity and distribution of structural elements or phases that make up
the material (Table 10.1). The microstructure affects material properties such as
strength and toughness. The toughness of composites is increased when fibres are
incorporated into the matrix. Shape memory alloys, DNA, metamaterials, trad-
itional ceramics and photonic crystals are all characterised by microstructures.
Table 10.1 Properties of materials

that can be affected by microstructure
Material property
Creep
Electrical conductivity
Fracture strength
Fracture toughness
Hardness
Stiffness
Thermal conductivity
Thermal expansion
A common example of how microstructure affects material properties relates to the

colour of the wings of butterflies that do not contain pigments and the opalescent
nature of opal gemstones that contain periodic arrays of silica spheres.

Bonsal, N. P., and J. Lamon (eds). Ceramic Matrix Composites: Materials, Modeling and
Technology. Chichester: Wiley, 2015.
Press, 1991.
Davidge, R. W. Mechanical Behaviour of Ceramics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
1979.
Griffith, A. A. The phenomena of rupture and flow in solids. Philosophical Transactions of the
Royal Society of London (1920) A221, 163–98.
Lee, M. (ed.). Remarkable Natural Material Surfaces and Their Engineering Potential. New
York: Springer, 2014.
Novotny, L., and B. Hecht. Principle of Nano-Optics, 2nd edn. Cambridge: Cambridge
Ozin, G. A., A. C. Arsenault and L. Cademartiri. Nanochemistry: A Chemical Approach to
Nanomaterials. Cambridge: Royal Society of Chemistry, 2009.
11
Patents, Patent Trolls and
Intellectual Property
‘When I use a word, it means just what I choose it to mean, neither more
nor less.’
—Humpty Dumpty, in Through the Looking Glass, by Lewis Carroll.
11.1 Introduction
When companies, government organisations, universities and individuals spend
time and money on developing inventions they will want to protect their inventions
from being copied and will hope to obtain a financial return on their investment.
This can be achieved by building up a portfolio of intellectual property and
patents; a form of intellectual property is particularly relevant to activities on
materials. This chapter gives guidelines to readers who may not be familiar with
patents but it should be stressed that anyone contemplating taking out patents to
protect their inventions should seek professional advice from qualified specialists
such as patent attorneys as I am not qualified to offer professional advice on patents.
11.2 Patents
A patent is a legal document and conveys a right to its owner, that is, the owner of
the invention described in the patent. This right allows the owner to prevent others
from practicing the invention, including manufacturing or importing goods, for
sale into a country where the patent is enforced for a limited period of time, usually
twenty years from the filing date for the patent. The patent owner does not have an
automatic right to exploit the invention. The patent is a contract between the
patent owner and a national government and in exchange for the right to exclude
others from practicing the invention, the patent owner has to disclose the details of
the invention in the public domain. Thus, the applicant is given a monopoly for a
limited period of time. There are no world patents and a patent is validated in

DOI: 10.1093/oso/9780198804079.001.0001
individual countries. Patents are also a vast source of technical information; for
example, there are approximately 9,000,000 granted United States patents and the
first United States patent was granted on 31 July 1790. There is no restriction on
the length of a patent and the language used in patent documents can appear to be
arcane and sentences can be long. One patent describes one invention and, in
general, patents describe a product, a method for making the product or a system.
As a form of property, patents can be sold, licensed or allowed to lapse so that
anyone can practice the invention. The quotation from Through the Looking Glass
at the beginning of this chapter can seem relevant to the interpretation of patent
documents because words and phrases in a specification do not have to have the
same meaning they have in everyday life. Their meaning is determined by the way
they are defined in the specification.
All patent documents have the same structure:
(a) Front page—The title, abstract, name(s) of inventor(s), applicant (the

owner), patent classification, priority date, filing date and application date.
(b) Background to the invention—Description of the prior art, that is, earlier
published documents of relevance to the invention. This section is a good
source of references when finding out about a new field of technology.
(c) Summary of the invention—Brief description of the invention.
(d) Embodiments—Several ways of producing the invention, along with the
preferred way.
(e) Drawings—Labelled drawings are supplied at the front or back of the
document.
(f) Claims—The legal part of the patent document that describes the scope of the
rights given to the applicant (owner). Independent claims are claims that do not
refer to other claims. The first claim, namely claim 1, is always an independent
claim. Other claims are known as dependent claims because they can refer to an
independent claim or to other dependent claims. For example, the second
claim, claim 2 in the list of claims, can be a dependent claim. Note that a patent
document can contain more than one independent claim.
The description, drawings and claims for a patent application are the patent
specification and only features described in the specification can be claimed.
Patent infringement can occur when someone has a product, method or system
that is described in part in at least one claim of another patent. Two patent
documents that have similar claims are said to potentially interfere with each
other but patent documents do not infringe other patent documents.
The general approach to filing a patent document is outlined in the following
stages:
(a) The specification is prepared and then filed or deposited at the United
Kingdom Intellectual Property Office (UKIPO) if prepared in the United
Patents, Patent Trolls and Intellectual Property 95
Kingdom, or at the United States Patent and Trademark Office (USPTO)

if prepared in the USA. A filing date is then issued by UKIPO. Additions,
that is, new material to the specification, can be made within 12 months of
filing and additions are given a new filing date. The applicant can request a
search report from UKIPO and this report indicates prior art documents
that may affect patentability.
(b) Twelve months after initial filing of the original specification, filings are
combined and a decision is taken by the applicant as to which route to take
in order to obtain granted patents. For example, the applicant may decide
just to let the filing process proceed in the United Kingdom or file for an
international application or a regional filing at, for example, the European
Patent Office. Filings in individual countries such as the USA, China or
Japan are made at this 12-month stage. Translations of patent documents in
some countries are made at this stage.
(c) The patent application is published 18 months after the initial filing.
(d) Examination of the specification takes place at national patent offices over a
period of several years, for example four years. In order to obtain a granted
patent, the invention must be novel, which is not disclosed to the public at
the time of filing the patent application. Also the invention must be invent-
ive or non-obvious, so it could not be predicted how the invention works by
consideration of published documents in the public domain before the filing
date. In addition to being novel and inventive, the invention must be
capable of industrial application.
(e) Grant and renewal fees are paid, usually each year, to keep the patent in force.
The lifetime of a granted patent is usually twenty years from the filing date.
Patent infringement relates to manufacturing in or importing an invention into a

country where a patent protects the invention. Lawsuits are held before a jury in
the USA and before a judge in the United Kingdom. While traditionally lawsuits
are brought about between two manufacturers, lawsuits brought about by non-
practicing entities (NPEs) have been a feature of cases in recent years. NPEs are
individuals or firms who own patents but do not directly use their patented
technology to produce goods or services. Instead NPEs assert their patents against
companies that do produce goods and services. NPEs are sometimes referred to as
‘patent trolls’, but when used in this way the phrase has derogatory overtones.
11.3 Patents and intellectual property

Patents are a form of intellectual property originating from creations of the
mind. Other forms of intellectual property include copyright, trademarks, designs,
databases and trade secrets. When a patent has lapsed and the limited monopoly
collapses, a third party can manufacture the product; this approach happens in the
pharmaceutical industry for generic drugs. When a patent lapses, a manufacturer

can continue to use a trademark for brand recognition. As an example, although
patent protection for Lycra has lapsed, the manufacturer can still use the trade-
mark and although the identical product can be produced by third parties, the
latter cannot use the trademark without permission.
A registered trademark is represented by a superscript ® while an unregistered

trademark is represented by a superscript ™.
11.4 Patents as a source of technical information

Patents are a major source of technical information and often the results of
scientific research are only published in the patent literature. Table 11.1 lists
some patent numbers and the subject of the inventions in order to give an idea of
the scope of technologies covered by the patent literature.
Table 11.1 Patents as a source of technical information

Patent number Subject area Year of grant
US 3633 Vulcanisation of rubber 1844
US 644,077 Acetylsalicylic acid 1900
US 942,699 Bakelite 1909
US 1,266,766 Cellophane 1918
CA 234336 Insulin 1923
US 1,811,959 Neoprene 1931
US 1,929,453 Polyvinyl chloride 1933
US 2,130,947 Nylon 1938
US 2,133,235 Glass fibre 1938
US 2,171,765 Polymethyl methacrylate 1939
US 2,277,013 Xerography 1939
US 2,230,654 Polytetrafluoroethylene 1941
US 2,752,339 Cortisone 1956
US 3,353,115 Ruby laser 1960
GB 854211 Hovercraft 1960
US 3,083,737 Velcro 1963
US 3,174,851 Nitinol 1965
US 3,541,541 Computer mouse 1970
US 3,691,140 Post-it notes 1972
US 3,922,464 Post-it notes 1975
US 3,671,542 Kevlar 1972
Patents, Patent Trolls and Intellectual Property 97
US 3,953,566 Gore-Tex 1976

US 4,253,132 Taser stun gun 1981
US 4,683,202 Polymerase chain reaction 1987
US 7,345,671 iPod 2008
11.5 Summary
Patents are a form of intellectual property and describe inventions. In order to
obtain a granted patent the invention must be novel, inventive and capable of
industrial application. A patent grants the patent owner a limited monopoly for
exploiting the invention for a limited period of time in exchange for disclosing
details of the invention in the public domain. Patents are a primary source of
technical information; for example, there are around 9,000,000 granted United
States patents. In recent years, a feature of lawsuits on patent infringement is the
participation of non-practicing entities (NPEs).

Currano, J. N., and D. L. Roth (eds). Chemical Information for Chemists: A Primer.
Cambridge: Royal Society of Chemistry, 2014.
van Dulken, S. Introduction to Patent Information, 3rd edn. London: British Library, 1998.
Hopkins, S. Improvement in the making of Pot Ash by a new apparatus and process, United
States Patent, X000001, 1790.
Jackson Knight, H. Patent Strategy for Researchers and Research Managers. Chichester: Wiley,
2013.
McManus, J. Intellectual Property: From Creation to Commercialisation. Oxford: Oak Tree
Press, 2012.
Segal, D. Exploring Materials Through Patent Information. Cambridge: Royal Society of
Chemistry, 2015.
Tyrell, J. A. Fundamentals of Industrial Chemistry: Pharmaceuticals, Polymers and Business.
Chichester: Wiley, 2014.
12
Everyday Products
The Role of Materials
12.1 Introduction
The previous chapters have shown how materials are essential for the functioning
of everyday life with applications in consumer goods, healthcare and foods as
examples. Important materials may only form a small part of a product, for
example a transparent indium tin oxide coating as an electrode in a smartphone.
Many materials are associated with complex technology, for example superalloys
and their use in gas turbine blades. However, in everyday life people routinely
purchase products and these products often contain materials that have analogous
properties to other materials that are used in what may be described as more
advanced applications. In this chapter, some everyday products are described
with respect to certain of their ingredients. However, the chapter does not include
data sheets for all ingredients and the comments should not be interpreted as
endorsement for any particular product.
12.2 Sunscreens
The function of a sunscreen is to prevent ultraviolet (UV) light from the sun from
penetrating the skin and causing damage such as sunburn and skin cancer. There are
two types of ultraviolet wavelengths: UV-A, which causes the skin to darken which is
desirable, and UV-B, which produces red and raw skin which is undesirable. Ingre-
dients of a sunscreen can absorb radiation that can cause a small amount of local
heating but are associated with the presence of small particles of titanium dioxide or
zinc oxide. These particles are nanoparticles, around 50 nm in diameter, and they can
reflect and, more importantly, scatter components of sunlight such as UV wave-
lengths away from the skin. It is important not to block all sunlight from the skin as it
promotes the formation of vitamin D, a deficiency of which can cause rickets.
Nanoparticles and their interaction with electromagnetic radiation such as
visible light occur in many applications involving materials, for example the

DOI: 10.1093/oso/9780198804079.001.0001
optical properties of quantum dots or the colours in the wings of butterflies,

which arise from scattering in photonic crystals. However, whereas photonic
crystals have periodic structures, titanium dioxide powders in sunscreens do
not form photonic crystals on the skin and are randomly packed. As the particles
are smaller than the wavelength of visible light, they appear invisible on the skin;
that is, the sunscreen is ‘non-streaky’ in appearance. A number of methods have
been used to prepare nanoparticles. For example, homogeneous nucleation from
the gas phase or from solution can result in distributions of monodisperse
nanoparticles. Hydrothermal synthesis, which involves nucleation from solutions
at elevated temperatures and pressures, can yield distributions of nanoparticles.
Titanium dioxide can be present in one of two crystalline phases, anatase and
rutile. Anatase is photoactive and in the presence of sunlight can produce free
radicals. It has applications in dye-sensitised solar cells. However, for sunscreen
formulations, rutile tends to be the preferred phase as it limits the production of
free radicals.
12.3 Washing-up liquids and surfactants

Anyone who has purchased a bottle of washing-up liquid or hair shampoo or
toothpaste may have noticed that the list of ingredients often refers to the presence
of a surfactant, an abbreviation for surface active agent. Surfactants are amphi-
philic molecules consisting of a hydrophobic part, which is commonly referred to
as a hydrocarbon ‘tail’, and a ‘headgroup’. The tail part of the molecule is soluble in
hydrocarbon and non-polar solvents while the hydrophilic headgroup is soluble in
aqueous media. Examples of surface active agents are sodium dodecyl sulphate, an
anionic surfactant; dodecyl trimethyl ammonium bromide, a cationic surfactant;
and dodecyl pentaethylene glycol ether, a non-ionic surfactant. Zwitterionic sur-
factants contain both positively charged and negatively charged head groups. Two
properties of surfactants are important when dissolved in water. Firstly, they
adsorb at the air–liquid interface, a process that lowers the surface tension and,
secondly, they form association structures in solution known as micelles. Thus, the
molecules undergo self-assembly. The surfactant concentration at which micelles
form is known as the critical micelle concentration. In dilute solutions, these
micelles can be spherical in shape with a diameter around twice the molecular
length, thus several nanometres in diameter. In an aqueous environment the
hydrocarbon part of the molecule points inwards and the headgroup is in contact
with the aqueous phase. Solutions of surfactants foam when shaken, as is well-
known from washing-up liquids and dirt and grease are removed by solubilisation,
in which particles are absorbed into the micelles.
However, association structures occur in other materials, for example in the
formation of liquid crystals. As an example, the aramid fibre Kevlar contains liquid
crystals of aligned polymer molecules that contribute to its strength.
Everyday Products 101
12.4 Cosmetics
Cosmetics cover a wide range of products: for example, hand creams, shampoos,
shaving foams, lipsticks, eye shadows, nail varnishes and removers, hair shampoos
and conditioners, antiperspirants, shower gels, moisturizers and creams to produce
a younger-looking skin. In section 12.3 micelles and liquid crystals were described
as association structures. Liposomes are also association structures consisting of an
aqueous core surrounded by a hydrophobic lipid bilayer. Products that are soluble
in water can be trapped in the core because they cannot pass through the bilayer.
Liposomes can have sizes ranging up to several micrometres and for sizes less than
100 nm they are known as nanoliposomes; they can be used to encapsulate
cosmetic ingredients in order to penetrate outer layers of the skin known as the
stratum corneum and release active ingredients. Liposomes can also be used for
encapsulation of pharmaceutical compounds for drug delivery. The use of lipo-
somes for delivery of cosmetics or pharmaceuticals is called nanoencapsulation.
Colloid science and nanotechnology underpin the development of cosmetic
formulations, for example as emulsions. There is much interest in the development
of superhydrophobic surfaces, for example in self-cleaning textiles and buildings.
Hydrophobic surfaces are important in cosmetics particularly for lipsticks and
mascara to prevent ‘running’ of the cosmetic while adding particles to cosmetic
products can modify the appearance of the skin. This modification depends on
optical interference for light that is scattered and reflected by the particles. Hydro-
gels are used in moisturisers to retain water.
12.5 Disposable nappies (diapers): the role

of hydrogels
Hydrogels are porous materials and consist of three-dimensional networks of
hydrophilic homopolymers or copolymers that can be swollen by absorption and
retention of water. They exhibit both liquid properties, because the major con-
stituent is water, and solid properties, because of cross-linking during polymerisa-
tion. Although the polymers are soluble in water, the hydrogel is insoluble because
of cross-linking during polymerisation. Hydrogels have also been described as
superabsorbent and superporous and their pores can have diameters in the micro-
metre to millimetre range. Hydrogels can absorb 99.9 weight per cent as water
without losing structural integrity. Examples of hydrogels are those based on
polyacrylic acid and they are often used in powder form after they have been
dried, crushed and classified. Hydrogels can be prepared from natural products,
for example from sodium alginate from seaweed.
An important application for hydrogels is in disposable nappies (diapers) while
other applications include wound dressings, moisturizers for use as cosmetics,
sanitary towels and perhaps surprisingly disposable contact lenses.
12.6 Hard candy (boiled sweets) and fudge:

the role of microstructure
Examples have been given throughout the text on the importance of microstruc-
ture on the properties of materials. For examples, the colours of the wings of
butterflies arise not from the presence of pigments but from a periodic structure
of components in the wings that form photonic crystals. Also, the double helical
structure of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and the toughening of materials by
incorporation of fibres are examples of the role of microstructure in material
properties. Glucose has an important role in the chemical structure of carbohy-
drates such as cellulose and starches and an important role in the preparation of
sweets. In fact, sweets represent materials where microstructure is also important
in determining physical properties.
Many sweets are derived from heating solutions of granulated sugar
(i.e. sucrose) and water. Hard candy is a term used in the United States for a
variety of sweets including drops, lollipops and rock candy and is analogous to
the phrase ‘boiled sweets’ used in the United Kingdom. When a syrup of granu-
lated sugar and water is cooked at the upper end of the temperature range of
135–70 C in what is referred to as the hard crack stage so that the sugar syrup
contains less than 2 weight per cent water, then the syrup forms a clear hard mass
when cooled. It is important to prevent crystallisation of sugar in the syrup when
producing hard candy as the crystals or ‘grain’ can affect the transparency of the
product. Sucrose can break down or invert into its components, glucose and
fructose, during the heating process and the inversion promotes crystallisation.
Inverting agents can be added to control the inversion; thus, the microstructure,
for example upon adding corn syrup, does not crystallise. Acids such as tartaric
acid and citric acid in lemons also prevent crystallisation of sugar. The concen-
trated syrup can be poured into molds and allowed to solidify. Adding butter to
the syrup results in butterscotch.
When a mixture of granulated sugar and milk is boiled to the softball stage at a
temperature between 113 and 115 C, after which butter is added and the mixture
allowed to cool and then beaten to encourage the growth of sugar crystals, then
the resultant mixture is known as fudge, formally a crystalline candy. The
formation of sugar crystals in fudge is analogous to the promotion of crystallisa-
tion in glass ceramics. Caramel is produced by heating sugar syrup, milk and
butter to temperatures of 160 C or above, by which it browns and develops a
burnt flavour; in contrast to hard candy, caramel is opaque. Caramels have a
texture ranging from soft to medium hard and chewy. The heat treatment to
produce caramel causes a complex decomposition process in the sugar solution
and decomposition products, such as acrolein (CH2=CHCHO), are incorpor-
ated into the caramel.
It can be seen how the control of sugar crystallisation affects the properties of the
final product, whether hard candy, fudge or caramel.
12.7 Liquid crystal thermometers

During the winter months, governments such as that in the United Kingdom
advise people, especially elderly people, to keep the temperature in their homes
at specific levels to maintain good health. For example, 18 C in a bedroom and
21 C in a living room are recommended. It is possible to obtain a thermometer that
resembles a black plastic strip about 10 cm in length and 1 cm wide and divided
into segments, each with a length around 1 cm. A number is present in each
segment representing a temperature but only one number can be seen at any one
time. Cholesteric liquid crystals have a twisted structure. Their rod-like molecules
do not align in a parallel way as in nematic and smectic liquid crystals but are
twisted with respect to each other. The pitch of the twist represents the distance over
which the twist completes a full turn. In the thermometer each segment contains
liquid crystals with a slight difference in the twist. When the pitch corresponds to the
wavelength of incident light, reflection occurs and the relevant number can be read
as the temperature. A variation in this approach involves using mixtures of choles-
teric liquid crystals that change colours over different ranges of temperature.
12.8 Breathable garments

Membranes are porous media that selectively allow species to pass through them.
For example, reverse osmosis membranes are used for desalination of salty and
brackish waters and these membranes have been derived from polysulphones.
Ultrafiltration membranes can be used for removal of bacteria from aqueous
environments and can be polymer or ceramic. Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE)
was first prepared by Roy Plunkett in 1938 and its applications reflect its proper-
ties. Thus, chemical inertness favoured its use in the Second World War in the
Manhattan Project on development of the atomic bomb as it was inert to corrosive
gaseous uranium hexafluoride. Its low coefficient of friction encouraged use as
bearings. However, it was found that expanded PTFE tape, abbreviated to ePTFE,
contained pores of a controlled size and this material has been used in garments
that allow the fabric to ‘breathe’. This is because the pores do not allow water
droplets to pass through them but are permeable to water vapour. An example of
porous PTFE is known as Gore-Tex.
12.9 Acrylic textiles and carbon fibre

The production of textile fibres from synthetic polymers is carried out on an
industrial scale. A general method of preparation involves forcing the polymer
solution (or melt) through a spinerette and then stretching the fibre to orientate
molecules, which enhances the fibre strength. Removal of the solvent in the fibre is
carried out either by evaporation, a process known as dry spinning, or by
precipitation into a solvent bath, a process known as wet spinning. The latter is
used in the production of Lyocell (Tencel). Acrylic fibres based on polyacryloni-
trile (PAN) and derived from acrylonitrile monomer (CH2=CHCN) are widely
used as a textile fibre in garments such as pullovers and are often blended with
other fibres, synthetic and natural. However, anyone who purchases clothing
containing acrylic fibres may be unaware of an important application of PAN
fibres, that is in the production of carbon fibres. PAN fibres are first heated in the
range 200–300 C to produce a thermally stable structure of carbon hexagons
known as a cyclised ladder structure. This process results in ring-closing in the
polymer chain. Carbonisation of the fibre is carried out under an inert atmosphere
around 1000–1500 C and carbon fibres are produced with a turbostratic struc-
ture with a preferred orientation of carbon crystallites with respect to the fibre axis.
A further heat treatment removes residual nitrogen from the structure. Carbon
fibres have also been produced from viscose rayon and mesophase pitch pre-
cursors. Carbon fibres are used for lightweight composites, in particular for
carbon–carbon composites, for braking pads in aircraft and racing cars. They are
also used in carbon-reinforced silicon carbide composites for protection against
oxidation, for example in spacecraft.
Turbostratic structure means the crystals in the fibre are oriented.
There is much interest nowadays in encouraging young people to pursue a career

in so-called STEM (science, technology, engineering and mathematics) subjects.
Role models are highlighted; for example, Rosalind Franklin is frequently men-
tioned in connection with photograph 51 from an X-ray crystallographic study on
DNA fibres obtained by her and Raymond Gosling. It is useful to mention here
that Franklin also carried out crystallographic studies on the characterisation of
coals for their fuel efficiency in combustion.
12.10 Decaffeinated coffee

Drying is an important industrial process when materials are produced. For
example, synthetic fibres that are made by spinning from solution can be dried
by evaporation of the solvent from the fibres or by treatment of the damp fibres
with a solvent. Coffee can be decaffeinated by treatment with solvents but a
‘greener’ process involves treatment with a supercritical fluid. The latter is a
substance above its critical temperature where it remains as a single fluid phase.
An increase in pressure affects fluid density but does not produce a separate fluid
phase. Supercritical fluids are good solvents. Carbon dioxide has values of critical
temperature and pressure of 304.1 K and 7.38 M Pa, respectively, much lower
than those for water. Materials dried using supercritical carbon dioxide tend to
have a ‘fluffy’ texture. Aerogels, for example silica aerogels, are made by super-
critical drying and they are extremely lightweight with high porosity.
12.11 Spider silk

The preparation of synthetic fibres, for example textile fibres, is a large industry
but a natural fibre that will be familiar to many people is silk that is spun into
polymeric fibres by silkworms, scorpions and most commonly spiders. Silkworms
produce silk fibres to weave their cocoons. Silk fibres consist mainly of the fibrous
protein fibroin surrounded by the protein sericin, which acts as binder to maintain
structural integrity. Fibroin is a semi-crystalline polymer, whereas sericin is
amorphous. Spider silks are lightweight but strong and elastic with a fracture
strength of around 1100 MPa and contain predominantly alternating sequences
of glycine and alanine, whic self-assemble into β-sheets. The microstructure of the
fibre consists of crystalline regions associated with β-sheets and amorphous regions
associated with segments of amino acids with bulky side-groups. Silk is a biomed-
ical material and has been used as sutures. Anyone who has seen a spider’s web on
a rainy day may have noticed droplets of water equally spaced along the strands.
This distribution of droplets arises due to an instability (Rayleigh instability) of a
cylindrical film of water on the strands.
12.12 Stainless steel

Stainless steel is extremely common in everyday life with wide-ranging applications
including trays in refrigerators, panels in cars and structures in buildings. By
definition stainless steels are iron-based alloys containing at least 10 weight per
cent chromium. They were developed at the beginning of the 20th century and at
that time considerable research and development in Germany and in Sheffield in
England led to these materials. Stainless steels are alloys and can be characterised
by their microstructure. Martensitic stainless steels have a body-centred tetragonal
structure and after hardening by heat treatments the alloys have good mechanical
properties and moderate corrosion resistance. The chromium content ranges from
the minimum up to 18 weight per cent and the carbon content is no greater than
1–2 weight per cent. Additions of other elements such as tungsten increase the
toughness of the steel. Applications of martensitic stainless steels include surgical
and dental instruments such as forceps and scalpels.
Ferritic stainless steels have a body-centred cubic crystal structure and the
chromium content can be as high as 30 weight per cent. Sulphur or selenium
can be added to aid machinability but unlike martensitic steels, ferritic stainless
steels cannot be strengthened by heat treatment.
Austenitic stainless steels have a face-centred cubic crystal structure. The chro-
mium, nickel and manganese contents can vary from 15 to 20 weight per cent, 3 to
14 weight per cent and 1 to 7.5 weight per cent, respectively. These alloys cannot
be hardened by heat treatment but can be hardened by cold working.
316L stainless steel consists mainly of iron (60–5 weight per cent), chromium
(17–20 weight per cent), nickel (12–14 weight per cent) and smaller amounts of
molybdenum, manganese, copper and other elements. The low carbon content
(less than 0.03 weight per cent), designated by the letter ‘L’, provides good
corrosion resistance.
Duplex stainless steels contain equal amounts of ferrite and austenitic phases in
their microstructure. They have higher strengths than austenitic steels and
improved toughness and ductility compared to ferritic steels.
12.13 Summary
Many materials are associated with complex technology, for example nickel-based
superalloys for gas turbine blades, nickel–titanium alloys for implantable coronary
stents and quantum dots for solid-state lighting in displays. However, products
used in everyday life may not represent advanced technologies, but considerable
underlying development is required to produce them. Examples of these everyday
products include sunscreens, washing-up liquids, cosmetics, disposable nappies,
boiled sweets and liquid crystal thermometers.

Bansal, N. P., and J. Lamon (eds). Ceramic Matrix Composites: Materials, Modelling and
Technology. Washington, DC: American Ceramic Society, 2015.
Buzak, S., and D. Rende. Colloid and Surface Chemistry: A Laboratory Guide for Exploration
of the Nano World. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, 2014.
Dunmur, D., and T. Sluckin. Soap, Science, and Flat-Screen TVs: A History of Liquid
Crystals. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2014.
Emsley, J. Chemistry at Home. Cambridge: Royal Society of Chemistry, 2015.
Franklin, R. E. The structure of graphitic carbons. Acta Crystallographica (1951) 4(3),
253–61.
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Society of Chemistry, 2016.
Ngo, C., and M. Van de Voorde. Nanotechnology in a Nutshell: From Simple to Complex
Chemistry, 2014.
Stewart, I. C., and J. Lamont. The Handy Chemistry Answer Book. Canton, MI: Visible Ink
Press, 2014.
13
Conclusions
13.1 Introduction
Periods of human history are often described in terms of ‘ages’. In the Stone Age, a
period of prehistory around 300,000 years ago, stone (a complex mixture of
silicate, aluminates and calcium carbonate minerals), bones, flint, wood and animal
skins were common materials and flint and quartz could be shaped into tools. In
the Bronze Age, a period of history which corresponds to around 3500 BC, alloying
of tin with copper was achieved and produced bronze. The latter is a harder
material than copper and could be used for tools and weapons. At around this
time, glass, cement and pottery were invented. It was the Iron Age, and in
particular the development of blast furnaces around 1500 AD, that enabled the
construction of complex structures of cast iron, for example bridges, buildings and
railway stations in the early part of the 19th century. The use of cast iron in
construction heralded the start of the Industrial Revolution aided by the develop-
ment of the Bessemer process in 1856 for making steel on an industrial scale. Cast
iron contains at least 3 weight per cent carbon that modifies the viscosity of the
molten iron, making it easy to cast, and around 1 weight per cent silicon. In this
book emphasis has been placed on the development of selective materials from the
beginning of the 19th century up to the present time. This is not to ignore the great
impact that materials used in previous ages have had and continue to have to this
day. In this chapter summaries of different classes of material are given with
particular reference as to whether they can be described as ‘ages’ in the 21st
century.
13.2 The commercial exploitation of materials

There can be considerable delay from when a new phenomenon is first observed or
when a material is invented to their exploitation. For example, electroluminescence
was first observed in 1907 by Henry Round, who observed it in an impure sample
of the semiconductor silicon carbide, but the application of light-emitting diodes
(LEDs) whose operation is based on electroluminescence has only reached wide-
spread usage in, for example, solid-state lighting in recent years. In fact, many

DOI: 10.1093/oso/9780198804079.001.0001
members of the general public will be familiar with the acronym ‘LED’ if not the
technical details of how they work. The delay arose partly due to the lack of
chemical techniques for producing very pure materials and for depositing dopants
into this material such as gallium nitride. The arrival of these techniques such as
metal-oxide chemical vapour deposition (MOCVD), ion implantation and phys-
ical vapour deposition facilitated the exploitation of light-emitting diodes. Simi-
larly, superconductivity in metals was first observed by Kamerlingh Onnes in
1911, who measured a transition temperature of 4.2 K for mercury in liquid
helium. The transition temperature for metals increased slowly over the years
and nowadays the application most associated with superconducting metals is
their use for generation of strong magnetic fields in the medical diagnostic tech-
nique of magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). The ability to exploit superconduct-
ing metals in this application depends in part on the ability to form suitable
superconducting alloys, their fabrication into coils and the application of mathem-
atical methods to reassemble images obtained in the scanning process. As for
LEDs, members of the general public routinely refer to MRI scans although the
details of how they are obtained are probably unknown to many people.
The discovery by Georg Bednorz and Karl Muller of high-temperature ceramic
superconductors in 1986 based on complex oxides of lanthanum, barium and
copper with a transition temperature around 30 K caused great excitement in
scientific circles and also in the public domain. The superconducting transition
temperatures for ceramic superconductors are now around 100 K, meaning that
liquid nitrogen (at 77 K), which is cheaper than liquid helium, can be used to
generate the effect. However, the exploitation of ceramic oxide superconductors
has been slow, perhaps partly due to the inherent difficulty in fabricating ceramic
powders into shapes such as coils by sintering; this example illustrates that caution
should be applied to comments made in the media relating to the exploitation of
materials.
The isolation of graphene in 2004 has led to much excitement about potential
applications, but at the time of writing they are mainly still possible applications.
Caution is required in interpreting possible applications in an age when the
expansion of the Internet and social media have allowed for the dissemination of
information among people across the world and given a ‘voice’ to individuals or
organisations that previously may have only attracted a limited audience. It is
important to consider carefully the claims made for future exploitation of newly
discovered materials and processes, for example three-dimensional printing, that
attract much attention as a disruptive technology.
13.3 The Silicon Age?

The invention of the point-contact transistor in 1947 by John Bardeen, Walter
Brattain and William Shockley in which a voltage was applied across two metal
wires in contact with a doped semiconductor, namely germanium, had an
Conclusions 109
immediate impact for potential applications as it acted as a rectifier. Transistors

could replace valves and led to the development of integrated circuits that were
pioneered by Gordon Moore and co-workers in the 1960s. Integrated circuits
underpin all aspects of modern life in the second decade of the 21st century,
whether in communications such as in smartphones; in business (ecommerce,
online banking, online shopping); in manufacturing, for example in automation
and machine and process control (e.g. chemical plant, nuclear reactors); in infor-
mation storage; in imaging (e.g. digital cameras, medical imaging); and in the
emerging field of autonomous vehicles and engine control systems (e.g. aircraft
and road vehicles).
Perhaps the 21st century can be described as the Silicon Age but surprisingly of
all the materials mentioned in this book, silicon chips and integrated circuits are
completely hidden in equipment away from the view of the general public.
13.4 The age of specialist alloys

In the Bronze Age, alloying tin with copper was found to produce a hard material,
bronze, that could be used as tools and weapons and which was harder than copper
alone. Specialist alloys have a crucial role in the 21st century but are largely out of
sight of the general public. In the area of transport, nickel-based superalloys are
used to produce blades in gas turbines, allowing higher operating temperatures and
more fuel-efficient aircraft. Nickel–titanium alloys have been developed as shape
memory alloys and were first invented in 1961. They are used as implantable
coronary stents. Zircaloy, an alloy of zirconium, is used as fuel rods to contain
uranium oxide pellets, the fuel in thermal nuclear reactors, while alloys are also
critical for LEDs, for example gallium arsenide. It is envisaged that specialist alloys
will continue to be used in niche markets throughout the 21st century.
13.5 The Genomic Age?

X-ray crystallography on deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) fibres under a humid
atmosphere was carried out by Rosalind Franklin and Raymond Gosling; in
particular, their 1952 photograph, known as photograph 51 which showed a
pattern of spots from the diffraction of X-rays, in the shape of an ‘X’, was a crucial
piece of information that enabled Francis Crick and James Watson to propose in
1953 that DNA had a double helical structure. This elucidation of the DNA
structure gave birth to the subject of molecular biology which is advancing at a
rapid pace. Recombinant DNA technology invented in the early 1970s is associ-
ated with the technology known as genetic engineering and is used to produce
pharmaceuticals such as human insulin and bioethanol by fermentation processes
while the ability to produce specific monoclonal antibodies on a large- scale has led
to a new class of biopharmaceuticals based on antibodies. The very recently
developed technology known as gene editing, or CRISPR, has the potential to help
cure currently incurable diseases but it also raises ethical issues as changes to the
human genome can be transmitted down through future generations. There is
much interest in the development of personalised medicine in which an individual’s
genome can be targeted by specific medicines and treatments. DNA and the
proteins that they express can be viewed as polymers and hence, there is an overlap
between molecular biology and polymer science.
Whether the 21st century is referred to as the Genomic Age remains to be seen.
13.6 The Polymer Age

In the 19th century a range of useful products was obtained by the chemical
treatment of cellulose. Examples of these materials, which are known as cellulosics,
are cellulose nitrate (gun cotton), cellulose acetate, collodion, Parkesine, celluloid,
viscose rayon and acetate rayon. Cellulose is a natural polymer and cellulosics are
also polymers. Another type of polymer developed in the 19th century is vulca-
nised rubber latex obtained from trees; vulcanised rubber was used in the devel-
oping transport industry as tyres in motor vehicles. Another cellulosic developed in
the second half of the 20th century is Tencel, an artificial fibre with a silk-like
texture used in textiles. However, the availability of oil as a source of chemicals
from the start of the 20th century led to the development of a range of synthetic
polymers over a period of around 50 years and these are widely used nowadays.
These polymers, sometimes made in the form of fibres, form the basics of the
plastics industry and include nylon, polyethylene and polyvinyl chloride as
examples. Many of these polymers are commodity items, are produced on the
industrial scale and are widely used in the 21st century.
From the perspective of materials, the 20th century could be referred to as the
Polymer Age. However, in the 21st century there is a trend in reducing the use of
petrochemical sources and to develop materials from renewable sources. In add-
ition, many synthetic fibres are not biodegradable and there is increasing emphasis
on preparing biodegradable polymers to limit pollution of the environment. To
some extent the activities on polymers have come full circle since the invention of
cellulosics from cellulose in the 19th century as there is increasing interest in using
cellulose as a source of biofuels as well as useful materials.
Whether the 21st century becomes known as the New Polymer Age remains to
be seen.
13.7 The role of climate change in materials

development
Ways to mitigate the effects of global warming are likely to increase in importance
throughout the 21st century. The attempts to reduce global warming run parallel
Conclusions 111
with attempts to reduce carbon dioxide emissions and this approach may eventu-
ally phase out the use of coal, natural gas and oil as sources of fuel in power stations
and may affect the use of oil for the synthesis of plastics. Whether this approach
encourages the use of renewable materials remains to be seen.
13.8 The role of international conflicts and wars

Developments on materials have also been driven by international conflicts and
wars. For example, the Cold War and Space Race of the 1950s and 1960s between
the USA and Soviet Union were an impetus for the development of the microelec-
tronics industry and integrated circuits in the USA. During the Second World
War, the Manhattan Project, which developed the atomic bomb, led to enhanced
activity on the transuranic elements such as plutonium and the separation of
isotopes by gas diffusion. Polytetrafluoroethylene had a crucial role in isotope
separation due to its chemical inertness. Polyethylene, which was invented in
1933 by Reginald Gibson and Eric Fawcett, had an important application as an
electrical insulator for cables in fighter aircraft of the Royal Air Force that con-
tained the newly developed compact radar systems based on the magnetron cavity.
Also during the Second World War, work carried out at Bletchley Park in the
United Kingdom by Alan Turing and others greatly contributed to the emerging
field of computer science and the development of computers based on the use of
electronic valves as switches. In the First World War, acetone was produced on an
industrial scale by fermentation processes and used as an intermediate for the
explosive cordite by the British Army.
Nowadays governments are concerned with international terrorism and there
are pressing concerns with the decryption of encoded messages, whether on
smartphones or in so-called chatrooms on the Internet. Monitoring and decoding
of these messages require considerable computing power and ultimately depends
not only on the skill and expertise of government employees but on the ability to
pack logic circuits based on transistors onto silicon chips that may have the ability
to break encrypted messages in a realistic timescale.
13.9 Summary
Periods in human history have been described in terms of ‘ages’: for example, the
Stone Age, the Bronze Age and the Iron Age. The conversion of cellulose to useful
products such as celluloid and cellulose acetate that could be spun into the textile
fibre rayon was achieved in the 19th century. The availability of sources of oil in the
early part of the 20th century led to the production of a wide range of synthetic
polymers, commonly called plastics over a period of about 50 years. Examples of
these polymers are nylon and polyethylene. The 20th century may, from the
viewpoint of materials development, be referred to as the Polymer Age. However,
the invention of the transistor in 1947 led to the fabrication of silicon chips and
integrated circuits that underpin all aspects of societies in the early part of the 21st
century, whether in commerce (e.g. online banking, online shopping), communi-
cations (e.g. smartphones, tablet computers, social media), medical diagnostics
(e.g. magnetic resonance imaging) or consumer goods (e.g. televisions). Although
integrated circuits are incorporated into devices and hidden from the view of the
user the 21st century may turn out to be the Silicon Age. However, the elucidation
of the double helical structure of DNA in 1953 led to the development of molecular
biology and genetic engineering, enabling the production of pharmaceuticals such
as human insulin for treatment of Type 2 diabetes and a new class of drugs known
as biopharmaceuticals. It is possible that the 21st century will be the Genomic Age.
Irrespective of how the 21st century is eventually described, this text has shown
how important materials are to 21st-century economies and their importance is
likely to continue.

Ashby, M. F. Materials and the Environment: Eco-Informed Material Choice, 2nd edn.
Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann, 2013.
Reed, R. C. The Superalloys: Fundamentals and Applications. Cambridge: Cambridge
Glossary
Listing of 500 materials in alphabetical order
abrasives
Hard materials are used for grinding and cutting wheels for metals.1,2 Representative media
for wheels include cubic boron nitride (BN), silicon carbide (SiC) and alumina that are
bonded together in a glass or polymer matrix. Industrial diamonds, natural or synthetic,
are used for grinding and polishing and as coatings for cutting tools. New cutting surfaces
are exposed as the hard materials are worn down. Advances in manufacturing methods such
as three-dimensional printing avoid the use of grinding media during the fabrication of
components. Three-dimensional printing (3D printing) is a disruptive technology (see
Chapter 9) in which components are fabricated layer by layer. Ceramic powders, metal
powders, plastics in the form of strips that are melted and deposited as molten droplets and
biological cells can be used as ‘inks’ in the printing process. 3D printing not only avoids the
use of grinding media but produces minimal wastage of materials.
See: three-dimensional printing

1. Askeland, D. K., and W. J. Wright. The Science and Engineering of Materials, 7th edn,
p. 622. Boston, MA: Cengage Learning, 2011.
2. Somiya, S. (ed.). Handbook of Advanced Ceramics. San Diego, CA: Academic Press,
2013.
acetylsalicylic acid
Salicylic acid was obtained in crystalline form from the bark of the willow tree by Raffaele
Piria around 18301 and while it had an antipyretic action, side-effects included an unpleas-
ant taste and irritation to the stomach. At the end of the 19th century, Felix Hoffmann
reacted salicylic acid (HOC6H4COOH) with acetic anhydride [(CH3CO)2O] to produce
acetylsalicylic acid that retained the beneficial effects of salicylic acid without the side
effects.2 Acetylsalicylic acid was sold under the name of aspirin and continues to be a very
beneficial pharmaceutical in the 21st century not only for pain relief and reduction of fever
but as an aid to prevent heart attacks. Derivatives of salicylic acid, for example 5-amino
salicylic acid, have applications for the treatment of ulcerative colitis.
See: ZMapp
1. Balzani, V., and M. Venturi. Chemistry: Reading and Writing the Book of Nature.
London: Royal Society of Chemistry, 2014.
2. F. Hoffmann. Acetyl salicylic acid. United States Patent 644,077, granted 27
February 1900.
114 Glossary
acrylic fibres
Acrylic fibres are widely used in clothing and textiles, especially when blended with natural
or synthetic fibres such as cotton.1 Polyacrylonitrile derived from acrylonitrile (CH2CHCN)
can be spun into fibres from solutions in dimethylformamide but not melt-spun as the nitrile
group in the polymer undergoes cyclisation on heating.
See: carbon fibre

1. Fried, J. R. Polymer Science and Technology, 3rd edn. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice
Hall, 2014.
acrylic paints
Acrylic paints are used by both professional and amateur artists. They use an emulsion or
resin based on polymerised acrylic acid (CH2=CHCOOH) combined with pigment pow-
ders to give a wide colour spectrum. For example, greens can be produced by use of
chlorinated copper phthalocyanine, black by use of synthetic iron oxide, whites by use of
titanium dioxide and magenta by use of quinacridone violet.1 Gold and silver colours use
titanium dioxide-coated mica.
1. Winsor & Newton (Harrow, England). Make your mark, catalogue number 7543452,
available at http://www.winsornewton.com.
additive colour mixing

Colours are an integral part of everyday life whether in newspapers and magazines, in
textiles or in electronic displays such as in mobile phones or in television and
computer screens. Visible light contains a narrow range of wavelengths within the
electromagnetic spectrum from around 360 to 780 nm. Violet has a wavelength in the
region of 400 nm while red has a longer wavelength around 750 nm. Red, green and
blue are known as primary additive colours as they cannot be obtained by mixing of
light of other colours (i.e. wavelength). Additive mixing of red and blue produces
magenta, blue and green gives cyan while mixing of red and green gives yellow.1
Magenta, cyan and yellow are complementary colours that arise when one component
of visible light is absorbed and the other components are transmitted or reflected.
Thus, if blue light is absorbed, the reflected light contains red and green components
that appear as yellow. Additive mixing is used in displays with light-emitting diodes or
quantum dots in the presence or absence of phosphors when electroluminescence
produces emitted light in the red, green and blue regions. Additive mixing of these
colours produces white light.
See: light-emitting diodes; quantum dots; subtractive colour mixing

1. Christie, R. M. Colour Chemistry, 2nd edn, p. 23. London: Royal Society of
Chemistry, 2015.
Glossary 115
additive manufacturing
Additive manufacturing is a technique in which three-dimensional objects are built up layer
by layer without producing waste material as occurs in subtractive machining.1 Three-
dimensional printing is an additive manufacturing technique that is also referred to as a
rapid prototyping method.
See: subtractive machining; three-dimensional printing

1. Andersson, C. Innovation in rapid prototyping and additive manufacturing. European
Medical Device Technology (2012) (January/February).
advanced ceramic materials

Advanced ceramic materials are derived from chemical synthetic routes or from naturally
occurring materials that have been highly refined.1 For example, aluminium oxide is
obtained from the mineral bauxite in the Bayer process by dissolution of the mineral in
sodium hydroxide followed by precipitation of aluminium hydroxide and separation of the
precipitate from impurities in the bauxite. Examples of advanced ceramic materials include
silicon carbide powders, silicon carbide fibres, silicon nitride, sialons, stabilised zirconias and
boron nitride. These materials are noted for their strength and hardness, a characteristic of
structural ceramics. Electroceramics also belong to the class of advanced ceramic materials,
examples of which are piezoelectric materials such as lead zirconate titanate and lithium
niobate for electro-optic devices.
See: ceramic materials

1. Somiya, S. (ed.). Handbook of Advanced Ceramics San Diego, CA: Academic Press, 2013.
aerogels
Aerogels are lightweight, highly porous materials with nanometre-sized pores and can
be described as solid foams.1–3 They were discovered in 1932 by Samuel Kistler who
exchanged water for ethyl alcohol in a silica hydrogel and then removed the alcohol at
elevated temperature and pressure under supercritical conditions in an autoclave; drying the
gel in this way maintained the pore structure in the resulting aerogel.1 The latter has around
95% open interconnected porosity, high surface area, low thermal conductivity useful for
thermal insulation, optical transparency and thermal stability. Examples of aerogels include
inorganic aerogels such as silica and alumina. Applications include catalyst supports, anti-
reflectance coatings, composite materials and moulds for metal casting. Aerogels have also
been used in space exploration by NASA as a trap for capturing micrometeoroids during
space flights and in the Mars Pathfinder probe in the 1980s.
See: organic aerogels

1. Kistler, S. S. Method of making aerogels. United States Patent 2,249,767, granted on
22 July 1942.
116 Glossary
2. Reade, L. Full of air. Chemistry and Industry (2013) 77, 32–5.

3. Felice, M. Silica aerogel. Materials World (2013) 21, 54–5.
aerosol-derived powders
Aerosols are dispersions of particles in a gas and the particles can have a colloidal dimen-
sion.1,2 When the particles are liquid, the aerosol is described as a fog or mist but when
particles are solid the aerosol can be referred to as a smoke. Aerosols are particularly
important for pharmaceutical compounds when used in inhalers for the treatment of
asthma. The active pharmaceutical ingredient requires a specific particle size and size
distribution to be carried effectively into the lungs. In general, fine particles on the order
of colloidal dimensions can be prepared either by comminution of larger particles or by
growth from solution species.
See: colloidal systems

1. Segal, D., and A. Atkinson. Wet chemical synthesis of cathodoluminescent powders.
British Ceramic Transactions (1996) 95, 103–6.
2. Booker, D. R., B. R. Bowsher and D. A. V. Morton. The synthesis of advanced
ceramics in bult quantities using aerosol routes. Journal of Aerosol Science (1992) 23,
S819.
after-glow pigments
After-glow pigments are used in safety signs and dials and rely on the property of phos-
phorescence rather than a source of electrical power to generate light.1 Phosphorescence is a
form of photoluminescence in which conversion of the exciting radiation is slow.
A representative phosphorescent material is a doped strontium aluminate, SrAl2O4, doped
with europium (Eu) and dysprosium (Dy), which has a blue-green glow (485 nm). The
phosphorescence can last for around 10 hours. A qualitative explanation involves daylight
becoming absorbed, promoting electrons to undergo electronic transitions and to become
temporarily trapped in the crystal lattice, after which the electrons are released through
thermal energy. The visible glow occurs by electrons undergoing transitions between energy
levels. Another phosphorescent composition is cobalt (II)-doped ZnS:Cu with a green
emission at 530 nm.
See: phosphors
1. Lucas, J., P. Lucas, T. Le Mercier, A. Rollat and W. Davenport. Rare Earths: Science,
Technology, Production and Use, p. 312. London: Elsevier, 2015.
algal biomass
Algae are a source of cellulose and can be hydrolysed to sugars using fungal enzymes, for
example from the phylum Neocallimastigomycota.1 Examples of algae that are a potential
source of biofuels include Spirulina, Chlorella, Arthrospira and Dunaliella, as well as the blue-
green algae known as cyanobacteria.2 The algae strains are susceptible to genetic
Glossary 117
modification to sustain growth under a range of aquatic conditions and improve yields of
lipids and other hydrocarbons. The resulting sugars can be fermented to bioethanol. Ionic
liquids have been used to produce cell lysis in algae cells and harvest lipids, hydrocarbons
and carbohydrates contained within the cells for conversion to biofuels.
See: biomass; ionic liquids

1. Menetrez, M. Y. An overview of algae biofuel production and potential environmen-
tal impact. Environmental Science and Technology (2012) 46, 7073.
2. King. Plant power. Chemistry and Industry (2013) 77, 28–31.
aliphatic polyamides
Aliphatic polyamides, for example those formed by reaction of a diamine with a dicarboxylic
acid, are referred to as nylons.1 Aromatic polyamides, or aramids, include Kevlar and
Nomex as examples.
See: nylon
1. Walton, D., and P. Lorimer. Polymers, p. 97. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005.
amino acids
Amino acids are water-soluble organic compounds with the general formula R CH(NH2)
COOH, where R is hydrogen or an organic group that determines the properties of a
particular amino acid.1,2 Amino acids join together through formation of peptide bonds to
form short chains, namely peptides or longer chains known as polypeptides. The peptide
bond is formed by the reaction between adjacent carboxyl ( COOH) and amino ( NH2)
groups. The repeating unit in peptides and polypeptide polymers can be represented by
( N CHR C=O ). Proteins consist of polypeptide polymers with varying amounts of 20
amino acids and the characteristic sequence of these acids determines the shape, properties
and biological function of the proteins. The latter can have as few as 124 amino acids (the
enzyme ribonuclease) to many thousands. Enzymes and hormones are also proteins that are
expressed by DNA. These acids are alanine, arginine, asparagine, aspartic acid, cysteine,
glutamic acid, glutamine, glycine, histidine, isoleucine, leucine, lysine, methionine, phenyl-
alanine, proline, serine, threonine, tryptophan, tyrosine and valine.
See: DNA; peptides; polymers; polypeptide; proteins

1. Daintith, J. (ed.). A Dictionary of Chemistry, 6th edn. Oxford: Oxford University
Press, 2008.
2. Fromm, H., and M. Hargrove. Essentials of Biochemistry. New York: Springer, 2012.
AMOLED
AMOLED refers to an active matrix organic light-emitting diode (OLED). In an OLED,
semiconducting organic species, small molecules or polymer is used in displays. The layer of
118 Glossary
semiconductor is divided into pixels and each pixel acts as a light-emitting diode.1 In an
AMOLED a backing layer of conductors is in contact with the OLEDs for addressing the
pixels. The conductors form an active matrix and each pixel is backed with a thin-film
transistor (TFT) to store its state during transitions in the energising voltage. An AMOLED
is sometimes referred to as a TFT display.
See: organic light-emitting diodes; PMOLED; thin-film transistors

1. Platt, C., and F. Jansson. Encyclopaedia of Electronic Components, vol. 2. San Francisco,
CA: Maker Media, 2014.
amorphous metal foams

Amorphous metal foams also known as foamed metallic glasses and have potential as
structural materials because of their strength and hardness, but their lack of ductility limits
their use. They have been prepared by casting molten metal into a porous bed of sintered
leachable particles of barium fluoride (BaF2) or a matrix of carbon beads that can be
removed on calcination. Compositions of foamed metallic glasses include Zr57Nb5Cu15.4-
N12.6Al10 and Pd43Cu27Ni10P20.1
See: amorphous metals

1. Liu, P. S., and G. F. Chen. Porous Materials. London: Elsevier, 2014.
amorphous metals
Amorphous metals are usually alloys that have a disordered non-crystalline glass-like
structure and have also been referred to as metallic glasses.1 They have been produced
by squirting a jet of molten metal against a rotating disc of copper cooled very quickly
with liquid nitrogen. The individual metallic components have differing atomic sizes
and crystal structures that favour the formation of glasses. Examples of metallic glasses
are Au75Si25 and Fe72Al5Ga2 P11C6B4 and amorphous metals have been used as mag-
netic materials in, for example, transformer cores. Vitreloy is an amorphous metal
with the approximate composition Zr46.75 Ti8.25 Cu7.5 Ni10B27.5, has high strength
arising from a lack of dislocations and has applications in sports equipment such as
golf-club heads.
1. Tilley, R. J. D. Understanding Solids: The Science of Materials. Chichester: Wiley, 2013.
amorphous silicon
Single crystal silicon is used for the manufacture of silicon chips. Amorphous silicon (a-Si) is
a disordered form of the semiconductor silicon consisting of randomly oriented small
crystallites. This structure contains ‘dangling’ bonds where unpaired electrons can trap
electrons and holes.1 Amorphous silicon can be deposited onto a substrate from a gas
discharge. The number of dangling bonds can be reduced by incorporating hydrogen
Glossary 119
(a) charge
photoconductor
(b) expose
toner
+ve
(c) develop
carrier
paper
(d) transfer
(e) fix fused to paper
(f) clean
Fig. G.1 Schematic representation of the xerographic (photocopying) process.

(R. M. Christie. Colour Chemistry, 2nd edn, p. 292. Cambridge: Royal Society of Chemistry, 2015.)
into the gas discharge which results in a hydrogenated amorphous silicon (a-Si:H) where
hydrogen atoms neutralise the dangling bonds. Amorphous silicon is cheaper to produce
than single crystal silicon and is used for large-area solar cells. Amorphous semiconductors
can be photoconductors; that is, they become more electrically conducting on exposure to
light and are used in the xerographic process. The latter is associated with photocopiers. The
xerographic process was invented by Chester Carlson in 1938, which was further developed
by the Haloid Company (later to become the Xerox Corporation) in which dry powder
would stick to charged areas of the semiconductor that were exposed to light before being
transferred to paper (Fig. G.1).
See: silicon chips; silicon-based solar cells

1. Solymar, L., D. Walsh and R. R. A. Syms. Electrical Properties of Materials, 9th edn.
amyloid fibrils
There is much concern in the 21st century about the potential increase in Alzheimer’s
disease among an ageing population, particularly in countries with advanced healthcare
services such as the United Kingdom and the associated cost to national economies.1 There
is currently no cure for Alzheimer’s disease. Proteins are polymers in which the amino acids
120 Glossary
Fig. G.2 Electron microscope picture of amyloid fibrils of the kind seen in the brains of victims of
Alzheimer’s disease.
(W. Gratzer. Giant Molecules: From Nylon to Nanotubes, p. 73. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2013.)
in the polymer backbone are the monomer units and the proteins undergo folding to form
compact structures in the body (Fig. G.2). Alzheimer’s disease is associated with protein
fibrils (fibres or filaments) that for unknown reasons do not undergo folding and can
aggregate or clump together with other fibrils to form a plaque that interferes with the
functioning of nerve cells in the human brain. These fibrils are known as amyloid fibrils
although it is not understood whether amyloid fibrils are the cause of Alzheimer’s disease or
are just associated with it.
See: polymers
1. Gratzer, W. Giant Molecules: From Nylon to Nanotubes, p.73. Oxford: Oxford
ancient works of art

Ancient works of art can be highly valued in the 21st century and the materials used to make
them as well as the material properties can add to their aesthetic appeal. An example is the
Lycurgus cup that was made by ancient Roman artists.1–3 When illuminated by white light
from behind, the cup shows a rich shade of colours ranging from deep green to bright red.
The transmitted light is red while observing scattered light perpendicular to the direction of
incident light indicates a greenish colour in the cup. These colours often arise from incorp-
oration of nanoparticles such as gold into the glass.
See: nanoparticle-based art

Glossary 121
1. Novotny, L., and B. Hecht. Principles of Nano-Optics, 2nd edn, p.401. Cambridge:
2. Louis, C., and O. Pluchery. Gold Nanoparticles for Physics, Chemistry and Biology.
London: Imperial College Press, 2013.
3. Extance, A. Plasmons with a purpose. Chemistry World (Sept. 2012) 56–9.
anti-ageing skin treatments

Proteins, for example collagen, are polymers and as such can be described as materials. The
cosmetics industry is a global enterprise and products that are frequently a mixture of
materials are widely advertised. The US market for cosmetics and beauty products in
2014 was approximately $38 billion.1 One group of products purports to help restore the
suppleness and bounce of skin or helps to modify the appearance of the user’s skin. These
products are usually applied from a cream to, for example, the face but a recent develop-
ment involves hydrolysed collagen (e.g. bovine or fish collagen) that is taken as a drink,
sometimes in conjunction with other compounds such as hyaluronic acid.2 Aspects of
skincare, in particular how the appearance of the skin may be modified, are discussed in
reference (3).
See: collagen
1. Eisberg, N. Oil be back. Chemistry and Industry (Feb. 2015) 79, 42–5.
2. Stacey, S. You Magazine, 77, 10 May 2015, available at http://You.co.uk.
3. Howes, L. Here comes the science bit. Chemistry World (Oct. 2012) 9, 54–7.
antibodies
Antibodies are generated in vivo in response to foreign pathogens or molecules (antigens)
and bind to the antigen in order to neutralise and destroy it.1 Antibodies are Y-shaped
glycoproteins with molecular weight around 150,000 (150 kDa). Pioneering work carried
out by Cesar Milstein and co-workers in the early 1970s showed that it was possible by using
the new technique of hybridoma technology to clone single mouse cells (known as B-cells)
and the single antibody made by that cell.2 The monoclonal antibody recognised only a
single antigen and could be produced in large quantities. The sequences in the protein that
are similar but not identical to those in human monoclonal antibodies corresponded to
antibodies that are referred to as chimeric. Monoclonal antibodies form the basis of bio-
logical drugs or biopharmaceuticals (e.g. Avastin) rather than small molecules, as is the case
for many existing pharmaceutical compounds.
See: biopharmaceuticals; glycoproteins; polymers; proteins.

1. Marks, J. D. Molecular engineering of antibodies. In R. Rapley and D. Whitehouse
(eds), Molecular Biology and Biotechnology, 6th edn, pp. 167–9. Cambridge: Royal
122 Glossary
2. Kohler, G., and C. Milstein. Continuous cultures of fused cells secreting antibody of
predefined specificity. Nature (1975) 256, 495–7.
anti-reflection coatings
Purchasers of spectacle lenses are sometimes offered anti-reflection coatings either as a free
add-on or for an extra cost. These coatings are not restricted to spectacle lenses and have
many applications including architectural glass and specialist lenses. Coatings have been
produced by physical vapour deposition such as sputtering and by wet chemical techniques,
for example sol-gel processing.1 The refractive index of the coating should be less than the
substrate and for glass lenses the refractive index is about 1.5. Magnesium fluoride with a
refractive index of 1.28 has been used as an anti-reflection coating and deposited by physical
vapour deposition. A lower index is required to reduce the reflectance below 1% and silica
aerogels are attractive candidates to fulfil this criterion.
See: aerogels; sol-gel processes

1. Suzuki, M., T. Shiokawa, K. Yamada, H. Nakayama, H. Yamaguchi and A. Maryta.
Production methods of silica aerogel film, antireflection coating and optical element.
United States Patent 7,931,940, granted on 26 April 2011.
aramids
Aromatic polyamides such as Kevlar (poly (p-phenylene terephthalamide)) are referred to
as aramids.1 Aliphatic polyamides are known as nylons and can be prepared by a conden-
sation reaction between a diammine with a dicarboxylic acid.
See: Kevlar
1. Atkins, P. Atkins’ Molecules, 2nd edn, p. 94. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
2003.
artemisinin
Artemisinin and its derivatives are used for the treatment of Falciparum malaria and it has
been obtained from Artemisia annua, a slow-growing plant that produces a low yield of the
compounds.1,2 Recombinant DNA technology has been used in fermentation processes
with microbes to produce a high yield of the important artemisinin precursor, amorpha-
4,11-diene by an economic route, thus lowering the cost per dose for a patient. The yield was
increased by using Escherichia coli in which synthetic biology is applied to tailor the function
of the microbe’s genomics.
See: recombinant DNA technology; synthetic biology

1. Tsuruta, H., C. J. Paddon and D. Eng. High-level production of amorpha-4,11-
diene, a precursor of the antimalarial agent artemisinin, in Escherichia coli. PLos One
(2009) 4(2), e4489.
Glossary 123
2. May, P., and S. Cotton. Molecules That Amaze Us, pp. 30–6. Boca Raton, FL: CRC
Press, 2015.
artificial fertiliser
Sources of fertiliser for crops are likely to be a high priority for a growing world
population in the 21st century. The production of ammonia in the Haber–Bosch process
was described in 1910 and in initial work hydrogen and nitrogen were reacted over an
osmium catalyst.1 Nowadays, about 100 million tons of ammonia are produced per year
in this process using an iron catalyst and reaction conditions around 500 C and
200 atm.2,3
1. Haber, F., and R. Le Rossignol. Production of ammonia. United States Patent
971,501, granted on 27 September 1910.
2. Gross, M. Fertile ground. Chemistry and Industry (Jan. 2014) 28, 24–7.
3. Busca, G. Heterogeneous Catalytic Materials: Solid State Behaviour, Surface Chem-
istry and Catalytic Behaviour. London: Elsevier, 2014.
artificial nails
Materials occur widely in consumer products, sometime visible to the purchaser and
sometimes hidden from view. Cosmetics and associated products are advertised widely
and their benefits widely promoted. Artificial nails are a popular product available in kit
form for an individual to apply or they can be applied in a nail bar. One way the artificial nail
is attached to the natural nail is to apply a liquid between the attachment and the natural nail
and to cure the liquid by exposure to light from, for example, a light-emitting diode. Curing
causes polymerisation of the liquid to, for example, an acrylic resin. The liquid acts as a
photopolymer.1
See: photopolymers
1. Tiwari, A., and A. Polykarpov (eds). Photocured Materials. Cambridge: Royal Society
of Chemistry, 2014.
artificial sweeteners
Artificial sweeteners are used in sugar-free products including carbonated soft (fizzy) diet
drinks, chewing gum, puddings and fillings, desserts, yoghurt and cough mixtures.1
Examples of artificial sweeteners are saccharin, sucralose (a chlorinated sucrose) sold
under the trade name Splenda and aspartame that has been marketed under the name
Nutrasweet. On a weight per weight basis, aspartame is about 200 times sweeter than table
sugar (sucrose). Unlike aspartame, sucralose is not heat sensitive and can be used in
cooking, frying and baking. Natural products, for example steviol glycosides from the stevia
plant, are increasingly used as sugar substitutes.
1. Brazil, R. The sweet and the lowdown. Chemistry World (June 2015) 11, 50–63.
124 Glossary
associated gas
Associated gas is natural gas (methane) found in combination with oil deposits.1 It has been
flared-off in the past but there is increasing interest in converting the gas to useful products
such as synthetic diesel. Gas deposits in remote regions are referred to as stranded gas.
Synthetic diesel can be prepared by first converting natural gas to a mixture of carbon
monoxide and hydrogen known as synthesis gas by, for example, steam reforming. The
reaction with steam at around 1000 C in the presence of a catalyst, often platinum. Carbon
monoxide and hydrogen are then reacted over a nickel-based catalyst in the Fischer–
Tropsch reaction to synthetic diesel.
See: synthetic diesel

1. Chianelli, R. R., X. C. Kretschmer and S. A. Holditch. Petroleum and natural gas. In
D. S. Ginley and D. Cahen (eds), Fundamentals of Materials for Energy and Environ-
mental Sustainability, pp. 106–16. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2012.
auxetic materials
Poisson’s ratio is the ratio of the lateral strain to the longitudinal strain in a stretched
rod.1,2 A positive Poisson ratio corresponds to a contraction perpendicular to the direc-
tion of stretch or an expansion perpendicular to the direction of compression when
compressed. An auxetic material has a negative Poisson ratio. Put simply, it tends to
become thicker in the direction perpendicular to the direction of stretch. Examples of
auxetic materials include polymer foams3 and a composite structure of carbon nanotube
films embedded in a polymer matrix (e.g. polydimethylsiloxane, polyurethane, epoxy
resin and polymethylmethacrylate) in which carbon nanotubes in one film are oriented
at 90 to nanotubes in a neighbouring film. Some metals exhibit auxetic behaviour,
particularly those with a cubic crystalline phase including the alloy β-brass, an alloy of
copper and zinc.3 Qualitatively, auxetic behaviour may be explained by assuming the
bonds between elements of the structure, such as crystallites in a polymer, are of constant
length but the links between the elements are flexible. On stretching the materials the
regions of crystallinity move apart and the flexible links adjust their orientation so that the
material becomes thicker.
1. Daintith, J. (ed.). A Dictionary of Physics, 6th edn. Oxford: Oxford University Press,
2009.
2. Chen, L.-Z., C.-H. Liu, J.-P. Wang and S.-S. Fan. Method for using a Poisson ratio
material. United States Patent 8,545,745, granted on 1 October 2013.
backlights
Liquid crystals do not emit light. In a liquid crystal display a white backlight is used and
combined with red, green and blue filters to display full colours.1 Conventional backlights
can be replaced by red, green and blue light-emitting diode (LED) pixels that eliminate the
Glossary 125
requirement for colour filters. This approach has been used in LED LCD televisions.
A compact fluorescent light (CFL) source has been used conventionally as a backlight in
LCD televisions. However, CFL sources are bulky and their replacement by LEDs enables
thinner television sets to be manufactured when using a liquid crystal display.
Technology, Production and Use, pp. 302–3. London: Elsevier, 2015.
bamboo
Bamboo is a fast-growing grass that can be harvested for construction purposes when
around four years old.1 Major growers and producers of bamboo are China, India,
Myanmar and Nigeria while world production of bamboo is about 1.4 billion tonnes per
year. Bamboo board is made from compressed bamboo strips cut from bamboo poles and
arranged in stacks with the grain of neighbouring strips at right angles to each other. The
stack is impregnated with a resin and then pressed and cured. Bamboo board is used for
flooring while bamboo poles are used for scaffolding.
1. Ashby, M. F., D. F. Balas and J. S. Coral. Materials and Sustainable Development,
p. 198. Oxford: Butterworth, 2016.
band gaps
Energy levels in a crystalline solid such as a semiconductor are arranged in energy bands.
The band gap is the energy difference between the so-called valence band and conduc-
tion band and the band gap in a semiconductor decreases as the size of the atoms in the
semiconductor increases.1 Outer electron orbitals of larger atoms overlap and can
produce wider bands. For example, the band gaps for silicon and germanium are 1.12
and 0.66 eV, respectively. The band gaps for gallium nitride (GaN) and gallium arsenide
(GaAs) are 3.34 and 1.35 eV, respectively. Electrons are elevated from the valence to
conduction bands when subjected to an electric field or to external radiation or by
thermal energies. Electrons in the conduction band have a delocalised arrangement and
have mobility throughout the crystal structure. The band gap is an important parameter
in determining the wavelength of emitted light from semiconductor quantum dots and
light-emitting diodes and for emission to occur the band gap must correspond to
visible wavelengths. A larger band gap is a reflection of stronger bonding between the
different atoms in the semiconductor. Shorter wavelengths are emitted as the band gap
energy increases.
See: quantum dots; extrinsic semiconductors; intrinsic semiconductors; semiconductors

bioadhesives
Bioadhesives are natural adhesives.1 An example of a bioadhesive concerns the ability of
mussels, barnacles and limpets to remain attached to surfaces under water.2 The blue
126 Glossary
mussel attaches itself to a rock through a foot and extrudes a protein gel and a hardening
solution. The cross-linking agent is L-DOPA (dihydroxyphenylalanine), a derivative of the
amino acid tyrosine; L-DOPA has uses in the treatment of Parkinson’s disease. Adhesive
proteins undergo cross-linking in the presence of dihydroxyphenylalanine.
See: biodegradable hydrogels; epoxy adhesives; hairy adhesives; Post-it notes; superglue
1. Burke, M. Stick insects. Chemistry and Industry (Feb. 2015) 79, 24–7.
2. Gratzer, W. Giant Molecules: From Nylon to Nanotubes. Oxford: Oxford University
Press, 2013.
bio-based chemicals
The nomenclature used for processing renewable materials can cause confusion. Bio-based
chemicals refer to materials derived from renewable resources.1 Thus bio-based chemicals
include biodiesel, biofuels (produced in bio-refineries), fermentation processes on sugars
and use of genetically engineered organisms. Examples of bio-based chemicals include
polyhydroxyalkanoates, 3-hydroxypropionic acid for conversion to acrylic acid, conversion
of carbohydrate feedstocks into dicarboxylic acids, diammines and amino acids for poly-
amides including nylon as well as succinic acid for polyesters.
See: biodiesel; bio-1,3-propanediol; carbohydrates; nylon; bio-succinic acid; recombinant DNA

technology
1. Trager, R. Bio-based chemicals on the rise in the US. Chemistry World (Dec. 2014)
11, 14.
bio-based resins
Synthetic resins such as epoxy resins have applications in composite materials. Bio-based
resins have potential for production of composites:1 for example, flax fibre–bio resin
composites for vehicle interiors such as parcel shelves, car floors and door rims where the
resin is derived from sugar, corncob and oat bagasse. The use of these composites makes
vehicles lighter and saves fuel.
See: composite materials; epoxy adhesives

1. Redahan, E. Needing a resin for change. Materials World (Nov. 2013) 21, 10.
biobutanol
Compared to ethanol, butanol (C4H9OH) is less hygroscopic, less soluble in water and less
flammable and has a low vapour pressure and a higher energy density. It can also be blended
with petrol. Biobutanol has been produced by bacterial fermentation using natural microbial
strains including Clostridium acetobutylicum although butanol is a toxic material for micro-
organisms. Butanol was produced industrially for use as a biofuel in 1916 by a process
pioneered by Chaim Weizmann1 and molasses, the residue left over from sugar refining,
Glossary 127
could be used as a feedstock for the process. Acetone was also produced on the industrial
scale by fermentation processes2 and it was an important chemical intermediate for the
production of the explosive cordite that was used by the British Army.
See: bioethanol
1. Northen, T. R. Biofuels and biomaterials from microbes. In D. S. Ginley and
D. Cahen (eds), Fundamentals of Materials for Energy and Environmental Sustainabil-
ity, p. 316. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2012.
2. Freemantle, M. The Chemists’ War. Chemistry World (Sept. 2015) 12, 55–9.
biocomposites
Biocomposites are composites that include a natural material.1 Examples of the latter are
flax, hemp, coir (fibre from coconut shells), willow, cotton, sugar and sheep wool.
See: composite matrials; flax fibres

1. Thakur, V., and A. Singha (eds). Biomass-Based Biocomposites. Shrewsbury, UK:
Smithers Rapra, 2013.
biodegradable hydrogels
Biodegradable hydrogels have applications in medicine as supports for slow-release of drugs
and as adhesives for tissues during surgical procedures and will dissolve over time, the rate of
dissolution dependent on the pH and composition of the hydrogel.1 For example, poly-
ethylene glycol (molecular weight 10,000) was reacted with glycolide oligomers (derived
from glycolic acid CH2OHCOOH) after which the copolymer was end-capped with acry-
loyl chloride (CH2CHCOOCl). Polymerisation and crosslinking by exposure of the end-
capped acrylate to ultraviolet or visible light in the presence of a free-radical initiator such as
ethyl eosin produced the hydrogel.
See: bioadhesives
1. Hubbell, J. A., C. P. Pathak, A. S. Sawhney, N. P. Desai and J. L. Hill-West.
Photopolymerizable biodegradable hydrogels as tissue contacting materials and
controlled-release carriers. United States Patent 5,567,435, granted on 22 October
1996.
biodegradable hygiene products

There is much interest in limiting the amount of waste products that are taken to landfill
sites. In the area of hygiene products, disposable nappies are made out of hydrogels and are
not routinely biodegradable or renewable. In addition ‘wet wipes’, which are used for general
cleaning purposes and for applying and removing cosmetics from the skin, can be but are
not always biodegradable as some are made out of polyester fibres. Flushing wet wipes down
128 Glossary
lavatories can cause blockages in sewers. Biopolymers have been used to prepare disposable
absorbent articles for potential use in sanitary towels and incontinence products.1,2 For
example, a mixture of a biodegradable aromatic-aliphatic copolyester mixture (Ecoflex
resin) with starch and wheat gluten could be converted into a biodegradable film.
See: engineering fabrics

1. Shi, B. Biodegradable and renewable films. United States Patent 8,329,601, granted
on 11 December 2012.
2. DeRosa, T. F. Engineering Green Chemical Processes: Renewable and Sustainable Design.
New York: McGraw-Hill, 2015.
biodegradable nanoparticles
Biodegradable nanoparticles of poly (β-amino esters) have been prepared by condensing
piperazine with selected bis(acrylate esters).1 The poly (β-amino esters) had a range of
molecular weights from around 4,000 to 31,000 Da. The biodegradable particles could be
used to encapsulate and deliver nucleotide-based drugs containing DNA or RNA for
treatment of human diseases.
See: nanoparticles
1. Langer, R. S., et al. Biodegradable poly (β-amino esters) and uses thereof. United
States Patent 8,287,849, granted on 16 October 2012.
biodegradable plastics
Biodegradable plastics are materials broken down in soil by the action of microbes or by heat
from a composting process or in vitro.1,2 These plastics include polymers derived from
natural resources such as corn starch or sugar, for example polylactic acid. Products from
degradation are water, carbon dioxide and biomass. Potential applications for biodegradable
plastics include nanoparticle-based medicines for targeting diseased cells in vivo.
See: nanoparticle-based medicines; polylactic acid

1. Reade, L. Plastic war. Chemistry and Industry (July 2014) 78, 20–3.
2. Felice, M. Biodegradable plastics. Materials World (Oct. 2013) 21, 50–1.
biodegradable stents
Materials are having an increasing impact on surgical procedures. For example, stents based
on shape memory alloys, in particular Nitinol, are widely used. In a materials development, a
stent made out of polylactic acid, a biodegradable plastic, can be inserted into an artery to
prevent narrowing of the artery and possible heart attack. The stent (known as the Abbott
absorb stent) contains a coating of slow-release drugs to help prevent inflammation of tissue,
has the shape of a coil around 3 mm wide and about 3 cm in length and is inserted through
Glossary 129
the radial artery in the wrist.1 The stent expands when it reaches the coronary artery and
dissolves over a period of about 12 months.
See: polylactic acid; shape memory alloys

1. Davis, C. It’s magic! Tiny tube unblocks your arteries—then vanishes! Daily Mail,
28 Apr. 2015.
biodegradable sutures
Surgical procedures often involve sutures in which stitching together the edges of a wound is
carried out. In addition, meshes are used in some operations, for example those involving
hernias. Biodegradable materials have been used for stitching a wound and for meshes and
these materials dissolve in the body over a period of time.1 An example of a biodegradable
material for these applications is known by the trade name Vicryl.
1. Ethicon. Wound closure: Coated Vicryl (polyglactin 910) suture, available at http://
www.ethicon.com/healthcare-professionals/products/wound-closure/absorbable-
sutures/coated-vicryl-polyglactin-910-suture)
biodiesel
Biodiesel refers to the mono-alkyl esters of long-chain fatty acids derived from vegetable oils
or animal fat, for example the methyl ester of rapeseed oil.1–3 Transesterification of animal fat
followed by separation of glycerine (also called glycerol, a trihydric alcohol HOCH2CH(OH)
CH2OH)) from the fatty acid methyl ester or esterification of vegetable oils followed by
separation of the water by-product are used for its preparation. Biodiesel is free of sulphur
and aromatics and can be added to petroleum-based diesel to produce a biodiesel blend.
Biodiesel and bioethanol are biofuels. Rudolf Diesel, who invented the diesel compressor
engine in 1897, used peanut oil for fuel but this early use of biodiesel was surpassed by the use
of petroleum as the fuel in the 1920s. An early patent for a self-propelled motor vehicle that
used a mixture of hydrocarbons known as ligroin as the fuel is given in reference (3).
See: bio-based chemicals; biofuels; green chemistry; polylactic acid

1. Earle, M. J., K. R. Seddon and N. V. Plechkova. Production of bio-diesel. United
States Patent Application 2009/0235574, published on 24 September 2009.
2. Sarin, A. Biodiesel: Production and Properties. Cambridge: Royal Society of Chemistry,
2012.
3. Benz & Company. Fahrzeug mit Gasmotorenbetrieh. German Patent 37435, granted
on 2 November 1886.
bioethanol
Bioethanol is a biofuel and is produced by fermentation of crops such as sugar cane by using
microorganisms, for example yeast.1 Cellulose is broken down by hydrolysis using enzymes
from micro-organisms into simple sugars that can be fermented into ethanol for use as
130 Glossary
biofuels. Bioethanol is produced in commercial quantities and is blended with petrol for
automotive use; a 6% limit on the use of crop-based biofuels including bioethanol applies
throughout the European Union for ground transport since September 2013.2 Bioethanol
obtained from crops is known as a first-generation biofuel.
See: biobutanol; biodiesel; cellulosic ethanol

1. Harfouche, A., R. Meilan and A. Altman. Tree genetic engineering and applications to
sustainable forestry and biomass production. Trends in Biotechnology (2011) 29, 9–17.
2. Bellof, M., and R. Maas. Enzymes on display. Chemistry and Industry (Mar. 2014) 78,
36–9.
biofilms
There is worldwide concern in the 21st century on the increase in antimicrobial resistance.
The bacteria Staphylococcus aureus, known as a ‘Superbug’ is a methicillin antibiotic resistant
strain (MRSA). Over 2 million associated Staphylococcus infections occur annually in the
USA with 40–50% associated with MRSA, the antibiotic resistant strain.1 It has been
estimated that by 2050 antimicrobial resistance may lead to 300 million premature deaths
with up to £64 trillion lost to the global economy.2 Biofilms are coatings found on a wide
variety of surfaces including pipes and other parts of industrial equipment and can led to the
build-up of mussels, corrosion and blockages. The films result in colonies of dangerous
pathogens such as S. aureus and can form in implants such as heart valves, catheters and
orthopaedic implants as well as surfaces in hospitals including doors, surgical equipment
and beds. While there is much research on the identification on new antibiotics, another
approach to tackling antimicrobial resistance is from consideration of the surface texture of
shark skin.
See: shark skin

1. O’Driscoll, C. Antibody attack on Staphylococcus. Chemistry and Industry (Feb. 2015)
79, 10.
2. King, A. Antimicrobial resistance will kill 300 million by 2050 without action. Chem-
istry World (Dec. 2014) 12, 6.
biofuels
Biofuels are fuels derived from plant biomass and include bioethanol and biodiesel.1
Bioethanol produced by fermentation of sugar from sugar cane by micro-organisms involv-
ing enzymatic hydrolysis is known as a first-generation biofuel. There is interest in second-
generation biofuels obtained from sources of cellulose such as wood chips, although the
technology is not as advanced as for first-generation biofuels.
See: bioethanol; biodiesel; biomass

ity, pp. 315–35. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2012.
Glossary 131
biomass
Biomass refers to natural organic materials such as plants, sawdust, agricultural waste,
namely wheat straw, bamboo, corn stover, rice straw, rice hulls, hemp, flax, jute, cotton,
sugar cane bagasse and wood chips that are sources of renewable energy (biofuels such as
bioethanol) or renewable materials as alternatives to materials derived from petrochemical
sources or which can be burnt to produce heat and power.1
See: lignocellulose; cellulose; hemicellulose

1. Thakur, V., and Singha, A. (eds). Biomass-Based Biocomposites. Shrewsbury, UK:
Smithers Rapra, 2013.
biomaterials
Biomaterials refer to materials found in living (or dead) organisms.1,2 Examples include a
composite structure of alternating layers of protein and calcite (calcium carbonate) in the
abalone shell, in which the high fracture toughness compared to calcite alone protects this
mollusc from predatory attack.1 The colours of butterfly wings and peacock wings arise not
from the presence of pigments but from interference of diffracted light from periodic
structures of biomaterials in the wings with a periodicity around the wavelength of light.
See: iridescent organisms; iridescent pigments; nacre; photonic materials

1. Ozin, G. A., A. C. Arsenault and L. Cademartiri (eds). Nanochemistry: A Chemical
Approach to Nanomaterials. Cambridge: Royal Society of Chemistry, 2009.
2. Kulshrestha, A., A. Mahapatro and L. Henderson (eds). Biomaterials, American
Chemical Society Symposium Series. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011.
biomimetic materials
Many living organisms contain intricate structures of minerals obtained by a mineralisation
process from soluble species interspersed with proteins.1 These structures are often natural
composites whose toughness and strength help to protect the organism. Examples of these
structures include diatoms, single-celled animals that have an outer shell of silica with a well-
defined pore size. Egg shells contain ordered crystals of calcium carbonate in a matrix of
natural polymers. The skeletons of sponges comprise silica rods while the shells of molluscs
contain aggregates of aragonite crystal. Bone is a composite of the protein collagen and
hydroxyapatite. The teeth of limpets contain fibres of goethite (α-Fe2O3.H2O) in a strong
composite structure.2 Biomimetic materials are materials made in a laboratory with the aim
of utilising the structures of naturally occurring materials in organisms in order to develop
improved material properties such as greater toughness.
See: composite materials; biomaterials, hydroxyapatite

1. Calvert, P. Biomimetic processing. In R. J. Brook, Materials Science and Technology,
vol. 17B, Processing of Ceramics, Part II, pp. 51–82. Weinheim, Germany: VCH
Publishers, 1996.
132 Glossary
2. Spencer, B. Nothing’s as tough as the teeth of a limpet. Daily Mail, p.3, 18

Feb. 2015.
biopharmaceuticals
Throughout the 20th century many drugs for therapeutic purposes were based on small
molecules prepared by a chemical synthesis, for example acetylsalicylic acid (molecular
weight 180). There has been increasing interest since the last two decades of the 20th
century on the development of biopharmaceuticals or biologic drugs and these are based
on monoclonal antibodies and prepared by techniques involving yeasts or bacteria in
recombinant DNA technology.1 The biopharmaceuticals have sequences of amino acids
in their structure and are monoclonal antibodies. These techniques have been called protein
engineering. Examples of biopharmaceuticals are Herceptin (trastuzumab) for the treat-
ment of breast cancer, Avastin (bevacizumab) for the treatment of colon cancer and
Remicade (Infliximab) for the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis.
See: acetylsalicylic acid; antibodies

1. Ganellin, C. R., R. Jefferis and S. Roberts (eds). Introduction to Biological and Small
Molecule Drug Research and Development: Theory and Case Studies. London: Elsevier,
2013.
bioplastics
Throughout the 20th century plastics have been prepared mainly from petroleum feed-
stocks. Bioplastics are derived from renewable sources and some are biodegradable such as
polylactic acid. Genetically engineered Escherichia coli was used to convert glucose to
muconic acid that could be hydrogenated to adipic acid.1 The latter is conventionally
derived from petroleum on an industrial scale and converted to nylon. The global produc-
tion capacity in 2011 for bioplastics was just over 1 million tonnes compared to 280 million
tonnes for all plastics.
See: biodegradable plastics; plastics; polylactic acid

1. Niu, W., K. M. Draths and J. W. Frost. Benzene-free synthesis of adipic acid.
Biotechnology Progress (2002) 18(2), 201–11.
biopolymers
Biopolymers are naturally occurring polymers and include proteins such as insulin, cellu-
lose, nucleic acids, for example deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and bioplastics.1 The latter,
unlike plastics derived from petrochemical sources, are biocompatible and biodegradable.
Bioplastics are usually produced in a fermentation process on a sugar-based medium to
produce monomers that can be condensed and polymerised.
See: poly-3-hydroxybutyrate; polymers

Glossary 133
1. Ebnesajjad, S. (ed). Handbook of Biopolymers and Biodegradable Plastics. London:

Elsevier, 2013.
bioprinting
The success of organ transplantation is limited by the availability of donors. Bioprinting is an
emerging technology that controls the distribution of living cells within a biodegradable matrix
material to build up a tissue structure layer by layer to replace diseased organs, for example
livers or kidneys.1,2 Three-dimensional printing has the potential to construct artificial organs
when combined with living cells and matrix material as the materials to be printed. The matrix
can be a biodegradable hydrogel printed as a suspension containing living cells. Examples of
matrix material include collagen, fibrin, chitosan and hyaluronic acid.
See: hydrogels; scaffolds; stereolithography; three-dimensional printing

1. S. K. Hasan. Three-dimensional tissue generation. United States Patent Application
2011/0250688, published on 13 October 2011.
2. Challener, C. Cell prints. Chemistry & Industry (Feb. 2014) 78, 24–7.
bio-1,3-propanediol
Bio-1,3-propanediol (HOCH2CH2CH2OH) is an example of how genetically engineered
organisms can produce higher-value products from biomass.1 Glucose extracted from corn
is digested by such organisms in a vessel containing a growth medium. The glucose is
metabolized, yielding 1,3-propanediol, which can be reacted with terephthalic acid
(COOHC6H4COOH) to produce a polymer that can be spun into fibres for clothing and
carpets. The trade name for this polymer is Sorona.
See: bio-based chemicals; biomas; green chemistry

1. Armitage, Y. The industrial biotechnology opportunity. Materials World (June 2014),
22, 45–7.
bio-succinic acid
An example of the versatility of genetic engineering is illustrated by the use of fermentation
of corn glucose by genetically engineered yeast or Escherichia coli to yield succinic acid
(HOOCCH2CH2COOH).1 Succinic acid is a commodity chemical and it is an intermediate
for the manufacture of solvents such as tetrahydrofuran and maleic anhydride, which is used
for production of resins and polymers. It is also an intermediate for manufacture of
polyesters and polyimides.
See: bio-based chemicals; green chemistry; recombinant DNA technology; yeast

1. Johnson, E. Sweeter feedstock. Chemistry and Industry (Nov. 2014) 78, 42–5.
134 Glossary
bleaching agents
Peracids, for example peracetic acid (CH3COOOH), are used as mild bleaching agents in
detergent products;1,2 peracids are also used in bleaching wood pulp in the paper-making
process. The current method to produce peracids involves reaction of a carboxylic acid with
hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) in the presence of a strong acid such as concentrated sulphuric
acid. This process produces toxic waste products. In a greener reaction peracids have been
produced enzymatically by replacement of sulphuric acid with Bacillus subtilis 31954. For
example, treatment of triacetin with H2O2 at pH 6.5 in the presence of this strain at 25 C
produced a concentration of approximately 3500 ppm of peracetic acid after 10 minutes.
See: green chemistry

1. Dicosimo, R. Production of peracids using an enzyme having perhydrolysis activity.
United States Patent 8,329,441, granted on 11 December 2012.
bone china
While many materials are used for their functional properties, others are admired for their
aesthetic properties. Bone china was first produced in the mid-18th century in England and
is associated with English tableware.1,2 Its name originates from the use of calcined bone ash
(from animal bones) and a feldspar (e.g. (K, Na)2O;Al2O3;6SiO2) that acts as a liquid-
phase sintering aid. The first firing involves kiln temperatures up to 1280 C. Glazes are used
to seal pores in bone china products. A detailed account of the materials and processes
involved in producing tableware such as bone china is given in reference (2).
See: porcelain
1. Hennicke, H. W., and A. Hesse. Traditional ceramics. In Concise Encyclopaedia of
Advanced Ceramic Materials, p. 489. Oxford: Pergamon Press, 1991.
2. Miller, J. (Gen. Ed.). Miller’s Antiques Encyclopedia. London: Octopus Publishing,
2013.
Brazilian bioethanol
Bioethanol has been produced economically on a large scale in Brazil for some years.1 The
feedstock is sugarcane that can be grown at a large tonnage per hectare because of the
favourable climate. Sugar is extracted from the sugarcane and converted to ethanol by
fermentation using yeast; the remaining sugarcane bagasse can be burnt, supplying energy
for purification of ethanol by distillation.
See: bioethanol
Glossary 135
breathable garments
The design, colours and comfort of clothing all affect the choices consumers make when
making purchases. Breathable waterproof clothing has been produced by incorporating a
porous layer of, for example, Gore-Tex or similar material as the pores are too small to let
raindrops through but large enough to let sweat molecules through.1 Thus, the porous layer
acts as a membrane. Certain footwear ranges including those marketed under the trade
name GEOX have pores of a controlled size that act as a breathable membrane.
See: Gore-Tex
1. Tyrell, J. A. Fundamentals of Industrial Chemistry: Pharmaceuticals, Polymers and
Business, p. 128. New York: Wiley, 2014.
brominated flame retardants

Brominated compounds, for example hexabromocyclododecane, are used as fire retardants,
particularly in textiles, where they are incorporated into organic polymers in a melt-
processing step.1 Bromine free radicals in the gas phase scavenge highly energetic oxygen
and hydroxyl free radicals derived from combustion products of the polymer, hence limiting
flame propagation by free radicals. There are concerns over the possible toxicity of low
molecular weight brominated compounds and their ability to accumulate in body tissue.
1. Moran, N. Phasing out fire retardants. Chemistry World (Aug. 2013), 10, 50–3.
bullet-proof vests
Bullet-proof vests are made out of a synthetic polymer, Kevlar, and can be considered to be
made out of a plastic.1 Kevlar has the chemical name of poly (p-phenylene terephthalamide)
and solutions of the polymer can be spun into fibres. Kevlar is lightweight with a low density,
high stiffness and high tensile strength. Kevlar has a strength and stiffness greater than steel;
bullet-proof vests are made of cross-woven Kevlar fibres which absorb energy on bending under
impact and dissipate the energy over a wide area. Kevlar is an example of an aramid fibre.
See: aramids; Kevlar

1. Dodgson, M., and D. Gann. Innovation: A Very Short Introduction, pp. 51–4. Oxford:
candy floss
Foodstuffs can be considered as materials and their processing can have similarities with the
processing of other materials. Candy floss (also called cotton candy) is familiar to gener-
ations of children and their parents during visits to funfairs or the seaside. A patent was
issued for a machine to prepare candy floss in 1899 and the general method used nowadays
involves dropping flavoured granulated sugar onto a spinning disc with small holes at the
136 Glossary
Fig. G.3 Cotton candy is made by melting flavoured, dyed sugar until it turns liquid and then
spinning it by machine into fine threads.
(Photo courtesy of Shutterstock.)
edges; the spinning disc is a spinerette (Fig. G.3).1 A heating element melts the sugar that
streams out of the holes in the spinning disc. The streams of liquid sugar (i.e. the floss)
solidify in the colder air into a sugar glass, namely the candy floss. There are similarities in
the way candy floss and Kevlar is produced by spinning. In the 20th century glass fibres
have been prepared by extruding molten glass through small holes in a spinerette.2 A more
detailed description of candy floss is given in reference (3).
See: fibreglass; Kevlar

1. Morrison, W. J., and J. C. Wharton. Candy machine. United States Patent 618428,
granted on 31 January 1899.
2. Slayter, G. Method and apparatus for making glass wool. United States Patent
2,133,235, 1938.
3. Goldstein, D. (ed.). The Oxford Companion to Sugar and Sweets, pp. 190–1. Oxford:
carbohydrates
Carbohydrates are compounds with the general formula C6(H2O)y and include the simple
sugars (monosaccharides) that cannot be broken down into smaller units.1 Examples of
Glossary 137
monosaccharides are glucose (C6H12O6), fructose (C6H12O6), which is stereoisomeric with

glucose, and ribose (C5H10O5), a constituent of ribonucleic acid (RNA); deoxyribose
(C5H10O4) is a constituent of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). Sucrose is a carbohydrate
consisting of a molecule of glucose chemically linked to a molecule of fructose.
See: bio-based chemicals; polysaccharides; sugary foods

Press, 2013.
carbon aerogels
Carbon aerogels are obtained when organic aerogels are pyrolysed at high temperature,
around 1000 C.1,2 High surface areas that can be obtained in these materials, on the order of
1000 m2 g 1, are potentially useful for battery electrodes and catalyst supports.
See: organic aerogels

1. Mayer, S. T., J. L. Kaschmitter and R. W. Pekala. Carbon aerogel electrodes for
direct energy conversion, International Patent Application WO 95/20246, 1995.
2. Segal, D. Exploring Materials through Patent Information, p. 114. Cambridge: Royal
carbon capture
The removal of carbon dioxide produced from the combustion of coal and fossil fuels in
power stations is a challenge for the 21st century. This removal from flue gases is known as
carbon capture, or carbon sequestration.1 Materials that have been considered for carbon
capture include organic amines in a liquid or solid form that can be regenerated. Inorganic
adsorbents are also under consideration.
See: industrial effluents; carbon dioxide

1. Frost, S. Capturing the bogeyman. Materials World (Sept. 2015) 23, 10–11.
carbon fibre
Carbon fibres for use as lamp filaments had been produced by Thomas Edison in the 19th
century from carbonised cotton and bamboo.1 Since the 20th century continuous carbon
fibres have been produced from synthetic polymers, in particular by carbonisation of wet-
spun polyacrylonitrile fibres. Carbonisation involves a heat treatment of the spun fibres in an
inert atmosphere at temperatures in the range 1000–1500 C. An alternative approach
involves carbonisation of wet-spun mesophase pitches derived from thermal polymerisation
of petroleum- or coal-tar-based pitches; these mesophase sources contain liquid crystals.
Carbon fibres have an as-prepared diameter in the range 5–15 µm and can be woven into
mats and felts. Examples of carbon fibres are AS-4 (Hexel), T300 (Toray) and CN60
138 Glossary
(Nippon Graphite). The fibre has a graphite-type structure in layers along the length of the
fibre with strong covalent bonding between carbon atoms along the layer and weak van der
Waals forces between the layers. Carbon fibres are characterised by (i) stiffness as measured
by Young’s modulus up to around 900 GPa, (ii) being lightweight with a density approxi-
mately 2.0 g cm 3, (iii) tensile strength of more than 5 GPa and (iv) thermal conductivity of
around 1000 W m 1 K 1. In a carbon–carbon composite the carbon matrix can be built up
by, for example, vapour phase infiltration of carbon fibre mats. Carbon–carbon composites
are stable at high temperature over 3000 C. Carbon fibre-reinforced composites have
applications where lightweight, strong and tough structural components are required, par-
ticularly for space, military and civilian aircraft: for example, components for aircraft (Boeing
777, Airbus 380 and the Boeing Dreamliner), brake discs for luxury cars such as Porsche and
Audi models, rocket nozzles and re-entry parts for missiles. Carbon–carbon composites have
low oxidation stability above 400 C. This lack of stability can be overcome by coating the
fibres with silicon carbide. In addition, carbon fibre-reinforced silicon matrices have been
used in propulsion systems in spacecraft and satellite structures such as telescope compo-
nents where the low thermal expansion of carbon–silicon carbide composites is desirable.
See: acrylic fibre; composite materials; liquid crystals

1. Bansal, N. P., and J. Lamon (eds). Ceramic Matrix Composites: Materials, Modeling
and Technology. New York: Wiley, 2015.
carbon fibre composites

Continuous carbon fibre can be fabricated into carbon–carbon composites by infiltration of
a mat of the fibre, for example from the vapour phase. Carbon fibre-reinforced composites
have applications where lightweight, strong and tough structural components are required,
particularly for space, military and civilian aircraft:1 for example, components for aircraft
(Boeing 777, Airbus 380 and the Boeing Dreamliner), brake discs for luxury cars such as
Porsche and Audi models, rocket nozzles and re-entry parts for missiles. The addition of
fibres to a matrix increases the toughness of the component, that is the resistance to fracture.
See: carbon fibre

carbon nanotubes
A carbon nanotube is an allotrope of carbon and consists of an ordered sheet of carbon
atoms arranged in a hexagonal array rolled into a tube; the sheet of carbon atoms corres-
ponds to a sheet of graphene (Fig. G.4). Carbon nanotubes were first identified in 1991 by
Sumio Iijima, who passed an electric arc discharge between graphite rods.1 Other prepara-
tive methods include laser evaporation, catalytic hydrocarbon decomposition and chemical
vapour deposition.2–4 Carbon nanotubes can be single-walled or multi-walled, where the
latter consist of concentric layers of single-walled nanotubes. Carbon nanotubes have
diameters from several angstroms up to several nanometres and lengths up to several
thousand times larger than the diameter. These nanotubes have high current capacity (up
Glossary 139
Cutting
A B
Fig. G.4 Conversion of a carbon nanotube (A) to monolayer graphene (B).

(B. Z. Zhang, et al. United States Patent Application 2005/0271574, 2005.)
to 1010 amp cm 2), mechanical flexibility, high tensile strength (up to 100 GPa) and
chemical stability. Potential applications for carbon nanotubes include hydrogen storage
media, supercapacitors, structural materials, fillers for polymer composites and transparent
electrodes for flat panel displays.
1. Iijima, S. Helical microtubes of graphitic carbon. Nature (1991) 354 (7), 56–8.
2. Silva, S. R., S. Haq and B. O. Boskovic. Production of carbon nanotubes. United
States Patent 8,715,790, granted on 6 May 2014.
3. Talapatra, S., S. Kar, S. Pal, R. Vajtai and P. Ajayan. Carbon nanotube growth on
metallic substrate using vapour phase catalyst delivery. United States Patent
8,207,658, granted on 26 June 2012.
4. Predtechensky, M. R., O. M. Tukhto and I. Y. Koval. United States Patent 8,137,
653, granted on 20 March 2012.
carbon/SiC braking systems

There are many examples of industrial equipment that incorporate braking systems either
for routine operation or in emergency braking systems:1 for example, in lifts, cranes, funfairs
and high-performance lifts in tall buildings. During braking, kinetic energy is converted into
heat and materials which are used for brake discs require a high coefficient of friction that is
maintained at high temperatures produced on contact between the brake pads; temperatures
as high as 1200 C can be reached. Carbon fibre-reinforced silicon carbide composites fulfil
these requirements.
catalysts
Catalysts are used to direct the selectivity of chemical reactions and to speed up the rate of
reaction.1,2 The term catalysis was first proposed by Jons Jakob Berzilius in 1835 and covers
heterogeneous, homogeneous and enzymatic catalysis. An example from everyday life
140 Glossary
involves three-way automotive catalysts for the treatment of exhaust emissions in vehicles.
A further example relates the production of synthetic diesel in the Fischer–Tropsch reaction.
See: three-way automotive catalysts; synthetic diesel

1. Busca, G. Heterogeneous Catalytic Materials: Solid State Behaviour, Surface Chemistry
and Catalytic Behaviour. London: Elsevier, 2014.
2. Cornils, B., W. A. Hermann, C.-H. Wong and H.-W. Zantoff (eds). Catalysis from
A to Z: A Concise Encyclopedia, 4th edn. Weinhem, Germany: Wiley-VCH, 2013.
catalytic converters
A catalytic converter consists of a stainless steel can containing a supported metal catalyst
that is fitted to the exhaust pipe of vehicles.1 The catalyst is supported on a high surface area
alumina coating on a low thermal expansion ceramic honeycomb, usually made out of
cordierite. The catalyst converts carbon monoxide, unburned hydrocarbons and nitrogen
oxides in the hot exhaust gases, which are around 1000 C, to carbon dioxide, nitrogen and
water. Catalysts include platinum (or palladium) and rhodium compounds. Cerium oxide is
sometimes added to the catalyst to aid catalytic activity under cold-start conditions.
See: three-way automotive catalysts

Technology, Production and Use, p.142–58. London: Elsevier, 2015.
catalytic cracking
Catalytic cracking takes place in petroleum refineries and converts large hydrocarbon mol-
ecules into smaller molecules of industrial use by vaporising the larger molecular fraction and
passing the vapour phase over a powdered zeolite catalyst such as faujasite in a fluidised bed.1
Products include petrol, diesel and fuel oil as examples. Lanthanum and cerium are added to
petroleum-cracking catalysts, which prevent sintering and collapse of the porous zeolite
structure.
Technology, Production and Use, p.158–9. London: Elsevier, 2015.
cellophane
Cellulose can be dissolved in a mixture of carbon disulphide and sodium hydroxide, after
which the resulting cellulose xanthate solution is extruded through a narrow slit to produce
sheets of cellophane used as a wrapping material although it is flammable.1
See: cellulose
1. Brandenberger, J. E. Composite cellulose film. United States Patent 1,266,766,
granted on 21 May 1918.
Glossary 141
cellulase enzymes
The preparation of biofuels such as bioethanol from lignocellulose requires enzymatic
hydrolysis with cellulase enzymes to degrade cellulose and hemicellulose polymers to mono-
meric sugar molecules with a low molecular weight, for example C5 and C6 sugars that are
then fermented in the presence of yeasts or bacteria to ethanol. Cellulase enzymes have been
obtained from fungi such as Aspergillus and Trichoderma, which express and secrete these
soluble enzymes.1 Examples of cellulase enzymes are endogluconases, cellobiohydrolases and
β-glucosidase and these enzymes are used in the production of faded cotton jeans.
See: faded jeans

36–9.
celluloid
Celluloid, a highly flammable thermoplastic, was produced by mixing cellulose nitrate and a
binder, camphor; the latter acted as a plasticiser. It had applications in the film industry in
the form of tape that could be wound onto a spool but was eventually discontinued in this
application due to its flammability. Developments on celluloid were made by John Hyatt Jr
in 1869 who prepared it on a commercial scale and celluloid was used as a substitute for
ivory billiard balls.1 In 1863 the increasing demand for billiard balls has driven the African
elephant to the edge of extinction with 12,000 animals being killed each year.2 This synthetic
resin had various applications, for example as dentures, spectacle frames, fountain pens,
combs, buttons and dolls, but its flammability limited its use. John Hyatt and his younger
brother Isaiah developed an injection moulding machine in 1872 that allowed bars or sheets
of celluloid to be produced that were then worked into the final product.3
See: cellulose; cellulose nitrate; Parkesine
1. Hyatt, J. W. Jr. Improved molding composition to imitate ivory and other substances.
United States Patent 88,633, granted on 6 April 1869.
2. Donald, G. The Accidental Scientist: The Role of Chance and Luck in Scientific Discovery,
pp. 32–8. London: Michael O’Mara Books Limited, 2013.
3. Chaline, E. Fifty Machines that Changed the Course of History, pp. 42–3. London:
Apple Press, 2012.
cellulose
Cellulose is the most abundant biorenewable material on earth and this crystalline polysac-
charide consists of linear polymeric chains formed by repeated connection of β-D-glucose
building blocks through a 1-4 glycoside linkage (Fig. G.5).1–3 Cellulose is insoluble in water
and common organic solvents due to the close-packed polymer chains that are linked
through hydrogen bonding and van der Waals forces; it is found in the cell walls of plants,
providing rigidity to the cell walls. Hence it is a major component of trees, vegetable fibre,
142 Glossary
OH OH
HO OH
HO 4
4 O
O O O HO
O O
1 O O HO
HO HO OH 1
HO HO OH
HO
OH OH n OH OH
OH
cellulose
β-D-glucose
Fig. G.5 Schematic diagram of the structure of cellulose and β-D glucose.
( J. Holbrey, et al. United States Patent 8,574,368, 2013.)
bamboo, flax and hemp, as examples. Polymer chains are oriented in the direction of the
vertical axis in trees and this orientation adds to the strength of the trunk. Cellulose (e.g.
wood pulp) can be converted to viscose rayon, a fibre used in textiles by dissolution in a
mixture of carbon disulphide and sodium hydroxide, after which the resulting aqueous
cellulose xanthate solution is converted to fibres of regenerated cellulose (i.e. rayon) by
passage through fine nozzles into sulphuric acid. Cellulose xanthate is extruded through a
narrow slit to produce sheets of cellophane used as a wrapping material although it is
flammable.4 Cellophane is impermeable to moisture, flexible and transparent. Microcrys-
talline cellulose powders are used in pharmaceutical applications. Cellulose is broken down
by hydrolysis using enzymes from micro-organisms into simple sugars that can be fer-
mented into ethanol for use as biofuels.
See: bioethanol; biomass; biopolymers; cellophane; lignocellulose; polysaccharides

2. Buchanan, C. M., and N. L. Buchanan. Cellulose esters and their production in halo-
genated ionic liquids. United States Patent 8,273,872, granted on 25 September 2012.
4. Brandenberger, J. E. Composite cellulose film. United States Patent 1,266,766,
granted on 21 May 1918.
cellulose acetate
Cellulose acetate is obtained by reaction of cellulose with glacial acetic acid and acetic
anhydride in the presence of sulphuric acid and was first prepared towards the end of the
19th century.1 It can be spun into fibres and applications include lacquers and shatterproof
glass for windscreens and these fibres are known as acetate rayon. Cellulose acetate can be
formed into sheets that as a thermoplastic can be shaped by pressing a hot sheet into a mold.
Plastics and fibres derived from cellulose are known as cellulosics.
See: cellulose
1. Fried, J. R. Polymer Science and Technology, 3rd edn, p. 350. Upper Saddle River, NJ:
Prentice Hall, 2014.
cellulose-derived hydrocarbons
Sugars derived from hydrolysis of cellulose can be catalytically converted to hydrocarbons.1
For example, glucose can be hydrogenated to sorbitol (CH2OH(CHOH)4CH2OH).
Glossary 143
Sorbitol is then deoxygenated to hexane (C6H14) by using hydrogen and a palladium or

platinum catalyst supported on silica or alumina at approximately 250 C.
1. Shi, J., Q. Qing, T. Zhang, C. E. Wyman and T. A. Lloyd. Biofuels from cellulosic
biomass via aqueous processing. In D. S. Ginley and D. Cahen (eds), Fundamentals of
Materials for Energy and Environmental Sustainability, pp. 336–48. Cambridge: Cam-
bridge University Press, 2012.
cellulose nitrate
Cellulose nitrate, or nitrocellulose, was first obtained in 1846 by Frederick Schonbein, a
professor of chemistry at the University of Basle, by reaction of cellulose in the form of
cotton or wood pulp with nitric acid;1 nitrocellulose is an ester ( CONO2) and not a nitro
compound (–C NO2). Cellulose nitrate has been used as a shock-sensitive explosive in
the form of gun cotton and is highly flammable. It is cellulose trinitrate in contrast to
collodion, which is cellulose dinitrate.2 When saturated with water, nitrocellulose can be
transported relatively safely as a pulp that is detonated by a small quantity of dry
nitrocellulose.3
See: celluloid; cellulose; collodion; Parkesine

Press, 2013.
3. Akhaven, J. The Chemistry of Explosives, 3rd edn, p.4. Cambridge: Royal Society of
Chemistry, 2011.
cellulosic ethanol
Bioethanol obtained from lignocellulose in agricultural waste such as corn stover, wheat
straw and sugar cane bagasse is referred to as a second-generation biofuel. Process devel-
opment is at an early stage but this route to bioethanol could become important as the 21st
century progresses. In the process lignin is separated from cellulose and hemicellulose in a
lignocellulosic feedstock, after which cellulose and hemicellulose undergo enzymatic
hydrolysis with cellulase enzymes that break down sugar polymers to smaller molecules
with five or six carbon atoms.1 The C6 and C5 sugars are then fermented by bacteria or
yeasts to ethanol.
See: bioethanol; cellulase enzymes

36–9.
ceramic glazes
Conventional ceramic articles such as tableware (e.g. cups, saucers, plates and jugs) are
manufactured from a mixture of primarily clays and a flux such as feldspar in which the
144 Glossary
mixture can have the consistency of ‘dough’ that is shaped to form, for example, plates.
Alternatively, larger articles such as sinks and lavatory basins are shaped by slip casting of a
slurry. The shaped article is fired in a kiln at about 1100 C, during which the feldspar or
similar sintering aid encourages liquid-phase sintering between reactants. In the case of
tableware the fired bodies are porous and known as ‘biscuit’ and pores are sealed by dipping
the article into a slurry of glass powder to produce a coating on the article, which is then fired
again in a kiln at a lower temperature to yield a hard glaze coating. Decoration is applied on
top of the glaze coating and a further firing step in the kiln bonds the decoration to the article
surface. Hand-decorated ware refers to applying by hand a transfer or decal containing the
required pattern to the glaze surface. An account of the different types of glazes (e.g. salt
glazes, tin glazes, transparent glazes) is given in reference (1).
See: ceramic stains

2013.
ceramic honeycombs
Concerns over pollution emanating from the exhausts of petrol and diesel vehicles has led to
legislation to limit the pollutants. Extruded ceramic honeycombs are often made out of
cordierite, a magnesium aluminium silicate (2MgO;2Al2O3;5SiO2) that is a glass ceramic
with a low thermal expansion able to withstand thermal cycling in hot exhausts without
cracking.1 Porous walls of the channels in the honeycombs are coated with a catalyst
supported on a high surface area alumina for conversion of carbon monoxide to carbon
dioxide, hydrocarbons to water and carbon dioxide and nitrogen oxides to nitrogen. The
channel density is around 200 per square inch of cross-section of the honeycomb. For diesel
engines the honeycomb acts as a particulate filter or trap to remove carbon particulates.
See: diesel particulates; glass ceramics; three-way automotive catalysts

1. Liu, P. S., and G. F. Chen. Porous Materials, pp. 295–6. London: Elsevier, 2014.
ceramic materials
Ceramics are non-metallic inorganic oxides.1,2 The word ceramic is of Greek origin and its
translation (keramos) means potter’s earth. Traditional ceramics are derived from naturally
occurring raw materials and include clay-based products such as tableware and sanitary-
ware as well as structural claywares, for example bricks and pipes. Raw materials include
clay minerals such as kaolinite, also known as kaolin (Al2Si2O5(OH)4), silica sand and
a feldspar (e.g. (K, Na)2O;Al2O3;6SiO2) that acts as a liquid-phase sintering aid; clay
minerals disperse in an aqueous environment to form colloidal systems. The fired micro-
structure contains glassy phases, pores and crystalline phases. Traditional ceramics also
include glasses, cements and refractories. The latter include chrome-magnesite refractories
used in the steel-making industry. Advanced ceramics are derived from chemical synthetic
routes or from naturally occurring materials that have been highly refined. Examples of
advanced ceramics include yttria-stabilised zirconia, silicon carbide fibres for composites,
Glossary 145
nanoparticles of titanium dioxide for sunscreens, synthetic hydroxyapatite for coated hip
implants, silica aerogels, barium titanate for capacitors and tin oxide gas sensors.
See: electroceramics; engineering ceramics; ceramic matrix composites

2013.
2. Verdeja, L. F., J. P. Sancho, A. Ballester and R. Gonzalez. Refractory and Ceramic
Materials. Madrid: Editorial Sintesis, 2014.
ceramic matrix composites

Ceramic matrix composites (CMC) consist of a component in which ceramic reinforcement
such as fibre or powder is dispersed throughout a ceramic matrix so that the reinforcement
increases the toughness of the composite, that is increases its resistance to fracture.
Examples of CMCs are silicon carbide fibre as reinforcement for a silicon carbide matrix
or alumina fibre reinforcement in an alumina matrix.1
See: ceramic materials; silicon carbide fibre composites

ceramic precursors
Ceramic precursors are usually associated with polymeric species that can be converted to
ceramic materials, particularly non-oxide ceramics by decomposition at high temperature.
Examples of these precursors are polycarbosilanes and polysilazanes, which can be con-
verted to powders, fibres, coating or monolithic shapes of silicon carbide or silicon nitride.1
See: polycarbosilanes; polysilazanes

1. Riedel, R. Advanced ceramics from inorganic polymers. In R. J. Brook (ed.),
Materials Science and Technology, vol. 17B, Processing of Ceramics Part II, pp. 1–50.
Weinheim, Germany: VCH Publishers, 1996.
ceramic stains
The price of conventional ceramic articles such as tableware (e.g. cups, saucers, plates and
jugs) is affected by its design and the quality of the decoration. The decoration contains
ceramic pigments known as stains that are typically multicomponent oxides or sulphides
that are prepared by solid-state reactions between raw materials at high temperature, after
which grinding is used to produce powders with particle sizes around 10–30 μm; ceramic
stains are also known as ceramic colours. Intricate coloured designs can be prepared on a
transfer or decal that is immersed in water to remove a backing paper and then applied to a
glazed ceramic article. This process is to known as ‘hand decoration’, in contrast to hand
146 Glossary
painting. Calcination of the article in a kiln removes residues from the decal, after which the
stain reacts with the glaze to form an adherent decoration on the tableware. Examples of
ceramic stains are praseodymium zircon (yellow), chrome tin (pink) and cobalt aluminate
(blue). In the case of wall tiles, screen printing of ceramic stain particles has been conven-
tionally used to print decorations onto the unfired tiles (known as ‘green bodies’), which due
to their fragility are prone to break. Screen-printed decorations do not extend to the edge of
the tiles. Ink-jet printing of ceramic stains has been explored for printing decorations up to
the edge of wall tiles and as it is a non-contact process, breakages of tiles are reduced. An
account of the materials used in different types of ware, such as earthenware, stoneware and
porcelains, stains and glazes, their preparation and uses, is given in reference (1).
See: ceramic glazes

2013.
chemical mechanical planarisation

There are requirements for polishing certain surfaces to a high degree in order to produce
level surfaces: for example, lenses in binoculars, telescopes, microscopes and spectacle
lenses. In addition, silicon wafers must be polished to produce high-quality surfaces
before their use in integrated circuits. This polishing process is known as chemical
mechanical planarisation (CMP).1 Nanopowders of cerium oxide and silica are used
for CMP.
1. Lee, J.-H., J.-H. Cho, J.-S. Choi and D.-J. Lee. Spin-on glass composition and
method of forming silicon oxide layer in semiconductor manufacturing process
using the same. United States Patent 7,270,886, granted on 18 September 2007.
chewing gum
While natural and synthetic rubbers are associated with tyre compositions, the major
components of gum base in chewing gum are rubbers including butyl rubber, styrene-
butadiene, polyisobutylene and low molecular weight polyvinyl acetate, although the
materials do not, of course, have the same composition as materials used in car tyres.1,2
Additives to the base are used to modify the physical properties of the gum, such as the
texture and chewiness although the exact compositions are closely guarded trade secrets.
A distinction between chewing gum and bubble gum arises because the polymer molecules
in bubble gum have a higher molecular weight, stretch more easily and maintain the
integrity of the bubble.
See: elastomers
1. Hartel, R. W., and A. Hartel. Candy Bites: The Science of Sweets. New York: Springer,
2014.
2. Emsley, J. Chemistry at Home: Exploring the Ingredients in Everyday Products,
pp. 125–6. Cambridge: Royal Society of Chemistry, 2015.
Glossary 147
chinese porcelain
The oldest fired, shaped clay artefacts date back approximately 8000 years while animal
reliefs were made with coloured glazed bricks in Egypt around 1600 BC. Chinese porcelain
was developed after 600 AD and continued during the Sung (960–1127) and Ming periods
(1368–1644),1,2 and these soft porcelains are highly valued in the 21st century for their
aesthetic appeal. Soft porcelains have lower kaolin contents than hard porcelains, charac-
teristic of European products such as Meissen porcelain. A detailed historical account of the
development of Chinese porcelain is given in reference (2).
See: porcelain
2013.
chitin
Chitin is a naturally occurring polysaccharide and is found in the exoskeletons (i.e. shells) of
shellfish and insects where it strengthens these structures.1–3 It is a derivative of glucose with
a chemical structure differing from that of cellulose because of the substitution of a hydroxyl
group with an acetyl group. It consists of chains of N-acetyl-D-glucosamine (2-acetamido-
2-deoxy-D-glucose).
See: chitosan; iridescent organisms

Press, 2008.
2003.
chitosan
Chitosan is a derivative of the natural polysaccharide chitin obtained by N-deacetylation and
has free amino groups.1,2 It is a copolymer of N-acetyl-glucosamine and glucosamine, is
biocompatible and biodegradable and is a linear polyamine. It is soluble in acidic media and
has applications in pharmaceuticals, cosmetics and food technology, as examples. Deacetyla-
tion removes the acetyl functional group (COCH3) from chitin and the resulting chitosan
behaves as a linear cationic polymer.3 Removal of acetyl groups allows for tighter packing of
polymer chains and an increase in crystallinity. Chitosan can be processed into fibres, films,
gels and three-dimensional porous structures for application as polymer scaffolds.
See: chitin
1. Borbely, J. Additives for cosmetic products and the like. United States Patent Appli-
cation 2008/0070993, published on 20 March 2008.
148 Glossary
3. Agrawal, C. M., J. L. Ong, M. R. Appleford and G. Mani. Introduction to Biomaterials:
Basic Theory with Engineering Applications. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
2014.
cholesteric phases
Liquid crystals can form cholesteric phases in which rod-shaped molecules are arranged in
nematic-type layers where the axes of the molecules lie in the plane of the layers and are
aligned. However, the layers are rotated relative to each other so that the direction of molecules
in one layer are not parallel to the direction of molecules in the adjacent layer and are slightly
twisted relative to the direction of molecules in the layer below.1 After a number of rotations
the direction of molecules in the upper plane is the same as the molecules in the lower plane so
that the layers have a helical screw-like arrangement. This alignment occurs after a 360 twist
of the planes. The separation of the upper plane from the lower plane is known as the pitch
(Fig. G.6). Cholesteric phases have also been called chiral nematic phases and here chiral
means that the helical structure is not superimposable on its mirror image.
See: liquid crystals; nematic liquid crystals; smectic phases

1. Kawamoto, H. The history of liquid crystal displays. Proceedings of the IEEE (2002)
90, 460–500.
chondroitin sulphate
Chondroitin sulphate is a glycosaminoglycan found in cartilage and in the cornea as well as
in arteries, skin and bone and acts as a lubricant.1 It is an unbranched polysaccharide and is
Half Pitch
Half Pitch
Fig. G.6 Schematic representation of cholesteric liquid crystals illustrating the pitch and half-pitch.
(H. Kawamoto. The history of liquid crystal displays. Proceedings of the IEEE (2002) 90, 460–500.)
Glossary 149
important for maintaining the structural integrity of tissue such as cartilage. Chondroitin
sulphate is water-soluble and can be cross-linked with other polymers such as chitosan,
gelatin and collagen.2 It is marketed as a nutritional supplement for osteoarthritis. As a
negatively charged polymer it can, when cross-linked with collagen, be used for the treat-
ment of burns and in reconstructive surgery. Examples of commercial products are Viscoat
and Integra.
See: hyaluronic acid

1. Gratzer, W. Giant Molecules: From Nylon to Nanotubes, p. 82. Oxford: Oxford
2014.
classification of porosity
Porosity is an important property of many materials including catalysts, zeolites, membranes
and photonic materials. Pore sizes are divided into three regions.1 Widths less than 2 nm are
characteristic of micropores, those between 2 and 50 nm correspond with mesopores while
macropores have widths greater than 50 nm.
See: photonic materials; zeolites

1. Sing, K. S. W., D. H. Everett, R. A. W. Haul, L. Moscou, R. A. Pierotti, J. Rouquerol
and T. Siemieniwska. Reporting physisorption data for gas/solid systems with special
reference to the determination of surface area and porosity. Pure and Applied Chem-
istry (1985) 57, 603–19.
coal gasification
Carbon-containing materials such as coal react with mixtures of steam and air (or oxygen) at
elevated temperatures and pressures to form synthesis gas. This process is known as coal
gasification.1
See: hydrogen; synthesis gas

1. Morreale, B. D., C. A. Powell and D. R. Luebke. Advancing coal conversion tech-
nologies: materials challenges. In D. S. Ginley and D. Cahen (eds), Fundamentals of
Materials for Energy and Environmental Sustainability, p. 120. Cambridge: Cambridge
collagen
Collagen is a fibrous protein that makes up about 30% of the body protein.1,2 The poly-
peptide backbone that contains amino acids is made up predominantly of glycine and
150 Glossary
proline. Three of the chains are bound together to form helical coils that are bound together
to form thick fibres that are very rigid and strong. Collagen is found in tendons, muscles,
arterial walls and hair and is bound up with the protein elastin, which has elastic properties.
The protein is part of the connective tissue in the skin that helps to create firmness. Collagen
is a component of bones and forms a natural composite with hydroxyapatite.
See: anti-ageing skin treatments; elastin; hydroxyapatite

2003.
Press, 2013.
collodion
Early work on polymers in the 19th century concentrated on derivatives of cellulose.1
Collodion is a solution of cellulose nitrate (nitrocellulose) in ethanol and was used as a
wound dressing. Evaporation of alcohol from coatings of the solution produced a hard,
flammable sheet of cellulose nitrate. Collodion is based on cellulose dinitrate and is not an
explosive unlike cellulose trinitrate.
See: cellulose nitrate

colloidal crystals
Colloidal crystals are assemblies of colloidal particles around 1 µm in diameter where the
particles have an ordered structure.1 Opal is a naturally occurring colloidal crystal compris-
ing of packed silica spheres. Synthetic colloidal crystals can form photonic crystals that
contain periodic structures due to packing of the colloidal particles where the periodicity is
on the order of the wavelength of visible light. Optical diffraction occurs within photonic
crystals and the periodic structure is responsible for the colours in butterfly wings and
peacock feathers.
See: colloidal systems; photonic crystals

1. Ozin, G. A., A. C. Arsenault and L. Cademartiri. Nanochemistry: A Chemical
Approach to Nanomaterials, pp. 147–9. Cambridge: Royal Society of Chemistry,
2009.
colloidal systems
In 1861 Thomas Graham used the word colloid to describe ‘glue-like’ material prepared by
dialysis of silicic acid made by acidifying silicate solutions and also organic species such as
Glossary 151
gums, caramel, tannin and albumen.1 These systems did not crystallise. Nowadays colloidal
systems are defined as comprising a disperse phase with at least one dimension between
1 nm and 1 µm in a dispersion medium. Colloidal systems include dispersions of particles
where the colloidal dimension refers to particle diameter, emulsions, aerosols and foams with
a film thickness in this size range. These systems also include nanofibres. Colloidal systems
have a significant percentage of atoms in their surface regions compared to non-colloidal
systems.2–4
See: aerosol-derived powders; nanofibres; nanotechnology; quantum dots; sol-gel processes

1. Graham, T. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society (1861) 151, 183–224.
2. Buzak, S., and D. Rende. Colloid and Surface Chemistry: A Laboratory Guide for
Exploration of the Nano World. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, 2014.
3. Shaw, D. Introduction to Colloid and Surface Chemistry, 4th edn. Oxford: Butterworth-
Heinemann, 1992.
4. Jones, R. A. L. Soft Condensed Matter. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2013.
coloured diamonds
Diamonds have many applications, including in drill bits, that rely on their hardness and as
heat sinks for semiconductors to conduct heat due to its high thermal conductivity.
Diamonds are also widely admired in jewellery. Diamond has a large band gap (5.5 eV),
which means that it does not absorb radiation from the ultraviolet to infrared wavelengths
and thus remains transparent. Coloured diamonds can be produced by introducing
impurities, for example by ion implantation although natural diamonds can contain
impurities. For example, natural diamond containing nitrogen has luminescent defect
centres due to unbound electrons that can give rise to a red appearance. Nitrogen
concentrations of around 100 ppm give rise to a yellow appearance. Absorption levels in
the band structure of diamond are introduced on doping so that electrons can absorb some
components of visible light.
See: cubic zirconia

commercial bioplastics
There is increasing interest in developing bioplastics from renewable sources. Those mater-
ials that are commercially available are polypropylene from ethanol, polyethylene from
ethanol, polylactic acid, polyhydroxyalkanoate, polytrimethylene terephthalate, cellulose
acetate, nylon 11 and thermoplastic starch.1
See: bioplastics
152 Glossary
composite materials
Composite materials consist of a reinforcement phase or filler dispersed in a matrix phase.1
The filler can be continuous or chopped-up fibre, often aligned, for example carbon fibre
and glass fibres, while the matrix can be a thermoplastic or thermoset polymer, or ceramic or
metal. Composites can be low weight compared to metals with attractive mechanical
properties such as toughness and strength. Lightweight composites have applications as
structural components for aircraft. Examples of other composites include silicon carbide
whisker-reinforced alumina, silicon carbide fibre-reinforced titanium compressor discs and
glass fibre-reinforced epoxy resins.
See: bio-based resins; epoxy adhesives; nanocomposites

concrete
While a mixture of cement, water and sand is known as mortar, concrete is a mixture of
cement and aggregate that is a coarse stony material.1 Concrete can be described as a
composite material and as with cements is strong under compression but weak under
tension. In reinforced concrete tensile forces are transmitted through steel rods embedded
in the concrete.
See: Portland cement

1. Bolton, W., and R. A. Higgins. Materials for Engineers and Technicians, 6th edn,
pp. 364–7. London: Routledge, 2015.
conducting polymers
Polyacetylene, poly-(p-phenylenevinylene) (PPV), polyaniline, polypyrrole and polythio-
phene are examples of electrically conducting polymers.1 A common feature of these
polymers is a conjugated Π-electron bond structure with alternating single and double
bonds along the polymer chain. The conductivity is modified by addition of additives, for
example arsenic pentafluoride to polyacetylene. PPV is a semiconductor with potential
applications in organic light-emitting diodes (OLEDs). Other applications and potential
applications are as electrodes and solid electrolytes in batteries, conductive paints and
electrochromic displays.
See: organic light-emitting diodes; polyacetylene; poly-(p-phenylenevinylene)

1. Geoghegan, M., and G. Hadziioannou. Polymer Electronics. Oxford: Oxford Univer-
sity Press, 2013.
Glossary 153
contact angle
When a drop of liquid is present on a surface then the contact angle is the angle
measured from the surface through the drop to the tangent at the air–liquid–solid interface
(Fig. G.7).1
See: hydrophilic materials; hydrophobic materials; superhydrophobic materials

contrast agents for MRI

Magnetic resonance imaging is widely used to highlight soft tissue in the body. Contrast
agents are administered at the time of the examination and enhance the differences in signal
intensity between neighbouring tissues.1 An example of a contrast agent is based on
gadolinium (a lanthanide element) known under the trade name Magnevist (Gadopentetat-
Dimeglumin, Gd-DTPA). The Gd (III) ion is paramagnetic, which decreases the relaxation
time of protons and is referred to as a positive contrast agent.
See: superconducting metals and alloys

Non-wetting
Complete wetting
θc = 0° θc = 180°
θ
θ θ
θc < 90° θc = 90° θc > 90°
Fig. G.7 Contact angles (θ)c at a water–solid interface.

(D. Segal. Exploring Materials through Patent Information, p. 220. Cambridge: Royal Society of
Chemistry, 2014.)
154 Glossary
copolymers
Copolymers, or heteropolymers, are made from two or more different monomers.1 Styrene-
butadiene, styrene-acrylonitrile-butadiene and polystyrene-polymethylmethacrylate are
examples of heteropolymers. Both nylon and Kevlar are copolymers produced in a conden-
sation reaction between monomers.
See: polymers; tyre compositions

p. 272. London: Routledge, 2015.
copper indium gallium diselenide

The quest for renewable solutions to worldwide concerns over global warming has led to a
search for materials that can be used in solar cell, that can be manufactured economically
and that have high efficiencies. Copper indium gallium diselenide (CIGS), copper indium
gallium disulphide and cadmium telluride are candidate materials for thin-film photovoltaic
technology.1
See: silicon-based solar cells

1. Burke, M. Solar future looks bright. Chemistry and Industry (26 Sept. 2011)
19–21.
cosmetic formulations
Colloidal systems play an important role in cosmetic formulations.1,2 For example, moist-
urisers are often oil-in-water emulsions where the particle diameter of the oil droplets lies
within the colloidal size range. The emulsion must be stable, that is, not settle out into oil and
water phases after purchase. Oil-in-water emulsions where water is the continuous phase
can be removed from the skin with water. Emulsion formulations can be prepared as an aid
to allow penetration of active ingredients into the skin; hence, the use of oil–water–oil
emulsions or encapsulation of active ingredients in liposomes to deliver the ingredients.
Active ingredients can include retinoids that are derivatives of vitamin A and antioxidants
such as vitamin C and vitamin E.
See: colloidal systems; moisturisers

Exploration of the Nano World, pp. 226–8. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, 2014.
2. Ngo, C., and M. van de Voorde. Nanotechnology in a Nutshell: From Simple to Complex
critical materials
Materials have been described as critical if access to them could be limited or they are
essential for national security or important economically.1 Lists of critical materials are
Glossary 155
produced by governments and critical materials on the U.S. list include antimony, beryl-
lium, bismuth, cerium, chromium, cobalt, dysprosium, erbium, europium, gallium, germa-
nium, indium, iridium, lanthanum, lithium, manganese, neodymium, osmium, palladium,
platinum, praseodymium, rhodium, ruthenium, samarium, scandium, tantalum, tellurium,
terbium, thulium, tin, tungsten and yttrium.
See: smartphones
cross-laminated timber
There is much interest in the second decade of the 21st century in the use of renewable and
sustainable materials in all areas of everyday life. Prefabricated cross-laminated timber has
potential as a construction material for walls, floors and ceilings in buildings.1–3 Laminates
are composite materials made up of two or more bonded layers. Cross-laminated structures
are, by definition, orthogonal angle-ply laminates and cross-lamination enhances the
strength and toughness of the material.
2. Coulson, J. Wood in Construction. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell, 2012.
3. Wilson, P. Defence can be a passive activity. Materials World (2016) 24(12), 37–40.
cubic zirconia
The naturally occurring materials zircon sands (zirconium silicate) and baddeleyite can be
purified to produce zirconium dioxide (zirconia) that can be stabilised in the cubic
crystalline phase by addition of 8 wt% of yttrium oxide (yttria). Unstabilised zirconia
does not exist as the cubic phase at room temperatures. Cubic zirconia is an ionic
conductor and used as an oxygen sensor in automotive engines and to measure dissolved
oxygen in molten steel and also used as an oxygen gas sensor.1 However, cubic zirconia is
best known among the general public for its use as a cheaper alternative to diamond in
jewellery.
See: coloured diamonds

cyanobiphenyl liquid crystals

Cyanobiphenyl liquid crystals were developed by George Gray and co-workers at the
University of Hull in the 1970s.1–3 The significance of these materials is that they have
stable nematic phases at or near ambient temperature such that liquid crystal displays can
156 Glossary
operate at these temperatures. A key feature of cyanobiphenyl liquid crystals is the presence
of a cyano group (CN) in the structure, for example in C5H11 C6H4.C6H4 CN (pentyl-
cyanobiphenyl). The two aromatic rings in the structure are directly connected and this
connection confers stability against decomposition. The flexible alkyl chain (C5H11) stabi-
lises formation of the liquid crystal phase around room temperature. A mixture of similar
compounds broadens the temperature range of the liquid crystal phase to between 10 and
60 C. Cyanobiphenyls have a positive dielectric anisotropy characteristic of the twisted
nematic liquid crystal phase.
See: liquid crystals

1. Andrews, B. M., N. Carr, G. W. Gray and C. Hogg. Liquid crystal compounds.
European Patent 0097033 B, 1990.
90, 460–500.
3. Dunmur, D., and T. Sluckin. Soap, Science, and Flat-Screen TVs: A History of Liquid
decaffeinated coffee
Foods can be considered as materials and labels often highlight the protein and carbohydrate
contents. Materials are often used in food processing. While carbon dioxide will be familiar
to the general public in connection with greenhouse gases and global warming, the phrase
supercritical carbon dioxide is largely unknown to many people. A supercritical fluid is a
substance above its critical temperature where it remains as a single fluid phase. This means
that a supercritical fluid in a container does not have a meniscus that separates a liquid from
a vapour phase. The critical temperature and pressure for carbon dioxide are 31 C and
7.38 MPa, respectively. Supercritical fluids have been used for preparing aerogels but they
also act as very good solvents and the low critical temperature is a benefit for large-scale use.
A major use for supercritical carbon dioxide is in the decaffeination of coffee.1
See: aerogels
1. Downie, N. A. The Ultimate Book of Saturday Science, pp. 75–6. Princeton, NJ:
Princeton University Press, 2012.
density functional theory

Materials modelling is the development and use of mathematical models for describing and
predicting electronic and atomic properties of materials and is an important part of activities
on materials science in the 21st century.1 The model is developed from first principles and
this approach is known as an ab initio model after a Latin phrase meaning ‘from the
beginning’; no empirical data are required for the calculations. Ever-increasing computer
power available at an economic price has encouraged computational modeling of materials.
Density functional theory is based on quantum mechanics, in particular at finding approxi-
mate solutions of the many-body Schrodinger equation for the equilibrium structures of
Glossary 157
materials consisting of many atoms as represented by a gas of electrons. Approximate

because while the Schrodinger equation can be solved for a single-electron system (e.g. H,
He+, Li2+) it cannot be solved exactly for electron–electron interactions when there is more
than one electron as the Heisenberg uncertainty principle prevents knowledge of the position
of electrons in multi-electron systems. The key feature of density functional theory is that the
ground state energy of the system (i.e. the lowest energy) is a functional of only the electron
density, that is the electron gas, and not on the wave function that depends on the atomic
positions; a functional may be considered as a function of a function. The method has
applications to molecules, solids, surfaces and interfaces. For example, a characteristic
feature of superconducting materials is a sudden jump in the heat capacity versus tempera-
ture plot at the superconducting critical temperature. This jump was predicted for magne-
sium diboride that has a critical temperature of 39 K. Other examples include the phase
diagram for iron and the brittle fracture of silicon. Density functional theory can be used to
predict the properties of materials that have not been prepared previously such as catalysts
for hydrogen production.

1. Giustino, F. Materials Modeling Using Density Functional Theory. Oxford: Oxford
diabetes monitoring
Diabetes is a major healthcare problem for governments in advanced economies due to the
financial costs for healthcare systems.1 Electrochemical methods for determining sugar
concentrations in blood have been developed. The principle of these electrochemical sensors
involves enzymatic oxidation of glucose on one electrode that facilitates electron transfer to a
mediator, a ferrocene derivative. The reduced mediator is then oxidised at the other
electrode, generating a current whose magnitude can be related to the sugar concentration.
Methods used for semiconductor fabrication can be used to produce compact sensors for
measuring blood glucose concentration. Electrochemical sensors can also be used for
measuring sugar concentrations in exhaled breath.
1. Clarke, S. F., and J. R. Foster. A history of blood glucose meters and their role in self-
monitoring of diabetes mellitus. British Journal of Biomedical Science (2012) 69(2),
83–93.
diesel particulates
There is concern among governments about levels of air pollution and the contribution that
exhausts from diesel engines make to these levels. Carbonaceous particulates, that is diesel
particulates in diesel exhausts, are primarily of carbon (soot) but include hydrocarbons such
as soluble organic fractions that can be adsorbed on the surface of soot particles; the soot
particles can be small, of the order of nanometres.1,2 Diesel particulate filters also known as
wallflow filters are used as particulate traps for diesel exhausts. A representative wallflow
filter dimension is 5.66 inches diameter, 6 inches high with 100 cells per square inch. The
158 Glossary
wall thickness separating parallel rectangular channels is around 17 thousandths of an inch.

The walls are porous with a mean pore diameter around 10 μm. Alternate channels are
blocked off at the ends so that the exhaust passes through the walls that trap particulates.
Examples of these filters made of cordierite have been sold under the trade name Celcor
(Corning Inc.) although silicon carbide wallflow has been produced. Carbon is removed
from the filters by use of catalysts and/or heating the filter to burn off the soot.
See: ceramic honeycombs; three-way automotive catalysts

1. Hall, S. I., J. T. Shawcross, R. McAdams, D. L. Segal, M. Inman, K. Morris,
D. Raybone and J. Stedman. Non-thermal plasma reactor. United States Patent
Application 2004/0208804, published on 21 October 2004.
direct band gap semiconductors

Gallium arsenide (GaAs) and its solid solutions are an example of a direct band gap
semiconductor. Electroluminescence occurs when an excited electron falls back from the
conduction band into the valence band and combines with a hole which results in
the emission of light. In a direct band gap semiconductor there is no loss of momentum of
the electron in this transition.1
See: indirect band gap semiconductors

1. Tilley, R. J. D. Understanding Solids: The Science of Materials, p. 453. Chichester:
Wiley, 2013.
disposable nappies
Disposable nappies are made not from paper but from highly absorbent polymers known as
hydrogels.1 Thus, these nappies are made out of plastic. The hydrogels are often used in the
form of fine powders or granules that absorb body fluids and they can absorb over ten times
their dry weight as liquids. Hydrogels are three-dimensional networks of hydrophilic homo-
polymers or copolymers that are swollen by absorption and retention of water. Although the
polymers are themselves water-soluble, they are rendered insoluble in the hydrogel through
cross-linking. Hydrogels can be prepared by, for example, polymerisation of acrylic acid.
See: hydrogels
DNA
DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid), a nucleic acid, is found in the chromosomes (23 pairs)
within the cell nucleus, is responsible for expressing (i.e. synthesis) proteins in cells and
Glossary 159
replicates itself on cell division. DNA is a heteropolymer and the backbone of the polymer
chain consists of the sugar deoxyribose linked by phosphate bridges (Fig. G.8).1–3 One of
four bases, adenine, cytosine, guanine and thymine, designated by the letters A, C, G and
T, is attached to a deoxyribose molecule. A unit of base, sugar molecule and phosphate is
known as a nucleotide and a chain or strand of DNA can contain millions of nucleotides.
A unit of base and sugar molecule is known as a nucleoside. Two chains in DNA are
wrapped around each other in a double helix so that hydrogen bonds link A to T and C to
G and the linkages are contained within the helical structure. A is complementary to T and
C is complementary to G. The three-dimensional structure of DNA based on the double
helix was proposed by Francis Crick and James Watson, who used X-ray diffraction data
obtained by Raymond Gosling (a Ph. D student) and Rosalind Franklin, a crystallog-
rapher working at King’s College in London in the early 1950s.1,2 An x-ray pattern in the
form of an ‘X’ that is characteristic of a helical structure was present in what is referred to
3ʹ 5ʹ
–
sugar- O CH 2 O deoxyribose
phosphate O
P bases
backbone O – H 1ʹ
O O CH 2 O
O 5ʹ 2ʹ
P 4ʹ ʹ
C G O – 3 O H CH 2 O 1ʹ
O O 5ʹ
G C P 2ʹ
O 4ʹ ʹ H
A hydrogen nucleotide O
– 3 O CH 2 O 1ʹ
bond O 5ʹ 2 ʹ
P
O – 4ʹ ʹ H
O 3 O H
Detail of molecular structure of the sugar-phosphate backbone.
G C Each deoxyribose unit is attached via its 5ʹ carbon atom to a
phosphate group, and during DNA replication, new nucleotides are
A T
added via the 3ʹ –OH group. Hence, the chain is said to grow in
G the 5ʹ to 3ʹ direction. hydrogen bond
thymine adenine
(T) H (A)
CH3 O N N
H
T A
3.4 nm N H N N
C G
N N
A T HO
sugar-
N H O N
phosphate
base N backbone
N H N
N N
O H N
3ʹ 5ʹ H
cytosine guanine
Double helical structure of DNA (C) (G)
The four bases of DNA, showing the
hydrogen bonding between base pairs
Fig. G.8 Molecular structure of DNA.

160 Glossary
as photograph 51 in Franklin’s work.3 The A to T and C to G linkages are known as base

pairs and the full characteristic sequence of these base pairs in all of the chromosomes
represents the human genome and genetic code of the organism; there are about 3 billion
base pairs in the human genome. A sequence of three bases known as a codon encodes a
specific amino acid. Regions of base pairs along the chromosome constitute genes, which
are separated from other genes by regions of what has been referred to as junk DNA as its
role is unclear.
See: genes; polymer; polymerase chain reaction

1. Crick, F., and Watson, J. Molecular structure of nucleic acids. Nature 1953 717,
737–9.
2. Barber, J., and C. Rostron (eds). Pharmaceutical Chemistry, pp. 242–8. Oxford:
3. Glynn, J. My Sister Rosalind Franklin, p. 126. Oxford: Oxford University Press,
2012.
drug delivery
About 80% of all drug doses are taken in oral form.1 Ionic liquids have the potential to
convert pharmaceutical compounds into a liquid form that can be delivered externally such
as transdermally from a patch on the skin and possibly reduce side effects when drugs are
adsorbed in the digestive tract.
See: ionic liquids

1. Palmer, P., T. Schreck, L. Hamel, S. Tzannis and A. Poutiatine. Small volume oral
transmucosal dosage forms containing sufentanil for treatment of pain. United States
Patent, 8,535,714, 2013.
dye-sensitised materials
There is considerable interest in the 21st century in identifying efficient sources of renewable
energy. Dye-sensitised materials have potential for increasing the efficiency of solar cells
(Fig. G.9).1 Here, a dye, often a ruthenium complex, is adsorbed onto nanoparticles of a
semiconducting oxide such as anatase titanium dioxide that is in contact with one electrode.
An electrolyte, for example an iodine/tetraalkylammonium iodide mixture in an organic
solvent, is contained between the electrodes. Absorption of light by the dye raises the latter to
an excited electronic state, releasing an electron into the conduction band of the semicon-
ductor and then into the external circuit. The oxidised dye is reduced at the counter
electrode.
See: Perovskite-based solar cells

1. Christie, R. M. Colour Chemistry, 2nd edn. Cambridge: Royal Society of Chemistry,
2015.
Glossary 161
current flow
e–
e–
3l–
light
l3–
transparent redox counter-electrode

electrode electrolyte
TiO2 particles with

non-porous adsorbed dye monolayer
buffer layer
Fig. G.9 Schematic representation of a dye-sensitized solar cell.

elastin
Elastin is a fibrous protein that is rich in proline and glycine and forms flexible random coils
where polypeptide chains from neighbouring coils are linked at intervals to each other.1 This
protein is often present in the body with collagen and is an elastic solid that is particularly
found in the cartilage, blood vessel walls and in the heart. The lung is made of 30% elastin,
whereas skin is made up of 2–4% elastin.2 Elastic ligaments and large arteries are made of
70 and 50% elastin, respectively. While molecules of collagen are close-packed, elastin is
relatively loose with unstructured polypeptide chains cross-linked to form an elastic network.
See: collagen
1. Gratzer, W. Giant Molecules: From Nylon to Nanotubes, pp. 44–5. Oxford: Oxford
2014.
162 Glossary
elastomers
Elastomers are materials that deform under the action of an external force and which return
to their original shape when the force is removed;1 elastomers are associated with natural and
synthetic rubbers and also polyurethanes. Charles Goodyear developed the vulcanisation
process in which latex gum was heated with sulphur and white lead at around 180 C,
producing a material that was no longer sticky, set to a hard and elastic solid that did not
soften on heating.2 The cured rubber could be formed into solid sheets of India rubber or
used for vehicle tyres or coated onto a fabric to make it waterproof; the sulphur content was
around 3 wt% of the rubber content. Nowadays sulphur compounds are used in the
vulcanisation process that results in cross-linking of molecular chains of the latex liquid by
sulphur bridges, hence solidifying the gum. Natural rubber is derived from latex gum from
the tree Hevea brasiliensis and has the chemical composition of polyisoprene based on the
monomer cis-isoprene (CH2=C(CH3)CH=CH2) in contrast to the trans form known as
gutta percha. The latter is hard and inelastic compared to the elastic properties of natural
rubber, which is an elastomer and had been obtained initially by cooking latex tapped from
indigenous trees in Malaysia.3 Its potential use in surgical instruments was recognised by
William Montgomerie working for the East India Company Army in Singapore in the 1840s
but a breakthrough application was as a durable insulator for long-distance underwater
telegraph cables in the latter half of the 19th century. Vulcanisation and the role of
accelerators is discussed in reference (4). An account of the historical development of rubber
technology is given in reference (5) by Loadman.
See: chewing gum; latex; neoprene; natural rubber

1. Fried, J. R. Polymer Science and Technology, 3rd edn, pp. 374–9. Upper Saddle River,
NJ: Prentice Hall, 2014.
2. Goodyear, C. Improvement in India-rubber fabrics. United States Patent 3633,
granted on 15 June 1844.
3. Weightman, G. Eureka: How Invention Happens, pp. 61–2. New Haven, CT: Yale
4. Walton, D., and P. Lorimer. Polymers, p. 120. Oxford: Oxford University Press,
2005.
5. Loadman, J. Tears of the Tree: The Story of Rubber—A Modern Marvel. Oxford: Oxford
electrical transmission lines

Overhead cables on pylons need to be mechanically strong and also electrically conducting.1
This can be achieved by use of a core of steel fibres for strength that has fibres of conducting
aluminium twisted around it. Alternative materials for consideration include a composite
core of aluminium-containing Nextel fibres with the objective of increasing the current-
carrying capacity of the conductor.
1. Ginley, D. S., and D. Cahen (eds). Fundamentals of Materials for Energy and Envir-
onmental Sustainability. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2012.
Glossary 163
electroceramics
Electroceramics, or electronic ceramics, are a class of advanced ceramic materials and their
use depends primarily on their electrical or magnetic properties rather than on their mech-
anical behaviour.1,2 Optical properties are important for opto-electronic devices and mater-
ials with these properties fall within the class of electroceramics. Examples of electroceramics
include lithium niobate for electro-optic devices, lead zirconate titanate for piezoelectric
materials and barium titanate for capacitors.

2013.
2. Moulson, A. J., and J. M. Herbert. Electroceramics: Materials, Properties, Applications.
London: Chapman and Hall, 1990.
electrochromic materials
Electrochromic materials change colour when a voltage or electric current is applied.1 An
application is in window glass and the effect is reversed when the direction of the voltage is
reversed. Examples of materials that exhibit the electrochromic effect include tungsten
oxides (WO3), which exhibits a colour change in a thin film from pale yellow to blue
when a voltage is applied due to reduction of W(VI) to W(V).
See: smart materials

1. Monk, P. M. S., R. J. Mortimer and D. R. Rosseinsky. Electrochromism and Electro-
chromic Devices. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007.
electroluminescence
Electroluminescence is the process whereby light is emitted from a material when subject to an
applied electrical voltage.1 Electroluminescence is the process responsible for light emission
from light-emitting diodes and organic light-emitting diodes. Electroluminescence was first
observed by Henry Round in 1907 on applying a voltage across regions of the semiconductor
silicon carbide. It is associated with recombination of electrons and holes at a junction region in a
semiconductor material between a p-type region and n-type region: for example, at the junction
of a p-type gallium arsenic phosphide (GaAsP) layer and n-type GaAsP layer. At this time there
was considerable interest in radio detectors, such as the cat’s whisker (see Chapter 3) in which a
rectifier could be made by placing a metal wire in contact with a semiconductor such as galena
(lead sulphide), and Henry Round had interests in radio detection.2
See: phosphors; light-emitting diodes

2. Ploszajski, A. Silicon carbide. Materials World (Jan. 2016) 24(1), 61–3.
164 Glossary
electronic ink
Electronic books can be downloaded from websites and read on an e-book reader and it is quite
common to see people on public transport or in coffee shops reading books in this way in the
second decade of the 21st century.1 An integral part of these readers is electronic ink, which
consists of millions of small capsules filled with a dark dye that float in a liquid. The capsules
contain negatively charged white chips that move up and down in response to a positive charge
applied to the back of the screen. This motion produces the words on the screen.
1. van Dulken, S. Inventing the 21st Century, p.10–13. London: British Library, 2014.
electrospinning
Electrospinning is a technique for producing fibres, including nanofibers, in which a
polymer solution or melt is ejected as an electrically charged filament from a nozzle onto a
grounded electrode.1 A mat of fibres can be produced in this spinning process. Polymers
that have been electrospun include polylactic acid, polystyrene and nylon. Fibre diameters
of 1 µm can be obtained by electrospinning.
See: nanofibres
1. Mitchell, G. R. (ed.). Electrospinning: Principles, Practice and Possibilities. Cambridge:
emulsion polymerisation
Emulsion polymerisation is used to prepare polymer latices that are, for example, used in
paints.1 In the method an emulsion of monomer droplets is formed in an aqueous environ-
ment containing micelles and a water-soluble initiator; potassium persulphate has been used
as an initiator. Monomer and initiator diffuse into the micelles where polymerisation occurs
to form latex particles.
See: latex; micellar systems

engineering ceramics
Engineering ceramics are a class of advanced ceramic materials and their use in structural
components depends on their mechanical properties or their refractory properties, that is
chemical resistance to the working environment.1,2 Examples of engineering ceramics
include yttria-stabilised zirconia, sintered silicon nitride, silicon carbide fibres for use in
composites and hard boron nitride components.

Wiley, 2013.
Glossary 165
2013.
engineering fabrics
Engineering fabrics are textiles or nonwoven products that have a dual role particularly in
the area of cleaning products.1 Examples are ‘wet wipes’ that combine the usefulness of a
household spray with the convenience of a wipe. Alternatively, such fabrics can have an
antistatic activity or antibacterial role.
See: biodegradable hygiene products

1. Burke, M. Smart clothes. Chemistry and Industry (Apr. 2013) 77, 21–3.
engineering plastics
Engineering plastics are distinct from commodity polymers used for high-volume, low-value
products such as textiles by having applications in niche markets.1 The properties of
engineering plastics such as mechanical strength, high-temperature resistance, high impact
strength and chemical resistance are important for their applications. Examples of engin-
eering plastics are styrene-acetonitrile-butadiene (ABS), aramids such as Kevlar, polyphe-
nylene oxide, fluoropolymers and polycarbonate.
Hall, 2014.
epoxy adhesives
Epoxy resins are made by copolymerising phenols (e.g. bisphenol A, HOC6H4CH3CCH3-
C6H4OH) with an epoxide such as epichlorohydrin, CH2OCHCH2Cl; epoxide molecules
contain oxygen atoms that are part of a three-membered ring.1 The initial reaction product
is a viscous liquid that is hardened by the addition of amines that cause cross-linkages.
Epoxy resins are thermosetting polymers, are used as adhesives and in composite materials
and have high chemical resistance.
See: bioadhesives; bio-based resins; composite materials; hairy adhesives; Post-it notes; superglue
excimer lasers
Excimer lasers, in particular the argon fluoride laser (ArF), is the major light source used in
conjunction with photolithography to prepare silicon chips and integrated circuits.1 In an
excimer laser the active lasing material consists of argon and fluorine atoms bound together
as ArF in an excited state. The output is ultraviolet radiation with a wavelength of 193 nm.
See: photoresists
166 Glossary
1. Solymar, L., D. Walsh and R. R. A. Syms. Electrical Properties of Materials, 9th edn,
p. 307. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2014.
exfoliating creams
Exfoliating creams are used in cosmetic preparations to help remove dead cells from
the skin.1 Glycolic acid (CH2=C(OH)COOH) has been used as an ingredient of
exfoliating creams. It can be made synthetically and also occurs naturally in sugar
cane and sugar beet. Salicylic acid has also been used as a gentle skin peel to remove
dead skin cells.
1. Libbert, L. Face wipes that are as good as a facial. Daily Mail, p. 42, 6 April 2015.
extrinsic semiconductors
An extrinsic semiconductor is one that contains impurity atoms that are specifically added to
modify the electronic properties, in particular electrical conductivity.1 Impurities can be
introduced by ion implantation or diffusion. The distribution of charge carriers in respect to
whether the majority are electrons (n-type semiconductors) or holes (p-type semiconduct-
ors) depends on the valency of the dopant atom.
See: band gaps; intrinsic semiconductors

fabric conditioners
Many household products contain fragrances, for example deodorants, fabric sprays and
fabric conditioners.1,2 The fragrance can be released if pressure is applied or by heat or by
added water but how materials are used in these applications may not be obvious to
consumers. One way fragrances are incorporated into fabric conditioners is to incorporate
an emulsion of the fragrance in alcohol into microspheres (around 400 µm diameter)
of gum arabic or a protein such as gelatin so that a free-flowing powder is produced.
The latter is then added to the conditioner and the fragrance is released during the
washing cycle.
1. McGee, T., and Sgaramela, R. P. Substrate care products. United States Patent
Application, 2008/0234172, published on 25 September 2008.
2. Emsley, J. Chemistry at Home: Exploring the Ingredients in Everyday Products, p. 38.
faded jeans
‘Faded’ jeans, such as ‘stonewashed’ items, have been popular items of clothing in recent
years.1 The fungus Trichoderma reesei produces cellulase enzymes that are able to degrade
Glossary 167
cotton fabrics, reducing them to rags.1 T. reesei enzymes are used commercially to produce
faded cotton fabric. The fungus produces cellobiohydrolases and endoglucanases that work
together to hydrolyse cellulose in the fading process.
See: indigo
Materials for Energy and Environmental Sustainability, p. 341. Cambridge: Cambridge
fats
There is much debate in governments on the causes of increasing obesity among popula-
tions and the role of fats and sugars in the causes of obesity. Animal fats are mixtures of
lipids, mainly triglycerides that are esters of glycerol (also called glycerine), a trihydric
alcohol HOCH2CH(OH)CH2OH;1 esterification can take place at one, two or all three
hydroxyl groups. Animal fats are solids at body temperatures and triglycerides are compo-
nents of biodiesel.
See: biodiesel; lipids

2003.
fermentation processes
Fermentation is often associated with the enzymatic conversion of sugars to ethyl alcohol by
yeasts in the production of beer.1,2 However, in the 21st century fermentation processes
using yeasts (e.g. Saccharomyces cerevisiae) or micro-organisms such as Escherichia coli and
Clostridia are under active investigation for the production of bio-based chemicals from
renewable sources.
See: bio-based chemicals; recombinant DNA technology; yeast

2. Bamforth, C. W., and R. E. Ward. The Oxford Handbook of Food Fermentation.
ferroelectric materials
All ferroelectric materials are pyroelectrics as they both have a spontaneous polarisation
but only in the case of ferroelectrics can the direction of spontaneous polarisation be
reversed in an electric field.1 Examples of ferroelectric materials include lithium niobate
168 Glossary
(LiNbO3), lithium tantalate (LiTaO3) and Rochelle salt (potassium sodium tartrate
tetrahydrate).
See: pyroelectric materials

ferromagnetic materials
Ferromagnetic materials are associated with permanent magnets and include SmCo5,
Nd2Fe14B, iron, cobalt and nickel.1 As for paramagnetic atoms and ions, ferromagnetic
materials have atoms and ions with unpaired electrons so that the atoms have oriented
magnetic dipoles (magnetic moments) that remain oriented in the absence of applied
magnetic fields. In paramagnetic materials (e.g. lanthanide atoms) the alignment breaks
down when the magnetic field is removed. Ferromagnetic materials contain small magne-
tised regions or domains.
See: neodymium-based magnets; samarium-based magnets

fibreglass
Fibreglass is a lightweight and tough composite of glass fibres in a polymer matrix, in
particular in a polyester resin.1,2 It has applications as lightweight structures such as in
bathtubs, the hulls of small boats and as panels in automobiles and lorries.
See: glass epoxy composites

1. Gordon, J. E. The New Science of Strong Materials, 2nd edn. London: Penguin, 1991.
fibre-reinforced plastic composites

Ceramic matrix composites such as silicon carbide fibre-reinforced silicon carbide matrices
have specialist applications.1 However, fibre-reinforced plastics have more general applica-
tions. An early example of such a composite was the addition of fibres to phenol-
formaldehyde resins (Bakelite) to improve the toughness. Improved toughness arises
because when an advancing crack encounters a fibre the crack tip spreads outward and
the energy of the crack is dissipated. Fibreglass is a trade name for a composite of glass fibres
in a plastic, in particular a polyester matrix, and has been used for lightweight structures
such as in bathtubs and the hulls of small boats. Other examples of fibre-reinforced plastics
use include Kevlar fibre and carbon fibre while materials for the matrix include epoxy resins.
Particulates can also be used to reinforce plastic matrices. Graphene flakes can be incorp-
orated into polymer blends to increase the compressive strength when the composite is used
as a structural component of a tennis racket.
See: epoxy adhesives; glass epoxy composites; silicon carbide fibre composites
Glossary 169
and Technology. Chichester: Wiley, 2015.
flax fibre
Flax fibre is a by-product of the linen industry and has potential uses for insulating
commercial and residential buildings, hence a replacement for synthetic insulation such as
foamed products with a natural product.1 Flax fibres in the form of a mat have been formed
into a biocomposite with a sugar-based bio-resin, which acts as a binder for the fibres, for use
in seatbacks in cars (EcoTechnilin) while a composite of flax fibres, a bioresin and basalt
known as FibreRock has been used for the galley trolleys in aircraft aisles.
See: biocomposites
1. Lawler, R. Natural insulation materials: which is best? Materials World (Feb. 2014)
22, 32–3.
float glass
Sheets of glass such as window glass are made by the float glass process that was developed in
the 1950s by Sir Alistair Pilkington and Kenneth Bickerstaff of the Pilkington Glass Company
in England.1,2 In this process a continuous strip of glass (at about 1000 C) from the furnace
floats on a bath of molten tin (melting temperature 232 C). At the exit from the bath, the
temperature is around 600 C, at which point the tin is still molten but the glass is rigid enough
to be removed to the annealing stage. Both the tin and glass remain horizontal so that the
surfaces of the glass remain parallel and the flat surface of the metal produces a smooth and
undistorted glass surface. An earlier process for making plate glass involved flowing glass from
the furnace through rollers followed by grinding and polishing the resulting rough surfaces.
2. Felice, M. Sheet glass. Materials World (July 2013) 21, 62–4.
fluorographene
Graphene is an electrical conductor and has been described as a ‘wonder material’ but to
displace silicon as the main material used for the fabrication of integrated circuits and
computer chips, doped graphene needs to be produced that has semi-conducting properties,
that is has a band gap. There is much activity on developing doped graphenes. Fluorinated
graphenes, or fluorographenes, are an example of doped graphenes.1
See: graphene
1. Wolf, E. L. Graphene. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2013.
170 Glossary
fluoropolymers
Fluoropolymers are polymers that have carbon–carbon linkages ( C C ) in the polymer
backbone and fluorine-based side groups.1 They have been manufactured by the free radical
polymerisation of fluorinated olefins; polytetrafluoroethylene (Teflon) is an example of a
fluoropolymer as is poly (chlorotrifluoroethylene). The stable carbon–fluorine bond and
strong carbon–carbon bond confer unique properties to these polymers. Replacement of
hydrogen by fluorine in a polymer increases the fire resistance, elevates the maximum
temperature at which the polymer can be used, produces a low coefficient of friction, lowers
the surface energy useful for non-stick properties and improves electrical insulation. Appli-
cations for fluoropolymers are diverse and include gaskets, pipe liners, tubing, wire and cable
insulation, seals and rings in automotive power steering, non-stick coatings in cookware,
cardiovascular grafts and heart patches, coated fabrics for buildings and roofs, anti-dripping
agents and wafer carriers in the semiconductor industry.
See: polytetrafluoroethylene
1. Smith, D. W. Jr, S. T. Iaccono and S. S. Iyer (eds). Handbook of Fluoropolymer Science
flywheels
Flywheels store kinetic energy in a rotating wheel and the energy stored is proportional to the
square of the rotational velocity of the wheel.1 Flywheels can supply large pulses of current
for starting generators and are under development for vehicle and stationary storage
systems. Material properties, particularly mechanical properties, are important for the
construction of flywheels in order to prevent failure. Fibre composites are an attractive
option for their construction besides the use of metallic components. The Toyota Prius
hybrid vehicle uses small composite-based flywheels in its regenerative braking system to
store energy from braking and use it to boost acceleration of the vehicle.
1. McBride, T., B. Bollinger and D. Kepshire. Mechanical energy storage: pumped
hydro, CAES, flywheels. In D. S. Ginley and D. Cahen (eds), Fundamentals
of Materials for Energy and Environmental Sustainability, pp. 624–36. Cambridge:
food emulsions
Colloidal systems are important for the preparation of processed food. For example,
ice cream and mayonnaise are oil-in-water emulsions where the particle size of oil droplets
lies within the colloidal size range. Butter, margarine and fat-based spreads are water-in-oil
emulsions. Emulsions can be prepared by forcing the disperse phase (oil in an oil-in-water
emulsion) through a membrane into the continuous phase.1 Egg yolk, which contains the
phospholipid lecithin, can act as an emulsifier for stabilising food emulsions.

Glossary 171
formica
A laminate consists of layers of materials joined together by an organic adhesive. Formica is
an organic laminate derived from a formaldehyde-based resin and is used for decorative
purposes such as tabletops.1
See: cross-laminated timber; plywood

fracking
Hydraulic fracturing, commonly referred to as fracking, is a process for releasing natural gas
from shale deposits by injecting chemicals in water together with sand to break up the shale,
often using horizontal drilling to cover a wide area of land from one well.1–3
See: shale gas

1. Hester, R. E., and R. M. Harrison (eds). Fracking, Issues in Environmental Science and
Technology, vol. 39. Cambridge: Royal Society of Chemistry, 2015.
2. Bunger, J. W. Oil shale and tar sands. In D. S. Ginley and D. Cahen (eds), Funda-
mentals of Materials for Energy and Environmental Sustainability, pp. 127–36. Cam-
bridge: Cambridge University Press, 2012.
3. Prud’homme, A. Hydrofracking: What Everyone Needs to Know. Oxford: Oxford
freeze-drying
Many materials, particularly foods, are produced in the form of powders. In freeze-drying a
solution or slurry is first frozen by immersion in, for example, solid carbon dioxide, after
which liquid is removed directly in a solid–vapour transition without going through a liquid
phase.1 Freeze-dried coffee is an example of a foodstuff prepared in this way and freeze-
dried products tend to have a ‘fluffy’ rather than lumpy texture.
See: spray-drying
Exploration of the Nano World, p. 117. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, 2014.
172 Glossary
fuel cell materials

Polymer exchange membrane (PEM) fuel cells convert chemical energy into electrical
energy, usually using hydrogen or methanol as the fuel, producing water as a by-product.
Fuel cells are an attractive option as a source of clean energy in the 21st century.1,2
A representative fuel cell consists of two electrodes, often particulate platinum dispersed
on carbon, that are separated by a solid polymer electrolyte membrane that allows transport
of protons and water but not electrons. Hydrogen dissociates at the anode, allowing
electrons to flow through the electrode and out of the cell, and protons migrate through
the membrane to the cathode where they combine with oxygen and the returning electrons to
form water. Nafion has an application as the solid polymer exchange membrane in fuel cells.
See: electroceramics; Nafion

1. Behling, N. H. Fuel Cells—Current Technology Challenges and Future Needs. London:
Elsevier, 2013.
2. Steele, B. C. H. Electrical ceramics for fuel cells and high energy batteries. In
B. C. H. Steele (edr), Electronic Ceramics, pp. 203–26. London: Elsevier, 1991.
fuel cells: high-temperature

Fuel cells can be classified into two types: those operating at (i) near ambient temperatures
or (ii) high temperature.1–3 The first category includes direct methanol fuel cells and proton
exchange membrane cells. High-temperature fuel cells include solid oxide fuel cells, molten
carbonate fuel cells, phosphoric acid fuel cells and alkaline fuel cells (Fig. G.10).3
1. Behling, N. H. Fuel Cells—Current Technology Challenges and Future Needs. London:
Elsevier, 2013.
2. Steele, B. C. H. Electrical ceramics for fuel cells and high energy batteries. In
B. C. H. Steele (edr), Electronic Ceramics, pp. 203–26. London: Elsevier, 1991.
3. Kocha, S., B. Pivovar and T. Gennett. Fuel cells. In D. S. Ginley and D. Cahen (eds),
Fundamentals of Materials for Energy and Environmental Sustainability, p. 639. Cam-
fullerenes
Fullerenes, which are also known as buckyballs, are carbon allotropes and were discovered
in 1985.1 They are named after the architect Buckminster Fuller. A fullerene molecule is a
closed hollow aromatic carbon compound that is made up of twelve pentagonal faces and
differing numbers of hexagonal faces with a surface pattern similar to that of a football and
involves 60 carbon atoms bonded together.2 Fullerenes are nanomaterials. An overview of
fullerenes is given in reference (3).
See: nanomaterials
1. Kroto, W. H., J. R. Heath, S. C. O’Brien, R. F. Curl and R. F. Smalley. C60:
Buckminsterfullerene. Nature (1985) 328, 162–3.
Glossary 173
load
e–out e–in
electrolyte
anode (–) cathode (+)
H2 O2
AFC
H2O OH–
H2 O2
PEMFC
H+ H2O
H2 O2
PAFC
H+ H2O
H2 O2+CO2
MCFC
CO2+H2O CO32–
H2 O2
SOFC
H2O O2–
Fig. G.10 Schematic diagrams for fuel cells: AFC, alkali fuel cell; PEMFC, proton exchange
membrane fuel cell; PAFC, phosphoric acid fuel cell; MCFC, molten carbonate fuel cell; SOFC,
solid oxide fuel cell.
(R. J. D. Tilley. Understanding Solids, 2nd edn, p. 260. Chichester: Wiley, 2013.)
2. Benavides, J. M. Method for manufacturing high quality carbon nanotubes. United

States Patent 7,008,605, granted on 7 March 2006.
3. Yang, S., and C.-R. Wang. Endohedral fullerenes: From Fundamentals to Applications.
furan-2, 5-dicarboxylic acid

5-(Chloromethyl) furfural (CMF) has been extracted from lignocellulosic biomass by
treatment with hydrochloric acid. CMF can be converted into furan-2, 5-dicarboxylic
acid (FDCA), which can be polymerised with ethylene glycol to poly (furan-2, 5-dicar-
boxylic acid), also known as polyethylene furanoate (PEF), which is a potential replacement
for polyethylene terephthalate when used in the production of plastic soft-drink bottles.1,2
See: lignocellulose; PlantBottle; polyester

174 Glossary
1. Davies, E. Biomass bonanza. Chemistry World (Mar. 2013) 10, 40–3.

2. O’Driscoll, C. Next generation polyester beats PET. Chemistry & Industry (Dec.
2012) 76, 15.
fusion materials
Nuclear fusion of light elements, the energy source of the stars and the hydrogen bomb, has
been under investigation since the 1950s and fusion-based power plants offer the potential
of a relatively clean power source with minimal effect on greenhouse gases and nuclear
proliferation if it can be successfully commercialised.1 Heat is released from the fusion of
deuterium (2D) and tritium (3T) ions at high temperature to overcome repulsive forces
between the ions. Tritium is obtained by neutron bombardment of lithium, in particular of
6
Li or 7Li. Reactions occur in a plasma at thermonuclear temperatures of millions of degrees
kelvin and to exploit these reactions the plasma needs to be contained without contact with
surrounding materials. This can be achieved, in principle, by magnetic confinement or by
inertial confinement in which pellets of fuel remain stationary while its contents are rapidly
heated by, for example, a laser to thermonuclear temperatures. Successful exploitation will
depend in part on suitable confinement materials.
1. Fisch, N. J., J. L. Peterson and A. Cohen. Material requirements for controlled
nuclear fusion. In D. S. Ginley and D. Cahen (eds), Fundamentals of Materials for
Energy and Environmental Sustainability, pp. 196–8. Cambridge: Cambridge Univer-
sity Press, 2012.
gallium arsenide
Gallium arsenide (GaAs) is a III–V semiconductor that is a red light-emitter when used in
light-emitting diodes and has applications as the active layer in semiconductor lasers. It has a
band gap energy of 1.35 eV and has the zinc blende structure. Its early applications in the
1960s were for light-emitting diodes and this is still an application for the semiconductor.
Solid solutions of GaAs with other elements such as aluminium allow the band gap energy to
be tuned and hence the frequency and colour of the light emitted during electrolumines-
cence to be varied.1,2
See: band gaps; direct band gap semiconductors; gallium nitride; semiconductor lasers
pp. 137–40. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2014.
gallium nitride
Gallium nitride (GaN) is a crystalline semiconductor with a band gap energy of 3.34 eV and
it is a key material for the practical exploitation of light-emitting diodes (LEDs) in domestic,
industrial and street lighting as well as for the use of LEDs in displays. White light can be
Glossary 175
obtained by mixing light from the primary colours red, green and blue or by mixing yellow
and blue light because yellow is a combination of the primary colours of red and green light.
Red light-emitting and green light-emitting LEDs have been known since the 1960s, for
example compositions based on gallium arsenic phosphide produces red light and gallium
phosphide-based LEDs emits green light. However, it was not until the early 1990s that
pioneering work by Shuji Nakamura and co-workers showed that doped GaN could be
prepared by techniques such as metal organic vapour deposition, for example by using
magnesium as the dopant and these thin layers of doped semiconductors emitted blue light
(e.g. 450 nm wavelength) by electroluminescence.1 Blue light from the LED can be
converted to yellow light by use of a cerium-doped yttrium aluminium garnet phosphor.
Nowadays blue-emitting LEDs in the visible spectrum are obtained by using alloys of
indium-doped GaN.
See: band gaps

1. Nakamura, S., N. Iwasa and M. Senoh. Method of manufacturing p-type compound
semiconductor. United States Patent 5,468,678, 1995.
gas hydrates
Gas hydrates, also known as hydrates or clathrate hydrates, are ice-like crystalline solids that
are formed when water and gas are contacted at high pressures and low temperatures.1 The
hydrates are composed of hydrogen-bonded water molecules that form cages which trap
small gas molecules. Methane clathrates are found in sediments under the permafrost at
depths of around 1200 m below the surface and at around 500 m below the sea floor at
depths of 1200 m. These hydrates are a potentially significant energy source.
1. Koh, C. A., E. D. Sloan, A. K. Sum and D. T. Wu. Unconventional energy sources: gas
hydrates. In D. S. Ginley and D. Cahen (eds), Fundamentals of Materials for Energy and
Environmental Sustainability, p. 138. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2012.
generic drugs
Pharmaceutical compositions and processes for making them are often protected by
patents. A patent gives the inventor a financial reward for a limited period (usually 20
years from the filing date) in exchange for making a public disclosure of the invention in the
public domain. When a patent has expired, anyone can make the invention described in it
and in the case of pharmaceutical compounds, the phrase generic drug is used when a
medicine is made in this way.1 Generic drugs tend to be considerably cheaper for govern-
ments to purchase for use in health services. However, the original composition may be
protected by trademarks and designs if sold as tablets so that the generic drug cannot use
the same marks.
See: trademarks
1. Greene, J. A. Generic: The Unbranding of Modern Medicine. Baltimore, MD: Johns
Hopkins University Press, 2014.
176 Glossary
genes
Regions of base pairs along the chromosome constitute genes, which are separated from
other genes by regions of what has been referred to as junk DNA as its role is unclear.1,2
Thus, a gene can be considered to be a length of DNA, hence a natural polymer. There are
about 20,000 genes in the human body. Genes carry instructions on how the body works,
how to express (i.e. synthesise) proteins and how to reproduce (i.e. copy) the sequence of
base pairs. Genes encode the functions of the organism.
See: DNA
1. Rapley, R., and D. Whitehouse (eds). Molecular Biology and Biotechnology.
genome
Regions of base pairs along the chromosome in a cell nucleus constitute genes, which are
separated from other genes by regions of what has been referred to as junk DNA as its role is
unclear. A gene can be considered to be a length of DNA, hence a natural polymer.
The complete set of DNA, that is the set of base pairs and their order, is known as the
genome.1,2 The study of genomes is sometimes referred to as genomics, which has become a
focus of attention of medical research in the early part of the 21st century as it has the
potential to improve a population’s health through application of personalised medicine.
There are 3165 106 base pairs in humans, that is in the human genome.3 This compares
with 12 106 base pairs in fungi (e.g. Saccharomyces cerevisiae), 180 106 in fruit flies,
400 106 in rice and 3454 106 in mice.
See: DNA; genes; personalised medicine

3. Lesk, A. M. Introduction to Protein Science: Architecture, Function and Genomics, 3rd
edn, p. 15. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2016.
glass ceramics
Glass ceramics are glasses in which fine crystals are grown by a controlled heat treatment.1
They have higher strength, chemical durability and electrical resistivity than the parent glass.
They can have low thermal expansions, producing very good resistance to thermal shock.
Glass ceramics containing crystalline phases of β-spodumene (a lithium aluminium silicate)
Glossary 177
are particularly suitable for use in cookware and counter-top cooking surfaces because of
their low thermal expansion, high strength and thermal stability. Pyroceram is a glass
ceramic that has been used for cookware.
See: ceramic honeycombs

1. Grossman, D. G. Glass ceramics. In R. J. Brook (ed.), Concise Encyclopaedia of
Advanced Ceramic Materials, p.170–6. Oxford: Pergamon Press, 1991.
glass epoxy composites

Glass fibre yarns, mats and felts when impregnated with unpolymerised epoxy resins are
known as prepregs (pre-impregnated materials) and have been used in laminated structures
as substitutes for heavier aluminium alloys for structural components (e.g. boat hulls); other
resins can be used, for example phenolic-based resins. The mats can be combined in layers
and fabricated into the desired shape during which polymerisation of the resin takes place. In
aircraft, fibreglass epoxy composites have been used on aerodynamic control surfaces,
fairings and trailing edge panels on the Boeing 747 while on the Boeing 757 and 767 these
composites have been used on main landing- and nose-gear doors, engine cowls, wing
spoilers and ailerons, rudder, elevators, fin and stabiliser tips.1
See: composite materials; fiberglass; fibre-reinforced plastic composites; prepregs

glass fibres
Glass fibres are used in fibre-reinforced-plastic composites, such as fibre-reinforced poly-
ester resins, and can be prepared in continuous form from a melt.1 For example, S-glass is a
high-strength magnesia-aluminosilicate composition with a tensile strength of 4.6 GPa and
E-glass is a non-alkali metal borosilicate composition. Glass fibres are strong and cheap but
not as stiff as carbon fibre.
1. Bolton, W., and R. A. Higgins. Materials for Engineers and Technicians, 6th edn.
London: Routledge, 2015.
glass transition temperature

Synthetic polymers are an important class of materials, many of which were developed in the
20th century, and their use continues to be widespread in the 21st century. At room
temperatures polymers can be soft and flexible and when cooled this type of polymer can
become hard and glassy. The glass transition temperature is the temperature at which the
transition from soft to glassy takes place.1 Polystyrene has a glass transition temperature of
100 C and becomes soft and flexible when heated above this temperature. Polythene has a
178 Glossary
glass transition temperature of 120 C, so it remains soft and flexible at room temperature.
Natural rubber has a glass transition temperature of 73 C.
glucosamine
Glucosamine is an amino-substituted (NH2) glucose and it and its derivatives, such as
glucosamine sulphate, have been available to the general public as dietary supplements.1
Glycosaminoglycans are naturally occurring polymers containing glucosamine derivatives,
for example hyaluronic acid, and act as lubricants in joints.
See: hyaluronic acid

Press, 2013.
glycoproteins
Glycoproteins are proteins that are covalently linked to carbohydrates and include anti-
bodies.1 Glycoproteins reside on the surfaces of red blood cells and are responsible for the
distinction between different blood groups between people. Surface chemistry is important
when considering the role of glycoproteins. Hormone receptors on cell surfaces are often
glycoproteins.2 A receptor, here a glycoprotein, is a species that binds with a specific
molecule, a hormone in the case of a hormone receptor, to bring about a change in the cell.
See: antibodies; biopharmaceuticals

2. Hine, R. S. (ed.). Oxford Dictionary of Biology, 7th edn. Oxford: Oxford University
Press, 2015.
gore-tex
A microporous form of polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) obtained on stretching and expand-
ing layers of the material and known as Gore-Tex is used in waterproof clothing as the pores
are too small to let raindrops through but large enough to let sweat molecules through;1–3
expanded polytetrafluoroethylene has been referred to as ePTFE.
See: polytetrafluoroethylene
1. Gore, R. W. United States Patent 3,953,566, 1976.
2. Gore, R. W. United States Patent 4,187,390, 1980.
3. Gore, R. W., and S. B. Allen. United States Patent 4,194,041, 1980.
Glossary 179
graphene
Graphene is a two-dimensional sheet of carbon that is one atomic layer thick in which the
atoms are arranged in a hexagonal array in a honeycomb structure and it is the thinnest
known material (see Fig. G.2 under ‘carbon nanotubes’).1–3 The honeycomb structure is
characteristic of graphite. Graphite was isolated in 2004 at the University of Manchester
by Sir Andre Geim and Sir Konstantin Novoselov. Its high electrical conductivity,
mechanical strength, flexibility, electron mobility, optical transparency and thermal con-
ductivity offer many potential applications including flexible display devices, transparent
electrodes, field effect transistors, protective coatings and fillers or reinforcements for
composites.
See: two-dimensional materials

2. Warner, J. H., F. Schaffel, A. Bachmatiuk and M. H. Rummeli. Graphene: Funda-
mentals and Emerging Applications. London: Elsevier, 2013.
3. Torres, L. F., S. Roche and J.-C. Charlier. Introduction to Graphene-Based Nanoma-
terials. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2014.
graphene oxide
Graphene oxide is an exfoliated form of graphite oxide.1–3 ‘Exfoliated’ means ‘deaggre-
gated’. That is, an assembly of crystallites which are joined together is broken down into a
suspension of individual crystallites or primary crystallites.
See: graphene; graphite oxide

graphite oxide
The terminology used to discuss graphene can be confusing. Graphite can be oxidised in a
liquid medium to form graphite oxide, an electrical insulator containing surface epoxy
groups (Fig. G.11). Graphene oxide can be considered to be an exfoliated or delaminated
form of graphite oxide and can be reduced to graphene, for example by use of hydrazine
monohydrate.1–3
See: graphene; graphene oxide

180 Glossary
(i)
Carbon atom Oxygen atom
(ii)
Fig. G.11 Chemical structures for graphite (i) and graphite oxide (ii).
(Y. Miyamoto. United States Patent Application 2014/0017440, 2014).

green chemistry
The use of genetically engineered organisms such as bacteria and yeast in the production of
useful materials such as bio-polymers as replacement for synthetic polymers derived from
petrochemical sources, the production of biodiesel from renewable sources, namely vege-
table oils or animal fat, and ionic liquids as solvents with reduced environmental emissions
fall within the area of green chemistry.1,2 The latter involve processes that have a reduced
detrimental effect on the environment compared to conventional processes for the produc-
tion of materials.
See: biodiesel; bio-1,3-propanediol; bio-succinic acid; ionic liquids; poly-3-hydroxybutyrate

1. Kerton, F., and R. Marriot. Alternative Solvents for Green Chemistry, 2nd edn. Cam-
bridge: Royal Society of Chemistry, 2013.
2. Bunzel, E., and R. A. Sayers. Solvent Effects in Chemistry, 2nd edn, pp. 164–76.
gutta percha
The 21st century is an age of digital communications. Smartphones, laptop and tablet
computers proliferate and the use of social media is widespread. While some technologies
are potentially disruptive technologies such as three-dimensional printing, others evolve over
time and are built on technical advances made in previous ages. Gutta percha is a hard
plastic, a naturally occurring polyisoprene, obtained by coagulation by heating of latex
Glossary 181
suspensions tapped from trees.1,2 It is an isomer of polyisoprene, a different one of which

forms elastic natural rubber. An application3 for gutta percha in the second half of the 19th
century was as a durable insulator for long-distance underwater telegraph cables and this
allowed the expansion of communication technology at that time.
See: elastomers; natural rubber

2. Weightman, G. Eureka: How Invention Happens, pp. 61–2. New Haven, CT: Yale
3. Loadman, J., and F. James. The Hancocks of Marlborough. Oxford: Oxford University
Press, 2010.
hair dyeing: permanent

Permanent hair dyes are based on the chemical reaction between an ortho- or para-
substituted aromatic diammine and a coupler (an aromatic compound such as certain
naphthols) in the presence of an oxidising agent to form a coloured compound.1 For
example, p-phenylenediamine (NH2C6H4NH2) or p-aminophenol (NH2C6H4OH)
known as primary intermediates or developers react with an oxidising agent, usually hydro-
gen peroxide, under alkaline conditions for example in the presence of aqueous ammonia.
The coupler modifies the colour produced on oxidation of the developer. Permanent hair
colouring kits often consist of two components: (i) a mixture of dye precursors to produce
the desired colour together with ammonia and (ii) a hydrogen peroxide solution. The dyeing
process takes about 30 minutes. Hydrogen peroxide produces reactive electrophilic species
on reaction with the developer that react with the coupler to form the coloured species. The
latter are larger molecules than the precursors and are permanently bonded to the hair.
See: hair dyeing; semi-permanent; hair dyeing; temporary

1. Christie, R. M. Colour Chemistry, 2nd edn, p. 259. Cambridge: Royal Society of
Chemistry, 2015.
hair dyeing: semi-permanent

Semi-permanent hair dyes are applied directly to the hair, do not involve an oxidative
reaction to generate the colour and last roughly four to six washings.1 The dyes are small
non-ionic molecules that diffuse into the hair and are retained by van der Waals forces. Nitro
dyes, for example, nitroanilines, nitroaminophenols and nitrophenylenediammines, are
often used for semi-permanent dyes, producing a range of colours from yellow, orange,
red-brown and violet.. Semi-permanent dyes are applied to the hair after a shampoo.
See: hair dyeing; permanent

Chemistry, 2015.
182 Glossary
hair dyeing: temporary

Temporary hair colours are designed to last from one shampoo to the next and have been
referred to as colour rinses.1 They can be used after permanent or semi-permanent hair
dyes to modify the shade of colour. There is interest generally in obtaining colours from
structures and nanoparticles that do not contain pigments, for example in coated mica
flakes. Whether this approach is applied to hair colours in the 21st century remains to
be seen.
See: hair dyeing; permanent; iridescent pigments

Chemistry, 2015.
hairy adhesives (gecko lizard)

Not all adhesives are available in tubes, bottles or tins. The gecko is a lizard and is able to
climb walls and even walk upside down along ceilings. Its ability to achieve this remarkable
feat is subject to debate. However, its feet are covered with millions of densely packed thin
hairs known as setae with diameters around 10 µm and length in the region of 100 µm.1 The
setae are made out of the protein β-keratin and the diameter can as much as ten times smaller
than a human hair. The setae are arranged on pads in the lizard’s feet. Each seta divides into
between 100 and 1000 branches that are terminated by flat surfaces called spatulae. The tips
of the spatulae are approximately 0.5 µm in length, 0.3 µm wide and 0.01 µm (10 nm) thick.
As the foot presses against a surface an attractive van der Waals force comes into play
between an individual hair and the surface. Although the force is very small, the magnitude
of the force increases significantly when the individual forces for all of the hairs are added
together. In a humid environment, capillary forces can increase the adhesion between the
feet and damp surface. The gecko releases its grip on the surface by bending its feet which
releases the attached pads.
See: bioadhesives; epoxy adhesives; superglue

1. Lee, M. (ed.). In Remarkable, Natural Material Surfaces and Their Engineering Poten-
tial, pp. 115–25. New York: Springer, 2014.
hemicelluloses
Hemicelluloses are branched polysaccharides consisting of simple sugar molecules including
glucose, xylose, mannose and arabinose connected together.1 Hemicellulose is a component
of lignocellulose. An example of hemicellulose is xylan, which is found in plant cell walls and
in algae.
See: lignocellulose; lignin

p. 660. Bosont, MA: Cengage Learning, 2011.
Glossary 183
heteropolymers
In homopolymers only one type of monomer is used; for example, polyethylene is derived
from ethylene monomer. However, heteropolymers or copolymers are made from two or
more different monomers.1 Nylon and styrene-acrylonitrile-butadiene are examples of
heteropolymers, as is DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid).
See: DNA
1. Daintith, J. (ed.). A Dictionary of Chemistry, 6th edn, p. 431. Oxford University Press,
2008.
heterostructures
Heterostructures consist of a thin layer (around 10 nm) of a semiconductor sandwiched
between two layers of a different semiconductor that has a higher band gap than the well
layer.1 For example, a layer of GaAs (gallium arsenide) between layers of GaAlAs (gallium
aluminium arsenide). This structure confines electrons to the layer with the smaller band
gap and is an important component of solid-state semiconductor lasers that are used, for
example, to read the stored information in a DVD (digital versatile disc). In the latter, a
focused laser beam (405 nm in the blue region of the visible spectrum and used for the Blue-
ray system) scans the surface of a metallised disc (polycarbonate), detecting the presence of
etched pits in the surface.
See: quantum wells

hierarchical structures
Many plants have a hierarchical structure in their leaves.1 For example, leaves of the lotus
plant exhibit superhydrohobicity because of a hierarchical surface structure in the leaves
which contains raised papillae that have a nanostructure of protruding tubular asperities of
waxes. The combination of microscale and nanoscale features make up the hierarchic
surface structure and which is essential for superhydrophobic properties. There is consid-
erable interest in trying to mimic the structures of leaves in order to produce superhydro-
phobic structures in materials of interest.
See: lotus leaves

1. Lee, M. (editor). In Remarkable, Natural Material Surfaces and Their Engineering
Potential. New York: Springer, 2014.
high-temperature ceramic composites

Zirconium diborides (ZrB2) and hafnium diborides (HfB2) are refractory transition metal
diborides that have melting points above 3000 C.1 Silicon carbide-reinforced ZrB2
184 Glossary
composites have been prepared using zirconium diboride powder for the matrix material
using hot pressing and other densification methods, such as spark plasma sintering. ZrB2-
and HfB2-based composites have high strength, high stiffness and good electrical and
thermal conductivities among transition metal carbides, nitrides and diborides. Applications
for diboride-based composites are limited but as the 21st century progresses these compos-
ites may find a niche market in extreme operating conditions.
1. Bansal, N. P., and Lamon, J. (eds). Ceramic Matrix Composites: Materials, Modeling
hollow textile fibres

Lightweight hollow fibres have been developed for quick-drying fabrics including sheets and
sportswear.1 These materials are composite yarns made in a spinning process and consist of
a core surrounded by a sheath. For example, filaments marketed under the trade name
Wincall (Unitica) have a nylon sheath and a polyester core that can be eluted with sodium
hydroxide solution. Other hollow textile fibres have the trade names Air-mint (Kuraray) and
Lighton (Kanebo).
1. Kim, S., and H. A. Kim. Elution characteristics of high hollow filament nylon fabrics
in dyeing and finishing processes and their physical properties for high emotional
garments. In J. Fu (ed.), Dyeing: Processes, Techniques and Applications, p. 137. Haup-
pauge, NY: Nova Science Publishers, 2014.
humira
Humira (adalimubab) is a biopharmaceutical made by recombinant DNA technology. It has
over 1,000 amino acids and a molecular weight around 40,000 Da and it is a monoclonal
antibody. T cells (lymphocytes) release cytokines in the body that promote the destruction
of tissues surrounding joints.1 Tumor necrosis factor α (TNFα) is a cytokine that is blocked
by adalimubab and is prescribed for the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis.
See: biopharmaceuticals; recombinant DNA technology

Business. New York: Wiley, 2014.
hyaluronic acid
Hyaluronic acid (also known as hyaluronan) is a linear polysaccharide of alternating
disaccharide units of D-glucuronic acid and N-acetyl-D-glucosamine.1–3 It belongs to the
class of mucopolysaccharides although this term has now been replaced by the group of
natural products known as glycosaminoglycans. The latter are so-called as they contain an
amino sugar, here glucosamine. Hyaluronic acid is a lubricant in the joints and it is found in
mammalian connective tissue such as in cartilage and the vitreous body of the eye as
examples; it absorbs water to form a gel within joints. This natural biopolymer has a
molecular weight in the range 10 to 6000 kDa and has a role in maintaining skin elasticity,
Glossary 185
transport of nutrients, cell adhesion, the movement of collagen and regulation of inflamma-
tion. Hydrogels are formed from hyaluronic acid by chemical modification or crosslinking
and have applications in cosmetic products.
See: anti-ageing skin treatments; glucosamine; polysaccharides

1. Borbely, J. Additives for cosmetic products and the like. United States Patent Appli-
cation 2008/0070993, published on 20 March 2008.
2. Lim, H. J., E. C. Cho, J. H. Lee and J. Kim. Chemically cross-linked hyaluronic acid
hydrogel nanoparticles and the method for preparing thereof. International Patent
Application WO 2008/100044, published on 21 August 2008.
hydrogels
Hydrogels are three-dimensional networks of hydrophilic homopolymers or copolymers
that can be swollen by absorption and retention of water.1 Hydrogels exhibit both liquid
properties, because the major constituent is water, and solid properties, because of cross-
linking during polymerisation. Hydrogels can absorb over 99.9% of water by weight based
on the weight of the dry hydrogel (more than 10 times the dry weight) and can be prepared
from natural or synthetic materials, for example crosslinked cellulose and acrylic acid.
Applications for hydrogels include disposable nappies (diapers), soft contact lenses,
wound dressings, scaffolds for tissue engineering and personal sanitary wear such as
tampons.
See: natural product hydrogels; superabsorbent polymers

1. Segal, D. Exploring Materials through Patent Information. Cambridge: Royal Society of
Chemistry, 2014.
hydrogen
Hydrogen is manufactured by steam reforming of methane in natural gas or by coal gasifica-
tion, which yields a mixture of hydrogen and carbon monoxide.1 More hydrogen can be
obtained in the water–gas shift reaction in which carbon monoxide is reacted with steam over
iron-, copper- or molybdenum-based catalysts that yields carbon dioxide and hydrogen.
See: coal gasification

Business, pp. 17–24. New York: Wiley, 2014.
hydrophilic materials
Hydrophilic materials can be defined in terms of contact angles and have contact angles
from around 10 to 30 for water droplets.1 An extremely wettable surface has a contact
186 Glossary
angle approaching zero. Hydrophilic surfaces are oleophobic; namely, oil droplets do not
spread across their surface.
See: contact angle

hydrophilic polymers
Hydrophilic polymers are soluble in aqueous media and examples include polyethylene
oxide, polyethylene glycol and polyacrylamide.1 Hydrophobic polymers are insoluble in an
aqueous medium and include polydimethylsiloxanes. The two polymer chains in block
polymer have different degrees of hydrophilicity.
See: polymers
hydrophobic aerogels
Aerogels are ideal candidates for thermal insulation due to their very high porosity and low
thermal conductivity. It is important in this application that the aerogel does not absorb
water vapour as the pore structure will collapse. Hydrophobic aerogels that do not absorb
water vapour have the potential to act as thermal insulation in buildings.1
See: aerogels
Chemistry, 2014.
hydrophobic ionic liquids

Hydrophobic ionic liquids are ionic liquids that do not absorb water vapour from the
atmosphere.1 Applications include polar solvents, phase transfer catalysts and liquid
media for batteries.
See: ionic liquids

hydrophobic materials
Hydrophobic materials can be defined in terms of contact angles and have contact angles
from around 70 to 90 and above for water droplets.1 Teflon (polytetrafluoroethylene) is a
Glossary 187
hydrophobic material with a contact angle between 120 and 130 . Hydrophobic materials
are oleophilic; namely, oil droplets can spread across their surface.
See: contact angle; polytetrafluoroethylene

hydroxyapatite
Hydroxyapatite, Ca10(PO4)6(OH)2 is a calcium phosphate and is found in bone as
a composite with fibres of the protein collagen. Hydroxyapatite is used as a porous
coating on medical implants for hip replacements to encourage growth of tissue into the pores.1
See: biomimetic materials

1. Prentice, T. C., K. T. Scott and D. L. Segal. Preparation of hydroxyapatite. United
Kingdom Patent Application GB 2433257 A, published on 20 June 2007.
indigo
The blue textile vat dye indigo (C16H10N2O2) occurs in the leaves of a number of plant species
including Indigofera and Isatis. Knotweed and woad are well-known indigo sources and indigo
can be extracted from precursors such as indican and isatan in the leaves. The synthetic indigo
industry based on aniline derivatives dates from the end of the 19th century and indigo is the
dye used to impart the blue colour in denim. Indigo is insoluble in water and in use it is first
converted by chemical reduction to a pale yellow soluble form, leuco indigo, by, for example,
use of enzymes in a bacterial growth medium derived from natural products (e.g. molasses,
dates), after which the fabric is soaked in the colourless solution and removed.1 Leuco indigo is
then oxidised back to indigo by air, producing the characteristic blue colour. A leuco dye is one
that can exist in two forms, one of which, the leuco form, is colourless.
See: faded jeans; textile printing

1. Ratnapandian, S., S. Fergusson L. Wang and R Padhye. Indigo colouration. In J. Fu
(ed.), Dyeing: Processes, Techniques and Applications, pp. 65–76. Hauppauge, NY:
Nova Science Publishers, 2014.
indirect band gap semiconductors

Silicon and germanium are examples of indirect band gap semiconductors.1 In this type of
semiconductor electrons and holes combine to produce heat and the heat is dissipated
throughout the semiconductor. This is because there is a change in momentum of the
electron in the transition that prevents emission of light.
See: direct band gap semiconductors; silicon carbide LEDs

188 Glossary

Wiley, 2013.
indium tin oxide

Portable electronic devices—whether smartphones, laptop and tablet computers—are ubi-
quitous in the second decade of the 21st century. Indium tin oxide has a very important role
in all of these devices as it is a transparent oxide that is electrically conducting and it is used
as the electrode in electronic displays often as a coating on the screens.1
Approach to Nanomaterials, p.120. Cambridge: Royal Society of Chemistry, 2009.
industrial effluents: acids

The Basil process (biphasic acid scavenging utilising ionic liquids) is an industrial
process that uses ionic liquids.1 Acids produced in chemical reactions have been removed
by addition of amines, producing crystalline salts that are removed by filtration but
this procedure can block up equipment. In the Basil process acids are removed from
reaction solvents by interaction with a base in the form of an ionic liquid and the resulting
liquid, rather than solid crystals, could be separated from the reaction product by
decanting.
See: ionic liquids

1. Maase, M., K. Massonne, K. Halbritter, R. Noe, M. Bartsch, W Siegel, V. Stegmann,
M. Flores, O. Huttenloch and M. Becker. International Patent Application WO 03/
062171, published on 31 July 2003.
industrial effluents: carbon dioxide

Industrial processes often produce effluent streams and there is increasing interest in the
21st century on developing environmentally friendly processes. Traditional methods for
removing carbon dioxide from exhaust gases involve chemical reaction with an amine-based
solution, after which CO2 is stripped from the solution at high temperature. Amidium-based
ionic liquids have the potential for absorption of carbon dioxide at around 313 K and at
pressures up to 2 MPa.1 The ionic liquid can be regenerated by releasing the reactor
pressure, a less-energy intensive process than traditional methods.
See: carbon capture; ionic liquids

1. Choi, S. J., J. Palgunadi, J. E. Kang, H. S. Kim and S. Y. Chung. Amidium-based
ionic liquids for carbon dioxide absorption. United States Patent 8,613,865, 2013.
Glossary 189
inkjet printing inks

Inkjet printing is a non-contact printing method and two methods are used in the process,
the bubblejet system and the piezoelectric jet.1 Small jets squirt tiny ink droplets onto the
paper. In the bubblejet system, a heating element in each jet tube vaporises solvent in the ink,
creating a bubble that expels the ink droplet from the jet. In the piezoelectric method, a
piezoelectric material contracts on application of an electrical voltage and expels the ink
droplet. Pigments that are used in the inks include carbon black, azo-based materials for
yellow and magenta dyes and copper phthalocyanines for cyan inks.
1. Christie, R. M. Colour Chemistry, 2nd edn. Cambridge: Royal Society of Chemistry, 2015.
insulating fibres
Oxide fibres such as glass or aluminosilicates can be drawn from a melt.1 In the case of
aluminosilicates, the limitation of forming as-blown fibres is the melt viscosity. Kaowool is an
example of an aluminosilicate fibre. Some fibres, particularly high-alumina-containing mater-
ials, can be spun from solutions of precursors. Nextel is an example of a fibre obtained from
solution precursors. Fibres are used as thermal insulation. As an example, the US space shuttle
was covered in insulated tiles containing oxide fibres that protect the aluminium skin from heat
generated on re-entering the Earth’s atmosphere. The fibres reduce radiation and conduction
of heat from the outer surface to the skin. Silica- and alumina-containing fibres with high oxide
contents can be prepared by sol-gel processes.
See: sol-gel processes

1. Birchall, J. D. Insulating fibres. In R. J. Brook (ed.), Concise Encyclopaedia of Advanced
Ceramic Materials, pp. 236–8. Oxford: Pergamon Press, 1991.
insulin
In 1921 Frederick Banting and co-workers identified insulin, the pancreatic hormone that is
deficient in diabetes. Insulin was obtained in a pure form from the pancreatic glands of cattle
and shown to reduce the blood sugar concentration for the treatment of diabetes.1 At the
beginning of the 21st century there is concern in countries with public healthcare systems
over rising levels of obesity and the associated Type 2 diabetes and the cost of treatment.
Insulin is thus an important pharmaceutical nearly a century after its isolation and nowadays
it is prepared through genetic engineering techniques.2
See: yeast
1. Banting, F. G., and C. H. Best. Extract obtainable from the mammalian pancreas
or from related glands of fishes. Canadian Patent Application 234336 A, published
18 September 1923.
190 Glossary
integrated circuits
An integrated circuit, also known as a microchip, consists of a piece of semiconducting
silicon, namely a silicon chip, that has been doped with elemental impurities and which has
an intricate surface pattern of interconnected components (i.e. transistors, resistors, diodes
and capacitors) that form the basis for carrying out logic operations in computers
(Fig. G.12).1,2 The integrated circuit has dimensions of about 1 mm in thickness with
diameters up to 30 cm. The components are produced by photolithographic techniques
using photoresists that are standard processes in the semiconductor industry. Intercon-
nects are used to connect different parts of the circuit. In an integrated circuit the tran-
sistors act as switches rather than amplifiers and deal with pulse inputs and outputs while
capacitors store electric charge and store data in a digital format. Integrated circuits are
usually mounted in a plastic or ceramic package about the size of a postage stamp for ease
of handling. Note that the engineer Geoffrey Dummer suggested in 1952 the idea that it
should be possible to make electronic equipment in the form of a solid block with no
connecting wires. This idea, the basic concept of an integrated circuit, was put into practice
a few years later by Jack Kilby.
See: interconnects; silicon chips; semiconducting-grade silicon

pp. 702–4. Boston, MA: Cengage Learning, 2011.
2. Thackray, A., D. C. Brock and R. Jones. Moore’s Law. New York: Basic Books,
2015.
interconnects
Interconnects are thin, narrow electrically conducting metallic strips that connect different
devices on an integrated circuit.1 They are deposited from the gas phase, for example by
sputtering onto exposed regions of silicon on a silicon wafer.
intrinsic semiconductors
An intrinsic semiconductor is one where the concentration of charge carriers (electrons and
holes) is a characteristic of the material itself and not a characteristic of impurity atoms.1
Thermal energies cause electrons to jump from the valence band to the conduction band, a
process that leaves a hole behind in the valence band. An intrinsic semiconductor has an
equal number of different charge carriers.
See: band gaps; extrinsic semiconductors

Glossary 191
(a) Epitaxially grown

p-Type substrate n-type
(b) Ultraviolet light

Mask
Photoresist
n SiO2
Epitaxial layer
p
(c) Photoresist
SiO2
n Epitaxial layer
p
(d) Photoresist
SiO2
n Epitaxial layer
p
SiO2
(e)
n Epitaxial layer
p
SiO2
(f )
n p+ n p+ n Epitaxial layer
p-Type substrate
p
(g)
n p+ n p+ n
p
n+
(h)
n p+ n p+ n
p p
(i) E B C
metal
n + n p+ n
p
p
n+ p
Fig. G.12 Schematic illustration of the stages in the production of integrated circuits.
(L. Solymar, et. al. Electrical Properties of Materials, 9th edn, p. 208. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2014.)
192 Glossary
intumescent coatings
Intumescent coatings are used as fire retardants in which they act as a heat barrier,
protecting the underlying substrates in the event of a fire.1,2 During a fire the coating
expands to form a solid foam on the underlying substrate and the coatings are used to
protect internal walls of buildings including timber panels. Ammonium polyphosphate has
been used as a component of intumescent coatings.
1. Ward, D. A. Fire retardant coatings, United Kingdom Patent Application 2,433,938
A, 2007.
ion implantation
The production of n-type semiconductors, p-type semiconductors, light-emitting diodes,
silicon chips and integrated circuits relies on the ability to add controlled amounts of dopant
atoms such as phosphorus or boron to pure silicon. A number of techniques can be used to
introduce atoms into a lattice of a semiconductor to modify its electronic properties. Ion
implantation is one such method and other methods are molecular beam epitaxy and metal-
organic chemical vapour deposition (MOCVD).1
See: integrated circuits; light-emitting diodes; n-type semiconductors; p-type semiconductors;

silicon chips
1. Page, T. Ion implantation. In Brook, R. J. (ed.), Concise Encyclopaedia of Advanced
Ceramic Materials, pp. 252–7. Oxford: Pergamon Press, 1991.
ionic liquids
Ionic liquids are composed entirely of cations and anions from compounds that either have
high or low melting points.1–5 When ionic liquids have melting points at or below 303
K (30 C) they are referred to as room temperature ionic liquids. The latter usually consist of
a bulky organic cation and organic anion and the large cation prevents the formation of an
ordered crystalline solid structure. An example of an ionic liquid is 1-butyl 3-methylimida-
zolium acetate. Ionic liquids have low vapour pressure (i.e. they do not smell or have faint
odours) and are environmentally friendly or ‘green’ alternatives to conventional organic
solvents such as acetone and dichloromethane. Examples of their versatility include dissol-
ution of cellulose for extraction of renewable chemicals such as sugars, a solvent for the
preparation of biodiesel and use in separation processes such as removal of mercury vapours
from oil and gas streams. An indication of their versatility as solvents is represented by the
ability of ionic liquids to dissolve elemental sulphur, phosphorus, selenium and tellurium
prior to purification of these elements.
See: cellulose
Chemistry, 2014.
Glossary 193
3. Reade, L. Charged with success. Chemistry and Industry (Oct. 2013) 77, 42–5.
4. Paul, B. K., and S. P. Moulik (eds). Ionic-Based Surfactant Science. New York: Wiley,
2015.
5. Visser, A. E. (ed.). Ionic Liquids: Science and Applications, American Chemical Society
Series 1117. Washington, DC: American Chemical Society, 2014.
iridescent organisms
The colours in soap bubbles arise from interference between the components of white light
which are reflected from the front and back faces of soap films and interfere with each other.
Also, the colours of butterfly wings and peacock feathers result not from the presence of
pigments but from optical effects arising from scattering of the components of white light
from the structures in the wings of the insects and birds.1,2 The scattered components
(i.e. wavelengths) interfere with each other generating the apparent colours. In some
butterfly wings colours arise from interference of diffracted light from three-dimensional
arrays of close-packed air holes in a chitin matrix so that the periodicity of the holes
constitutes a diffraction grating. Pearl lustre effects that are often combined with coloured
iridescence in pearls, shells and fish scales arise from optical effects due to the interaction of
light with the materials.
See: biomaterials; chitin; iridescent pigments; microstructures; photonic materials

2. Luohong, S. Butterfly wings: nature’s fluttering kaleidoscope. In M. Lee (ed.),
Remarkable Natural Material Surfaces and Their Engineering Potential, p. 129. New
York: Springer, 2014.
iridescent pigments
Conventional pigments absorb some wavelengths of light so that others are reflected and are
seen as specific colours. The optical effect due to light scattering has been utilised in
iridescent or pearlescent pigments.1 Mica is a layered silicate mineral and can be broken
into thin flakes. When the thin flakes are coated with titanium dioxide and then deposited as
a coating, for example on the bodywork of cars, a white pearlescent appearance with a bluish
colour on reflection is produced. Other colours can be produced from mica effect pigments
including reds and oranges for metallic shades. Iridescent pigments are also used in cos-
metics such as in nail varnish and in eye shadow. Coated mica can be produced with layers
of other oxides including zirconium dioxide, chromium dioxide and iron oxide and multiple
layers can be assembled. Mica has a lower refractive index than the oxide coatings and
refraction and reflection can occur besides light scattering.
See: iridescent organisms; mica

1. Challener, C. Any colour you like. Chemistry and Industry (Dec. 2013) 77, 36–9.
194 Glossary
keratin fibres
Keratin is a fibrous protein, a natural polymer that occurs as the α-form in hair, nails and
feathers while the β-form is the protein of birds’ beaks and claws.1 The α-form consists of
coiled helical polypeptide chains and several coils twist around each other to produce
filaments with greater stiffness and strength. Coils are held together by disulphide linkages
(-S-S-) between adjacent cysteine amino acids that give the hair its elasticity. Hair ‘perms’
involve chemically breaking the disulphide bonds through a reduction process producing
–SH- groups, shaping the hair with clamps and rollers and reforming the disulphide linkages
but between different pairs of –SH- groups. Keratin is a negatively charged polymer and
many conditioners and shampoos contain or aim to contain positively charged polymers that
bond to the hair and modify its texture.
1. Atkins, P. Atkins’ Molecules, 2nd edn, pp. 107–8. Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press, 2003.
Kevlar
Stephanie Kwolek is credited as the inventor of Kevlar (DuPont), a crystalline aromatic
polyamide. The polymer is obtained by an interfacial or solvent polymerisation at temper-
atures less than 100 C.1,2 This polymerisation is an example of a condensation reaction.
Reactants include as examples aromatic diamines and aromatic dichlorides. An example of a
polymer composition is poly (p-phenylene terephthalamide), which corresponds to the
chemical composition of Kevlar; the repeating unit is (NHC6H4NHCOC6H4CO) .
Aromatic polyamides such as Kevlar are referred to as aramids while aliphatic polyamides
are nylons. Solutions of the polymer (e.g. in concentrated sulphuric acid) can be spun by
using a spinerette (a rotating disc with many holes in it) into continuous fibres that contain
rod-shaped polymers in the nematic liquid crystalline phase. Rotation of the spinerette twists
the filaments into a yarn. The spinning process is similar to that used for producing candy
floss. The fibres are heated while under tension and this processing step produces a
continuous fibre that is strong along the fibre axis and which can be woven into fabric.
This aramid cannot be processed by melt-spinning as it decomposes below its melting point.
Properties of Kevlar include low density, high stiffness (Young’s modulus) and high tensile
strength and the melting points for aramids are up to 500 C. Kevlar has a strength and
modulus greater than steel and is particularly associated with its use in lightweight body
armour and helmets. Bullet-proof vests are made of cross-woven Kevlar fibres, which
absorb energy on bending under impact and dissipating the energy over a wide area.3
Other applications include conveyor belts, high-temperature electrical insulation and a
substitute for steel in radial tyres and in the hulls of small boats. Nomex (DuPont) is another
aramid that is used for flame retardant protective clothing.
See: aramids; bullet-proof vests; candy floss; nematic liquid crystals; microstructures; nylon
1. Hill, H. W. Jr, S. L. Kwolek and W. Sweeny. Aromatic polyamides. United States

Patent 3,380,969, granted on 30 April 1968.
2. Kwolek, S. L. Optically anisotropic aromatic polyamide dopes. United States Patent
3,671,542, granted on 20 June 1972.
Glossary 195

Press, 2013.
laminated safety glass

Chipped and cracked windscreens are familiar to drivers of cars and other vehicles. Wind-
screens are made from a laminated safety glass.1 Two glass pieces are laminated with a sheet of
the plastic adhesive polyvinyl butyral between the pieces. The glass sheets are annealed; that is,
they undergo a controlled heating and cooling cycle to produce glass that is nearly stress-free
before the bonding process. When the windscreen is hit by an object, the plastic sheet holds the
pieces of glass together, reducing risk of injury to the driver and passengers.
See: plywood
1. Askeland, D. R., and W. J. Wright. The Science and Engineering of Materials, 7th edn,
lanthanide-based magnesium alloys

Magnesium is the lightest structural material and is the third most common structural
material after iron and aluminium.1,2 Lanthanides are alloyed with magnesium to improve
resistance to combustion, increase corrosion resistance, enhance high-temperature mech-
anical strength and improve resistance to creep. The alloys have applications as helicopter
gearboxes, tail rotor housings, components in racing cars and high-performance vehicles
such as transmission casings and components in aircraft engines.
2. Pekguleryuz, M., K. Kainer and A. Kaya (eds). Fundamentals of Magnesium Alloy
Metallurgy. Cambridge: Woodhead, 2013.
lanthanide dopants for lasers

The lanthanide elements (also referred to as the rare earths) are used as dopants for the
optical medium used to produce lasing action:1 for example, as dopants in single crystals,
glasses or transparent ceramics. Dopant concentrations of the lanthanide are small, 0.1 at.%
or less to avoid non-radiative relaxation between lanthanide ions instead of stimulated
emission. Examples include neodymium-doped crystalline yttrium aluminium oxide
(Y3Al5O12, also known as yttrium aluminium garnet after the mineral garnet) with a
wavelength around 1 µm, ytterbium-doped silicate glasses with a wavelength of around
1.1 µm, praseodymium-doped fluoride glass with a wavelength around 1.3 µm, holmium-
doped yttrium aluminium garnet with a wavelength around 2.1 µm and cerium-doped
fluoride crystals with a wavelength around 0.28 µm.
See: laser-based materials

196 Glossary

Wiley, 2013.
laser-based materials
Adsorption of a photon can excite an atom or molecule from a lower electronic energy state
(or ground state) to a higher electronic energy state. The atom or molecule can drop back to
the lower energy state by spontaneous emission of an identical photon whose energy is the
difference in electronic energy between the lower and higher states. Light emitted by
spontaneous emission is incoherent and unpolarised. Albert Einstein suggested in 1917
that there was another mode of emission, namely stimulated emission. Here a photon with
energy exactly equal to the difference in electronic energy of the ground and excited states
can interact with an atom in the excited state, causing it to return to the ground state and
emit an identical photon. Thus, the light output is amplified. In stimulated emission, the
emitted light is coherent and polarised. A laser is a device that produces a monochromatic,
coherent beam of light that has little divergence and can travel over large distances while
remaining collimated. It is an acronym for light amplification by stimulated emission of
radiation. Emitted light can be produced continuously or in pulses with duration from
microseconds to femtoseconds (1 femtosecond = 10 15 seconds). Materials have played a
crucial role in the development of lasers and two key requirements for producing lasing
action are (i) obtaining a population inversion between ground and excited states in a non-
equilibrium system and (ii) maintaining the excited state to ensure emission is by stimulated
and not by spontaneous emission.1
See: ruby laser

laser printing inks

Subtractive printing inks are used in laser printing in which powders are based on the three
subtractive primary colours, magenta, cyan and yellow.1 The yellows are based on diazo
pigments, the magenta is represented by quinacridones and the cyan is based on copper
phthalocyanine; carbon black powders are used for black.
See: subtractive colour mixing

Chemistry, 2015.
latex
A latex is a suspension of polymer particles in a liquid medium, frequently an aqueous
medium.1 For example, natural rubber is derived from the sap of a tree and the sap consists
Glossary 197
of an aqueous suspension of microglobules. Polystyrene lattices are prepared in an emulsion

polymerisation process. Polymer latices are used in paints and coatings.
See: elastomers; emulsion polymerization; polystyrene

LED televisions
Consumers have a wide range of televisions to choose from with screen sizes up to around
60 inches. The televisions are often lightweight and thin.1 The screens are based on liquid
crystal displays that have a back illumination from hundreds of light-emitting diodes
(LEDs). Use of LEDs avoids the requirement for colour filters if a backlight based on a
white light source is used and produce striking colours with improved clarity.
See: light-emitting diodes; liquid crystals

1. Kawamoto, H. The history of liquid crystal displays. Proceedings of the IEEE (Apr.
2002) 90, 460–500.
light-emitting diodes
Light-emitting diodes (LEDs) are based on the p–n junction diode.1,2 Under the influence of
a forward bias, electrons and holes recombine in the junction region, resulting in light
emission (Fig. G.13). This process is known as electroluminescence. The band gap energy
determines the wavelength (i.e. colour) of emitted light. Light emission does not occur for
the semiconductors silicon and germanium as their band gap energies do not promote direct
transition from the valence to conduction bands. In contrast, gallium arsenide (GaAs) emits
in the infrared region of the electromagnetic spectrum. Red emissions in the visible spectrum
electrons
photon
photon
holes
p n
Fig. G.13 The principle of LED operation: under a forward bias, electrons and holes recombine in
the junction region between p- and n-type semiconductors and emit radiation.
198 Glossary
were obtained by Holonyak in the early 1960s for alloys based on GaAs such as GaAs0.24
P0.76. LEDs are increasingly used for energy-efficient solid-state lighting, communication
lasers used in fibre-optic transmission, solid-state lasers and displays for electronic devices
such as smartphones and televisions. About 30 109 LED chips are produced each year.
LEDs are inorganic materials (e.g. gallium nitride) in contrast to organic materials used in
organic light-emitting diodes. An example of a composition for a LED involves a p-type
gallium arsenic phosphide (GaAsP) layer on a n-type GaAsP layer supported on a gallium
arsenide substrate.
See: band gaps; organic light-emitting diodes; p–n junction diode

1. Tilley, R. J. D. Understanding Solids: The Science of Materials. Chichester: Wiley,
2013.
2. Sinclair, I. Electronics Simplified, 3rd edn. Oxford: Newnes, 2011.
lignin
Lignin is a cross-linked polyphenolic viscous resin that is intimately mixed with the two other
components of lignocellulose, namely cellulose and hemicellulose.1
See: lignocellulose
lignocellulose
Lignocellulose has three main components: 30–40 wt% cellulose, 20–30 wt% hemicellulose
and 5–30 wt% lignin.1 It is a major structural component of plants, is a form of biomass and
is found widely in natural materials including sawdust, straw and bagasse (sugar cane
residues). Lignocellulose fibres in the form of wood pulp are used for paper making, spun
to cotton fibres and chemically modified; for example, treatment with nitric acid produces
nitrocellulose, an ester used as the explosive guncotton. Bioethanol manufactured by
enzymatic hydrolysis of sugar in a fermentation reactor is known as first-generation biofuel.
However, the conversion of lignocellulose to bioethanol is at an earlier stage of development
and ethanol made from lignocellulose is known as a second-generation biofuel.
See: cellulose; hemicellulose; lignin; biomass; furan-2, 5-dicarboxylic acid

lipids
Lipids are compounds found in living organisms, insoluble in water but soluble in organic
solvents.1,2 Complex lipids are esters of long-chain fatty acids and include glycerides that are
Glossary 199
the fats and oils of animals and plants; complex lipids also include phospholipids found in
liposomes. Phospholipids are major components of cell membranes. Simple lipids include
steroids and terpenes but not fatty acids. Steroids include the bile acids essential for the
digestion of fats and terpenes, unsaturated hydrocarbons that are the essential oils with a
distinctive scent in plants.
See: lipidosomes
Press, 2008.
liposomes
Liposomes are assemblies of phospholipids consisting of a lipid bilayer that acts as a
permeable barrier or membrane to specific species and are known as phospholipid vesicles.1
This bilayer is analogous to the lipid bilayers associated with cell membranes. The aqueous
interior of liposomes can entrap or encapsulate materials such as hydrogel nanoparticles
around 100 nm in diameter and pharmaceutical compounds; encapsulated hydrogels have
been referred to as lipobeads. Potential applications of liposomes are in biomedical areas,
including drug delivery and targeting of drugs, as well as in cosmetic preparations.
See: hydrogels; lipids; nanoparticles

1. Kazakov, S., M. Kaholek and K. Levon. Lipobeads and their production. United
States Patent 7,618,565, granted on 17 November 2009.
lipsticks
Lipsticks are dispersions of colourants in a base of a blend of oils, fats and waxes.1,2
Hydrophobic properties of lipsticks are important for run-free applications. Some lipsticks
known as ‘mood lipsticks’ change colour when applied to the lips due to changes in
pH. These lipsticks can contain indicators analogous to acid–base indicators used in
chemical analysis. An example of a ‘mood lipstick’ has been produced by Lipstick Queen
in which it is applied as a green layer, after which the colour transforms to a pink shade
characteristic for each user.3 In general, some inorganic pigments based on iron oxide are in
lipstick formulations for dark colours such as brown while organic pigments (e.g. azo
pigments) are used for bright colours, hence for reds and violets. Organic pigments are
often present in formulations as ‘lakes’, that is precipitated insoluble forms of water-soluble
dyes on a substrate, for example aluminium hydroxide.
2015.
2. Emsley, J. Chemistry at Home: Exploring the Ingredients in Everyday Products,
pp. 125–6. Cambridge: Royal Society of Chemistry, 2015.
3. Haslett, S. The green lippy that goes pink. Daily Mail, p. 35, 30 March 2015.
200 Glossary
liquid crystal displays

In a typical liquid crystal display (1-3) two parallel glass substrates are coated with trans-
parent electrodes of indium tin oxide on their inner surfaces. The electrodes are coated with
an orientation layer made from an organic material (e.g. polyimide) and liquid crystals reside
between the electrodes. The outside surfaces of the glass substrates are coated with polaris-
ing filters that are perpendicularly aligned. When an electric field is absent, light from a
backlight passes through a vertical polarising filter. Polarised light that emerges from the
filter then passes through the liquid crystal layer that rotates the angle of polarisation by 90 .
Horizontal polarised light then passes through a horizontal polarising filter so that the glass
screen appears to be bright to an observer (Fig. G.14). When an electric field is applied
across the layer of liquid crystals, vertically polarised light emerging from the first polariser
does not undergo a change in rotation in the angle of polarisation because of a change in
orientation of the liquid crystals and cannot pass through the horizontally polarised filter.
The glass screen then appears dark to an observer.

1. German Flat Panel Display Forum. European Technology: Flat Panel Displays, 6th
edn. VDMA, Verlag GmbH, 2008.
2. Platt, C., and F. Jansson. Encyclopaedia of Electronic Components, vol. 2. San Francisco,
CA: Maker Media, 2014.
2002) 90, 460–500.
backlight panel backlight panel

(i) (ii)
liquid
vertical
crystal
polarising film
liquid
crystal
vertical
polarising film
horizontal horizontal
polarising film polarising film
Fig. G.14 Effect of an applied voltage on the appearance of a LCD display. (i) No voltage, the
display appears transparent; and (ii) applied voltage and the display appears dark.
(C. Platt and F. Jansson. Encyclopedia of Electronic Components, vol. 2, p. 160. San Francisco, Ca:
Maker Media, 2015.)
Glossary 201
liquid crystalline polymers

Cholesterol derivatives that form liquid crystals are small molecules. Liquid crystalline
polymers, in particular liquid crystalline polyesters such as Xydar (Amoco), have been
prepared.1 The polymer chains with an aromatic backbone are ordered into liquid crystal
phases and have higher tensile strengths and stiffness than polyesters that do not form liquid
crystal phases. The aromatic polyamide Kevlar also forms liquid crystal phases when
polymer molecules are aligned during the spinning process for fibres. Formation of liquid
crystalline polymers represents a balance between decreasing entropy on forming ordered
structures and favourable hydrogen bonding between close-packed polymer molecules that
lowers the free energy of the system.

liquid crystals
Liquid crystals are materials that form phases which are intermediate between crystalline
solid phases and the fully disordered liquid phase and are associated with long-range
molecular ordering.1,2 The phases flow like liquids with low viscosity and have crystal-like
properties such as anisotropy, and liquid crystalline phases are sometimes referred to as
mesophases. Liquid crystals were discovered by Friedrich Reinitzer in 1888, who noticed
that cholesterol benzoate became cloudy and viscous on melting at 145 C, after which
it became isotropic (disordered like a liquid) at 179 C. The liquid crystalline phase,
also referred to as a mesophase, lies in the temperature range between the first melting
point temperature and the temperature at which isotropic liquid is formed. Liquid crystals
are used in flat displays such as television screens and in mobile phones. Unlike light-
emitting diodes and organic light-emitting diodes, liquid crystals do not emit light by
electroluminescence and devices incorporating them have a backlight. Liquid crystals are
birefringent and cause a rotation of polarisation in the incident light of about 90 . Examples
of liquid crystalline phases are those formed from p-azoxyanisole, anisaldazine and
dibenzaldbenzidine.
See: cholesteric phases; nematic liquid crystals; smectic phases

2002) 90, 460–500.
crystals. Oxford University Press, 2014.
lithium–air batteries
Lithium–air batteries are under development for electric vehicles but are not yet commer-
cially available.1,2 The large free energy change for the reaction of lithium with oxygen is
greater than for lithium-ion systems and makes the specific energy for lithium–air chemistry
202 Glossary
load
e– out e– in
impermeable membrane
Li+
O2 for H2O and CO2
Li metal Porous carbon

anode + catalyst cathode
non-aqueous
electrolyte:
LiPF6 in polypropylene carbonate
Fig. G.15 Schematic diagram for lithium-air battery.

greater than for lithium-ion chemistry. The anode is metallic lithium and the cathode is air
where the electrolyte is similar to that used in a lithium-ion battery, hence LiPF6 in a polar
organic solvent, for example a mixture of ethylene carbonate and dimethylcarbonate
(Fig. G.15). Porous carbon also forms part of the cathode structure. The compound
Li2O2 forms at the cathode and as this reacts with water vapour in the air to form lithium
hydroxide, the cathode must be separated from the atmosphere by a membrane that only
allows oxygen to pass through it.
Wiley, 2013.
2. Ball, P. Up in the air. Chemistry World (Dec. 2012) 60–3.
lithium batteries
Combinations of different materials are important in the development of battery systems. In
non-rechargeable lithium batteries the anode is metallic lithium and the cathode usually
manganese dioxide (MnO2).1 The electrodes are separated by an electrolyte consisting of a
lithium salt in a polar organic solvent. As lithium reacts violently with water the electrolyte
must be a non-aqueous liquid. The output is about 3 V and these batteries are often
produced in the form of flat discs for watches and other devices.
1. Ginley, D. S., and D. Cahen (eds). Fundamentals of Materials for Energy and Envir-
onmental Sustainability. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2012.
lithium-ion batteries
Rechargeable lithium-ion (Li-ion) batteries are widely used in portable electronic devices
such as mobile phones, laptop and tablet computers as they have a high energy density and
can be manufactured in different shapes.1 Li-ion batteries consist of a carbon anode and an
oxide cathode, frequently lithium cobalt oxide (LiCoO2), a porous separator containing a
Glossary 203
load
e– out e– in
Li+
LixC6 LixCoO2
anode cathode
non-aqueous
electrolyte:
LiPF6 in ethylene
carbonate/diethylene carbonate
Fig. G.16 A lithium-ion cell in discharge operation (schematic).

solution of a lithium salt such as LiPF6 in a polar organic solvent, for example a mixture of
ethylene carbonate and dimethylcarbonate (Fig. G.16). The oxide is an intercalation com-
pound and lithium ions are transferred between the electrodes enabling the current to be
utilised.
See: nanoparticle-based batteries

Wiley, 2013.
living polymers
The 20th century has seen the development of a range of synthetic polymers (i.e. plastics)
that continue to play an important role in everyday life in the 21st century. Preparation of
a polymer from smaller monomer units often requires an initiator and terminating
molecular additive. In the absence of a terminator, the molecular weight of the polymer,
that is its size, continues to grow until all of the monomer is converted to polymer. The
absence of a terminator results in a ‘living polymerisation’, where a narrow range of
molecular weights and hence polymer sizes are produced.1 Monodisperse living polymer
particles such as those of polystyrene are used as standards in certain analytical
techniques, including gel permeation chromatography. An example of a living polymer
is styrene–butadiene. Styrene can undergo anionic polymerisation until all of the mono-
mer is consumed. Addition of butadiene yields a styrene–butadiene copolymer, after
which addition of more styrene monomer makes a styrene–butadiene–styrene triblock
polymer.
See: tyre compositions

204 Glossary
lotus leaves
The lotus plant grows in marshes and lagoons in regions of the world.1 The leaves are
superhydrophobic so that water on them rolls up into droplets and falls off, removing dirt
from the leaves. Superhydrohobicity arises from a hierarchical surface structure in which
raised asperities of epidermal cells known as papillae produce an uneven surface and each
papilla has a nanostructure of protruding tubular asperities of waxes. The combination of
microscale and nanoscale features make up the hierarchic structure that prevents contact
and adhesion between water droplets and the surface of the leaf. The phrase ‘lotus effect’
was coined by botanist Wilhelm Barthlott in 1997 who predicted that a synthetic material
could mimic the waxy rough surface of the lotus leaf.
See: superhydrophobic materials; self-cleaning glass; stain-resistant clothing

1. Lee, M. Lotus leaves: humble beauties. In M. Lee (ed.), Remarkable Natural Material
Surfaces and Their Engineering Potential, pp. 53–63. New York: Springer, 2014.
lotusan
Lotusan is a paint for external surfaces of buildings that exploits the ‘lotus effect’ to form a
superhydrophobic self-cleaning coating.1
See: lotus leaves; self-cleaning paint

Surfaces and Their Engineering Potential, p. 61. New York: Springer, 2014.
lyocell
Lyocell is a textile fibre derived from cellulose and its trade name is Tencel.1 Cellulose, for
example wood pulp, is dissolved in a solvent, N-methylmorpholine N-oxide, and the
solution is spun into a water bath that regenerates the cellulose as continuous fibres. Tencel
has a silk-like texture.
See: rayon
2015.
macro-defect-free cement
Portland cement is porous and while its use depends on its compressive strength it is weak
under tension. However, reducing the fraction of voids (i.e. the pores) produces cement that
can be formed into a coiled spring rather like the springs used for suspensions in vehicle.
This macro-defect-free cement can be prepared by blending Portland cement with a
Glossary 205
distribution of particle sizes with a polyacrylamide gel in water which produces a dough that
can be shaped under pressure.1
See: Portland cement

magnetic resonance imaging

Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is widely used in hospital environments for obtaining
high-quality images of soft tissue of varying composition. The principle of the technique is
identical to that of nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) that has been used in research
environments since the 1950s for determining the chemical structure of molecules often in
solution but because the word nuclear is associated with radioactivity the name has been
changed when the method is applied to medical diagnostics.1 In the technique, the nuclear
spin of protons in water molecules is aligned in a strong magnetic field, after which they are
perturbed by electromagnetic radiation in the radio spectrum. Emitted signals as the spins
return to their random alignments are detected and combined to build up the image. In
practice the patient lies on a table inside a double-walled cylinder. A coil of a supercon-
ducting alloy (niobium-germanium) is wrapped around the cylinder inside the cavity that is
filled with liquid helium and a strong magnetic field (around 2 T) is generated when an
electric current is passed through it.

1. Woolfson, M. M. Resonance: Applications in Physical Science, pp. 87–103. London:
Imperial College Press, 2014.
mauveine dye
The discovery of a purple dye by Sir William Henry Perkin in 1856 laid the foundation for
the synthetic dye industry and organic chemicals industry.1–3 The dye known as mauveine
(aniline purple or Perkin’s mauve) was initially prepared by oxidation of aniline with
potassium dichromate. The dye was prepared on the large scale and required industrial
production of aniline by reduction of nitrobenzene and this large-scale production encour-
aged expansion of the organic chemicals industry (Fig. G.17). Mauveine was a commercial
success after launch in 1857 and its distinctive purple colour on textiles such as dresses was
very popular. Nowadays colours are abundant in everyday life, from textiles to cosmetics;
paints and coloured plastics as examples.
1. Perkin, W. H. Journal of the Chemical Society Transactions (1979) 717.
2. Christie, R. M. Colour Chemistry, 2nd edn, pp. 6–7. Cambridge: Royal Society of
Chemistry, 2015.
3. Perkin, W. H. Producing a new colouring matter for the dyeing with a lilac or purple
color stuffs of silk, cotton, wool or other material. United Kingdom Patent GB1984,
granted 24 February 1857.
206 Glossary
Fig. G.17 An early sample of mauveine and a shawl dyed with an original sample.
(J. Barber and C. Rostron (eds). Pharmaceutical Chemistry, p. 180. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2013.)
metal foams
Metal foams are stiff and can be made into complex shapes without deformation and have
been made from a variety of metals including titanium, tantalum and stainless steel.1
Potential applications include medical implants, lightweight components (compared to
dense metal) in vehicles and porous supports for electrodes in fuel cells. Pores in a metallic
form can be interconnected in an open-cell foam or sealed bubbles in a closed-cell foam.2
Closed-cell foams can be prepared by injecting gas into a molten metal or adding a blowing
agent such as titanium hydride (TiH2), which decomposes in the melt, producing gas
bubbles. The blowing agent can be incorporated into a powder compact and the latter
heated close to the melting point of the metal, causing decomposition of the agent and
release of gas bubbles. Closed-cell aluminium foam has good strength and vibration damp-
ening properties and acts as a construction metal when sandwiched between aluminium
sheets. Metal foams also act as materials for absorbing energy on impact between vehicles.
Open-cell metal foams have potential applications as diesel particulate filters and catalytic
Glossary 207
converters. Fabrication of open-cell foams involves using a template around which the
molten metal solidifies.
2. Ploszajski, A. Metal foams. Materials World (2016) 24(2), 59–61.
metallic nanoparticles
Nanotechnology has attracted much attention in the early part of the 21st century and
activity in this area often involves nanoparticles. Examples of the latter are gold nanoparti-
cles, which exhibit optical properties different to the bulk material.1 Whereas bulk gold has a
yellow lustre, colloidal dispersions of gold can exhibit a range of colours when illuminated by
visible light where the colour depends on the particle size, around 10 nm or less. A significant
percentage of atoms reside in the surface of small particles compared to the number in the
bulk material. Light that is incident on the particle surfaces induces oscillations in electron
charge distribution known as plasmons which modify the light reflected from the surface due
to distinct resonance frequencies. Such effects are seen when colloidal metals are used in
stained-glass windows and decorations in glassware.
See: colloidal systems; nanoparticles; nanotechnology

metamaterials
Metamaterials have a negative refractive index and have the ability to guide electromagnetic
radiation, visible light or other wavelengths, for example microwaves, around an object,
rendering the object invisible.1,2 Metamaterials have an engineered microstructure or na-
nostructure where the structure does not occur in nature and the structure has a periodicity.
Hence metamaterials may be referred to as artificial materials. An example of a metamaterial
that operates in the microwave region was constructed from a network of straight wires that
mimic a free-electron response to an electric field and millimetre-sized split-ring resonators
that are responsible for a magnetic resonance.1 An ‘invisibility cloak’ can be produced in
theory and has been widely publicised by the fictional character Harry Potter, but such
cloaks have not been made in practice.
1. Novotny, L., and B. Hecht. Principles of Nano-optics, 2nd edn. Cambridge:
methotrexate
Throughout the 20th century most drugs have been based on small synthetic molecules. For
example, acetylsalicylic acid has a molecular weight of 74. An example of the synthetic route
208 Glossary
is given for methotrexate that is used in chemotherapy and in the treatment of rheumatoid
arthritis where it inhibits the formation of folic acid.1 The synthesis of drugs often involves a
series of steps but methotrexate has been prepared in a one-step synthesis. Here it was
prepared by reaction of tetraaminopyrimidine, p-(N-methylamino)-benzoyl glutamic acid
and dibromopropionaldehyde.2 A more recent drug used for treatment of rheumatoid
arthritis is Humira, a biopharmaceutical.
See: acetylsalicylic acid; Humira

2. Singh, B., and F. C. Schaefer. United States Patent 4,374,987, 1983.
mica
Mica is a naturally occurring aluminosilicate mineral and is characterised by having very
thin sheets less than around 0.025 mm thick (25 µm) that can be cleaved easily from the bulk
material because the bonding forces between the sheets are small. Coated mica has appli-
cations as iridescent pigments. Mica is an ‘effect’ pigment for metallic car paints where the
mica flakes have a thickness around 300–600 nm although thin glass flakes known as
Glassflake with a thickness around 350 nm when coated with metal oxide exhibit a range
of colours in effect pigments. Fluorine-containing mica crystals have been used in a family of
non-porous machinable glass ceramics sold under the trade name MACOR.2
See: iridescent pigments

1. Perkins, J. 10 minutes with Simon Brigham. Materials World (Sept. 2015) 23, 19.
2. Grossman, D. G. Glass ceramics. In Concise Encyclopaedia of Advanced Ceramic
Materials, pp. 170–6. Oxford: Pergamon Press, 1991.
micellar systems
Surface-active agents or surfactants are molecules that are amphiphilic, that is have both
hydrophilic and hydrophobic regions. They are often described as having a hydrocarbon
‘tail’ and a hydrophilic ‘headgroup’. The headgroup can be cationic, anionic or non-ionic
although zwitterionic surfactants have both cationic and anionic headgroups. An example of
a surfactant is sodium dodecyl sulphate. On dissolution in water, surfactants adsorb at the
air–water interface at the surface, lowering the surface tension, and once a monolayer is
formed at the surface the surfactant molecules aggregate or self-assembly on increasing
concentration to form spherical micelles in the aqueous medium.1,2 Micelle formation takes
place above a critical micelle formation. In these micelles the headgroups point out into the
aqueous medium and the hydrocarbon chains point inwards. Surfactants are found in many
household products, including washing-up liquids and toothpastes and are responsible for
the foaming properties of these products. Micelles can solubilise dirt and grease which
migrate from surfaces into the core of the micelles. Facial wipes are a popular consumer
product and some are described as ‘micellar facial wipes’.
Glossary 209
2. Jones, R. A. L. Soft Condensed Matter, pp. 136–58. Oxford: Oxford University Press,
2014.
microelectromechanical systems
Microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) are fabricated by methods widely used for the
fabrication of integrated circuits: for example, through the use of silicon wafers, photoresists,
photolithography and etching.1 These devices can be used as sensors such as accelerometers
in determining when airbags in vehicles should be inflated or in optical systems where
rotatable mirrors are required. MEMS also include gyroscopes, magnetometers and
actuators.
See: wearable technology

microlaminates
Microlaminates consist of alternating layers of different material in particular layers of
aluminium sheet and fibre-reinforced polymer. For example, Arall consists of a prepreg of
an aramid fibre such as Kevlar impregnated with an adhesive and laminated between sheets
of an aluminium alloy.1 The laminate is lightweight, stiff and strong with good corrosion
resistance. Glass-aluminium microlaminates have been used in the fuselage of the Airbus
380. Microlaminates have good lightning resistance, are machinable and are relatively easy
to repair.
See: laminated safety glass; prepregs

1. Askeland, D. R., and W. J. Wright. The Science and Engineering of Materials, 7th edn.
microstructures
The properties of a material are determined by its microstructure, that is the nature, quantity
and distribution of structural elements or phases that make up the material.1 These prop-
erties include optical properties such as the colours observed in the wings of butterflies;
mechanical properties such as strength, toughness, stiffness (Young’s modulus), hardness,
elasticity (e.g. for rubber); and electronic properties such as electrical conductivity in
superconductors. The strength of Kevlar depends on oriented liquid crystalline phases of
a polyamide in its microstructure. The microstructure in DNA may be considered to be the
sequence of nucleotide bases in the polymer chain. The term microstructure is a technical
one but in everyday life the word structure can be used interchangeably with the term
‘microstructure’.
210 Glossary
1. Brook, R. J. Advanced ceramic materials: An overview. In R. J. Brook (ed.), Concise

Encyclopaedia of Advanced Ceramic Materials, pp.1–8. Oxford: Pergamon Press,
1991.
moisturisers
Moisturisers are widely used in cosmetics and applied to the skin.1 An example of a
moisturiser is γ-polyglutamic acid which can be derived in a fermentation process from
L-glutamic acid and converted to a hydrogel using cross-linking agents or by irradiation with
electron beams or gamma rays.
See: cosmetic formulations; hydrogels

Chemistry, 2014.
monoclonal antibodies
Monoclonal antibodies are antibodies from identical cells derived from a parent cell.1 The
parent cell is derived by fusion of a lymphocyte cell, which produces antibodies, and a
mouse cell, after which the hybrid cell multiplies quickly, producing the antibody. Mono-
clonal antibodies form the basis of biopharmaceuticals also known as biologic drugs.
Humira, a biologic drug, is an immunoglobulin and a key difference between biologic
drugs compared to conventional drugs such as aspirin is that they have molecular weights
in the tens of thousands rather than on the order of several hundreds or less. The conven-
tional drug aspirin has a molecular weight of 76.
See: antibodies; biopharmaceuticals

1. Rapley, R., and D. Whitehouse. Molecular Biology and Biotechnology. Cambridge:
monosaccharides
Monosaccharides or simple sugars are carbohydrates that are not broken down (i.e. hydro-
lysed) into simpler compounds by the action of dilute acids.1 They include glucose, also
referred to as an aldohexose as this molecule contains six carbon atoms and an aldehyde
group ( CH=O) and fructose, a ketohexose containing six carbon atoms and a ketone
group ( C=O). A monosaccharide such as glucose is a monomer that forms the polymer
backbone of cellulose.
See: biomass; carbohydrates; cellulose; polysaccharides

1. Barber, J., and C. Rostron (eds). Pharmaceutical Chemistry, p. 256. Oxford: Oxford
Glossary 211
moore’s law
Gordon Moore, the founder and president of Intel Corporation, suggested in 1965 that the
number of components such as transistors on a silicon chip in an integrated circuit would
increase exponentially over time; that is, the number would double for a fixed interval of time
for example every 18 months or every two years. This suggestion is known as Moore’s law.1
Since this suggestion was made, this law has been followed and the number of transistors
that have been fabricated on a silicon chip has doubled nearly every two years.
See: silicon chips

1. Thackray, A., D. C. Brock and R. Jones. Moore’s Law. New York: Basic Books, 2015.
MOSFET
MOSFET refers to a metal oxide semiconductor field effect transistor and is widely used in
integrated circuits.1 As with all transistors, MOSFETs have three terminals, the drain, the
source and gate. The latter is insulated from a p-type substrate and the gate–substrate acts as
a capacitor. The aim of the device is to control the current flow from source to drain and this
is achieved by varying the voltage applied to the gate. When a voltage is applied between the
gate and source, electrons flow into a channel between drain and source, the channel
conductivity increases and current flows between the source and drain. The device is
switched on. No current flows in the absence of an applied voltage. Hence, the MOSFET
acts as a switch. MOSFETs have low power consumption, low operating voltages and high
processing speeds due to the short channel length.
See: transistors
nacre
Molluscs are animals belonging to the phylum Mollusca that have soft bodies and hard
shells. Species include conch shells, abalone, clams, limpets, mussels and oysters as
examples. The shells consist of an outer layer of brittle aragonite crystals (calcium carbon-
ate) that has an inner layer of nacre, a composite of aragonite crystals and a small amount
(< 5%) of soft protein that acts as ceramic armour.1 Nacre is also known as mother-of-pearl
that exhibits lustrous colours and pearls are made out of nacre. The composite has a layered
structure analogous to a brick wall where the aragonite represents the bricks and the protein
is the mortar. Nacre is a tough material and can deform when subjected to attack by a
predator, preventing cracks spreading throughout the composite.
See: biomaterials
1. Lee, M. (ed.). In Remarkable, Natural Material Surfaces and Their Engineering Poten-
tial. London: Springer, 2014.
212 Glossary
Nafion
The perfluorinated polymer Nafion is a perfluorosulphonic acid ionomer, a copolymer of
tetrafluoroethylene with trifluorovinyl ether containing a trifluorovinyl ether group which is
hydrolysed to the hydrophilic sulphonic acid group after copolymerisation;1 the backbone of
Nafion corresponds to polytetrafluoroethylene. It is used as a thin membrane in polymer
electrolyte membrane (PEM) fuel cells operating below 100 C.
See: fuel cell materials

and Technology, p. 125. Chichester: Wiley, 2014.
nanocellulose
Nanocellulose is a renewable, biodegradable fibre with an aspect ratio (length:diameter) of
around 50 and is a component of lignocellulose but embedded in a matrix of hemicellulose
and lignin.1 It can be extracted by mechanical processing in contrast to the use of chemical
methods and has a Young’s modulus of around 100 GPa; that is, the fibres are stiff. The
tensile strength is greater than that of steel. These stiff fibres have a range of potential
applications: reinforcements in composite materials such as in plastics and concrete, drug
delivery and wound dressings.
See: lignocellulose; cellulose

1. Gross, M. Nature’s building blocks. Chemistry and Industry (Dec. 2014) 78, 18–21.
nanoclays
Clays are aluminosilicate minerals. Nanoclays refer to these minerals when they have a
particle size less than 50 nm and have applications as flame retardants when used as fillers in
plastic components.1
nanocomposites
Nanocomposites consist of a nanomaterial dispersed as a reinforcing material in a matrix.1,2
Examples of matrix materials include epoxy resins and thermoplastic resins, for example
polyester, polyetherimide and polyurethane elastomers.1 Use of nanomaterials as a filler can
improve flame resistance, wear resistance, thermal stability, strength and Young’s modulus
(stiffness) of the composite compared to the use of filler with a larger particle size.
See: composite materials; nanomaterials; polyetherimide

1. Simmons, M., and J. Cawse. Composite materials. United States Patent Application
2014/0047710, published on 20 February 2014.
Glossary 213
nanofibres
Nanofibres have been described as having a diameter of less than 1 µm and an aspect ratio
(length:diameter) greater than 50.1 Nanofibres can be considered to be colloidal
systems and have been prepared by electrospinning in which a polymer solution such
as polylactic acid is ejected as an electrically charged filament from a nozzle. Potential
applications for nanofibres include fillers for composites and biomimetic scaffolds for cell
growth.

1. Stevens, B., B. Park and F. Sartain. Nanofibres to nanocomposites. Materials World
(Apr. 2013) 21, 26–7.
nanofiltration membranes
Membranes are porous barriers that are selective in the type of species allowed to pass
through them.1 Nanofiltration membranes have pore sizes around 2 nm in diameter with
molecular weight cut-offs around 200 and have been prepared from polymers and
ceramics such as porous zirconia. Applications for nanofiltration membranes include
gas separations, separation of sugars and separations in the pharmaceutical and water-
treatment industries.
See: ultrafiltration membranes

1. Basile, A., and S. P. Nunes. Advanced Membrane Science and Technology for Sustainable
Energy and Environmental Applications. Cambridge: Woodhead, 2011.
nanomaterials
Nanomaterials can be considered to be any material that has at least one dimension on the
nanometre scale.1–3 The word is often used indiscriminately and nanomaterials are also
described as nanoparticles. Examples of nanomaterials include particles of nanoclays
such as those based on montmorillonite, graphene, graphene oxide, nanofibres for
example cellulose nanofibres, nano-whiskers such as cellulosic nano-whiskers and nano-
tubes including carbon nanotubes. Nanomaterials are used as reinforcing fillers for
nanocomposites.
See: fullerenes; nanocomposites; nanoparticles

1. Palmese, G. R., and A. L. Watters. Room temperature ionic liquid-epoxy systems as
dispersants and matrix materials for nanocomposites. United States Patent Applica-
tion 2012/0296012, published on 22 November 2012.
214 Glossary
nanoparticle-based art
Colours seen in stained glass windows dating from medieval times as well as colours in
ancient glassware are admired for their beauty. These colours often arise from incorporation
of nanoparticles such as gold into the glass. An example is the Lycurgus cup that was made
by ancient Roman artists.1–3 When illuminated by white light from behind, the cup shows a
rich shade of colours ranging from deep green to bright red. The transmitted light is red
while observing scattered light perpendicular to the direction of incident light indicates a
greenish colour in the cup. Another example involves red and yellow colours seen in
‘October: The Labours of the Months’, a stained glass window dating from around 1480
in Norwich (England). The colours arise from the absorption and scattering of light by gold
and silver nanoparticles around 50 nm in size that are embedded in the glass. Small gold
particles absorb green and blue light, producing a red colour, whereas larger particles scatter
mainly in the green, rendering a greenish colour.
nanoparticle-based batteries
The growth in the worldwide use of portable devices (e.g. smartphones, tablet and laptop
computers) with increasing functions requires batteries with a long battery life before
recharging. Nanotechnology applications, in particular the evaluation of nanoparticles for
electrode materials in rechargeable batteries to increase performance through for example
faster charging rates than existing batteries, is an area of considerable commercial interest.1
Examples of nanoparticles include graphene, nanotubes and fullerenes and lithium titanate
for cathode materials.
See: lithium-ion batteries

1. Amin, S. M., and A. M. Giacomoni. Toward the smart grid: the US as a case study. In
mental Sustainability, p. 590. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2012.
nanoparticle-based medicines
There is interest in the early part of the 21st century on ‘personalised medicine’ in which the
genome of an individual would be sequenced with the intention that this approach will lead
Glossary 215
to specific drugs that can be used for targeting diseases. Nanoparticle-based medicines fall
within this category of ‘personalised medicine’.1 Here nanoparticles are used to incorporate
a drug, for example either internally or on the surface as a coating and species (e.g.
antibodies) that will recognise specific cells such as cancer cells will be attached to the
nanoparticle so that once injected the nanoparticle will become attached to the diseased cells
and hopefully release the drug.
See: nanoparticles; personalised medicines

1. Rathi, A. Seek and destroy. Chemistry World (Oct. 2013) 10, 56–7.
nanoparticles
In a colloidal system particles have, by definition, a size in the range 1 nm to 1 µm. The
definition of nanoparticles is not well-defined but many particles with a diameter less than
100 nm are classified as nanoparticles and often such particles have a size less than 10 nm.1,2
Hence nanoparticles are colloidal systems.
See: colloidal systems; liposomes; nanomaterials; silver nanoparticles; sunscreens

1. Hosokawa, M., K. Nogi and M. Naito. Nanoparticle Technology Handbook. London:
Elsevier, 2012.
nanophosphors
Nanophosphors are fluorescent materials with diameters in the region of 2–10 nm in
diameter and contain between 10 and 50 atoms; quantum dots are nanophosphors.1
Phosphors have been prepared in conventional processes that involve mixing oxide com-
ponents followed by milling and calcination to achieve a solid-state chemical reaction
between the reactants. A composition made in this way is, as an example, yttrium aluminium
oxide (Y3Al5O12). Phosphors made in this way have particle sizes of the order of micro-
metres. Quantum dots with sizes in the range of nanometres can be prepared by nucleation
and growth processes in the gaseous or liquid phase.
See: quantum dots; phosphors

nanotechnology
The phrase nanotechnology has attracted much attention in the media in the early years of the
21st century and is often promoted as promising a future based on materials with properties
that were previously unattainable.1,2 Nanotechnology is often associated with small particles,
216 Glossary
often referred to as nanoparticles, nanocrystals and nanomaterials. Small particles are often
colloidal systems and include quantum dots and quantum wires. Small particles have a larger
percentage of atoms in their surfaces than larger bulk materials that can generate properties not
available in the bulk. Quantum dots are subject to quantum confinement.
See: colloidal systems; nanoparticle-based medicines; nanoparticles; optical tweezers; quantum

dots
1. Ozin, G. A., A. C. Arsenault and L. Cademartiri (eds). Nanochemistry: A Chemical
nanowires
Nanowires are cylinders of material with diameter between around 10 and 100 nm, although
there is not a rigorous size range in this definition.1 Potential applications for nanowires include
electrical conductors in electronic devices, electrodes in batteries and chemical sensors. The
technique of vapour-liquid-solid (VLS) growth is often used to produce metallic nanowires.
As an example, if a substrate containing a thin layer of gold is heated the gold forms solid
nanoparticles in the form of hemispheres on the surface as the gold no longer wets the surface.
If the gold is above the gold-silicon eutectic temperature of 636 K but below the melting point
of gold then silicon vapour from the decomposition of silane gas flowing over the metal diffuses
into the nanoparticles to form a liquid droplet with the nanoparticles. As the silicon content
increases in the molten hemispheres, a solid silicon phase, the nanowire, forms and grows while
silane gas is present. The nanowires have the same diameter as the droplet that sits on top of
the wire as the latter grows upward from the substrate.
natural product hydrogels

Hydrogels can be prepared from natural products, in particular from natural polymers:1 for
example, by cross-linking the polysaccharide, hyaluronic acid, and proteins such as elastin
for potential use as injectable dermal fillers.
See: hydrogels
Chemistry, 2014.
natural rubber
Natural rubber is derived from latex gum from the tree Hevea brasiliensis and has the
chemical composition of polyisoprene based on the monomer cis-isoprene [CH2=C(CH3)
CH=CH2], in contrast to the trans form known as gutta percha.1 The latter is hard and
Glossary 217
inelastic compared to the elastic properties of natural rubber, which is an elastomer. Natural
rubber is formally cis-1,4-polyisoprene and its synthetic equivalent is prepared by polymer-
isation of 2-methyl-1,3-butadiene, CH2=C(CH3)-CH=CH2. Natural rubber has been
referred to as Hevea rubber.
See: elastomers; gutta percha

1. Mark, J., B. Erman and M. Roland (eds). The Science and Technology of Rubber. San
Diego, CA: Academic Press, 2011.
nematic liquid crystals

In nematic liquid crystals, molecules or polymers are aligned parallel to each other in the
same direction but in a random way.1,2 Poly (p-phenylene terephthalamide), which corres-
ponds to the chemical composition of Kevlar, forms the nematic liquid crystalline phase in
solution and when spun into fibres. Cyanobiphenyls form nematic phases at or near room
temperatures and thus are useful materials for displays.
See: cholesteric phases; Kevlar; liquid crystals; smectic phases

2. Kawamoto, H. The history of liquid crystal displays. Proceedings of the IEEE
(Apr. 2002) 90, 460–500.
neodymium-based magnets
Neodymium is a lanthanide element (also referred to as a rare-earth element) and alloys of
this metal with iron (Fe) and boron (B), for example Nd2Fe14B, form very powerful
compact magnets, although their strength falls off as the temperature is raised from ambient
to 200 C. Neodymium can be substituted by other lanthanides, for example dysprosium
(Dy) or terbium (Tb). Applications for these magnets include permanent magnetic motors
in automobiles and industrial equipment, hard disk drives (e.g. digital video disk, DVD),
wind power generators, transducers and loudspeakers, electric bicycles and scooters, and
magnetic separations as examples.1 Modern vehicles can have up to 100 magnets, mainly in
motors (e.g. windscreen wipers, fluid-level sensors and actuators).
See: samarium-based magnets

Technology, Production and Use. London: Elsevier, 2015.
neoprene
Neoprene, a synthetic rubber, was first prepared in 1931 by polymerisation of acetylene
over a suspension of cuprous chloride at around 50 C and can be considered to be
218 Glossary
a derivative of isoprene.1 Neoprene is a polychloroprene that is made nowadays by the free-

radical polymerisation of 2-chloro-1,3-butadiene, CH2=C(Cl) CH=CH2.2 Initial work by
Julius Niewland identified divinyl acetylene (CH2=CH CC CH=CH2), a low boiling
point hydrocarbon and monovinyl acetylene from the reaction of acetylene with cuprous
chloride. Divinyl acetylene was then shown to react with sulphur dichloride to form a
rubber-like material that did not retain its elasticity.3 A team at Du Pont Chemical Company
led by Wallace Carrothers (who invented nylon) continued the research and showed that
monovinyl acetylene reacted with hydrogen chloride to produce a clear liquid, chloroprene,
which could be polymerised to an elastic material similar to vulcanised rubber. The poly-
merised material was called neoprene.
See: elastomers
1. Nieuwland, J. A. Vinyl derivatives of acetylene and method of preparing the same.
United States Patent 1,811,959, granted on 30 June 1931.
3. Frost, S., and A Cooper. The invention of neoprene. Materials World (2016) 24(4),
26–7.
nickel-metal hydride batteries

Rechargeable nickel-metal hydride (Ni-MH) batteries1 are used as a power source in hybrid
vehicles, for example in the Toyota Prius. These batteries contain an alloy of nickel and
lanthanide elements as one electrode such as La10.5Ce4.3Pr0.5Nd1.4Ni60.0 Co12.7Mn5.9Al4.7.
The other electrode is nickel hydroxide and both electrodes are immersed in an electrolyte of a
mixture of potassium and lithium hydroxide solutions. During charging of the battery nickel
oxyhydroxide is formed at one electrode and a metal hydride is formed at the nickel alloy
electrode. The battery is discharged during use in which stored hydrogen reacts with hydroxyl
ions in the electrolyte to form water while at the other electrode the oxyhydroxide is converted
back to nickel hydroxide. The battery is recharged from the hybrid vehicle’s petrol engine.
nitinol
Nitinol, an alloy of nickel and titanium (approximately 50% nickel), is a shape memory alloy
and its applications include implantable coronary stents.1 Nitinol is an acronym for Nickel
Titanium Naval Ordinance Laboratories. The use of nitinol relies on a transformation
between the low-temperature martensitic phase and the high-temperature austenitic
phase. The low-temperature phase is malleable but reverts to the original shape of the
component in the austenitic phase. The martensitic phase ‘remembers’ the shape of the
component in the austenitic phase.
See: shape memory alloys

Glossary 219
1. Lecce, L., and A. Concilio (eds). Shape Memory Alloy Engineering for Aerospace,
Structural and Biomedical Applications, p. 12. Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann, 2015.
Nomex
Nomex, poly (m-phenylene isophthalamide), is an aromatic polyamide or aramid fibre. It is
prepared by reaction of a meta-substituted aromatic diacid dichloride and a diamine, in particu-
lar by reaction of iso-phthaloyl chloride and m-phenylenediamine.1 Whereas Kevlar is a linear
aramid, Nomex is a branched polymer used in flame-resistant protective clothing and gloves.2
See: Kevlar
1. H. B. Hockessin. United States Patent US 3,767,756, 1973.
2. J. R. Fried. Polymer Science & Technology, 3rd edn, pp. 399–401. Upper Saddle River,
Noryl
Noryl is a polyphenylene oxide but is a brittle solid. It is miscible with polystyrene and the
blend is much easier to process than the individual polymers.1 Polymer blends are used as they
have beneficial mechanical properties compared to the individual polymer components.
Polyphenylene oxide (PPO) has a glass transition temperature (Tg) of 208 C. Addition of
polystyrene produces a miscible mixture with a lower value of Tg, intermediate between the
values of Tg for the two polymers. The value of Tg determines the upper temperature of use for
amorphous polymers such as PPO. Below Tg, the polymer is in a hard, glassy state but
becomes soft above Tg. As the temperature increases to and beyond Tg, vibrational motion,
bending and stretching of polymer molecules increases so that molecules are no longer frozen
in one region but develop longer range motion so that the material softens.
See: polymer blends

Business, p. 141. Chichester: Wiley, 2014.
n-type semiconductors
The semiconductor silicon has a valency of four. Silicon can be doped with a Group
V element such as arsenic, phosphorus or antimony and these elements are known as
n-type dopants or donors.1 The latter can be introduced by techniques such as ion implant-
ation, or diffusion of dopant. The doped semiconductor has excess free electrons introduced
into the crystalline structure by incorporation of the donor atom.
See: light-emitting diodes; p-type semiconductor; p–n junction diodes

220 Glossary
nuclear fuel
Fuel that is used in thermal nuclear reactors is based on 235U that undergoes fission on
bombardment by thermal neutrons.1 Uranium ores contain about 99% of the isotope 238U
with smaller amounts of fissionable 235U; 234U is also present in the ore. The fuel contains
uranium dioxide pellets enriched with about 3 wt% of 235U, which can be obtained by
converting the ore to uranium hexafluoride and separating out the lighter 235UF6 by high-
speed centrifugation. Neutron bombardment of fissile material produces a range of fission
products such as 92Kr and 141Ba and the difference in masses between the fission products
and 235U is converted to energy (E) according to Einstein’s famous equation E = mc2 from
the special theory of relativity, where m is the mass difference and c is the speed of light. The
fission products are highly radioactive and there are issues to be solved in the 21st century on
their safe storage and disposal.
See: sphene; Zircaloy

1. Stanek, C. R., R. W. Grimes, C. Unal, S. A. Maloy and S. C. Scott. Nuclear energy:
current and future schemes. In D. S. Ginley and D. Cahen (eds), Fundamentals of
Materials for Energy and Environmental Sustainability, pp.148–50. Cambridge:
nutraceuticals
The word nutraceutical is a combination of nutrition and pharmaceutical and may be
defined as health-promoting compounds that are added to foods.1 Nutraceuticals are also
described as functional foods but the boundary of what constitutes a food or medicine is a
legal question. Foods are currently fortified with extra nutrients; for example vitamins are
added to cereals.
1. Hughes, E. Food with a function. Chemistry World (Oct. 2012) 9, 50–3.
nylon
Wallace Carothers at DuPont Chemical Company invented nylon, a crystalline synthetic
polymer, that is, a plastic in 1935.1,2 In early work an intermediate salt was produced by the
interfacial condensation reaction at around room temperature of a diamine with a dicar-
boxylic acid, for example by reaction of hexamethylenediamine with adipic acid to produce
hexamethylene diammonium adipate. The intermediate salt was processed further to a fibre-
forming polyamide, namely nylon that could be melt-spun. The plastic has corrosion
resistance, electrical insulation and toughness. An initial application was for toothbrush
bristles and nylon achieved spectacular commercial success when used in women’s stock-
ings as a substitute for silk stockings. Nylon is a versatile manmade fabric with applications
including lightweight fabrics, upholstery, ropes, nets, seatbelts, conveyer belts, parachutes,
uniforms, tent canvas and tarpaulins. Other syntheses involve a ring-opening polymerisa-
tion of a lactam ring such as caprolactam that contains both the amine and carboxylic acid
Glossary 221
group. Wallace Carothers did not live to witness the success of his invention and committed
suicide in 1937.
See: Kevlar
1. Ploszajski, A. Nylon. Materials World (Mar. 2014) 22, 58–9.
2. Carothers, W. H. Diammine-dicarboxylic acid salts and process of preparing same.
United States Patent 2,130,947, granted on 20 September 1938.
odour-free adhesives
Adhesives can give rise to odours due to the high vapour pressure of their constituent liquids
and this is undesirable in confined spaces such as in spacecraft if the gases are toxic. Ionic
liquids have low vapour pressures and have been fabricated for use as odourless cross-linked
epoxy resins for use in harsh environments.1
1. Paley, M. S., R. S. Libb, R. N. Grugel and R. E. Boothe. Ionic liquid epoxy resins.
oil shale
Oil shale is sedimentary rock that lies near the earth’s surface and contains organic matter.1,2
It can be mined and heated to produce oil. In contrast, shale gas involves deep wells to
extract gas by fracking.
See: fracking; shale gas

2. Bunger, J. W. Oil shale and tar sands. In D. S. Ginley and D. Cahen (eds),
Fundamentals of Materials for Energy and Environmental Sustainability, pp. 127–36.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2012.
olefin-based polymers
Olefin-based polymers including synthetic fibres or polyolefins are derived from alkenes
(olefins) such as ethene (ethylene) and propene (propylene) and include polyethylene and
polypropylene.1
See: polyethylene; polypropylene

Hall, 2014
222 Glossary
oligonucleotides
Oligonucleotides are single-stranded fragments of DNA containing up to 40 nucleotide
bases in length and can hybridise to a denatured sample of DNA in a process known as
annealing.1 Oligonucleotides are the primers used in the polymerase chain reaction. Oligo-
nucleotides are short polymers.
See: polymerase chain reaction; polymers

Press, 2008.
oligopeptides
Oligopeptides contain up to ten amino acids and include the hormone oxytocin that is an
octapeptide.1 Oligopeptides are thus short polymers.
See: peptides; polymers

Press, 2008.
oligosaccharides
Oligosaccharides are produced as intermediates during the digestion of polysaccharides
such as cellulose and starch.1 They are carbohydrates containing a chain of up to twenty
monosaccharide units. Oligosaccharides are thus short polymers.
See: carbohydrates; cellulose; polymers

opalescent materials
The mineral opal is used as a gemstone and consists of three-dimensional arrays of
silica microspheres.1,2 Opal can have a milky-white appearance known as opalescence
and exhibit a range of colours due to the presence of impurities. Optical interference from
this microstructure of close-packed silica particles contributes to the colouring of this
mineral.
See: photonic materials

Glossary 223
optical amplifiers
Optical fibres are widely used to transmit broadband and public telecommunications around
the world.1 Because of optical losses, the transmitted signals are attenuated and the signal
must be regenerated or amplified about every 80 km. Amplification can be achieved with
erbium-doped silica-fibre amplifiers that emit radiation with a wavelength around 1.55 nm
where the erbium concentration is approximately 0.1 wt%. The fibres are optically pumped,
producing a population inversion and stimulated emission. Hence the transmitted signal is
amplified. Erbium-doped fibres can amplify multiple channels so that multiple sources of
information can be transmitted in the technique of wavelength division multiplexing without
interference.
See: optical fibres

optical fibres
Broadband communications and public telecommunications networks using optical fibres
are increasingly used in the 21st century;1 in optical communication information is encoded
on light waves that are propagated along the fibres. Light is guided by total internal reflection
in the core of an optical fibre. The silica-based core is surrounded by a silica-based cladding
of lower refractive index (Fig. G.18). The core and cladding are drawn from a preform
containing dopants that ensure the core has a higher refractive index than the cladding so
that light is trapped inside the core. The cladding is surrounded by a protective barrier layer,
usually a plastic coating.
1. Ploszajski, A. Fibre optics. Materials World (July 2014) 22, 62–4.
Wiley, 2013.
core
buffer
cladding
Fig. G.18 Schematic diagram for the cross-section of an optical fibre (not to scale).
(W.H. Culver. United States Patent 5,923,694, 1999.)
224 Glossary
optical tweezers
There is much interest in the 21st century in nanotechnology in which small particles
are prepared and characterised. A technique known as optical tweezers is used to
manipulate small particles (0.1–10 µm), including living cells, DNA, bacteria and
metallic particles for example.1 The technique is non-invasive and involves holding a
microscopic particle near the focus of a laser beam. Measurement of elasticity, force,
torsion and position can be measured with this technique with forces in the range
1–10 piconewtons.
See: nanotechnology
optical waveguides
The silica-based core in an optical fibre is surrounded by a silica-based cladding of lower
refractive index so that light is guided by total internal reflection in the core of an optical
fibre. The fibre acts as an optical waveguide but optical waveguides do not have to be in the
form of a fibre.1 If a layer of gallium arsenide (GaAs) is grown on top of a substrate of
aluminium gallium arsenide (AlGaAs) which has a lower refractive index than GaAs then
the structure acts as a waveguide in which light is confined to the layer of higher refractive
index. Optical waveguides are important for the operation of lasers and the optical proper-
ties of photonic materials.
See: optical fibres

optoelectronic materials
Optoelectronic materials utilise the electronic properties of a material to produce an optical
effect.1 For example, the semiconducting properties of gallium arsenide (GaAs) enable
visible light in the red region of the electromagnetic spectrum to be emitted by electrolumin-
escence in light-emitting diodes. Blue light-emitting lasers are produced using gallium
nitride (GaN).
See: electroluminescence
Glossary 225
organic aerogels
Aerogels based on silica, alumina or other metal oxides are described as inorganic. Organic
aerogels are derived from organic compounds with linking groups, for example resorcinol-
formaldehyde and melamine-formaldehyde aerogels.1 Potential applications for organic
aerogels include insulation in refrigerators as a replacement for polyurethane-based
foams. Unlike the latter, organic aerogels do not require blowing agents such as chloro-
fluorohydrocarbons as there is concern over the effect of such hydrocarbons on depletion
of the ozone layer in the atmosphere.
See: aerogels
1. Reade, L. Full of air. Chemistry and Industry (Feb. 2013) 77, 32–5.
organic light-emitting diodes

Organic light-emitting diodes (OLEDs) are a type of light-emitting diode in which emission
of light takes place from organic molecules by the process of electroluminescence, namely by
application of an electrical voltage.1,2 Applications are for low-power-consuming light
sources, flat panel displays and particularly displays in flexible electronic devices. OLEDs
are used as a thin semiconducting layer about 50 nm in thickness. An advantage of OLEDs
over LEDs is that they can be deposited from solution rather than from the gas phase in
order to produce the layer. Poly-(p-phenylenevinylene) is an example of an OLED. In an
inorganic semiconductor, electroluminescence is explained in terms of valence and conduc-
tion bands. In an OLED electrons and holes can recombine in the organic layer and emit
light with a wavelength depending on the properties of the organic material. It is customary
to use the terms HOMO (highest occupied molecular orbital level) and LUMO (lowest
unoccupied molecular orbital level) so that electrons from a LUMO and holes from a
HUMO combine, resulting in light emission.
See: AMOLED; poly-(p-phenylenevinylene)

2. Osram GmbH. Introduction to OLED technology, available at http://www.osram.
com/oled.
oxide–oxide composites
Oxide–oxide composites are more environmentally stable in oxidising atmospheres than
non-oxide-based composites such as SiC/SiC but have inferior mechanical properties.1 An
example of an oxide–oxide composite consists of continuous Nextel fibre (63% Al2O3; 25%
SiO2; 12% B2O3) in an aluminosilicate or mullite-alumina matrix. Fibre-reinforced metals
have been prepared by melt infiltration of liquid metal into a fibre mat, for example
infiltration by aluminium. Applications of oxide–oxide composites include combustor liners
226 Glossary
in gas turbine engines. Addition of fibres to a matrix increases the toughness of the
component that is the resistance to fracture.
Parkesine
In 1856 the British chemist Alexander Parkes mixed nitrocellulose with an alcohol, ethanol
and a plasticiser, camphor, to produce a tough material that could be moulded when hot,
coloured and polished.1 This material was called Parkesine. Camphor is a cyclic ketone that
can now be synthesised but in the 19th century it was obtained from laurel trees. Use of
different additives led to a manufacturing process by John Hyatt Jr in 1869 and the material
was referred to as celluloid.
See: celluloid; cellulose nitrate

Press, 2013.
partially crystalline materials

Crystalline solids such as sodium chloride have an ordered arrangement of atoms, whereas
non-crystalline solids such as glasses are disordered solids. Glass ceramics contain small
crystallites dispersed in an amorphous matrix. Some materials, especially synthetic poly-
mers, can contain regions of crystallinity.1 For example, polyethylene molecules can contain
10,000 or more monomer units in a long chain. A melt, if cooled quickly, contains the long
chains but if cooled slowly then some chains fold up into crystalline regions around 20 nm
thick. Polythene that has been cooled slowly looks slightly opaque as the crystalline regions
have a higher refractive index compared with the non-crystalline regions.
See: polyethylene
patents
A patent represents a legal relationship between an inventor and a nation state.1,2 In
exchange for disclosing in the public domain how the invention works, the patent owner
(who may not be the inventor) has a right for a limited time to prevent others from exploiting
the invention, namely manufacturing, importing or selling the invention without permission
in the country where the patent is in force, usually 20 years from the filing date. The concept
of a patent and its associated right dates back many years. In the 14th century ‘letter patents’
were assigned to Flemish weavers by Edward II to teach English residents weaving
Glossary 227
techniques and gain an income. Also, Henry VI invited Flemish artisans to train others to
produce stained glass technology in England.
1. McManus, J. Intellectual Property: From Creation to Commercialisation. Oxford: Oak
Tree Press, 2012.
2. Jackson Knight, H. Patent Strategy for Researchers and Research Managers. New York:
Wiley, 2012.
patent trolls
The development of materials is associated with patents taken out by their inventors to give
legal protection to their inventions. The first two decades of the 21st century has seen the rise
of non-practicing entities (NPEs) sometimes referred to as ‘patent trolls’, although when
used in this way the phrase ‘patent troll’ has derogatory overtones.1 NPEs are individuals
or firms who own patents but do not directly use their patented technology to produce
goods or services. NPEs assert their patents in the courts against companies that do
produce goods or services. These infringement cases have been reported in the popular
press particularly in the mobile phone arena.
See: patents
1. Bessen, J., and M. J. Leurer. The direct costs from NPE disputes. Boston University
School of Law Working Party number 12-34 (25 June), revised 28 June 2012.
PEEK (polyether ether ketone)

PEEK, i.e. polyether ether ketone, is a thermoplastic that has high chemical resistance, for
example to solvents, good abrasion and wear resistance and it is a tough material which
is resistant to fracture. Polyether ether ketone belongs to the class of polyaryl ether ketones
(OC6H4 O C6H4 CO C6H4) and it has been manufactured by Victrex in the
United Kingdom.1 PEEK can be melt-processed and the polymer is used in ABS braking
systems, lightweight gears, high-temperature seals, medical implants to replace damaged
spinal discs, lightweight pipes as a replacement for heavier metal piping and casings for
consumer electronic goods; it has potential application as the matrix in graphite composites.
peptides
Peptides are organic compounds in which two or more amino acids are linked by a peptide
bond formed between adjacent carboxyl groups ( COOH) and amino groups ( NH2)
with elimination of water.1 Polypeptides contain more than ten amino acids and usually
100–300. Dipeptides contain two amino acids while tripeptides contain three amino acids,
as examples. An example of a tripeptide is glutathione.
See: amino acids

228 Glossary
perovskite-based solar cells

The mineral perovskite CaTiO3 gives its name to a class of materials that have the same
chemical structure often represented as ABX3 (here A = Ca, B = Ti and X = O).
Although traditionally this class of materials is occupied by inorganic materials, namely
oxides, hybrid organic–inorganic perovskite structures have been identified. For
example, methylammonium lead triiodide, CH3NH3PbI3 is made by mixing methylam-
monium iodide (CH3NH3I) and lead iodide (PbI2). This perovskite is a semiconductor
and has been used as a light-absorbing perovskite when absorbed onto anatase particles
in a solar cell;1 the anatase forms the anode in the solar cell. An advantage of using this
perovskite is that it can be deposited by spin-coating, a relative easy process, and in
addition there is evidence of high efficiency compared to existing materials, namely
approaching 20% for conversion of incident light.
See: dye-sensitised materials

1. Extance, A. The power of perovskites. Chemistry World (Sept. 2014) 11, 46–9.
personalised medicines
There has been interest in the early part of the 21st century in ‘personalised medicine’ in
improving the health of populations. In this approach the genome of an individual would
be sequenced with the intention that this approach will lead to specific drugs that can be
used for targeting diseases.1,2 The human genome contains 3165 106 base pairs, that is
hydrogen-bonded linkages between four bases, (i) adenine (A) linked to thymine (T) and
(ii) cytosine (C) linked to guanine (G) in a characteristic sequence. Each A–T or C–G
linkage represents a base pair. Adenine is said to be complementary to thymine and
cytosine complementary to guanine. The 100,000 Genomes Project in the United King-
dom aims to sequence the genome for 100,000 people and combine data with information
from health records.
See: DNA; nanoparticle-based medicines

1. DNA mapping. The Times, 3 January 2015.
2. Could a DNA cream get rid of wrinkles? Daily Mail, p.5, 1 December 2014.
phase-change chalcogonides
Chalcogenides are alloys formed between a metal and group 16 elements in the periodic
table, for example with sulphur, selenium, tellurium and oxygen.1 An example is GST, a
chalcogenide glass consisting of germanium, antimony and tellurium (GeSbTe). The
stable amorphous phase in the glass can be reversibly converted into a stable crystalline
phase by heat. The amorphous phase can be recovered by applying a pulse of heat to
crystalline material to raise the temperature above the melting point followed by rapid
cooling. Heat can be applied electrically or from a solid-state laser. Phase-change chalco-
genides have the potential for acting as switches and hence for use as phase-change
computer memories.
Glossary 229
phase-change materials
Phase-change materials can act as a latent heat storage material for regulating the tempera-
ture within buildings.1 For example, a proprietary paraffin mixture can absorb heat during
the day, causing the paraffin to melt, while at night this heat is released as the material
recrystallises. Another application for a phase-change material, in this case a concentrated
salt solution, is in a self-warming baby bottle that has a trade name of yoomi.2
1. Reade, L. Building a future. Chemistry and Industry (Apr. 2014) 78, 24–7.
2. Shaikh, J. Self-heating fluid connector and self-heating fluid container. International
application WO 2006/109098, published 19 October 2006.
phase-separated glasses
Borosilicate glasses are glasses that contain boron and silicon. High-silica content glasses such
as vitreous silica that consists of 100 wt% SiO2 are difficult to process because silica sublimes at
around 1900 C and becomes very viscous on heating to high temperatures. High-silica-
containing glasses can be prepared by heating a borosilicate glass, after which boron-rich
phases can be leached out, leaving a silica-based matrix.1 Heat treatment of the remaining
matrix reduces voids (pores) and increases the density of the component. Vycor is an example
of a high-silica-containing glass with a typical composition 96% SiO2; 3% B2O3; 1% Na2O and
has a low coefficient of thermal expansion.2 It has applications as windows in space vehicles.
See: Pyrex
1. Burggraaf, A. J., and K. Keizer. Ceramic membranes. In R. J. Brook (ed.), Concise
Encyclopaedia of Advanced Ceramic Materials, pp. 62–7. Oxford: Pergamon Press,
1991.
2. Bolton, W., and R. A. Higgins. Materials for Engineers and Technicians, 6th edn.
phase-separated polymers (LYCRA)

The properties of polyurethane elastomers result from phase separation of the polymer into
hard segments (urethane) and soft segments (polyether or polyester), known as domains in the
polymer backbone.1 The material LYCRA, produced by DuPont and also known as spandex
and elastane, is used in textiles (e.g. in socks to add elasticity to the textile) and contains short
polymeric chains of a polyglycol about 40 repeat units in length that is soft and rubbery and
hard rigid segments based on urethane linkages. The hard and soft domains represent two
different phases and LYCRA can be considered to be a block copolymer.2
See: polymers; polyurethanes

1. Hudgins, R. G., and J. M. Criss Jr. Phase separated branched copolymer hydrogel.
United States Patent 7,919,542, granted on 5 April 2011.
230 Glossary
2. Stewart, C., and J. P. Lomont. The Handy Chemistry Answer Book, p. 176. Canton,
MI: Visible Ink Press, 2014.
phenol-formaldehyde resin (bakelite)

Leo Baekeland invented Bakelite, one of the first commercially successful synthetic plastics
through the condensation reaction between phenol and formaldehyde.1 The condensation
product was a viscous cross-linked resin that set to a brittle solid on heating, although the
strength and toughness of Bakelite was markedly improved by incorporation of fibres or
powder (e.g. mica) into the resin. Bakelite is a thermosetting electrically insulating plastic
and found many uses in everyday life, replacing natural materials such as shellac (obtained
from excretions of the kerria lacca insect) for gramophone records and ivory billiard balls,
hence for buttons, knitting needles, ashtrays, telephones and fountain pens as examples.2
Phenolic-based resins had the disadvantage of being available only in dark colours. However,
urea-formaldehyde and melamine-formaldehyde resins as well as resorcinol-formaldehyde
resins could be obtained in a range of colours, white, cream, pale or bright and with a
porcelain-type texture. These resins found applications in lacquers and laminates such as
table tops.
1. Baekeland, L. H. Method of making insoluble products of phenol and formaldehyde.
United States Patent 942,699, granted on 7 December 1909.
Press, 2013.
phenolic resins
Thermosetting phenol-formaldehyde resins are known as phenolic resins.1 When the resins
are prepared under acidic conditions (formaldehyde:phenol ratio less than 1) the resin is
known as a novolac but preparation under basic conditions (formaldehyde:phenol ratio
greater than 1) produces a resole. Phenolic resins have applications as adhesives, particularly
for wood composites such as plywood, and have good flame resistance. The latter property
has found application as brake linings and clutch facings. An additional application is as an
abrasive in waterproof sandpaper.
See: phenol-formaldehyde resin; plywood

PHOLED
PHOLED is an acronym for a phosphorescent organic light-emitting diode.1 A PHOLED is
an electroluminescent material in which light is emitted from an organic phosphorescent
Glossary 231
material. Phosphorescent OLEDs are potentially more energy-efficient than non-

phosphorescent emitters as emission takes place from triplet rather than singlet electronic states.
See: electroluminescence; phosphors

1. Hack, M., J. J. Brown, P. Levermore and M. S. Weaver. Organic light emitting device
lighting panel. United States Patent Application US 2011/0284899, published
24 November 2011.
phosphors
Phosphors are materials that emit radiation when supplied with a source of energy.1 This
emission is known as luminescence and if the energy source is electromagnetic radiation the
emission is known as photoluminescence. If photoluminescence is immediate then fluores-
cence occurs, whereas if the conversion of the exciting radiation is slow then the photo-
luminescence is known as phosphorescence (Fig. G.19). Fluorescent radiation has a longer
wavelength than the exciting radiation. For example, Eu-doped Y2O3 absorbs ultraviolet
radiation and emits visible light and this conversion is used in fluorescent lighting. CaWO4
emits visible light when bombarded with X-rays and Tb-doped Y3Al5O12 emits visible
light under electron bombardment. The latter process is known as cathodoluminescence.
Examples of other compositions for phosphors include silver-doped zinc sulphide
(blue light), thulium-doped lanthanum oxybromide (blue light), europium-doped yttrium
oxide (red light) and manganese-doped zinc silicate (green light). Phosphors have been used
in radar screens, television monitors, oscilloscopes, emergency lighting in buildings and
security markings. Semiconductor quantum dots behave as phosphors. Other sources of
excitation include an electric field (electroluminescence), chemical reactions (chemilumin-
escence) and biological processes (bioluminescence).
See: after-glow pigments; quantum dots
Excited state
vibrational non-radiative
levels decay processes
Excited triplet
state
intersystem crossing
absorption
fluorescence phosphorescence Ground-state
vibrational
levels
Fig. G.19 Schematic representation of fluorescence and phosphorescence.

232 Glossary
phosphorus-based flame retardants

Phosphorus compounds are used as flame retardants in textiles and plastics (e.g. polyur-
ethane foams).1 For example, organic phosphonates, phosphate esters and phosphinates.
These compounds act by forming a carbon-based crust or char from degradation prod-
ucts of the substrate that acts as a thermal barrier shielding the polymer from the
gas phase.
Chemistry, 2014.
photochromic materials
Photochromic materials change colour when exposed to light of varying intensity.1 They are
particularly associated with spectacle lenses and sunglasses. Spirooxazines and naphthopyr-
ans are photochromic materials. Coatings of photochromic materials on spectacle lenses
react quickly with ultraviolet light in sunlight and change colour from a colourless state to
give a strong colour that reversibly fades to the colourless state when the source of ultraviolet
light becomes less intense. Absorption of ultraviolet light produces a different chemical
species in a reversible reaction.
See: smart materials

1. Reduwan Billah, S. M. Photo-responsive dyed textiles for advanced applications. In
J. Fu (ed.), Dyeing: Processes, Techniques and Applications, pp. 19–38. Hauppauge,
NY: Nova Science Publishers, 2014.
photonic materials
Photonic materials are those in which optical diffraction occurs with visible light from
periodic structures within the material in which the periodicity is on the order of the
wavelength of light.1,2 Photonic materials are also known as photonic crystals. The
latter are associated with a photonic gap, analogous to the band gap in a semiconductor.
The dielectric band gap in a photonic crystal is analogous to the valence band in a
semiconductor and the air band is analogous to the conduction band. An example of a
photonic crystal involves a close-packed structure of silica spheres (855 nm diameter)
on a silicon wafer in which interstitial spaces are filled with silicon, after which the silica
spheres have been removed by wet etching.2 Photons that have energies within the
photonic gap cannot propagate through the crystal and are confined to defect regions so
that a line of defects in a photonic crystal acts as a waveguide for transporting light
around corners as light is repelled from the bulk crystal. Interference takes place
between diffracted components of visible light. Defects can be introduced using, for
Glossary 233
example, a microfabricated hexagonal array of air holes in InGaAsP. Colours in the

wings of butterflies and peacocks and the colours in opal are characteristic of photonic
materials.
See: band gaps; iridescent organisms; opalescent materials

2. Novotny, L., and B. Hecht. Principles of Nano-optics, 2nd edn, p. 338. Cambridge:
photopolymers
A photopolymer is a liquid which on exposure to visible or ultraviolet light is cured by a
polymerisation reaction, forming a solid body.1 Photopolymers have an important role as
photoresists that are used with photolithography to fabricate electronic circuits containing
millions of transistors on integrated circuits. In photolithography, a surface is coated with a
layer of photoresist, after which selected surface regions are masked. The unmasked regions
are exposed to a light source, for example an ArF excimer laser producing wavelengths of
193 nm, and the resist in these areas undergoes polymerisation (i.e. curing) and solidifies.
Non-cured regions of resist can be removed with a solvent known as a developer so that a
pattern of lines on the exposed silicon surface of the wafer is produced. Photopolymers have
been used in stereolithography to build up components layer by layer and an example of
their use in everyday life is as a curable adhesive for artificial nails.
See: artificial nails; stereolithography

1. Tiwari, A., and A. Polykarpov (eds). Photocured Materials. Cambridge: Royal Society
of Chemistry, 2014.
photoresists
Semiconductor devices such as transistors on integrated circuits are built up on a silicon
wafer by using photolithography and etching combined with curable organic resins known as
photoresists, also referred to as resists.1,2 Regions of a layer of photoresist on the wafer that
are exposed to ultraviolet radiation (e.g. 193 nm wavelength from an argon fluoride excimer
laser) that passes through a photolithographic mask with a specified pattern of holes in it are
polymerized, resulting in an insoluble solid region. The unexposed areas in these positive
resists is washed away by a solvent known as a developer, leaving the required pattern on the
surface of the wafer. In negative photoresists it is the unexposed regions that become
insoluble and after removing the soluble resist a negative pattern for the resist is produced
on the wafer. Photoresists are photopolymers.
See: photopolymers
1. Thackray, A., D. C. Brock and R. Jones. Moore’s Law. New York: Basic Books, 2015.
2. Tiwari, A., and A. Polykarpov (eds). Photocured Materials. Royal Society of Chem-
istry, 2014.
234 Glossary
piezoelectric materials
Piezoelectric materials are materials that produce a voltage when a mechanical stress is
applied; conversely, a stress is produced when a voltage is applied.1 The electric field or
mechanical stress generates surface charges in the crystal. Examples of materials that exhibit
the piezoelectric effect include lead zirconate titanate-based ceramics, barium titanate
(BaTiO3), ammonium dihydrogen phosphate (NH4H2PO4) and Rochelle salt (potassium
sodium tartrate tetrahydrate, NaKC4H4O6.4H2O). Applications for piezoelectric materials
include microphones when an electrical signal is produced by variations in pressure produced
by sound waves, spark ignition systems for ignition systems and loud speakers. The natural
resonance frequency of a slice of single crystal of a piezoelectric material can act as a
frequency standard. An applied varying voltage causes the crystal to vibrate but the vibrations
will be at a maximum when the frequency of the varying voltage has the same frequency as the
mechanical vibrations of the crystal, thus at resonance frequencies. Quartz crystal resonators
provide accurate time-keeping in clocks and watches. For example, if a quartz crystal in the
shape of a tuning fork can generate a frequency of 32,768 Hz (i.e. 215 Hz) then this frequency
value can be repeatedly halved to give an interval of one second that can be displayed.
See: poly (vinylidene fluoride); smart materials

Wiley, 2013.
piezoelectric polymers
Crystalline polymers, for example poly (vinylidene fluoride), can be fabricated into flexible
piezoelectric plastic sheets for use as sensors and transducers in microphones, keyboards
and flat panel speakers.1 The polymer must be heated above its glass transition temperature
and annealed in an electric field, a process known as poling.
See: poly (vinylidene fluoride)

PlantBottle
Polyesters are used for plastic bottles as containers for bottled water and soft drinks and
polyethylene terephthalate, the most widely used polyester, is usually derived from petro-
chemical sources, one of which is ethylene glycol. The PlantBottle (Coca Cola Company)
uses a bio-based ethylene glycol derived from bioethanol for some of the bottles.1,2 Ethanol is
dehydrated to ethylene, which is then converted to ethylene oxide and then ethylene glycol.
See: polyester
1. O’Driscoll, C. Next generation polyester beats PET. Chemistry and Industry (Dec.
2012) 76, 15.
Glossary 235

plant dyes
The synthetic dye industry dates from the work of Sir William Perkin. Natural textile dyes
can be obtained from plants, for example indigo. Yellow dye was obtained from the leaves of
Eucalyptus macrorhyncha as early as the 1880s, Turkey red dye from dried madder root
(Rubia tinctorum), yellow dye from the wild chamomile (Anthemis chia) and black dye from
the bark of the knobbly oak (Quercus macrolepis).1 Turkey red dye has been used to dye wool
for use in traditional Turkish carpets. It has been estimated that one ton of textile fabric
requires about 270 tons of water in the dyeing process. There is increasing interest in
environmentally friendly industrial processes and whether natural dyes are used in large
quantities remains to be seen.
See: indigo; mauveine

1. Carmichael, H. Natural reds. Chemistry and Industry (Jan. 2014) 78, 36–9.
plant oils
Plant oils (e.g. vegetable oils) are triglycerides, namely esters of glycerol, a trihydric
alcohol, and esterification can take place at one, two or all three hydroxyl groups. Thus,
these esters are formed by reaction of fatty acids with alcohols, although the biochemical
pathway in plants for their synthesis is a complex process. Plant oils are renewable
resources and have been used for the preparation of polymers including epoxies, polyur-
ethanes and nylons.1
See: biodiesel; fats

2012.
plasmonics
The study of the interaction of electromagnetic radiation, in particular light with metals, and
the response of the metal is known as plasmonics or nanoplasmonics.1,2 This area is
associated with oscillating values of surface charge density at a metal–dielectric interface
and these oscillations are known as surface plasmons. The interaction can give rise to
enhanced optical fields at the surface of the metal. Colours of metallic films and the optical
properties of precious metal particles are associated with plasmonics.
See: metallic nanoparticles

236 Glossary
1. Novotny, L., and B. Hecht. Principles of Nano-optics, 2nd edn, p. 369. Cambridge:
plastics
Plastics may be defined as usually derived from synthetic polymers that are shaped by
application of heat or pressure.1 There are two types of plastic, thermoplastics and thermo-
setting materials. The former can be repeatedly shaped by cycles of heating and cooling,
whereas thermosetting plastics or thermosets are resins that can be set to the desired shape
by heating and forming. This heat treatment causes cross-linked polymer chains in an
irreversible process so that re-shaping is not possible. The word plastic is derived from the
Greek word plastikos that means ‘capable of being shaped and moulded’. The global
production of plastics in 2011 was 280 million tonnes, almost all derived from oil, corres-
ponding to about 5% of global oil production. The global production capacity in 2011 for
bioplastics was just over 1 million tonnes.
See: recycling plastics; thermoplastics; thermosetting plastics

PLEDs
PLED is an acronym for a polymer light-emitting diode that emits light when subjected to
electroluminescence.1
See: electroluminescence; organic light-emitting diodes; poly-(p-phenylenevinylene)

Chemistry, 2014.
plenum cables
Ducts in a building that from part of a heating, ventilation and air conditioning (HVAC)
system form an open space known as a plenum that is often hidden from the view of occupants
and circulates air throughout the building.1 Cables often occupy the length of these ducts but
the absence of fire blocks in the plenum combined with air flow throughout the ducts is a
potential fire hazard. It is important for the safety of staff in the buildings that cables in the
plenum do not burn easily. Fluoroplastics have very good fire resistance and fluorinated
ethylene propylene resins are widely used as protective sheaths for cables. Data cables require
stringent dielectric properties of the polymer and these are met by use of fluoroplastics.
and Technology, pp. 603–6. New York: Wiley, 2014.
Glossary 237
plywood
Plywood consists of thin layers of wood known as plies that are cut from logs and stacked
together so that grains in adjacent plies are oriented at 90 to each other.1–3 This arrange-
ment reduces the anisotropic structure of wood, increases its toughness and lowers the
tendency of warping in use. The plies are bonded together with a thermosetting resin (e.g. a
phenolic resin) which is deposited between the plies, after which the plies are pressed
together when hot that results in polymerisation of the resin. Plywood can be used as a
facing or visible material for a lower-quality wood product.
See: cross-laminated timber; laminated safety glass

2. Coulson, J. Wood in Construction. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell, 2012.
3. Miodownik, M. Wood 2.0 reaches for the skies as digital techniques give it a new lease
of life. Observer Tech Monthly, p. 38, 14 June 2015.
PMOLED
PMOLED refers to passive matrix organic light-emitting diode and there are similarities
between PMOLEDs and AMOLEDs.1 However, in a PMOLED each pair of conductors
only supplies current to a pixel but PMOLEDs are less responsive than AMOLEDs and can
show ‘smearing effects’ when images change quickly.
See: AMOLED
1. Platt, C., and F. Jansson. Encyclopaedia of Electronic Components, vol. 2. San
Francisco, CA: Maker Media, 2014.
p–n junction diodes

If a layer of n-type semiconductor is produced by exposure of a semiconductor to a source of
donor dopant and a layer of p-type semiconductor is deposited on top of the n-type
semiconductor using an acceptor dopant so that half of the semiconductor is p-type and
the other half represents n-type, then the electronic properties at the p–n interface constitute
a p–n junction diode, usually referred to as a diode.1 Electrons diffuse from the n-type region
into the p-type region and holes move from the p-type region into the n-type region. Holes
can combine with electrons with the result that a potential barrier is set up at the junction or
interface, preventing further movement of electrons from the n-type region and holes from
the p-type region (Fig. G.20). The region at the junction is known as a depletion layer. If an
applied voltage is applied across the depletion layer as a forward bias in which the p-type
region is biased with a positive potential, then the potential barrier is lowered and current
flows across the junction. If the p-type region is connected to a negative potential that is
negatively or reversed bias then the height of the potential barrier is increased and there is
238 Glossary
p-n junction
+ + –
– –
+ + –
+ + –
+ –
+ – –
+
+ – –
+ –
p-type n-type
semiconductor semiconductor
Fig. G.20 Schematic diagram for electric charge distribution in a p–n semiconductor diode.
(M. Nixon. Digital Electronics: A Primer, p. 83. London: Imperial College Press, 2015.)
very limited current flow. Hence the p–n junction acts as a diode controlling the direction of
flow of current.
See: light-emitting diodes

polyacetals
Polyacetals (also known as acetal resin) are a crystalline form of polymerised formaldehyde
and these polymers are also referred to as polyoxymethylene. Polyacetals are polyethers.
They are produced by polymerisation of formaldehyde or its cyclic trimer trioxane in acidic
or basic solutions.1,2 The repeating unit in the polymer backbone is O CH2 O CH2 .
Polyoxymethylene can be shaped by injection moulding or extrusion and has been used as
bearings, car instrument panels and handles, as examples. Polyacetals have low moisture
absorption, high chemical resistance, low wear and friction and good creep resistance and
are good electrical insulators.
polyacetylene
Pioneering work by Heeger and co-workers showed that doped films of polyacetylene could
have electrical conductivities characteristic of semiconductors or metals.1 Acetylene
Glossary 239
monomer was polymerised in the presence of titanium butoxide and triethyl aluminium
catalyst. Polyacetylene is a conjugated molecule.2
See: poly-(p-phenylenevinylene)
1. Heeger, J., A. G. MacDiarmid, C. K. Chiang and H. Shirakawa. P-type electrically
conducting doped polyacetylene film and method of preparing the same. United
sity Press, 2013.
polycarbonate
Polycarbonate was invented in 1953 at around the same time at GE Plastics in the USA and
at Bayer in Germany and has been sold under the trade names of Lexan (GE Plastics) and
Makrolon (Bayer). Polycarbonate is a thermoplastic polymer and is prepared by conden-
sation of bisphenol-A [HOC6H4CH3CCH3C6H4OH, that is 2, 2 bis (4-hydroxyphenyl)
propane] with phosgene (COCl2) in an interfacial reaction;1 the repeating unit in polycar-
bonate is (OC6H4CH3CCH3C6H4COO) . It can also be made in a melt process when
diphenyl carbonate (C6H5 O CO O C6H5) is used instead of phosgene. Polycarbonate
is a tough amorphous polymer and has a high light transmittance and high impact strength.
Applications include a substitute for window glass where impact resistance is required, for
example on buses, and is the material for compact discs.
Hall, 2014.
polycarbosilanes
Polysilanes can be converted to polycarbosilane polymers with repeating Si–C linkages in
the polymer backbone by a thermal treatment.1 Polycarbosilanes are soluble in solvents and
can be spun to fibres that can be converted to silicon carbide fibres by a heat treatment.
Conversion to silicon carbide fibres is an important industrial application for polycarbosi-
lanes. The thermal treatment causes cleavage of the polysilane molecules at the Si–Si
linkages followed by a free radical rearrangement. Polycarbosilanes are ceramic precursors.
See: ceramic precursors; polysilanes; silicon carbide fibres

1. Segal, D. Chemical Synthesis of Advanced Ceramic Materials. Cambridge: Cambridge
polyester
Polyesters are polymers formed by the reaction of a polyhydric alcohol with a polybasic
acid.1 For example, an important industrial polyester is polyethylene terephthalate (PET)
240 Glossary
that is prepared by first reacting ethylene glycol with dimethyl terephthalic acid at around
200 C, after which the product of this transesterification reaction is heated at approximately
280 C to yield PET with ethylene glycol as a by-product;2 the repeating unit in polyethylene
terephthalate is (COOC6H4COOCH2CH2) . PET can be melt-spun into fibres. Polyes-
ters are thermoplastics and electrical insulators and have mechanical stability at elevated
temperatures. They can be injection-molded and applications include textiles, clothing,
sheets, blankets, soft-drink bottles and packaging for consumer products, as examples.
Polyethylene terephthalate has the trade name of Terylene while Dacron is another polyes-
ter. Dacron tubing has application in vascular grafts in which blood vessels are joined
together by the tubing in a surgical procedure.
See: furan-2; 5-dicarboxylic acid

2009.
2. Ploszajski, A. Polyester. Materials World (Nov. 2014) 22, 60–2.
polyetherimide
Polyetherimide belongs to the class of thermoplastic polyimides that are high-temperature
solvent resistant polymers.1 Polyimides can be derived from polycondensation between
aromatic diamines and a dianhydride to give an intermediate that is dehydrated on heating
to yield the polyimide. Polyimides have applications as matrix materials for carbon com-
posites. Imides contain the imido group, -CONHCO-, here derived from the dianhydride.
The transparent polyimide Kapton (DuPont) has been evaluated as a substrate for flexible
photovoltaic cells based on cadmium telluride with a reported efficiency of about 14%.2
See: silicon-based solar cells

Hall, 2014.
2. Burke, M. Solar future looks bright. Chemistry and Industry (Sept. 2011) 19–21.
polyethylene
Polyethylene, or polythene, was first prepared accidentally in 1933 by Reginald Gibson and
Eric Fawcett of Imperial Chemical Industries (ICI, United Kingdom), who heated benzal-
dehyde and ethylene to 170 C at high pressure, 1900 atm, to yield a waxy solid rather than
the intended product ethyl phenyl ketone. Polythene had an important role in World War
Two as an insulator for cables carrying high-frequency signals in radar equipment installed
in RAF aircraft. Since that time, a number of methods that have widespread applications
including transparent food packaging, crates, electrical insulation for wires and injection-
molded products have been used to prepare polyethylene. For example, polymerisation of
ethylene takes place over a supported chromium oxide catalyst on alumina in a fixed bed
column at temperatures up to 260 C and pressures of around 30 atm.1 A stirred reactor can
be used where the catalyst is suspended in a carrier liquid such as 2,2,4-trimethylpentane.
Glossary 241
Other catalysts include Ziegler catalysts, complexes of aluminium trialkyls with titanium.2
Low-density polyethylene (LDPE) and high-density polyethylene (HDPE) differ in terms
of their crystallinity, namely their density.
See: olefin-based polymers; partially crystalline materials; Ziegler–Natta catalysts
1. Hogan, J. P., and R. L. Banks. Polymers and production thereof. United States Patent
2,825,721, granted on 4 March 1958.
Hall, 2014.
polyhydroxyalkanoates
Some bacteria produce plastics1 directly as a result of their metabolism and polyhydroxyalk-
anoates (PHA) represent a class of linear polymers produced by bacteria during fermenta-
tion as storage compounds. Ralstonia eutropha is a wild-type strain that has been used for the
industrial production of polyhydroxybutyrate (PHB).
See: commercial bioplastics

poly-3-hydroxybutyrate
Poly-3-hydroxybutyrate is a polyester and biopolymer produced by some bacterial and
plant species.1 It is synthesised by the organism in the presence of sugar and can be
microbially digested into carbon dioxide and water. This biopolymer has properties similar
to those of polypropylene derived from petrochemical sources; namely, it can be injection
molded, extruded and electrospun into fibres and can be manufactured in principle from
renewable sources such as plant biomass. Genetically engineered Escherichia coli have been
used to prepare poly-3-hydroxybutyrate by digestion of plant biomass and while the
biopolymer decomposes to 3-hydroxybutyrate, this process is slow and the polymer cannot
be recycled by melting.
See: biopolymers; green chemistry

1. Pilcher, J. Plastic fantastic. Materials World (Dec. 2014) 22, 3235.
polylactic acid
Lactic acid (CH3CH(OH)COOH), an α-hydroxycarboxylic acid, can undergo polymer-
isation to yield polylactic acid (PLA), a biodegradable ester; the repeating unit in the ester
is ( COOCH3CH ). Lactic acid can be produced from conventional petroleum
resources, namely by hydrocyanation of acetaldehyde or by fermentation of corn starch
by Lactobacillus acidophilus bacteria. It can be converted to PLA by dehydration over a tin
242 Glossary
oxide catalyst, although the polymer can also be obtained directly from fermentation of food
wastes using bacteria and spun into fibres for potential use in clothing.1 PLA degrades to lactic
acid and as the latter is produced from pyruvic acid in muscle tissue, PLA has biomedical
applications, for example in drug delivery due to its biocompatibility. Lactic acid is an
intermediate for production of commodity chemicals such as acrylic acid and pyruvic acid
(CH3COCOOH) and has been prepared from glycerol, a by-product from the production of
biodiesel in which glycerol is enzymatically oxidised to dihydroxyacetone that was isomerised
to lactic acid over a tin-based zeolite catalyst.2 Other applications for PLA include packaging
(NatureWorks) and disposable cutlery and containers (Cereplast).
See: biodiesel
1. Walton, D., and P. Lorimer. Polymers, p. 145. Oxford: Oxford University Press,
2005.
2. Kitley, G. Glycerol cascades towards plastic. Chemistry World (Feb. 2015) 12, 21.
polymerase chain reaction

The polymerase chain reaction (PCR) was pioneered by Kary Mullis and amplifies (i.e. copies)
a fragment of DNA known as the template DNA in a mixture of starting material; that is, it
results in the generation of new DNA molecules with the same sequence as existing ones.1,2
There are three steps in carrying out the PCR and these steps constitute one cycle. In the first
step the double-stranded DNA is denatured, that is, converted to single strands by heating the
starting mixture in an aqueous medium at around 90 C. In the second step, known as annealing,
forward and reverse oligonucleotide primers bind to their complementary sites that flank the
target DNA using a reaction temperature around 50 C. This binding is referred to as hybrid-
isation. In the third step, known as extension and carried out at around 70 C, a thermostable
DNA polymerase such as TAQ DNA polymerase extends the target sequences to create the
polymer. After about 40 cycles, millions of identical copies of the target DNA are produced.
See: DNA; oligonucleotides

1. Mullis, K. B. Process for amplifying nucleic acid sequences. United States Patent
4,683,202, granted on 28 July 1987.
polymer blends
In use, many polymers are blended with other polymers to produce materials with superior
properties than either of the individual polymers possesses.1 An example of a blended
polymer is based on Noryl, a polyphenylene oxide. Other polymers are difficult to shape,
for example the glassy polymer polyvinyl chloride (PVC), and the addition of plasticiser to
PVC enables its shaping into protective film or coatings for wire. Lubricants, fillers and
flame retardants are also added to polymer blends to help their ease of handling.
See: Noryl; polyphenylene oxide; polyvinylchloride

Glossary 243
Hall, 2014.
polymer foams
Soft, flexible, elastic and porous foams1 can be produced from many polymers and are widely
used in linings for clothes, mattresses and cushions and in furniture as examples. Rigid
foams are used as insulation materials, for example in refrigerators. Polyurethane foams are
used in packaging, noise reduction and insulation, rigid epoxy foams are used in the
manufacture of rigid composite materials, while polyethylene foam has applications in
thermal insulation and in damping vibrations. Foaming agents are added to the foam
precursors in order to generate the foams.
1. Liu, P. S., and G. F. Chen. Porous Materials. London: Elsevier, 2014.
polymers
Polymers are macromolecules and include bio-polymers that are naturally occurring as well
as synthetic polymers derived from petrochemical sources in which monomers are chem-
ically joined together by polymerisation to form larger polymer molecules.1 In homopoly-
mers only one type of monomer is used; for example, polyethylene is derived from ethylene
monomer. Heteropolymers or copolymers are made from two or more different monomers.
Nylon and styrene-acrylonitrile-butadiene are examples of heteropolymers. DNA (deoxy-
ribonucleic acid) can be considered to be a heteropolymer. Block copolymers consist of two
polymer chains or blocks that are covalently bonded to each other and which are chemically
different: for example, polystyrene–polymethylmethacrylate, which is derived from styrene
and methylmethacrylate monomers and contains polystyrene and polymethylmethacrylate
polymers.
See: amyloid fibrils; DNA; nylon; polyethylene; hydrophilic polymers

polymethyl methacrylate
Esters of methacrylic acid can be polymerised in suspension by free-radical initiators such
as peroxides. For example, polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA) is produced by polymer-
isation of methyl methacrylate monomer in the presence of benzoyl peroxide.1 The
polymer is obtained as a fine powder or as sheets. PMMA is a component of Perspex, a
trade name in the United Kingdom, and is known as Plexiglass in the USA. It has
widespread applications, including bathroom fixtures, light fittings for domestic use,
building panels, advertising displays, windows and the automotive market such as light
covers.
244 Glossary
1. Rohm, O., and E. Trommadorff. Process for the polymerization of methyl methacryl-
ate. United States Patent 2,171,765, granted on 5 September 1939.
polypeptides
Polypeptides consist of ten or more amino acids.1 Polypeptides that are proteins contain
usually 100–300 amino acids. The type and sequence of amino acids determine the prop-
erties of the polypeptide.
See: peptides; proteins

Press, 2008.
polyphenylene oxide
Polyphenylene oxide (PPO) is a polyether made by oxidatively coupling 2, 6 xylenol.1–4 It is
difficult to process but is miscible with polystyrene to form a polymer blend that has a glass
transition temperature lower than that for PPO (208 C) but higher than that for polystyr-
ene; the blends with varying amounts of each polymer have applications as automotive
bumpers for impact resistance and where resistance to solvents (e.g. petrol) is required. The
blends have been marketed under the trade name Noryl.
See: glass transition temperature; polymer blends

1. Hay, S. United States Patent 3,306,874 1967.
2. Hay, S. United States patent 3,306,875, 1967.
3. Hay, S. United States Patent 4,028,341 1975.
poly-(p-phenylene sulphide)
Poly-(p-phenylene sulphide) is a crystalline thermoplastic suitable for use in demanding
environments where chemical resistance to solvents, stability to high temperatures (melting
point 285 C), good flame resistance and low coefficient to friction is required. It has been
prepared by reaction of sodium sulphide with p-dichlorobenzene in a polar organic solvent
and has trade names of Ryton and Fortron.1,2 It is a brittle thermoplastic and can be reinforced
with glass or carbon fibres or mineral fillers such as talc. Applications include bearings and
pump parts for corrosive environments, for example where resistance to automotive fluids is
required. Coatings are obtained by spraying a slurry of the polymer.
1. Edmonds, J. T., and H. W. Hill. United States Patent 3,354,129, 1967.
Glossary 245
poly-(p-phenylenevinylene)
Poly-(p-phenylenevinylene) (PPV) is a conjugated semiconducting polymer discovered by
Friend and co-workers.1 The inventors describe a conjugated polymer as ‘a polymer which
possesses a delocalised Π-electron system along the polymer backbone; the delocalised
Π-electron system confers semiconducting properties to the polymer and gives it the ability
to support positive and negative charge carriers with high mobilities along the polymer
chain’.2 It has potential application as an organic light-emitting diode on undergoing
electroluminescence. As it is a polymer the acronym PLED, for polymer light-emitting
diode, is used to describe it.
See: organic light-emitting diodes

1. Friend, R. H., J. H. Burroughes and D. D. Bradley. Electroluminescent devices.
sity Press, 2013.
polyphosphazenes
Polyphosphazenes or polyorganophosphazenes are polymers with a phosphorus–nitrogen
repeat unit of alternating phosphorus and nitrogen atoms, namely, N=P units in the
backbone.1 Each phosphorus atom is attached to two side-groups that can be the same or
different. Examples of polyphosphazenes are poly [bis (trifluoroethoxy) phosphazene]
and poly(dichlorophosphazene). The chlorine side-group can be substituted by other
side-groups, particularly by fluorine-based groups that form polyfluorophosphazenes.
The latter have potential applications as hydrophobic thermoplastics, hydrophobic elasto-
mers, non-linear optical materials and fibre-forming materials and uses as superhydro-
phobic coatings.
See: superhydrophobic materials

polypropylene
Polypropylene, an olefin-based polymer, is a thermoplastic used in the form of pipes, films,
textile fibres and containers including bottles made by blow molding in which a jet of air is
used to shape a sheet of polypropylene in a mold.1,2 High-density (HDPP) and low-
density polypropylene (LDPP) are commercially available and are made by polymerisation
of propylene (CH3CHCH2). It is an isotactic polymer whereby substituent groups, here
methyl (CH3) lie in the same side of the plane formed by the polymer chain. HDPP is
made by passing propylene into an inert solvent containing a heterogeneous catalyst based
on a titanium compound such as titanium (III) chloride and an aluminium compound, for
example a trialkyl aluminium. Density is affected by the degree of branching in the
246 Glossary
polymer. Developments in the synthesis of polypropylene include homogeneous polymer-

isation of propylene using metallocene catalysts, for example those based on cyclopenta-
dienyl ligands. Metallocene compounds are also known as ‘sandwich compounds’ and
include ferrocene.
See: olefin-based polymer

1. Walton, W., and P. Lorimer. Polymers, p. 78. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005.
Hall, 2014.
polysaccharides
Polysaccharides are carbohydrates with a larger molecular weight and complexity than
simple sugars (monosaccharide) and consist of long chains of monosaccharides.1 Examples
of polysaccharides include starch, cellulose and chitin and molecular weights of these
polymers that can be linear or branched can be as large as several million. Humans are
unable to digest cellulose as they do not possess suitable enzymes that can break down the
close-packed structure. However, they do possess enzymes that can break down carbohy-
drates such as starches into simple sugars, for example glucose that is stored in the body as
glycogen (see Chapter 2).
See: carbohydrates; hemicellulose; cellulose; hyaluronic acid; monosaccharides

polysilanes
Polysilanes are inorganic polymers comprising a backbone of Si–Si linkages. Early work on
polysilanes was carried out in the 1920s and a general preparative method involves the reaction
of molten sodium with a dichlorosilane, for example dimethyldichlorosilane. Interest in poly-
silanes was initially limited because of their low solubility in solvents. Nowadays they have
applications as ceramic precursors and photoresists.1,2 Polysilanes are ceramic precursors.
See: polycarbosilanes
2. Mark, J., D. Schaefer and G. Lin. The Polysiloxanes. Oxford: Oxford University Press,
2015.
polysilastyrene
Polysilastyrene is a polysilane prepared by condensation followed by polymerisation
between dimethyldichlorosilane and phenylmethyldichlorosilane and it belongs to the
Glossary 247
group of soluble phenylmethylpolysilanes.1 This polymer can be molded and cured, that is
cross-linked to a solid by exposure to ultraviolet radiation, cast into films from solution and
drawn into filaments that can be converted on heating to silicon carbide whiskers. Poly-
silastyrene is a ceramic precursor.
See: polysilanes
1. West, R. C., L. D. David, P. I. Djurovich, H. Yu and R. Sinclair. Polysilastyrene:
phenylmethylsilane-dimethylsilane copolymer as precursors to silicon carbide. Ameri-
can Ceramic Society Bulletin (1983) 62, 899–903.
polysilazanes
Silazanes are compounds with Si N Si bonds such as hexamethyldisilazane and hexaphe-
nylcyclotrisilazane.1 Polymers of silazanes are known as polysilazanes for example perhy-
dropolysilazane containing the repeating units (SiH2NH)n with a weight average
molecular weight in the range 4500–7000.2 A film of polysilazane on a substrate such as a
semiconductor silicon wafer is hydrolysed to a layer of electrically insulating silica when
heated at around 900 C in an atmosphere containing water vapour. This property allows
polysilazanes to be used in the semiconductor industry to produce insulating layers on a
substrate when the surface topography is irregular and uneven due to the presence of
interconnected surface devices. The planarised layers of insulator prevent electrical inter-
ference between layers of metal wiring on the wafer. The polysilazane layer acts as a spin-on-
glass and its deposition onto the substrate is referred to as trench isolation.
See: ceramic precursors; spin-on-glass

2. Lee, J.-H., J.-H. Cho, J.-S. Choi and D.-J. Lee. Spin-on-glass composition and
polystyrene
The thermosetting plastic polystyrene is prepared by emulsion polymerisation of styrene
monomer (C6H5CHCH2) by using, for example, peroxide initiators.1 It is used widely for
packaging and insulation in the form of foam and bead. Styrene monomer is a precursor for
the widely used ABS copolymer (styrene-acrylonitrile-butadiene).
See: latex; styrene-acrylonitrile-butadiene; thermoplastics

248 Glossary
polysulphones
Polysulphones are thermoplastics with good chemical resistance to mineral acids and alkali.1
They can be sterilised and are used as membranes for reverse osmosis. They have been
prepared by electrophilic substitution in a Friedel–Crafts reaction of sulphonyl chlorides by
using Lewis acid catalysts such as ferric chloride, for example in the polymerisation of
polyethersulphone.
See: reverse osmosis

Hall, 2014.
polyurethanes
Polyurethanes were developed by Otto Bayer and co-workers at I. G. Farbenindustrie in 1937.1
These elastomers are prepared by condensation of diisocyanates (O=C=N R N=C=O) with
diols (HOR’OH) where the repeating unit in the polymer is ( OC NH R NH CO O-
R’ O ) and R and R’ are alkyl or aryl groups; the polymer contains the urethane group
–NHCOO (the carbamide group). Isocyanates are esters of cyanic acid, HNC=O, and
include hexamethylene diisocyanate, O=C=N (CH2)6 N=C=O. An example of a polyur-
ethane involves the product from reaction of hexamethylene diisocyanate with ethylene glycol.
Diols include hydroxyl-terminated polyesters and polyethers. Polyurethane elastomers can be
shaped by injection molding and these polymers have applications as solid foams for furniture,
mattresses and insulation and also as soles in shoes.
See: phase-separated polymers

polyvinylchloride
Polyvinylchloride (PVC) is manufactured by the free-radical polymerisation of vinyl chlor-
ide in an exothermic reaction.1–3 The polymer has high chemical-resistance, for example, to
acids and alkalis and is weather resistant and while many plastics are flammable, the
presence of chlorine in the structure makes PVC flame retardant. Early work on PVC was
carried out by Waldo Semon who showed that while as-prepared polyvinylchloride is
difficult to shape it could be blended with a plasticiser and then easily shaped at room
temperature so that physical properties such as elasticity and flexibility can be adjusted.
1. Jones, R. G. PVC. Materials World (May 2014) 22, 50.
2. Semon, W. L. Synthetic rubber-like composition and method of making the same.
United States Patent 1,929,453, granted on 10 October 1933.
3. Semon, W. L. Method of preparing polyvinyl halide products. United States Patent
2,188,396, granted on 30 January 1940.
Glossary 249
poly (vinylidene chloride)

Cling film has been widely used for wrapping sandwiches and other foods. Cling film is poly
(vinylidene chloride) that was first prepared in 1933 by Ralph Wiley (Dow Chemical
Company) and it has also been called Saran Wrap.1 Nowadays the film used to wrap
sandwiches and other food tends to be low-density polyethylene.
1. Stewart, C., and Lomont, J. P. The Handy Chemistry Answer Book. Canton, MI:
Visible Ink Press, 2014.
poly (vinylidene fluoride)

Poly (vinylidene fluoride) (PVdF) is manufactured by a radical-initiated emulsion polymer-
isation of CH2CF2 monomer and is used as a porous separator in lithium-ion batteries to
prevent electrical shorting of the electrodes.1 This polymer can also be processed into a
piezoelectric strip that can act as a microphone or loud speaker. This processing involves
casting a crystalline film from a melt and mechanically stressing the film by stretching or
rolling to about five times the original length to produce an oriented film. The piezoelectric
strip can be used to detect the irregular breathing of a sleeping baby or when combined with
a microchip and incorporated into a greetings card can play the tune ‘Happy Birthday’ to an
unsuspecting recipient of the card.
See: lithium-ion batteries; piezoelectric materials

and Technology, pp.583–4. New York: Wiley, 2014.
polytetrafluoroethylene
Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE), often referred to by its trade name of Teflon, was acci-
dentally invented by Roy Plunkett who in 1938, while researching new refrigerants, identi-
fied a white waxy powder in a gas cylinder containing tetrafluoroethylene (C2F4) at high
pressure at ambient temperatures.1,2 The polymerisation of tetrafluoroethylene monomer
was enhanced in the presence of a catalyst, for example, silver nitrate and a solvent such as
methyl alcohol. Nowadays, PTFE is produced by the emulsion free-radical polymerisation
of tetrafluoroethylene under pressure, around 50 atm.3 Polytetrafluoroethylene is a fluoro-
polymer, has high chemical-resistance and decomposes at around 300 C and the polymer is
an electrical insulator. It has a low coefficient of friction, that is it is slippery, and it is
hydrophobic so that water does not spread across a Teflon surface. The initial application
for polytetrafluoroethylene was in the Manhattan Project in the USA for the development of
the atomic bomb in which its chemical resistance to the highly corrosive uranium hexa-
fluoride was ideal for use in isotope separation. Applications now extend to gaskets, sealing
tape, pipe liners, bearings, gears, slide plates, medical prosthetics, insulation for wiring and
cables and Teflon is particularly associated with its non-stick properties for cooking utensils.
Polytetrafluoroethylene cannot be melt-processed and products are fabricated by mechan-
ical working of a pressed and sintered preform. Additions of low-molecular-weight PTFE
250 Glossary
powders with a particle size 3–4 µm to printing inks protects the ink pigments from abrasion
and prevents printed pages from sticking to one another, a process known as blocking.4
See: fluoropolymers; Gore-Tex

1. Felice, M. Polytetrafluoroethylene. Materials World (Dec. 2012) 20, 54.
2. Plunkett, R. J. Tetrafluoroethylene polymers. United States Patent 2,230,654,
granted on 4 February 1941.
Hall, 2014.
4. Carlick, D. J., R. W. Bassemir, R. Krishnan and R. R. Durand. Low rub printing ink.
United States Patent 5,158,606, granted on 27 October 1992.
porcelain
While many materials are used for their functional properties, others are admired for their
aesthetic properties. In 1709 Johann Böttger created porcelain at the town of Meissen in
Germany and this earthenware is known as Meissen porcelain characterised by its translu-
cent white appearance.1–3 Porcelain is produced by firing raw materials including clays and
silica sand in a reducing atmosphere and is non-porous so that an external glaze is not
required. Meissen porcelain is a hard-paste porcelain with a higher kaolin content than
earlier soft Chinese porcelains from the Ming period (1368–1644). Meissen porcelain is also
known as European porcelain.
See: Chinese porcelain

2013.
3. Ploszajski, A. Porcelain. Materials World (June 2016) 24, 60–2.
portland cement
Portland cement was introduced in the 19th century by Joseph Aspdin.1 The raw materials
are limestone (calcium carbonate) and clay that are pulverised to form an aqueous slurry
that is heated in a kiln at around 1500 C. The result of the heat process that initially drives
off the water and decomposes the limestone to calcium oxide (quicklime) is a lumpy clinker
that is ground to a fine powder. A small amount of gypsum (2–5 wt%) that is hydrated
calcium sulphate is added to produce Portland cement powder that consists of five main
ingredients. These are tricalcium silicate (Ca3SiO5, known as alite and referred to in
shorthand as C3S), dicalcium silicate (Ca2SiO4, known as belite and in shorthand C2S),
tricalcium aluminate (Ca3Al2O6, in shorthand C3A), tetracalcium aluminoferrite
(Ca4Al2Fe2O10, in shorthand C4AF) and gypsum, calcium sulphate dihydrate
(CaSO4.2H2O, in shorthand CSH2). Portland cement sets or hardens on addition of
Glossary 251
water and the hardening process involves hydration between water and the silicates, alumi-
nates and gypsum. Hydration produces a hard, porous and rigid crystalline mass.
See: macro-defect-free cement

1. Bolton,W., and R.A. Higgins. Materials for Engineers and Technicians, 6th edn,
post-it notes
Adhesives are widely used in everyday life, for example the weak adhesive at the back of
Post-it notes.1 This reusable pressure-sensitive tacky adhesive consists of elastomeric
copolymer microspheres approximately 1–250 µm in diameter with the majority in the
range 10–150 µm in diameter and is made by an emulsion polymerisation process. The
reactants involve an alkyl acrylate ester such as iso-octyl acrylate and an ionic monomer, for
example trimethylamine methacrylimide, and polymerisation takes place in the presence of
an anionic emulsifier. The emulsifier, for example ammonium lauryl sulphate or an alkyl
aryrlpolyethylene oxide sodium sulphonate, is used above its critical micelle concentration.
The resulting tacky microspheres can be dispersed in solvents and act as pressure-sensitive
adhesives for adhering objects to surfaces. The copolymers can be easily removed from
surfaces and the objects, for example paper, can be repositioned. The adhesive was first
produced by Spencer Silver in 1968 by chance while working on the development of a
strong adhesive.2
See: bioadhesives; epoxy adhesives; superglue

1. Silver, S. F. Acrylate copolymer microspheres. United States Patent 3,691,140,
granted 12 September 1972.
2. Donald, G.. The Accidental Scientist: The Role of Chance and Luck in Scientific Discov-
ery, pp. 98–102. London: Michael O’Mara Books, 2013.
prepregs
There is much interest in the use of lightweight composite components as structural
materials in aircraft and vehicles in order to save fuel and to reduce operating costs.
A prepreg consists of a felt or fabric or mat of woven or non-woven fibres (e.g. glass fibres)
that is impregnated with an unpolymerised resin.1 Layers of the impregnated fibres are
stacked and pressed together or inserted in a laminar structure and undergo a heat treatment
that polymerises the resin.
See: glass epoxy composites; microlaminates

252 Glossary
proppants
Proppants are used in the technique of hydraulic fracturing or fracking for the extraction of
shale gas.1 Proppants are hard material in granular form, for example silica sand, resin-
coated sand and other ceramic materials that are injected into wells in order to hold open
fissures in the rock to release the shale gas.
See: shale gas

Technology, vol. 39, p.8. Cambridge: Royal Society of Chemistry, 2015.
proteins
Proteins are organic compounds expressed by DNA that encodes them in the cells of
organisms.1 Proteins have molecular weights from around 6000 to several million and are
polymers made up of amino acids linked together in a characteristic sequence; polypeptides
are proteins. The order of base pairs in DNA determines the type of amino acid that is
expressed. In particular, a sequence of three bases out of adenine, cytosine, thymine and
guanine known as a codon encodes a specific amino acid.
See: amino acids; DNA; polypeptides

p-type semiconductors
The semiconductor silicon has a valency of four. Silicon can be doped with a Group III
element such as indium, aluminium, gallium or boron and these elements are known as
p-type dopants or acceptors.1 The latter can be introduced by techniques such as ion
implantation, or diffusion of dopant. The doped semiconductor has excess of holes or
electron deficit introduced into the crystalline structure by incorporation of the acceptor
atom.
See: n-type semiconductor; light-emitting diodes; p–n junction diodes

pure materials
The exploitation of materials in the 21st century is very dependent on the ability to prepare
them with exceptional purity. This requirement for purity is particularly important for
Glossary 253
silicon-based semiconductors for the preparation of pure silicon and the introduction of
dopant atoms by, for example, ion implantation and thermal diffusion.1 Vast financial
investments of hundreds of millions of US dollars are required to construct industrial
facilities to manufacture semiconductors. Telecommunication companies that sell mobile
phones as well as producers of other consumer products such as washing machines and
televisions will often design their equipment but source electronic components such as
integrated circuits from third parties.
1. Bolton, L., and R. A. Higgins. Materials for Engineers and Technicians, 6th edn, p. 334.
Pyrex
Pyrex is a borosilicate glass with an approximate composition of 81% SiO2; 13% B2O3; 4%
Na2O; 2% Al2O3. It has a low coefficient of thermal expansion and a softening temperature
around 830 C. It has applications in laboratory glassware and kitchenware. The Pyrex
brand of laboratory glassware was introduced in 1915.1
See: phase-separated glasses

1. L. Morrey. A glass act to follow. Chemistry World (Sept. 2015) 12, 46–7.
pyroelectric materials
Pyroelectric crystals develop opposite electrical charges on faces of the crystal when heated
and all pyroelectric materials are piezoelectric but not all piezoelectric materials exhibit
pyroelectric behaviour.1 Examples of pyroelectric materials are tourmaline (a boron-
containing silicate mineral) and crystals with the perovskite structure as highlighted by
barium titanate, BaTiO3. Cadmium sulphide and lithium niobate are also pyroelectric
materials. Pyroelectric crystals have a spontaneous polarisation in the absence of an electric
field and have application in thermal imaging cameras.
See: ferroelectric materials

1. Tilley, R. J. D. Understanding Solids: The Science of Materials. London: Wiley, 2013.
quantum cascade lasers

There has been much development on laser systems since the ruby laser was invented by
Theodore Maiman in 1960. The quantum cascade laser is a solid-state laser.1,2 Whereas in a
light-emitting diode electron transitions take place from the conduction to the valence band,
resulting in light emission, in a cascade laser electrons in a quantum will undergo transitions
within interbands in the conduction band. These transitions result in emission of laser radi-
ation. Terahertz radiation with wavelengths between the infrared and microwave part of the
electromagnetic spectrum can be obtained from a quantum cascade laser. As with other lasers a
population inversion and stimulated emission from the material of the laser are required.
See: ruby lasers

254 Glossary
2. Faist, J. Quantum Cascade Lasers. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2013.
quantum dots
Quantum dots (or boxes) are semiconductors subject to quantum confinement where the
electronic wave function is restricted to small regions of space in a material. Atoms have
discrete energy levels, whereas a macroscopic piece of a semiconductor has electronic
bands. However, as the size of the piece of semiconductor decreases to around 10 nm a
quantum dot (or box) is produced that behaves as if it has discrete energy levels.
Quantum dots are regarded as zero-dimensional with regards to electronic properties
and have a three-dimensional confinement. A quantum dot may be considered to be a
small section of a quantum wire.1 Electronic and optical properties of semiconductors
differ markedly from bulk materials as the size decreases to the nanometre range (Fig.
G.21). Quantum dots are semiconductor phosphors and exhibit fluorescence. As the
particle size decreases the wavelength of emitted light decreases, corresponding to an
increase in band gap with decreasing particle size, thus a shift from red to blue light with
decreasing particle size.
See: band gap; phosphors; semiconductors

1. Tilley, R. J. D. Understanding Solids: The Science of Materials. London: Wiley,
2013.
r ~1 nm ~2.5 nm ~5 nm
Photoluminescent emission
300 400 500 600 700 800 900

Wavelength/nm
Fig. G.21 Photoluminescent colours emitted by CdS quantum dots with radius r nm.
Glossary 255
Conduction band
electrons
Eg GaAlAs Eg GaAs
holes
Valence band
GaAlAs GaAs GaAlAs
Fig. G.22 Schematic illustration of a quantum well formed by sandwiching a thin layer of gallium
arsenide (GaAs) between layers of gallium aluminium arsenide (GaAlAs) where the band gap (Eg)
for GaAs is less than that for GaAlAs.
quantum wells
A quantum well consists of a thin layer (around 10 nm) of a semiconductor sandwiched
between two layers of a different semiconductor that has a higher band gap than the well
layer.1 This structure is known as a heterostructure: for example, a layer of GaAs (gallium
arsenide) between layers of GaAlAs (gallium aluminium arsenide) (Fig. G.22). Quantum
wells are composite materials and they can be deposited by molecular beam epitaxy or
metalorganic chemical vapour deposition. In a quantum well, electrons are confined to the
plane of the layer and the well is considered to be two-dimensional with respect to its
electronic properties with one-dimensional confinement. Quantum wells are thus sub-
jected to quantum confinement. In a quantum well, electrons in, for example, the GaAs
layer are trapped in a well in the conduction band of the composite while holes are
trapped on ‘hills’ in the valence band. The band gap of the well layer increases with
decreasing thickness. Quantum wells have applications as quantum well lasers where the
frequency and wavelength of emitted length depends on the structure and composition of
the semiconductors.
See: band gap; heterostructures; quantum cascade lasers; semiconductors

quantum wires
A quantum wire is a strip of semiconductor material in which electrons are confined in two
dimensions so that the wire is a one-dimensional conductor.1 Quantum wires are subject
to quantum confinement and are one-dimensional materials with regard to electronic
properties and have a two-dimensional confinement. A quantum wire is a linear electrical
256 Glossary
conductor where electrons have quantised energy levels for motion perpendicular to the
axis.2 These discrete energy bands are in contrast with continuous energy bands for
electron states in bulk crystalline solids, thus valence and conduction bands. Possible
future applications for quantum wires are in quantum devices to operate as faster semi-
conductor switches than are currently available. There are limitations to the miniaturisa-
tion of field-effect transistors as current leakage reduces the effectiveness of their switching
properties and electron scattering can increase due to lattice defects and impurities in the
semiconductor. Quantum devices incorporating quantum wires may offer a solution to
these limitations.
See: band gap; quantum dot; semiconductors

2. Daintith, J. (ed.). Oxford Dictionary of Physics, 6th edn. Oxford: Oxford University
Press, 2009.
quasicrystals
Quasicrystals are solids that have regions with a structure equal to or greater than a
fivefold rotational symmetry. Concepts in conventional crystallography indicate that unit
cells with this type of rotational symmetry, that is fivefold or greater, cannot exist as the
cells are not able to be packed together to form a crystal. Although quasicrystals have a
rotational symmetry they do not have translational order and can be considered to have
regions of structural units separated by disordered regions. Quasicrystals were first
identified by Professor Daniel Schectman and co-workers in the early 1980s in alloys
of aluminium and manganese, in particular in Al6Mn.1 Other alloy compositions such as
Al88Mn12 were shown to have a tenfold rotational symmetry and long-range transla-
tional order.2,3
1. Janot, C. Quasicrystals: A Primer, 2nd edn. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012.
2. Schectman, D., et al. Metallic phase with long-range orientation order and no trans-
lational symmetry. Physical Review Letters (1984) 53, 1951–3.
rapeseed oil
Fields of yellow oil seed rape are familiar to many observers. Conventional esters are made
by reaction of alcohols with acids in the presence of a catalyst in a solvent derived from
petrochemical sources and have applications as solvents. Rapeseed oil from crops has been
converted directly to esters for use as biosolvents by reaction with a mixture of potassium
hydroxide in methyl alcohol.1
2012.
Glossary 257
rayon
Rayon is a textile fibre derived from cellulose (e.g. wood pulp).1 Cellulose is dissolved in a
mixture of carbon disulphide and sodium hydroxide, after which the resulting aqueous
cellulose xanthate solution is converted into continuous fibres of regenerated cellulose (i.e.
rayon) by passage through fine nozzles into sulphuric acid. The fibres are known as viscose
rayon and can be woven into fabrics. Acetate rayon is derived from cellulose acetate.
See: cellulose; cellulose acetate; lyocell

1. Emsley, J. Molecules at an Exhibition, p. 119. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998.
reactive textile dyes

Reactive textile dyes react with molecules in fibres to form permanent covalent bonds
between the dye and fibre.1 The dyes can be used for cellulose-based fibres (cellulosics)
where the dye reacts with hydroxyl groups and for protein-based fibres such as wool where
reaction occurs with amine groups in the fibre. Reactive dyes consist of four components: a
water-solubilising group (e.g. COONa) to make the dye water-soluble, a chromophore to
produce the colour (e.g. azo or anthroquinone derivative), a reactive chemical group to
react with hydroxyl groups on cellulose or amine (NH2) groups on protein fibres and a
bridging group to link the chromophore to the reactive group. Examples of reactive dyes
include vinylsulphones and chlorotriazines that are derivatives of cyanuric chloride (2, 4,
6–trichloro-1,3, 5-triazine) and bis-monofluorotriazines. Trade names include Procion
(ICI), Avitera SE (Huntsman) and Cibacron (Ciba). Reactive dyes are soluble in cold
water and dissolve to produce anionic species that bind to the fibre.
1. Patra, A. K., and R. Paul. Reactive dyeing of textiles: practices and developments. In
J. Fu (ed.). Dyeing: Processes, Techniques and Applications, pp. 1–18. Hauppauge, NY:
recombinant 6-aminocaproic acid

6-Aminocaproic acid is a precursor for nylon and worldwide demand for this material in
2005 was 2.7 million metric tonnes.1,2 This feedstock was obtained from petroleum sources.
6-Aminocaproic acid has been prepared from the amino acid lysine and a recombinant
micro-organism. The latter consisted of a recombinant nucleic acid encoded with a peptide
that catalyses a substrate-to-product conversion of 6-amino-3-hydroxyhexanoyl-CoA to
6-aminohex-2-enoyl-CoA that underwent fermentation, yielding 6-aminocaproic acid. This
example shows how a genetically engineered micro-organism can be used to produce a
useful product, here a peptide, that can be used to catalytically convert a reactant into an
important chemical, 6-aminocaproic acid, in a fermentation process.2
See: nylon
258 Glossary
2. Baynes, B. M., et al. Biological synthesis of 6-aminocaproic acid from carbohydrate

feedstocks. United States Patent 8,404,465, granted on 26 March 2013.
recombinant cis-isoprene
The monomer isoprene is derived from petrochemical sources by thermal cracking of
petroleum or naphtha feedstocks and is obtained in the cis- and trans- isomer forms.1,2
Isoprene obtained in this way is not a renewable resource. An application of recombinant
DNA technology for the preparation of cis-isoprene uses glucose as a starting material and a
yeast extract as a growth medium and modified Escherichia coli cells containing the
pTrcKudzu + yIDI + DXS plasmid in a bioreactor. The cis-isoprene could be extracted
after the fermentation process and converted by a neodymium-based catalyst at 30 C to
cis-1,4-polybutadiene that has a structure similar to that of natural rubber. This example
illustrates how advances in recombinant DNA technology since its inception in the 1970s
allow the production of useful industrial chemicals. In this fermentation process, a starting
reactant and growth medium are required, here glucose and a yeast extract, respectively.
The plasmid DNA in the bacterium E. coli is carefully modified to ensure that glucose is
enzymatically converted to cis-isoprene.
See: recombinant DNA technology; synthetic rubber

1. Feher, F. J., et al. Polymers of isoprene from renewable resources. United States
Patent 8,420,759, granted on 16 April 2013.
recombinant DNA technology

Recombinant DNA technology, which was pioneered by Stanley Cohen and Herbert Boyer
at Stanford University in the 1970s, underpins the worldwide biotechnology industry; the
technology is associated with genetic engineering techniques.1,2 In the original technique,
cells from bacteria, viruses, animals or plants are broken up and their DNA is extracted.
Restriction enzymes are used to chemically cut the DNA at specific points and a DNA
fragment of interest is isolated. The nucleotide sequence in the isolated gene can express a
particular compound such as a protein with a particular sequence of amino acids. Circular
rings of plasmid DNA are then extracted from Escherichia coli, the rings are opened with a
restriction enzyme and the fragment of DNA from the other cell is inserted into the plasmid.
The ring is then closed (i.e. recombined) and put back into a host bacterium. The new
bacteria are referred to as ‘DNA chimera’. Combination of the two sources of DNA is
sometimes referred to as gene-splicing. The new gene sequence in the hybrid DNA is passed
onto new generations of bacteria on cell division so that the colony contains genetic clones.
The inserted fragment can be obtained through synthesis rather than from an organism.
See: bio-based chemicals; yeasts; ZMapp

Glossary 259
1. Cohen, S. N., and H. W. Boyer. Biological functional molecular chimeras. United

States Patent 4,740,470, granted on 26 April 1988.
2. Cohen, S. N., and H. W. Boyer. Process for producing biologically functional
molecular chimeras. United States Patent 4,237,224, granted on 2 December 1980.
recombinant face cream

Propanediol distearate has applications in cosmetic formulations including face creams, skin
cleaning formulations and skin care.1 This material is traditionally prepared by chemical
synthesis. However, in a fermentation process, an Escherichia coli strain, ECL707, contain-
ing the Klebsiella pneumoniae dha regulon cosmids pKP1 or pKP2, the K. pneumoniae pdu
operon pKP4 or the Supercos vector alone was grown in a fermenter and the batch was then
used to produce 1,3-propanediol from D-glucose in a growth medium. Propanediol dis-
tearate was then obtained through reaction of the recombinant 1,3-propanediol, stearic acid
and p-toluene sulphonic acid. This example is given to illustrate the range of materials that
can be obtained by using recombinant DNA technology. The technology is characterised by
use of fermentation processes, a reactant, growth medium and a modified micro-organism
to express the desired product.
See: recombinant DNA technology

1. Fenyvesi, G., et al. Personal care and cosmetics compositions comprising biologically
based mono- and di-esters. United States Patent 8,309,116, granted on 13 November
2012.
recycling ceramics
The question of recycling ceramics and end-of-life products will be an important issue in
the 21st century if populations continue to grow and resources are finite. Annual
worldwide production for some ceramics is as follows with amounts in brackets:1 concrete
(about 4 1010 tonnes), cement (about 109 tonnes), glass (about 7 107 tonnes), brick
(about 6 106 tonnes) and carbon fibre (about 5 104 tonnes).
1. Ashby, M. F., D. F. Balas and J. S. Coral. Materials and Sustainable Development.
Oxford: Butterworth, 2016.
recycling metals
The question of recycling metals and end-of-life products will be an important issue in
the 21st century if populations continue to grow and resources are finite. Annual
worldwide production for some metals is as follows with amounts in brackets:1 lanthan-
ides (about 105 tonnes), gold (about 103 tonnes), silver (about 104 tonnes), titanium
alloys (about 105 tonnes), nickel alloys (about 106 tonnes), copper alloys (about 107
tonnes) and steel (about 109 tonnes). About 75% of the total U.S. steel production is
from recycled steel.2 Some metals are critical materials, for example indium that is used
260 Glossary
as transparent indium tin oxide electrically conducting coatings in portable devices such
as smartphones.
See: critical materials; steel

2. Hosford, W. F. Iron and Steel. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2012.
recycling plastics
The question of recycling plastics and polymers will be an important issue in the 21st
century if populations continue to grow and resources are finite. Annual worldwide
production (1) for some plastics is as follows with amounts in brackets: polyethylene
(about 5 x 107 tonnes), polystyrene (about 2 x 107 tonnes) and polyester (about 107
tonnes). Natural fibres (e.g. wool) correspond to around 3 x 107 tonnes per year.
Biodegradable plastics can be recycled although there are still significant amounts of
non-biodegradable polymers.
See: plastics
refractory materials
Refractory materials are traditional ceramics that are incorporated into equipment used
for the manufacture of metals and glasses as well as linings for furnaces.1 The compos-
itions need to survive high temperatures without being corroded or weakened by corrosive
gaseous environments in the equipment. Examples of refractories are magnesite,
chromite-magnesia and olivine (a solid solution of magnesium silicate, Mg2SiO4, and
iron silicate, Fe2SiO4). Carbon acts as a refractory material in the absence of oxygen
atmospheres.

1. Askeland, D. R., and W. J. Wright. The Science and Engineering of Materials, 7th edn.
reverse osmosis
When a porous membrane has pure water on one side and salt water on the other side then
pure water is expected to diffuse through the membrane from a region of low salt
concentration to a region of high salt concentration. In reverse osmosis an applied
pressure is used to force water from a salty solution through pores in a membrane so
Glossary 261
that the membrane prevents salt from passing through it.1 The process is thermodynam-
ically driven and not kinetically driven. Typical pore diameters in reverse osmosis mem-
branes are around 1 nm, sufficiently small to hold back sodium ions with a diameter
(hydrated) of around 0.4 nm. Polysulphones have been used as reverse osmosis
membranes.
See: polysulphones
RNA
RNA (ribonucleic acid) is a nucleic acid found in living cells and is responsible for protein
synthesis. It is a heteropolymer and consists of a single polymer chain of nucleotides in which
the polymer backbone consists of molecules of the sugar ribose linked though phosphate
groups (Fig. G.23).1 One of four bases, adenine, cytosine, guanine and uracil designated by
the letters A, C, G and U, is linked to the ribose molecule. In protein synthesis, a stretch of
DNA (a gene) is transcribed into messenger RNA (mRNA);2 that is, mRNA is synthesised
in situ, utilising the property that complementary base pairing takes place between the RNA
and DNA nucleotides. The sequence of bases in DNA codes for a protein and the code is
retained in mRNA because of the complementary base pairing. The synthesis of mRNA is
known as transcription. After its synthesis, mRNA is transferred to a large macromolecular
complex outside the cell nucleus known as a ribosome, which is composed of proteins and
RNA molecules. In the ribosome the message contained in RNA (i.e. the order of bases) is
translated from nucleotides into amino acids. Transfer RNA (tRNA) in the ribosome reads
the sequence of codons in mRNA and can base pair with mRNA and transfer-specific
amino acids to form a growing protein.
See: DNA; heteropolymers

2. Baldwin, G., T. Bayer, R. Dickinson, T. Ellis, P.S. Freemont, R.I. Kitney, K. Polizzi
and G-B Stan. Synthetic Biology: A Primer. London: Imperial College Press, 2012.
Roundup
Roundup is a herbicide for controlling weeds and is associated with genetically modified
seeds that are resistant to this herbicide and with genetically engineered crops.1 The
biosynthesis of aromatic amino acids such as tryptophan and phenylalanine takes place
in plants and micro-organisms by the shikimate pathway. An enzyme in this pathway is
5-enolpyruvyl shikimate 3-phosphase synthase (EPSPS). Glyphosate (Roundup) is water
soluble and can be sprayed onto plant leaves when it is absorbed and inhibits
EPSPS. Roundup Ready plants carry the gene coding for a glyphosate-insensitive form of
this enzyme obtained from Agrobacterium sp. strain CP4. When incorporated into the plant
262 Glossary
O–
O P O CH2
nucleotide
O– O
O OH
O P O CH2
5ʹ O
O– 4ʹ ribose
1ʹ
3ʹ 2ʹ
O OH
G U A G O P O CH2
G C G A C 5ʹ O bases
A O– 4ʹ
1ʹ
C C U 3ʹ 2ʹ
A A O OH
A
U
U G O P O CH2
C 5ʹ O
G U
O– 4ʹ
A 1ʹ
A 3ʹ 2ʹ
U U OH OH
G
G G
G Detail of molecular structure of the
A
sugar-phosphate backbone. The carbon atoms of
A U G
bases A ribose are numbered 1ʹ (1 ‘prime’) to 5ʹ. Each
ribose unit is attached via its 5ʹ carbon atom to
sugar-phosphate backbone a phosphate group, and via its 1ʹ carbon atom to
a base.
Single-stranded structure of RNA
NH2 O
adenine
N C (A) N C
C N C NH
HC HC
C CH guanine N C C
N N N NH2
H (G) H
NH2 O
C C
HC N cytosine HC NH uracil
HC C (C) HC C (U)
N O N O
H H
The four bases of RNA
Fig. G.23 Molecular structure of RNA.

genome, the gene product CP4 EPSP synthase confers crop resistance to glyphosate.
Understanding the terminology in the biochemical area can be confusing for anyone with
no direct experience of this subject. The shikimate pathway is the major metabolic pathway
in plants to produce aromatic amino acids.2 The pathway involves condensation of
erythrose-4-phosphate and phosphoenolpyruvate and the product undergoes cyclisation
followed by reduction to form the intermediate shikimate that has a phenolic ring structure
characteristic of aromatic amino acids. The intermediate combines with phosphoenolpyr-
uvate to yield chorismate that has a pathway to tryptophan and phenylalanine. Glyphosate
Glossary 263
blocks the action of EPSPS and the production of aromatic amino acids in plants. These are
essential amino acids and the weeds will die without them. Roundup Ready plants contain a
gene that expresses an enzyme that is unaffected by glyphosate.
2. Hine, R. S. (ed). Oxford Dictionary of Biology, 7th edn. Oxford: Oxford University
Press, 2015.
ruby laser
The ruby laser was invented in 1960 by Theodore Maiman.1,2 Rubies are alumina crystals
containing about 0.5 wt% of chromium (III) ions. A single-crystal rod of ruby was placed
inside a helical coil of a flash lamp and two partially reflecting mirrors were positioned at the
end of the rod (Fig. G.24). The rod is optically pumped with light from the flash lamp. Light
produced by stimulated emission is trapped between the two mirrors and is reflected back
and forth. Each time the light passes through the ruby further stimulated emission is
induced. This arrangement produces a population inversion and amplification of the
emitted light. Red laser light with a wavelength of 694 nm emerges from the partially
reflecting mirror.
See: laser-based materials

1. Maiman, T. United States Patent 3,353,115, 1960.
Wiley, 2013.
Mirrored ends Ruby rod
Parallel laser
beam
Flash tube
Elliptic cylinder reflecting container
Fig. G.24 General arrangement of a ruby laser.

( L. Solymar, et. al. Electrical Properties of Materials, 9th edn, p. 303. Oxford: Oxford University
Press, 2014.)
264 Glossary
saccharification
Saccharification refers to the process in which cellulose is hydrolysed to produce monosac-
charides, disaccharides and oligosaccharide products and glucose is a major product.
Cellulose hydrolysis is catalysed by mineral acids or enzymes, in particular by cellulases.
Biomass is a source of cellulose. The sugar xylose obtained from saccharification is an
important chemical intermediate and can be chemically converted to furfural by, for
example, heating at elevated temperature and pressure.1 Other furfural-based products
include furfural alcohol, tetrahydrofuran and polyethers and these products have applica-
tions as solvents for mineral oils and resins.
See: biomass; cellulose

1. Medoff, M., T. C. Masterman, C. Cooper and J. Khan. Conversion of biomass.
United States Patent Application 2014/0011248, published on 9 January 2014.
samarium-based magnets
Samarium is a lanthanide element (also referred to as a rare-earth element) and alloys of this
metal with cobalt (Co), in particular SmCo5 and Sm2Co17, are used as compact permanent
magnets;1 SmCo5 has a hexagonal crystal structure. Samarium-based magnets are not as
powerful as neodymium-based magnets at ambient temperature but are stronger at higher
temperatures, around 200 C.
See: neodymium-based magnets

scaffolds
Scaffolds are semi-solid substrates used in tissue engineering in which immobilised cells
such as stem cells can grow in vitro or in vivo to form new tissue.1 Examples of scaffolds
include collagen–hydroxyapatite composite hydrogels for bone regeneration and polysac-
charides such as dextran, hyaluronic acid, chitosan and heparin. By tissue engineering is
meant synthetic tissue that can be used instead of human tissue in surgery or for research.2
The word tissue refers to a collection of cells that are organised to carry out one or more
specific functions. Thus, nervous tissue in animals can detect and transmit stimuli. How-
ever, an organ such as a lung or kidney can also be referred to as ‘tissue’.
See: bioprinting
2. Hine, R. S. (ed.). Osford Dictionary of Biology, 7th edn. Oxford: Oxford University
Press, 2015.
Glossary 265
security markers
There is much concern in governments relating to the counterfeiting1 of currencies and
important documents, such as passports, credit cards and driving licenses. Phosphors based
on lanthanide elements which have a wide range of optical emissions in the visible regions are
incorporated into sensitive documents, for example incorporation into banknotes that will
emit light under specific excitation.
self-cleaning glass
The lotus plant grows in marshes and lagoons, in particular in Asia and the Middle East.
The leaves are superhydrophobic so that water on them rolls up into droplets and falls off,
removing dirt in the process. The surface of the leaves has a hierarchical structure
consisting of raised asperities of epidermal cells known as papillae, forming an uneven
surface, and each papillae has a nanostructure of protruding tubular asperities of waxes.
The combination of microscale and nanoscale features make up the hierarchic structure
that prevents contact and adhesion between water droplets and the surface of the leaf.
The surface has a series of ‘mountains and valleys’. This property of the lotus plant has
been referred to as the ‘lotus effect’. An approach to making self-cleaning glass is to
fabricate a patterned surface that contains a hierarchical structure on the microscale and
nanoscale.1
See: superhydrophobic materials; self-cleaning titania-coated glass

1. Daoud, W. A. Self-Cleaning Materials and Surfaces: A Nanotechnology Approach.
New York: Wiley, 2013.
self-cleaning paint
Lotusan (Sto Corporation, Germany) is a self-cleaning paint1 that applies the ‘lotus effect’ to
produce a superhydrophobic self-cleaning coating on the exterior of buildings. The exterior
coating is known as StoCoat. The paint combines the ability to produce surface roughness
using sol-gel latex particles with a fluorinated hydrophobic coating. The combination of
microscale and nanoscale features makes up the hierarchic structure that prevents contact
and adhesion between water droplets and the coating.
See: lotus leaves; self-cleaning glass

266 Glossary
self-cleaning titania-coated glass

Window glass that has been coated with a thin transparent layer of crystalline anatase
titanium dioxide is self-cleaning. The coating absorbs ultraviolet light that produces a
photocatalytic reaction, breaking down dirt on the glass surface, after which residues are
swept away by rainwater. An example of this type of coated glass is Pilkington Activ.1 An
overview of self-cleaning materials is given in reference (2).
See: self-cleaning glass

1. van Dulken, S. Inventing the 21st Century. London: British Library, 2014.
self-healing materials
Structural materials fail due to the propagation of cracks and existing methods for increasing
the toughness of materials and hence the resistance to failure include the use of fibre-
reinforced composites. Self-healing materials have the capability to recover from damage
without external intervention. Two approaches have been used. In the first method micro-
capsules containing a chemical healing agent are dispersed throughout a composite matrix
that contains a catalyst.1 As a crack spreads and ruptures a capsule, the healing agent leaks
out from the capsule and flows into the region of the crack where it reacts with the catalyst,
causing polymerisation that seals the crack. In the second approach, hollow glass fibres have
been used to reinforce concrete and polymers.2 In the case of reinforced polymers, some of
the fibres contained a resin that was released when the advancing crack ruptured the fibres.
The resin reacted with a hardener in the matrix, causing polymerisation and sealing the crack.
See: composite materials

1. White, S. R., N. R. Sottos, P. H. Geubelle, J. S. Moore, M. R. Kessler, S. R. Sriram,
E. N. Brown and S. Viswanathan. Autonomic healing of polymer composites. Nature
(2001) 409, 794–7.
2. Ghosh, S. K. Self-healing materials: fundamentals, design strategies and applications.
In Self-Healing Materials: Fundamentals, Design Strategies and Applications,
pp. 1–28. Berlin: WWiley-VCH, 2009.
semiconducting-grade silicon
The early decades of the 21st century are an age of digital electronics that rely on the
production of integrated circuits. Manufacture of the latter requires chemically pure silicon
wafers. The Czochralski technique is used to produce single crystals of silicon.1 In the
technique, a seed crystal is rotated, inserted into a bath of molten silicon and slowly
withdrawn. Silicon atoms deposit onto the rotating crystal to form the desired orientation.
Silicon wafers are then cut from the silicon ingot.
See: integrated circuits

Glossary 267
emitting area
p-n junction
layer beam
(active
layer)
Fig. G.25 Schematic diagram of a semiconductor laser. The beam is emitted from a thin p–n
junction active layer.
semiconductor lasers
Solid-state semiconductor lasers consist of a p—n junction under forward bias and are
analogous to light-emitting diodes (LEDs); the n-type region is heavily doped (Fig. G.25).1
Electrons and holes recombine as in a LED but under an increasing current, a population
inversion occurs so that the number of electrons in the conduction band (n-type region) is
greater than in the valence band. Stimulated emission takes place when the population
inversion is achieved. Emission comes from the material in the junction not from a dopant.
See: lasers; p–n junction diodes

semiconductors
Semiconductors have an electrical conductivity of around 105–10 7 siemens per metre
(S m 1), intermediate between that of a conductor (up to109 S m 1) and an insulator
(as low as 10 16 S m 1).1,2 For example copper, a conductor, has a conductivity of
approximately 108 S m 1; polystyrene, an insulator, has conductivity in the region
of 10 14 S m 1; while silicon, a semiconductor, has a conductivity of approximately
10 3 S m 1. While individual atoms have discrete energy levels, the proximity of atoms in
a crystalline solid allows orbitals of their electrons to overlap and spread out to occupy
energy bands. Such a band model applies to crystalline semiconductors such as silicon and
germanium. The electrical conductivity of semiconductors increases with temperature as the
number of electrons promoted across the band gap to the conduction band from the valence
band increases.
See: band gaps; intrinsic semiconductors; extrinsic semiconductors

2009.
268 Glossary
shale gas
Shales are fine-grained sedimentary rocks that can contain oil reserves or natural gas
(methane).1,2 They have been drilled by vertical wells and injecting chemicals in solution
and a propping agent (i.e. proppant) to break up the rock so that entrapped gas is released.
The proppant ‘props up’ fissures in the rock, preventing their closure and allowing release
of the shale gas. The proppant can be sand or other hard material. This process is known
as hydraulic fracturing or more commonly it is referred to as ‘fracking’. Vertical shafts can
be turned through 90 to allow horizontal drilling so that a large area of land can be
explored from a single well. The technique has been widely used in the USA and there is
interest in using fracking in the United Kingdom. However, the technique has become
controversial and environmental concerns have been raised by opponents relating to the
large volumes of water that are injected into the wells and the possible effects of this water
on the quality of drinking water and on possible contamination of water supplies by
methane.
See: fracking; proppants

shape memory alloys

Shape memory alloys exhibit a reversible martensitic–austenitic phase transformation and
remain malleable in the low-temperature martensitic form but revert to their original stiff
shape in the austenitic form above the transformation temperature.1,2 They can exhibit
superelasticity when subjected to a stress-induced martensitic transformation. Nitinol, an
alloy of nickel and titanium (approximately 50% nickel), has a transformation temperature
in the range 10–20 C and was identified by Buehler and Wiley;3 the alloy is made by
metallurgical processes of melting, hot forging and rolling. Nitinol has good erosion,
corrosion and wear resistance, is biocompatible and has applications as the material for
implantable coronary stents. Other applications include connectors for pipes in aircraft
hydraulic systems producing a tight fit between components, valves, seals, actuators and
jewellery. When used in coronary stents the transformation temperature is below the body
temperature where the martensitic phase is present and the stent is inserted in a compressed
state, after which it expands to its final shape that has the austenitic phase. Forces produced
due to volume changes in the martensite–austenite transformation can be utilised in switches
in, for example, electric kettles. Other alloys that exhibit the shape memory effect include
those based on copper–zinc–aluminium, coppe–aluminium–nickel, iron–manganese–sili-
con, gold–cadmium and iron-manganese-aluminium-nickel compositions.4
See: biodegradable stents; nitinol; shape memory polymers; superelastic materials

Glossary 269
1. Noebe, R. D., S. L. Draper, M. V. Nathal and E. A. Crombie. Precipitation hard-

enable high temperature shape memory alloy. United States Patent 7,749,341,
granted on 6 July 2010.
2. Yamauchi, K., K. Mori and S. Yamashita. Balloon expandable superelastic stent.
United States Patent 7,658,761, granted on 9 February 2010.
3. Buehler, W. J., and R. C. Wiley. Nickel-based alloys. United States Patent 3,174,851,
granted in March 1965.
Structural and Biomedical Applications. Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann, 2015.
shape memory hydrogels

Hydrogels can absorb 10 times their dry weight as fluid and have applications in personal
sanitary towels. Smart memory polymers have been used in mattresses and cushions. Shape
memory hydrogels that contain features of hydrogels and shape memory polymers have
been used in sanitary pads such as those marketed under the trade name of ‘SmartFoam
always infinity’.1,2
See: hydrogels; shape memory polymers

Chemistry, 2014.
2. You Magazine, p. 68, 12 April 2015, available at http://You.co.uk.
shape memory polymers

Shape memory polymers are analogous to shape memory alloys and have mechanical
properties that occupy the region between the elastic zone and plastic deformation in the
stress–strain curve.1 Applications include energy absorbing sportswear and self-healing
materials. A shape memory polymer based on poly (e-caprolactone) has potential applica-
tion in facial reconstruction surgery.2 Tempur is a viscoelastic shape memory foam devel-
oped in the 1970s to improve g-force protection and comfort in seating in spacecraft.3 It has
wider commercial applications including cushions and mattresses.
See: shape memory alloys; Tempur

1. Hu, J. Shape Memory Polymers: Fundamentals, Advance and Applications. Shrews-
bury: Rapra, 2014.
2. O’Driscoll. C. Bone filler for faces. Chemistry and Industry (Sept. 2014) 78, 13.
3. Chemistry World (2015) 12 (4), 34.
shark skin
The skin of sharks has small surface projections known as denticles about 0.2 mm in length
that are aligned in the same direction and have surface grooves in the direction parallel to the
flow of water across the skin.1 This surface texture seems to prevent the adhesion of bacteria
270 Glossary
perhaps due to the surface curvature. Whether the denticles improve the swimming cap-
ability of sharks has not yet been evaluated. A material Sharklet AF that mimics the surface
texture of shark skin with potential applications in preventing the build-up of pathogens or
algae on surfaces has been developed.
See: biofilms
1. Lee, M. (ed.). Remarkable, Natural Material Surfaces and Their Engineering Potential,
p. 21. London: Springer, 2014.
sialons
Replacement of some silicon by aluminium in the crystal lattice of β-silicon nitride
(β-Si3N4), together with substitution of some nitrogen by oxygen in the crystal lattice to
maintain charge neutrality, produces solid solutions in the Si-Al-O-N system known as
β’-sialons with structures identical to that of with β-Si3N4.1,2 Their mechanical behaviour is
similar to that of silicon nitride with features of aluminium oxide but sialons have a stronger
Al-O bond strength than the oxide. β’-Sialons retain their hardness at higher temperature
than does alumina and can be densified by pressureless sintering. They are tough with high-
temperature and thermal-shock resistance and applications include cutting tool materials,
dies for drawing wires and tubes, thermocouple sheaths, crucibles and other areas where
temperatures are as high as around 1250 C.
See: silicon nitride

1. Jack, K. H. Sialons. In R. J. Brook (ed.), Concise Encyclopaedia of Advanced Ceramic
Materials, pp. 411–16. Oxford: Pergamon Press, 1991.
2013.
silicon-based solar cells

In a solar or photovoltaic cell, photons are absorbed by a semiconductor, a process that
excites electrons from the semiconductor’s valency band across the band gap into the
conduction band.1 Electron–hole pairs are separated in the solar cell to generate a photo-
current and photovoltaic effect (Fig. G.26). Single-crystal silicon has been used as a rigid
substrate for photovoltaic panels with efficiencies up to 20%: the efficiency is the percentage
of sunlight striking the cell that generates electricity. Amorphous silicon (a-Si) can be
deposited from gas phase reactants onto a low-cost flexible backing material such as plastic
or stainless steel. Silicon is an indirect band gap semiconductor, which means it is not an
efficient absorber of light so that a thick layer of single crystal is required for its use in solar
cells. Efficiencies for amorphous silicon thin-film solar cells are around 10% but they are
cheaper to produce than cells based on single-crystal silicon.
See: amorphous silicon

1. Eisberg, N. Solar bonanza. Chemistry & Industry (Nov. 2014) 78, 38–41, 2014.
Glossary 271
photon
n-type material
junction region space charge
region
p-type material
hole
electron
Fig. G.26 Schematic diagram for a solar cell. Sunlight falling on the cell generates electron–hole
pairs. Electrons move from the p to the n region and holes from the n to the p region in a drift
process. A photovoltage and photocurrent is produced as the p region becomes more positive and the
n region more negative.
silicon carbide fibre composites

Silicon carbide fibre is produced as a continuous length or as a woven fabric. Fibre-reinforced
silicon carbide composites can be fabricated in which the matrix is silicon carbide by infiltrat-
ing a SiC woven mat from, for example, the gas phase by chemical vapour infiltration (CVi).
Lightweight SiC/SiC composites have potential applications in gas turbines as replacements
for superalloys as they have higher operating temperatures.1 The addition of fibres to a matrix
increases the toughness of the component, which is the resistance to fracture.
See: silicon carbide fibres

silicon carbide fibres

Continuous polycarbosilane fibres can be drawn from solutions or by melt-spinning.1,2
Nicalon (Nippon Carbon) is a β-silicon carbide fibre manufactured as a continuous fibre
and continuous yarn. This fibre is one of the strongest materials known with a tensile strength
of around 3.0 GPa and has applications in reinforced ceramic or metallic matrices for use at
elevated temperatures where high strength and fracture toughness are required along with low
thermal expansion and density. The fibre has a maximum operating temperature of approxi-
mately 1450 C. A similar continuous fibre is Tyranno (Ube Industries) that is melt-spun from
a polytitanocarbosilane with a maximum operating temperature approaching 1900 C.
See: polycarbosilanes
2. Somiya, S. (ed.). Handbook of Advanced Ceramics. San Diego, CA: Academic Press, 2013.
272 Glossary
silicon carbide LEDs

Silicon carbide (SiC) does not occur in nature and was first synthesised in the early
part of the 19th century. Its commercial production from the reaction of sand with coke
at around 2700 C was developed by Acheson in 1892 and the material is widely used as
an abrasive grit in cutting and grinding wheels while as an electrical conductor it is used
as a heating element. Silicon carbide is an indirect band gap semiconductor and electro-
luminescence was first observed in this material. It emits blue light but is not as bright as
blue light emissions from direct band gap semiconductors such as gallium nitride. 1
See: electroluminescence; indirect band gap semiconductors

1. Johnstone, B. Brilliant!: Updated edition, p. 136. Prometheus Books, 2015.
silicon chips
A silicon chip is a piece of single crystal of semiconducting silicon that has been doped with
impurity atoms and contains electronic circuits for carrying out logical operations in an
algorithm. Silicon chips can contain millions of transistors, resistors and capacitors that are
produced by photolithographic techniques and form parts of an integrated circuit that form
the core of all electronic devices (Fig. G.27). The smallest feature that can be obtained in
current lithographic processes using argon fluoride excimer gas lasers (wavelength 193 nm) is
approximately 32 nm where this dimension refers to the width of deposited lines on the wafer.
This linewidth is approximately equal to the spacing between electrodes on the chip. Contin-
ual reduction of the minimum feature size (here 32 nm) allows more transistors to be packed
onto the chip, which increases the computing power of the device.1,2 Reducing the minimum
feature size allows the size of the chip to be reduced with the same number of transistors.
Assuming that the minimum feature size corresponds to the length of one transistor, then
about 2 billion (2 109) transistors can be packed onto a silicon wafer of the size of 1 cm2.
See: amorphous silicon; integrated circuits; Moore’s law; photoresists; n-type semiconductors;
p-type semiconductors
Contact pad
Resistor
Transistor Diode Capacitor

n
n
io
n
io
at
io
io
at
ol
at
at
ol
Is
ol
ol
Is
Is
Is
N
P P NP P P P P P
N N N
P
Substrate
Fig. G.27 Basic components of integrated circuits where the dark areas are contact pads.
(R. E. Hummel. Electronic Properties of Materials, 4th edn, p. 164. Berlin: Springer, 2013.)
Glossary 273
1. Boysen, E., and N. Boysen. Nanotechnology for Dummies, 2nd edn. New York: Wiley,
2011.
2. Askeland, D. K., and W. J. Wright. The Science and Engineering of Materials, 7th edn.
silicones
Silicones are polymers that contain alternating silicon and oxygen atoms ( Si O )
atoms in the polymer backbone.1,2 An example of a silicone is polydimethylsiloxane.
Silicones can be water-soluble or water-insoluble. Applications for silicones include
foaming agents for toothpastes and hair shampoos, sealants for bathroom tiles and aquaria
and potting agents for securing electrical wires and cables. Low-molecular-weight sili-
cones are liquids known as silicone oils. Fluorosilicones include poly [methyl (3,3,3-
trifluoropropyl) siloxane], which is a fluorosilicone elastomer; fluorosilanes are not for-
mally fluoropolymers. Fluorosilicone elastomers have applications as seals, gaskets and
valves in the auto and aerospace industries as they have good resistance to oil and fuel as
well as good thermal stability.
See: fluoropolymers
Hall, 2014.
silicon nitride
Silicon nitride, Si3N4, occurs in two phases, the α and β forms.1 It can be sintered
to dense components by addition of basic additives such as alumina or magnesium
oxide that give rise to liquid phases which form a glassy network that cements grains
of silicon nitride together. Both silicon nitride and sialons are structural or engin-
eering ceramics and applications for the former include engine components and
cutting tools.
See: sialons
1. Somiya, S. (ed.). Handbook of Advanced Ceramics. San Diego, CA: Academic
Press, 2013.
silver nanoparticles
Silver has been used as a microbial agent in particular silver ions as silver nitrate and
sulfadiazine for treatment of burns and bacterial infections.1,2 Silver nanoparticles can be
produced by chemical reduction of silver salts in aqueous and organic solution. Examples of
chemical reducing agents include sodium citrate, sodium borohydride, hydroxylamine
274 Glossary
hydrochloride, ascorbic acid and ethylenediaminetetracetic in the presence of a stabilising

agent to prevent aggregation of silver nanoparticles. Stabilising agents include polyacrylic
acid and polygalacturonic acid. Silver nanoparticles have a diameter less than 50 nm.
See: colloidal systems; nanoparticles

1. Zhang, J., and C. Shachaf. Methods of making silver nanoparticles and their applica-
tions. International Patent Applications WO 2014/052973, published on 3 April 2014.
2. Tani, T. Silver Nanoparticles. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2015.
small molecule OLEDs

Semiconducting conjugated organic polymers that exhibit electroluminescence have poten-
tial for use in displays such as in televisions and smartphones. Polymers are particularly
suited for flexible displays. Small organic molecules can exhibit electroluminescence and can
be used in principle for organic light-emitting diodes (OLEDs).1,2 For example, aluminium
quinolate can be evaporated under vacuum to a conducting thin layer around 0.2 µm thick
on an electron–hole layer that is deposited by vacuum evaporation onto an indium tin oxide
electrode on a glass substrate. An electrode that is deposited on top of the aluminium
quinolate layer completes the construction of the light-emitting diode.
See: conducting polymers; poly-(p-phenylenevinylene)

sity Press, 2013.
smart materials
Smart materials, also referred to as intelligent materials, are materials that can sense and
respond to their environment and change their properties to respond to the environmental
conditions.1,2 Smart materials include piezoelectric, electrochromic, thermochromic and
photochromic materials.
2. Aguilar, M. R., and J. S. Roman (eds). Smart Polymers and their Application.
smartphones
Smartphones are ubiquitous in everyday life and while users will be aware of the plastic cases
and glass screens, materials inside the smartphone are hidden from view.1,2 These materials
include indium tin oxide used as a transparent electrically conducting coating on the inside
of the screen, lithium-ion batteries and lanthanide elements, for example europium, terbium
and praseodymium that are used as phosphors to generate colours on the screens. Some
Glossary 275
materials used in smartphones are critical materials, for example gallium, indium, platinum,
gold, iridium, palladium, neodymium, gadolinium, erbium, terbium and lithium. Smart-
phones contain accelerometers and magnetometers that are fabricated by methods used for
the manufacture of integrated circuits.
See: critical materials

2. Lawler, R. What’s in your laptop? Materials World (June 2013) 21, 31.
smart textiles
Smart textiles, also referred to as smart clothing, have a function other than the traditional
role of textiles.1 For example, a thin layer of titanium dioxide on the surface of textile fibres
can photocatalytically oxidise stains and dirt attached to clothing to carbon dioxide and
water. Absorption of ultraviolet light by titanium dioxide produces an excited electronic
state in the oxide that interacts with oxygen in the air to produce reactive free radicals that
are responsible for oxidation of the stains and dirt on clothing.
1. Norman, N. Clothing gets smart. Chemistry World (Oct. 2012) 9, 58–61.
smectic phases
Liquid crystals can form smectic phases,1 in which molecules are arranged side by side in
layers and the molecules that are elongated or have a cigar-like shape are perpendicular to
the plane of the layers (Fig. G.28).
See: cholesteric phases; liquid crystals; nematic liquid crystals

2002) 90, 460–500.
SMOLED
SMOLED is an acronym for a small molecule organic light-emitting diode that emits light
by electroluminescence and which has lighting applications, for example in displays for
smartphones and in television screens.1 Examples of SMOLED are anthracene, naphtha-
lene and polyaromatic amines. A feature of these molecules is that they are conjugated.
See: electroluminescence; poly-(p-phenylenevinylene)

1. Hack, M., J. J. Brown, P. Levermore and M. S. Weaver. Organic light emitting device
lighting panel. United States Patent Application US 2011/0284899, published
24 November 2011.
276 Glossary
(a) (b)
(c)
Fig. G.28 Schematic representation of molecular alignments in liquid and liquid crystals: (a)
liquid, (b) smectic and (c) nematic.
(H. Kawamoto. The history of liquid crystal displays. Proceedings of the IEEE (2002) 90, 460–500.)
soft contact lenses

Soft contact lenses1 are mainly hydrogels made out of cross-linked hydrophilic monomers or
polymers and have been made by casting a pre-polymer mixture into a mould using two
mould halves, pressing the two halves together and then curing the reactants by, for
example, exposure to ultraviolet light that promotes polymerisation.
See: hydrogels
Chemistry, 2014.
sol-gel processes
Sol-gel processes are a set of techniques for preparing ceramic materials, particularly
advanced ceramics.1 The key feature of the methods is that they involve use of wet chemical
techniques rather than the conventional preparation of ceramics that mix and mill dry
powders. Ceramics can be made in the form of powders, coatings, fibres and monoliths
by sol-gel processing, often with compositions that cannot be prepared by conventional
methods. The techniques often involve handling of colloidal dispersions or alcoholic solu-
tions of metal alkoxides.
See: colloidal systems; insulating fibres

Glossary 277

solid-state lighting
About 20% of the total electric energy production in the USA is consumed for lighting
applications.1 Energy-efficient solid-state lighting based on light-emitting diodes is rapidly
replacing other lighting sources such as incandescent bulbs and fluorescent tubes in domestic,
industrial and environmental applications such as street lamps. This replacement is antici-
pated to continue in the 21st century. In addition, the proliferation of portable devices such as
smartphones and tablet computers helps to drive innovation in lighting technology, whether in
light-emitting diodes, quantum dots, liquid crystals or organic light-emitting diodes (OLEDs).
1. Hack, M., M.-Hao, M. Lu and M. S. Weaver. Organic light-emitting devices for
illumination. United States Patent Application 2011/0284899, 2011.
sphene
The development of nuclear power in the 20th century has resulted in the generation of
high-level radioactive wastes that are currently stored as solutions. One way of immobilisa-
tion of these wastes is to incorporate radionuclides into crystalline phases from which they
will not leach out. An example1 of such a phase is sphene (CaTiSiO5). Other crystalline
phases have been suggested for immobilisation including zircon and Synroc, a combination
of zirconolite (CaZrTi2O7), perovskite (CaTiO3) and hollandite (BaAl2Ti6O16).
See: glass ceramics

1. Reeve, K. D. Nuclear waste storage material. In R. J. Brook (ed.), Concise Encyclo-
paedia of Advanced Ceramic Materials, pp. 331–5. Oxford: Pergamon Press, 1991.
spider silk
The 20th century saw considerable research and development on synthetic fibres, such as
nylon and Kevlar. Spider silk proteins1,2 used by spiders for constructing spider webs form
strong and elastic fibres about 1 µm (micron) in diameter that is one-thousandth of a
millimetre as can be observed by how insects are trapped in the webs; the proteins are
oriented in the fibre, effectively forming liquid crystals. Glycine, an amino acid, is a major
component of spider silk. In the 21st century attention has turned to the use of recombinant
DNA technology to express proteins, for example from transgenic tobacco.
See: recombinant DNA technology; ZMapp

1. Lee, M. Spider silk: a sticky situation. In M. Lee (ed.), Remarkable Natural Material
Surfaces and Their Engineering Potential, pp. 145–57. New York: Springer, 2014.
278 Glossary

Approach to Nanomaterials, p. 680. Cambridge: Royal Society of Chemistry, 2009.
spin-on-glass
The manufacture of integrated circuits on a semiconductor wafer involves building up layers
of interconnected surface devices using metal wiring.1 The surface topography of each layer
can be irregular and uneven. Electrically insulating layers of glass are deposited onto the
layers, for example by spin coating to produce even surfaces that electrically isolate neigh-
bouring layers of devices. Materials used to produce the insulating layers are known as spin-
on-glasses.
See: polysilazanes
1. Lee, J.-H., J.-H. Cho, J.-S. Choi and D.-J. Lee. Spin-on glass composition and
spintronic materials
Computers based on the use of silicon chips and integrated circuits rely on the
transfer of electric charge (through charging and discharging of capacitors) to carry
out logic operations using binary notation and the use of transistors as switches that
recognise 0 and 1 in the circuits. Spintronic materials utilise the quantum mechanical
property of electron spin for potential applications in computers for carrying out
logic operations.1
p. 287. Oxford University Press, 2014.
sporting equipment
Materials used in sporting equipment have the potential to give the user a competitive
advantage. Fibre-reinforced polymer composites have been used in tennis rackets so
that the racket is lightweight with high strength. Incorporation of graphene flakes into a
polymer blend used for a fibre-reinforced composite can potentially increase the
compressive strength of the composite when it is moulded into the shape of a tennis
racket. Fibre-reinforced composites have been used in the construction of skis and
surfboard fins.1,2
1. Felice, M. A slippery slope. Materials World (Jan. 2013) 21, 54–5.
2. Perkins, J. Materials in sport: surfing. Materials World (Aug. 2015) 23, 24–5.
Glossary 279
spray-drying
Many materials in particular ceramics are used in the form of powders. For example, in
thermal spraying spherical powders have good flow properties for passing through a high-
temperature plasma source onto the substrate. In spray-drying,1 a slurry or colloidal disper-
sion is thrown off a rotating disc that is kept at an elevated temperature around
200 C. Water evaporates from the liquid droplets, producing dry spherical powders.
See: thermal barrier coatings

stainless steel
Stainless steel was first developed at the Krupp steelworks in 1912.1 A minimum content of
around 12 wt% chromium in steel together with a small carbon content conferred rust and
stain resistance. Stainless steel cutlery was first produced in 1913 at the Portland Works in
Sheffield. The 18/8 alloy containing 18 wt% chromium, 8 wt% nickel, 0.08 wt% carbon is
widely used in chemical plant and domestic equipment such as refrigerators.
See: steel
1. Tindell, H. Engineering Materials, p. 15. Marlborough, UK: Crowood Press, 2014.
stain-resistant clothing
The hierarchical surface structure of leaves in the lotus plant has been used as a model for
fabrication of stain-resistant clothing by incorporation of microscopic hydrophobic whiskers
onto the surface of textile fibres.1 The whiskers attach to the fibres in the fabric and prevent
contact between the fabric so that water droplets then roll off the fabric. The fabric is sold
under the name Aquapel and manufactured by Nano-Tex.2
See: superhydrophobic materials

Surfaces and Their Engineering Potential, p. 62. New York: Springer 2014.
2. Nano-tex. Available at http://www.nanotex.com
starch
Starches are polysaccharides found in plants, straw, fruit and shells as examples and are
often used as animal feeds.1–3 Starches are energy sources for animals and yield glucose on
digestion. Hence starches can be viewed as a form of biomass and a potential source of
280 Glossary
biofuels. Starch consists of a mixture of amylose and amylopectin; amylose is soluble in

hot water, whereas amylopectin remains insoluble. Amylose is a linear polysaccharide
containing between 100 and 1000 linked glucose molecules while amylopectin is a poly-
saccharide containing branched chains of glucose molecules. The group of amylase
enzymes cleaves the polysaccharide chains producing glucose and the sugar maltose that
consists of two linked glucose molecules. Maltose occurs in barley seeds and is critical for
the manufacture of beer and malt whisky. Mesoporous carbonised starches (pores with
diameter 2–50 nm), referred to as Starbons, have potential applications4 in liquid-phase
chromatographic separations, catalyst supports for catalytic hydrogenation of succinic acid
to 1,4-butanediol and butyrolactone as well as adsorbents, including removal of dyes from
wastewaters.
See: biomass; carbohydrates; monosaccharides; polysaccharides; starch nanoparticles

Press, 2008.
2. Atkins, P. Atkins’ Molecules, 2nd edn, pp. 115–17. Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press, 2003.
4. Clark, J. A star is born. Chemistry & Industry (July 2013) 77, 115–17.
starch nanoparticles
Starch is a renewable material and starch nanocrystals (i.e. crystalline nanoparticles) can be
extracted, for example by treatment of waxy corn starch with sulphuric acid; the nanopar-
ticles had a size around 50 nm and an aggregate size of approximately 1–5 µm. Biodegrad-
able sheets and bags for potential use as food packaging have been prepared from a mixture
of glycerol, starch and starch nanoparticles.1
See: starch
1. Smith, C., et al. Biodegradable, biocompatible and non-toxic material, sheets consist-
ing of said material and the use thereof in food, pharmaceutical, cosmetic and cleaning
products. United States Patent Application 2013/0034638, published on 7 February
2013.
statins
Cardiovascular disease accounts for about 30% of deaths worldwide, more than any other
disease, and is associated with the build-up of cholesterol in the body.1 Cholesterol is a
steroid and its biosynthesis in vivo involves the conversion of mevalonate to squalene that is
then converted to cholesterol. Mevalonate is produced in vivo by the catalytic action of the
enzyme hydroxymethylglutaryl coenzyme A reductase (abbreviated to HMGR) and the
formation of mevalonate is the rate-determining step in cholesterol biosynthesis. Human
HMGR consists of a polypeptide chain of 888 amino acids. Statins are small molecules that
Glossary 281
occupy the binding sites of HMGR and limits the production of mevalonate.2 Examples of
statins are Crestor (rosuvastatin calcium) and Lipitor(atorvastatin calcium).
2. Cordes, E. K. Hallelujah Moments: Tales of Drug Discovery, p. 123. Oxford: Oxford
stealth materials
Stealth materials are radar-absorbing materials and have the ability to minimise the radar
profile of military equipment.1 Hexagonal ferrites, or hexaferrites, such as those based on
barium hexaferrite (BaFe12O19) have high-frequency properties in the microwave region
of the electromagnetic spectrum that give the materials potential as stealth materials.
1. Pullar, R. A magnetic future. Materials World (May 2013) 21, 10.
steel
Iron and steel are essential for modern societies and annual worldwide production of steel is
around 109 tonnes. Low-carbon steels (less than 0.06% carbon) are used for automobile
bodies, cans and appliances while higher carbon contents provide greater strength. Hence
steel tools contain around 1.2% carbon but some steels contain very little carbon. By
definition steels are iron-based alloys.1 Introduction of the Bessemer process in 1856
allowed low-carbon steel to be produced quickly but nowadays this technique has been
replaced by the basic oxygen process.
See: recycling metals; stainless steel

1. Hosford, W. F. Iron and Steel. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2012.
stereolithography
Stereolithography is an automated process for fabrication of three-dimensional objects by
exposure of layers of a photopolymer liquid to visible or ultraviolet light that causes layers to
solidify and adhere to each other.1 Two-dimensional layer data representing cross-sections
of the object are stored on a computer and the movement of the light source (e.g. a laser) is
determined by the data sets so that the object is built up layer by layer. Stereolithography is a
three-dimensional printing technique.2 Pioneering work on stereolithography was carried
out by Charles Hull, who proposed this word.3
See: photopolymers
1. Partanan, J. P., and D. R. Smalley. Apparatus and method for controlling exposure of
a solidifiable medium using a pulsed radiation source in building a three-dimensional
object using stereolithography. United States Patent 6,215,095, granted on 10 April
2001.
282 Glossary
2. Hausman, K., and R. Horne. 3D Printing for Dummies. New York: Wiley, 2014.
3. Hull, C. W. Apparatus for production of three-dimensional objects by stereo-
lithography. United States Patent 4,575,330, 1986.
styrene-acrylonitrile-butadiene
The thermoplastic styrene-acrylonitrile-butadiene (ABS) copolymer resin is prepared from
polymerisation of styrene, acrylonitrile and butadiene, for example by using emulsion
polymerisation in suspensions of reactants. Acrylonitrile imparts strength, butadiene
imparts impact resistance and styrene aids processing of the polymer.1 Injection-molded
ABS resins have many applications: the body shells of office equipment such as computers,
home appliances, automotive applications, ducts to contain electrical wiring and toys as
examples. The mechanical properties of ABS can be varied by changing the relative
amounts of the components.
See: polystyrene; thermoplastics

1. Lee, W. K., B. D. Kim, C. D. Jung and S. H. Jin. Flame resistant thermoplastic resin
composition. United States Patent Application 2012/0172502, published on 5 July
2012.
styrene-butadiene rubber
Styrene-butadiene thermoplastic elastomers are the major polymer used as artificial
rubber in tyres for cars and other vehicles.1 In a styrene-butadiene block copolymer,
elastic behaviour does not depend on cross-linking of butadiene chains. Spherical
domains of glassy styrene at the end of butadiene repeat units between the styrene
domains are rigid and hold the chains together. The butadiene polymer regions are
above the glass transition temperature at ambient temperatures and induce soft rubbery
properties to the elastomer.
See: living polymers; tyre compositions

subtractive colour mixing

Colours are an integral part of everyday life, whether in the printed medium of newspapers
and magazines, in textiles or in electronic displays such as in mobile phones or in television
and computer screens. Visible light contains a narrow range of wavelengths within the
electromagnetic spectrum from around 360 to 780 nm. Violet has a wavelength in the
region of 400 nm while red has a longer wavelength around 750 nm. Red, green and blue
are known as primary additive colours as they cannot be obtained by mixing light of other
Glossary 283
colours (i.e. wavelength). Magenta, cyan and yellow are complementary colours that arise
when one component of visible light is absorbed and the other components are transmitted
or reflected. Thus, if blue light is absorbed, the reflected light contains red and green
components that appear as yellow. Magenta, cyan and yellow are the subtractive primary
colours1 and are used for coloured printed material and in inkjet printers. Subtractive colour
mixing is associated with dyes and pigments that selectively absorb primary colours. When
magenta, cyan and yellow are simultaneously used on an object, then the object will appear
black as all visible wavelengths are absorbed.
See: additive colour mixing; laser printing inks

2015.
subtractive machining
The conventional method used in the production of components involves a finishing step of
machining by means of milling, drilling and polishing so that parts meet requirements on
shape, size and quality. Machining removes material from the component and this step is
known as subtractive machining.1 Hence waste material is produced and tools need to be
replaced due to wear.
See: additive manufacturing

1. Andersson, C. Innovation in rapid prototyping and additive manufacturing. European
Medical Device Technology, 2012 (January/February).
sugary foods
There is much debate in countries with public health services on the rising levels of obesity
and the associated costs to those countries and the role of different types of food in
contributing to obesity. If foods are considered to be materials then their components
such as sugars1,2 and carbohydrates can be defined in the same way as components in
renewable resources such as wood and plants. Carbohydrates are compounds with the
general formula C6(H2O)y and include the simple sugars (monosaccharides) that cannot
be broken down into smaller units. Examples of monosaccharides are glucose (C6H12O6)
and fructose (C6H12O6). Sucrose is a carbohydrate consisting of a molecule of glucose
chemically linked to a molecule of fructose. Polysaccharides are carbohydrates with a larger
molecular weight and complexity than simple sugars and consist of long chains of mono-
saccharides, such as glucose. Examples of polysaccharides include starch and cellulose.
Formally starches are not sugars even though they can contain chains of glucose molecules.
About 210 g of granulated sugar can be dissolved in 100 g of water at room temperature
and potential high concentrations of sugar in beverages may not be appreciated by the
general public.
See: carbohydrates; polysaccharides

284 Glossary
2. Atkins, P. Atkins’ Molecules, 2nd edn, pp.108–13. Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press, 2003.
sunscreens
Nanoparticles of titanium dioxide (TiO2) are used in sunscreens1,2 to protect the skin from
ultraviolet (UV) light and to both reflect and, in particular, scatter UV light as it falls onto the
skin. Nanoparticles of zinc oxide (ZnO) have also been used in sunscreens. Both types of
nanoparticles can leave a clear film on the skin rather than a white residue.
See: nanoparticles
1. Boysen, E., and N. Boysen. Nanotechnology for Dummies, pp.156–7. Chichester:
Wiley, 2011.
superabsorbent polymers
Superabsorbent polymers form hydrogels capable of absorbing aqueous fluids.1 The
hydrogels can be used in the form of particles around 250 µm in diameter. Monomers
that form superabsorbent polymers include acrylic acid, methacrylic acid and vinylsul-
phonic acid.
See: hydrogels; disposable nappies

1. Hermeling, D., U. Stuven and U. Hoss. Super-absorbing hydrogel with specific
particle size distribution. United States Patent Application 2004/0265387, published
on 30 December 2004.
superalloys
Nickel-based superalloys are used as turbine blades in gas turbines in aircraft and power
generation plants.1 Oxidation and corrosion resistance, toughness, ductility and low rate of
creep are desirable properties at operating temperatures around 1500 C. Blades are cast
from single crystals eliminating grain boundaries, resulting in low creep. Intricate cooling
channels are built into the blades. Three-dimensional printing is being explored for the
fabrication of turbine blades.
See: thermal barrier coatings; three-dimensional printing

1. Felice, M. Materials for aeroplane engines. Materials World (May 2013), 52–3.
Glossary 285
supercapacitors
Conventional capacitors store electric charge on their surfaces. Supercapacitors, also known
as ultracapacitors or electrochemical capacitors, have properties intermediate between
conventional capacitors and batteries in how they store electric charge.1 The latter is stored
in the double layer around the surface. Graphene has been considered as a component of a
supercapacitor electrode.
1. Whittingham, M. S. Electrochemical energy storage: batteries and capacitors. In
superconducting metals and alloys

Superconductors are materials that have no electrical resistance. The phenomenon was
discovered in 1911 when a superconducting transition or critical temperature (often
referred to as Tc) of 4.2 K was observed for mercury in liquid helium. The value of Tc
was raised to 23.2 K for alloys of niobium and germanium (Nb3Ge) in 1973. Certain alloys,
for example a niobium-titanium alloy in the form of a coil, when immersed in liquid helium,
is used to generate intense magnetic fields (up to 2 T) used in magnetic resonance imaging
(MRI). The explanation of this conventional superconductivity is explained by the BCS
theory (after J. Bardeen, L. N. Cooper and R. Schrieffer) in which current in the supercon-
ductor is carried by bound pairs of electrons known as Cooper pairs.1,2
See: density functional theory

2009.
2. Kresin, V., H. Morawitz and S. Wolf. Superconducting State. Oxford: Oxford Univer-
sity Press, 2013.
superconducting oxide ceramics

High-temperature oxide or ceramic superconductors that exhibit superconductivity were
identified by Georg Bednorz and Karl Muller.1 Transition temperatures for ceramic super-
conductors are higher than those for superconducting alloys, around 100 K compared to 22.3
K for niobium-germanium alloys, and exhibit loss of electrical resistance when immersed in
liquid nitrogen at 77 K.2 Examples of superconducting oxide compositions are based on
yttrium barium copper oxide (YBa2Cu3O6.95) and bismuth strontium calcium copper oxide
(Bi2Sr2Ca2Cu3O10) with values of Tc around 90 and 125 K, respectively. Hg0.8Tl0.2Ba2Ca2-
Cu3O8.33 has a Tc of 135 K. A recent application for ceramic superconductors is as a power
cable to replace copper cabling in a power network in Essen, Germany.3 Challenges for
exploiting high-temperature superconductors are described in reference (4).
1. Bednorz, J. G., and K. A. Muller. Possible high-Tc superconductivity in the Ba-
La-Cu-O system. Zeitschrift fur Physik B (1986) 64, 189–93.
2. Qiu, X. G. (ed.). High-Temperature Superconductors. Cambridge: Woodhead, 2011.
286 Glossary
3. Frost, S. Materials World (Nov. 2014), 22, 16–17.

4. Melham, Z. (ed.). High-Temperature Superconductors (HTS) for Energy Applications.
superelastic materials
Superelastic materials are associated with the shape memory effect in alloys.1 Here if a
material such as nitinol is deformed at low temperature its original shape can be recovered by
heating above a characteristic temperature. However, if the alloy is deformed at high
temperature in the austenite phase, then its original shape can be recovered by removing
the applied load. This property, that is the deformation, is known as superelasticity or
pseudoelasticity. Nitinol can deform to nearly 8% strain, whereas most metals can deform
to less than 1% strain.1 The applied load induces the phase transformation from the
austenite to martensite phase. Superelastic properties of shape memory alloys are exploited
in dental braces and spectacle frames.
See: nitinol; shape memory alloys

Structural and Biomedical Applications. Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann, 2015.
superglue
Superglues, which are widely available to the general public, are based on cyanoacrylates,
CH2=C(CN)COOR, where R is an alkyl group.1,2 The methyl and ethyl esters correspond-
ing to R=CH3 and R=C2H5 are components of superglues, in particular in Super Glue.
These adhesives polymerise quickly in air in the presence of moisture and are very strong
adhesives. Polymerisation also occurs in the presence of a base such as N,N,-dialkyl
anilines.1 Superglues can be compared to the weak tacky adhesives used in Post-it notes
and biodegradable hydrogels used for surgical adhesives.
See: bioadhesives; biodegradable hydrogels; epoxy adhesives; hairy adhesives; Post-it notes
1. Huver, T., C. Nicolaison and S. Camp. United States Patent 5,561,198, 1995.
superhydrophobic materials
Superhydrophobicity is a property of the surface of a material and superhydrophobic
materials are very difficult to wet by water; that is, water does not spread easily over the
surface.1 Superhydrophobic surfaces have a contact angle greater than 140 . Many plants
have leaves that are superhydrophobic, for example the leaves of the lotus plant.
See: contact angle; self-cleaning glass

1. Felice, M. Superhydrophobic materials. Materials World (Aug. 2013) 21, 50–1.
Glossary 287
superlattice
A superlattice consists of an array of multiple quantum wells and superlattices have appli-
cations in quantum well solid-state lasers.1 Thus, a superlattice consists of a periodic array of
wide band gap and narrow band gap materials.2 The periodicity is artificial and has the
potential for engineering new electronic properties.
See: quantum cascade lasers

1. Tilley, R. J. D. Understanding Solids: The Science of Materials. Chichester: Wiley,
2013.
2. Hummel, R. E. Electronic Properties of Materials, 4th edn. London: Springer Science,
2011.
super twisted nematics

Super twisted nematic liquid crystals have a faster response time and wider viewing angle than
twisted nematic liquid crystals when used in displays.1 A qualitative understanding of super
twisted nematics (STN) liquid crystals can be gained by an analogy with a twisted piece of
elastic.2 The more the elastic is twisted, the more it ‘twangs’ on release, thus a sharper response
to an applied force. In a STN liquid crystal in a display the twist is increased from a quarter
turn (90 ) characteristic of a nematic liquid crystal display. STN liquid crystals have a faster
speed of response to the applied voltage than nematic liquid crystals. In practice, STN liquid
crystals produce an improved picture quality.
See: nematic liquid crystals

90, 460–500.
2. Dunmur, D., and T. Sluckin. Soap, Science and Flat-Screen TVs: A History of Liquid
synthesis gas
Synthesis gas, or syngas, is a mixture of carbon monoxide and hydrogen, often prepared by
steam reforming of methane in natural gas or partial oxidation of hydrocarbons.1 Syngas is a
feedstock for conversion to synthetic diesel using the Fischer–Tropsch process and a source
of hydrogen. Synthesis gas can also be produced by coal gasification and when produced in
this way was known as town gas for domestic and industrial use in Europe until the 1950s
when it was replaced by natural gas.
See: coal gasification; synthetic diesel

288 Glossary
synthetic biology
Synthetic biology is a multidisciplinary field with contributions from natural product chem-
istry, materials science, engineering, biotechnology and genetic engineering.1–3 Potential
applications include medical diagnostics, biofuels, regenerative medicine and tailored
microbes to produce medicines. In synthetic biology, biological structures are designed
and manipulated to produce useful products.
1. Ginsberg, D., J. Calvert, P. Schyfter, A. Eflick and D. Enby. Synthetic Aesthetics:
Investigating Synthetic Biology’s Designs on Nature. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2014.
2. Freemont, P. S., and R. I. Kitney (eds). Synthetic Biology: A Primer. London: Imperial
College Press, 2012.
3. Baldwin, G., T, Bayer, R. Dickinson, T. Ellis, P.S. Freemont, R.I. Kitney, K. Polizzi
and G.-B. Stan. Synthetic Biology: A Primer. Singapore: World Scientific, 2015.
synthetic diesel
Methane (CH4) is often found in association with oil deposits and can be converted to a
mixture of carbon monoxide and hydrogen by steam reforming in which steam reacts with
methane at pressures up to 20 atm, often at around 2 atm, using a catalyst such as nickel or
platinum. The resulting gaseous mixture is known as synthesis gas and can be converted in
the Fischer–Tropsch reaction to synthetic diesel, that is to hydrocarbon liquids at around
300 C and 20 atm in the presence of a catalyst, for example cobalt.1,2
See: associated gas

1. Bowe, M. J., D. L. Segal, C. D. Lee-Tuffnell, D. C. W. Blaikley, J. A. Maude,
J. W Stairmand and I. F. Zimmerman. Catalytic reactor. United States Patent
8,118,889, granted on 21 February 2012.
2. Maitlis, M., and A. de Klerk. Greener Fischer-Tropsch Processes for Fuels and Feedstocks.
synthetic rubber
The monomer isoprene is derived from petrochemical sources by thermal cracking of
petroleum or naphtha feedstocks and is obtained in the cis- and trans- isomer forms.1
Synthetic rubber obtained by polymerisation of cis-isoprene obtained from petroleum or
naphtha feedstocks corresponds to cis-1,4-polybutadiene.
See: natural rubber

Glossary 289
tar sands
Tar sand is a sandstone located near the Earth’s surface and containing bitumen, a
very viscous petroleum-based material that does not flow at the temperatures used to
extract oil.1 The bitumen has formed over millions of years from prehistoric organisms
such as algae. Sources of tar sands are in Canada and Venezuela. Bitumen can be
recovered by injection of steam into the sands that reduces its viscosity and the
molecular weight of the bitumen is reduced by hydrocracking to produce useful
petroleum products.
tempur
Tempur is a viscoelastic shape memory polyurethane foam.1
See: shape memory polymers

1. Chemistry World (Apr. 2015) 12, 34.
textile printing
Coloured patterns and images are often printed onto textile fabrics and a manufacturing
process involves rotary screen printing. In this process an image is produced on a plastic
mesh by a photopolymerisation technique which is analogous to photolithography so that
the image is contained in the open areas of the mesh. The mesh is placed in contact with the
fabric and the image is built up by squeezing the dye through the gaps in the mesh. Additives
are used in the dye compositions to ensure the pigments adhere to the fibres. While indigo is
an established vat dye, the technique of indigo printing, a direct printing processes known as
Pencil Blue or China Blue for producing white on blue or blue on white patterns, was
developed in the 19th century.1 In the former technique brushes are used to apply reduced
indigo pastes to the fabric while in the China Blue method indigo pastes are printed onto the
fabric and subjected to a series of reductions in a bath of ferrous sulphate solution followed
by air oxidation. The name China Blue arose as the final appearance of the printed fabric
was similar to Chinese blue and white porcelain.
See: indigo
1. Ratnapandian, S., S. Fergusson L. Wang and R Padhye. Indigo colouration. In J. Fu
(ed.). Dyeing: Processes, Techniques and Applications, pp. 65–76. Hauppauge, NY:
290 Glossary
thermal barrier coatings

Thermal barrier coatings are applied to turbine blades to protect them from melting.1 Barrier
coatings are usually made from a ceramic powder, yttria-stabilised zirconia, and applied by
thermal spraying, for example by plasma spraying. A metallic bondcoat layer is deposited
between the surface of the superalloy and the ceramic coating and helps to prevent cracking in
the barrier layer due to thermal expansion. Plasma-sprayed coatings tend to be porous.
See: superalloys
1. Probert, T. Blade runner: Improving gas turbine coatings. Materials World (Nov.
2013) 38–41.
thermochromic liquid crystals

Thermochromic materials change colour with changes in temperature and this behaviour is
characteristic of some liquid crystals used as a thermometer.1–3 If a backing strip contains
layers of a liquid cholesteric crystal and is exposed to light then light that has a wavelength
(i.e. colour) corresponding to the pitch is reflected and the rest of the light is adsorbed by the
backing material. As the temperature rises, the pitch length decreases as the twist in each
layer increases, making the helical structure tighter so that blue light is reflected (short
wavelength). As the temperature falls, the helix is not wound so tightly and the pitch length
increases so that longer wavelength light (red) is reflected. Regions of the strip contain liquid
crystals with slightly differing compositions and pitches so that the same wavelength of light
(i.e. colour) is reflected at slightly different temperatures.
See: cholesteric phases

3. L. C. Hallcrest Inc. Available at: http://www.hallcrest.com.
thermoplastics
Thermoplastics are polymers that can be processed either as a melt or as a softened material
on heating into a variety of products (e.g. food packaging, cups, trays and car parts), for
example by extrusion, molding and spinning.1,2 Thermoplastics include polyethylene,
polyesters, polycarbonate and polyvinylchloride. Thermoplastics contain additives includ-
ing plasticisers for flexibility, pigments and fillers and also flame retardants.
Hall, 2014.
Glossary 291
thermosetting plastics
Thermosetting plastics are derived from resins that set to a hard rigid shape on heating
through a polymerisation process.1,2 These plastics cannot be processed by softening or in a
melt process because polymerisation results in cross-linked polymer chains and the chains are
resistant to softening and deformation. Thermosetting resins include phenol-formaldehyde
polymers. Thermosetting plastics contain additives including plasticisers for flexibility, pig-
ments and fillers such as flame retardants.
Hall, 2014.
thin-film transistors
Thin-film transistors (TFTs) displays are frequently advertised, for example as a display in
the Fiat 500 Cult automobile. A TFT display is equivalent to an active matrix display in
which each pixel on the screen is backed with a thin-film transistor in a two-dimensional
sheet to store its state during transitions in the energising voltage.1 Instead of using an
assembly of individual resistors, transistors and capacitors soldered together to form com-
plex electronic circuits, TFTs are deposited as a thin layer onto the inner surface of a display
such as a television screen.2 The individual TFTs act as separate switches for the voltages
applied to the pixels of the display. Pixels in the display are switched on and off by electrical
pulses applied to elements of the matrix in which pixels are located at the intersection of
current-carrying conductors arranged in rows and columns. This arrangement avoids pisels
being switched on unintentionally.
See: AMOLED
1. Platt, C., and F. Jansson. Encyclopaedia of Electronic Components, vol. 2, p. 246.
San Francisco, CA: Maker Media, 2014.
three-dimensional printed metals

Selective laser sintering (SLS) is a variant of three-dimensional printing in which objects are
built up layer by layer from a metal powder.1,2 In SLS metal powders are deposited layer by
layer on a surface and each layer of powder particles is sintered by a laser that scans the
surface before deposition of the next powder layer.
See: three-dimensional printing

1. Hausman, K., and R. Horne. 3D Printing for Dummies. Chichester: Wiley, 2014.
2. Deckard, C. R. Method and apparatus for producing parts by selective sintering.
United States Patent 4,863,538 1989.
292 Glossary
three-dimensional printed plastics

Fused deposition modelling (FDM) is a variant of three-dimensional printing in which
objects are built up layer by layer from a thermoplastic material.1,2 In FDM a thermoplastic
material in the form of a reel or a rod is fed to a dispensing head, melted and dispensed
through an extrusion tip onto a substrate. Layers are built up from molten plastic droplets.
Examples of plastics that can be used in FDM include nylon, polycarbonate, polylactic acid
and styrene-acrylonitrile-butadiene (ABS).
See: styrene-acrylonitrile-butadiene; three-dimensional printing

2. Crump, S. S. Modeling apparatus for three-dimensional objects. United States Patent
5,340,433, 1994.
three-dimensional printing
Three-dimensional, or 3D printing, is an additive manufacturing technique in which a
three-dimensional model of an object stored in a computer in a computer-aided design
system is sliced into thin cross-sections and then the results are translated into two-
dimensional position data.1,2 The latter is used to control equipment for manufacture of a
three-dimensional part in a layerwise manner. Materials used for printing include plastics,
ceramic, metal powders and living cells.
See: abrasives; additive manufacturing; bioprinting; stereolithography; superalloys

2. Milmo, S. Reprint: Rebirth of an industry. Chemistry and Industry (Sept. 2015) 79, 44–7.
three-way automotive catalysts

Three-way automotive catalysts are incorporated into the exhaust systems of automobiles
to reduce pollutants in the vehicle emissions.1 These catalysts are usually supported on a
cordierite honeycomb and for petrol (gasoline) engines they convert carbon monoxide to
carbon dioxide, hydrocarbons from unburnt petrol to water and carbon dioxide and
nitrogen oxides to nitrogen. The filters are open at both ends and are also known as
flow-through filters. Catalysts include platinum and rhodium. For diesel emissions, the
honeycombs act as particulate filters for removal of carbon particles and contain catalysts
for treating nitrogen oxides.
See: ceramic honeycomb; diesel particulates

1. van Vlack, L. H. Automotive materials. In R. J. Brook (ed.), Concise Encyclopaedia of
Advanced Ceramic Materials, pp. 25–30. Oxford: Pergamon Press, 1991.
Glossary 293
toughened materials
Toughness is a property of materials and is a measure of the resistance to the growth of
cracks within the material that can lead to failure.1 The toughness of materials is increased
by incorporation of fillers or fibres that act to deflect cracks: for example, glass fibre-
reinforced plastics or silicon carbide fibre-reinforced silicon carbide composites and
alumina-toughened zirconia components. The shells of molluscs are tough due to their
composite nature.
See: biomimetic materials; nacre; silicon carbide fibres

trademarks
Trademarks are words and logos with distinctive features that can distinguish goods or
services of one business from those of another.1,2 The features include logos, sounds,
colours, gestures, brand names and slogans. A registered trademark is represented by a
superscript ® next to the mark while an unregistered mark has a superscript ™ next to the
mark. The significance of trademarks to materials arises because when patent protection for
a material has lapsed (usually 20 years after the filing date) the trademark can be used in
perpetuity. Even though competitors can make the generic product, they are not able
(without permission from the original owner) to use the trademark. For example, patent
protection has lapsed for Lycra used in clothing but the trademark is widely used to advertise
its continuing use in textiles or other applications.
1. McManus, J. Intellectual Property: From Creation to Commercialisation. Oxford: Oak
Tree Press, 2012.
2. Jackson Knight, H. Patent Strategy for Researchers and Research Managers. Chichester:
Wiley, 2012.
traditional ceramics
Traditional ceramics are derived from naturally occurring raw materials and include clay-
based products such as tableware and sanitaryware as well as structural claywares, for
example bricks and pipes.1 Raw materials include clay minerals such as kaolinite, also
known as kaolin, (Al2Si2O5(OH)4), silica sand and a feldspar [e.g.(K, Na)2O;Al2O3;6SiO2].

1. Verdeja, L. F., J. P. Sancho, A. Ballester and R. Gonzalez. Refractory and Ceramic
Materials. Madrid: Editorial Sintesis, 2014.
294 Glossary
transistors
Transistors are a key component of integrated circuits and computers and are based on the
electronic properties of a p–n–p or n–p–n structure in a semiconductor:1,2 For example, two
doped n-type regions in a p-type silicon substrate. This type of transistor is known as a
MOSFET, that is, a metal oxide semiconductor field effect transistor, and contains three
terminals (Fig. G.29). One terminal on the n-type region is the ‘source’ and another terminal
on the other n-type region is the ‘drain’. The source and drain are connected by a conducting
strip, the gate which represents the third terminal, and the gate is separated from the silicon
substrate by a thin insulating layer of silica. The region between the source and drain is known
as the ‘channel’. If a potential is applied between the source and drain, then electrons cannot
flow from the source to drain as the p-type region has a low electrical conductivity. When a
modulating voltage is applied between the gate and source, electrons move to the region of the
gate but cannot enter the gate because of the insulating region of silica. The concentration of
electrons below the gate makes the channel more conductive so that a large applied voltage
between the source and drain allows electrons to flow from the source to the drain, producing
an amplified signal (the ‘on’ state). When no potential is applied to the gate no electrons move
to the region between the source and drain and there is no current flow from the source to
drain (the ‘off ’ state). Thus, current flow between source and drain is controlled by the voltage
on the gate. Transistors act as amplifiers but also as switches; that is, they recognise on-off
instructions. This operation as switches is crucial in their use in logic gates for processing
binary notation, that is, in distinguishing 1 from 0 in these circuits. It has been estimated that
humans produce more transistors per year than grains of rice.3 Initial work on transistors was
carried out by John Bardeen, Walter Brattain and William Shockley in 1947.
See: p–n junction diodes

2. Sinclair, I. Electronics Simplified, 3rd edn. Oxford: Newnes, 2011.
3. Askeland, D. R., and W. J. Wright. The Science and Engineering of Materials, 7th edn,
Insulating layer Insulating layer
Source Gate Drain Source Gate Drain

VGS
n p n n p n
Channel
Substrate Substrate
(a) No applied voltage (b) Voltage applied between gate and source
Fig. G.29 Schematic diagram of a MOSFET field-effect transistor where the gate acts as a
capacitor.
(M. Nixon. Digital Electronics: A Primer, p. 87. London: Imperial College Press, 2015.)
Glossary 295
triacetone triperoxide
There is concern among governments in the 21st century on the availability of explosives
that can be made from household chemicals and which are unstable.1,2 Peroxide-based
explosives such as triacetone triperoxide (TATP) is an example of this type of explosive.
Another type of homemade explosive is hexamethylene triperoxide diamine (HMTD).
1. Milmo, S. Bomb chemicals face EU regulation. Chemistry World (Nov. 2012) 9, 17.
2. Robinson, P. Explosive chemistry. Chemistry World (Feb. 2015) 12, 46–9.
twisted nematic liquid crystals

Twisted nematic liquid crystals (‘thread-like structure’) have a positive dielectric anisotropy
where the dielectric constant along the axis of the molecule is greater than the dielectric
constant in the perpendicular direction and are particularly useful for liquid crystal dis-
plays.1,2 An example of such a material is n-4’-ethoxybenzylidene-4-aminobenzontrile
(PEBAB). In use, the crystals are sandwiched between two electrodes and on one electrode
the molecules are aligned in a horizontal direction, whereas they are in a perpendicular
direction on the other electrode, forming a helical structure. Optical activity of the molecules
is controlled by the application of an electrical field that causes the helical structure to
untwist and control light transmission that gives rise to the image seen by an observer.
See: liquid crystal display; nematic liquid crystals

1. Helfrich, W., and M. Schadt. Optical device. United Kingdom Patent Application,
1,372,868, 1974.
2. Dunmur, D., and T. Sluckin. Soap, Science, & Flat-Screen TVs: A History of Liquid
two-dimensional materials
Graphene is a two-dimensional sheet of carbon that is one atomic layer thick in which the
atoms are arranged in a hexagonal array in a honeycomb structure and it is the thinnest known
material. There is much activity in using this material for electronic applications due to its high
electrical conductivity but graphene is not a semiconductor, properties of which are desirable
for electronic applications.1,2 Attempts continue to prepare other two-dimensional materials
with properties comparable to those of graphene. Potential candidates, if they can be prepared,
include ‘stannene’, a sheet of tin atoms, and ‘germanene’ sheets of germanium atoms while
attempt to modify the structure of graphene to impart semiconducting properties, are being
explored. For example, triazine-based graphitic nitride is a semiconductor.
See: graphene
1. Gross, M. Stannene: the next miracle material. Chemistry and Industry (Sept. 2014)
78, 24–7.
2. Evans, J. Beyond graphene. Chemistry World (Jan. 2014) 11, 44–7.
296 Glossary
tyre compositions
Nowadays, the principal synthetic rubber used for automotive tyres is based on copolymers
of styrene (C6H5CH=CH2) and butadiene (CH2=CHCH=CH2), and blends of styrene-
butadiene elastomers (SBR) and natural rubber are used in tyres. SBR can be produced in a
free-radical polymerisation reaction in an emulsion and these copolymers have good wear
and abrasion resistance and strength. Styrene-butadiene copolymers can be prepared with a
narrow distribution of molecular weights and are known as living polymers when this
criterion is fulfilled. Styrene-butadiene elastomers have been commercialised under the
trade name Kraton (Shell Chemical Company).1
See: living polymers

1. J. A. Tyrell. Fundamentals of Industrial Chemistry: Pharmaceuticals, Polymers and
Ultrafiltration membranes
Membranes are porous barriers that are selective in the type of species allowed to pass through
them.1 Ultrafiltration membranes have a molecular weight cut-off of around 10,000 and a
pore diameter of approximately 4 nm so that species with a molecular weight larger than this
value are retained by the membrane. Examples of ultrafiltration membrane are ‘Kerasep’
membranes that consist of multichannel porous alumina monoliths with a zirconia ultrafiltra-
tion separation layer on the inside of the channels. Ultrafiltration membranes can be made
from polymers although ceramic membranes have greater mechanical stiffness and superior
chemical and thermal durability. Ultrafilters can separate some bacteria and some sugars.
See: nanofiltration membranes

1. Basile, A., and S. P. Nunes. Advanced Membrane Science and Technology for Sustainable
Energy and Environmental Applications. Cambridge: Woodhead, 2011.
Velcro
Inspiration for inventions can come from the natural world. The greater burdoch is a hairy
bush whose purple flowers grow on top of small globes, each consisting of many hooked
bracts that cover the bush.1 The bracts carry the seeds and their hooks catch on animal fur or
clothes, so that the seeds get widely distributed. George de Mestral, a Swiss inventor, was
out walking his dog in the 1940s and noticed the burrs hooking onto the dog’s fur. This
observation is said to have given him the idea for his invention of Velcro used in fasteners.2–4
The latter consists of two strips of a support, for example terry- or velvet-type woven textile
or metal. One strip contains a series of hooks while the other strip contains a series of loops;
hooks and loops can be made out of nylon. The hooks can be pressed into the loops, thus
securing the fastener while the strips can be easily pulled apart.
1. May, D. The Times, 9 September 2013.
2. de Mestral, G. Separable fastening device. United States Patent. 3,009,235, granted
on 21 November 1961.
Glossary 297
3. de Mestral, G. Apparatus for manufacturing separable fasteners. United States Patent

3,083,737, granted on 2 April 1963.
4. de Mestral, G. Method for the manufacture of pile fabrics. United States Patent
3,154,837, granted on 3 November 1964.
Viton
Viton is a copolymer of vinylidene fluoride and hexafluoropropylene and can be used as a
replacement for natural rubber.1 Viton is an example of a fluoropolymer and this class of
material is thermally stable and relatively inert. Viton is associated with its use as ‘O’ ring
seals in chemical reactors. Another example of a fluoropolymer is Technoflon, a copolymer
between vinylidene fluoride and 1-hydropentafluoropropylene.2 Both Viton and Techno-
flon have a backbone of carbon–carbon bonds.
See: elastomers
2. Loadman, J. Tears of the Tree: The Story of Rubber–A Modern Marvel. Oxford: Oxford
vulcanite
The sulphur content used by Charles Goodyear for the vulcanisation of natural rubber was
around 3 wt%. As the sulphur content increases, the cross-linking of natural rubber molecules
increases and a hard, black, non-elastomeric product known as vulcanite (also referred to as
ebonite) was produced when the sulphur concentration approached 30 wt%.1,2 Applications
for this early plastic in the 19th century included materials for fountain pens until it was
superseded by other plastics (Fig. G.30).
See: elastomer
Vycor
Vycor is an example of a high-silica-containing glass with a typical composition 96% SiO2;
3% B2O3; 1% Na2O and has a low coefficient of thermal expansion.1 It has applications as
windows in space vehicles.
See: phase-separated glasses

298 Glossary
Fig. G.30 Vulcanite articles: (a) a jumble of necklace chains, (b) pendants, (c) buttons and
brooches, (d) detail of one brooch (top right in (c)), (e) fountain pens, (f) flute, (g) pipe bowl, (h)
revolver hand grips, (i) brooch, (j) Queen Victoria Jubilee medal, (k) ornamental comb, (l) combs,
(m) medicine holders and (n) cigarette lighter.
( J. Loadman. Tears of the Tree: The Story of Rubber—A Modern Marvel, p. 236. Oxford: Oxford
University Press, 2014.)
Glossary 299
Fig. G.30 (Continued)

300 Glossary
waterproof cosmetics
Waterproof properties are important for certain cosmetics and personal hygiene products,
for example in mascara and lipsticks.1 Sunscreens that help protect the user from harmful
exposure to components of sunlight should be waterproof and have a smooth texture when
applied from skin care formulations. Solid polymeric citrate esters made by reaction of
alcohols with citric acid where the reactants are obtained from natural products can act as a
waterproofing agent for sunscreens.
1. Ranade, R. A., and M. S. Garrison. Cosmetic compositions for imparting super-
hydrophobic films. United States Patent Application US 2011/0008401, published on
13 January 2011.
waterproof garments
The word mackintosh is used to describe a waterproof garment such as a raincoat.1,2
Charles Mackintosh showed in 1824 that a solution of natural latex rubber could be
dissolved in naphtha and coated onto sheets of cloth that could be glued together by the
rubber and used as waterproof clothing.
See: elastomer
weapons-grade plutonium
The isotope 239Pu is produced in thermal nuclear reactors by neutron bombardment of non-
fissile 238U. The capture of neutrons by 238U and formation and decay of 239U and 239Np
produces fissionable 239Pu. Weapons-grade plutonium consists of plutonium with approxi-
mately 93% or more of 239Pu.1
1. Hecker, S. S., M. Englert and M. C. Miller. Nuclear non-proliferation. In
wearable technology
Running is a popular pastime and it is a common sight to see runners with small monitors
strapped to their arms to measure and record physiological data such as heart rate and body
temperature. In addition, Google Glass, a wearable pair of glasses with a miniature camera
attached for recording the environment, has been evaluated and was issued as an experi-
mental product but did not go on sale. Contact lenses with sensors to detect eye fluids for
signs of disease have been developed. These products are examples of wearable technology
and the data which they collect can be wirelessly transmitted to other electronic devices for
analysis.1 Other examples of wearable technology include incorporation of devices such as
Glossary 301
earphones and microphones designed into textile fabric as well as keypads incorporated into
fabric and smart watches such as the Sony Smartwatch. Wearable technology utilises
miniature sensors fabricated on silicon, often involving microelectromechanical systems.
See: microelectromechanical systems

1. Eisberg, N. Wear it well. Chemistry and Industry (Mar. 2015) 79, 32–5.
wind energy
Wind energy is having an increasing role worldwide in the generation of carbon-free
electrical energy.1 The blades of the turbine are critical components and lightweight glass
fibre and silicon carbide fibre composites are used in their construction.
1. Robinson, M., N. Kelley, P. Moriarty, S. Schreck, D. Simms and A. Wright. Wind
energy. In D. S. Ginley and D. Cahen (eds), Fundamentals of Materials for Energy and
Environmental Sustainability, p. 396. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2012.
Wint-O-Green mints
Wint-O-Green mints1 consist of tablets of compressed sugar and when broken apart in the
mouth blue sparks are produced. The sparks are produced by triboluminescence in which
some crystalline materials develop static electrical charges as a result of frictional forces
generated on crushing. In the case of these mints, sugar crystals are broken and become
electrically charged. The charged crystals interact with nitrogen molecules in the atmosphere
to produce charged gaseous species that emit ultraviolet radiation. The latter is absorbed by
a component of the sweets, oil of wintergreen (used as a flavouring), that contains methyl
salicylate, which re-radiates light with a blue wavelength. Hence, sweets can be considered
an unusual combination of materials.
1. Hartel, R. W., and A. Hartel. Candy Bites: The Science of Sweets. London: Springer, 2014.
wound dressings
Hydrogels can absorb and retain large quantities of fluid relative to their weight and are ideal
candidate materials for bandages or wound dressings.1 The hydrogel, for example, a
polyurethane gel or a hydroxyethyl cellulose gel, helps to keep the wound moist.
See: hydrogels
Chemistry, 2014.
yeast
Yeasts are eukaryotes, that is, single-celled organisms and are fungi.1 Yeasts can enzymatically
catalyse the conversion of sugar to alcohol, a process used in brewing beer, and this process
302 Glossary
supplies energy to the organism for growth. Both baker’s yeast, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, and
the non-fermenting yeast Pichia pastoris have important roles in biotechnology where recom-
binant DNA technology is used to engineer their expression of valuable recombinant proteins.
Examples of recombinant proteins are insulin, the anticoagulant hirudan, liraglutide for
treatment of Type 2 diabetes, glucagon for treatment of hypoglycemia and elastase inhibitor
for treatment of cystic fibrosis. The word expression that is widely used in biotechnology can
be interpreted in everyday language as equivalent to synthesis in vivo.
See: insulin; recombinant DNA technology

Materials for Energy and Environmental Sustainability, p.342. Cambridge: Cambridge
zeolites
Zeolites are hydrated crystalline aluminosilicates.1–3 They are both naturally occurring (e.g.
clinoptilolite) and are prepared by synthetic means often involving a hydrothermal process.
They have a well-defined pore size on the order of a nanometre or less. Zeolite A has a pore
size between 0.35 and 0.45 nm while zeolite Y has a pore size of 0.6–0.8 nm. They are used
as ion-exchange media to remove calcium ions from hard water, as replacements for
phosphates in detergents to bind calcium as phosphates can contribute to blooming of
algae in marine environments and in gas separations, for example removal of hydrogen
sulphide from natural gas. They are used extensively as catalysts particularly in petroleum
refining as fluid cracking catalysts. Zeolites are often referred to as molecular sieves when
used for gas separations.
See: classification of porosity

Business, pp. 22–33. John Wiley & Sons Inc., 2014.
2. B Trewyn (editor). Heterogeneous catalysis for today’s challenges, Royal Society of
Chemistry, 2015.
3. Ploszajski, A. Zeolites. Materials World (Oct. 2015) 23, 62–4.
Ziegler–Natta catalysts
Until the early 1950s, polyethylene was manufactured in a high-pressure, high-temperature
radical process that produced what is referred to as low-density polyethylene (LDPE). It is
low density as the polymer is not linear and has some branching so that polymer chains do
not all pack tightly together. Ziegler–Natta catalysts,1,2 named after Karl Ziegler and Guilio
Natta, enables polyethylene to be made under more moderate conditions, namely at around
323 K and 1 atm; the resulting polymer is known as high-density polyethylene (HDPE).
A representative Ziegler–Natta catalyst consists of titanium tetrachloride and an aluminium
Glossary 303
alkyl (e.g. aluminium triethyl Al(C2H5)3) supported on magnesium chloride. Ziegler–Natta

catalysts are also used for preparation of polypropylene.
See: polyethylene
1. Sutton, M. Paving the way to polythene. Chemistry World (Nov. 2013) 10, 50–3.
Zircaloy
Zircaloy1 is an alloy of zirconium and compositions contain a majority of this metal with
minor components of other components such as tin, niobium and iron, depending on its
application. Fuel rods in thermal nuclear reactors consist of Zircaloy tubes that contain
cylindrical pellets of nuclear fuel. The rods, which are between 1 and 4 m in length, are
grouped together into fuel assemblies that are inserted into the reactor. The inside of the fuel
rod operates at around 400 C while the outside can be up to temperatures around
1500 C. In pressurised water reactors the coolant is water while carbon dioxide is the
coolant in high-temperature gas-cooled reactors.
See: nuclear fuel

1. Stanek, C. R., R. W. Grimes, C. Unal, S. A. Maloy and S. C. Scott. Nuclear energy:
current and future schemes. In D. S. Ginley and D. Cahen (eds), Fundamentals of
Materials for Energy and Environmental Sustainability, pp. 147–161. Cambridge:
ZMapp
Pharmaceutical compounds such as acetylsalicylic acid are small molecules that have been
traditionally prepared by chemical synthesis. There is increasing interest in the use of
biological molecules such as peptides and antibodies for the treatment of diseases. An
example is the experimental drug ZMapp that contains three monoclonal antibodies for
the treatment of people infected with the Ebola virus during an outbreak of Ebola in West
Africa in 2014.1 ZMapp has been obtained by using recombinant DNA technology on
genetically engineered tobacco plants.
See: acetylsalicylic acid; recombinant DNA technology

1. Burke, M. Ebola drug verdict. Chemistry and Industry (Sept. 2014) 78, 7.
Appendix 1
Suggestions for Further Reading
Butterworth, 2016. (A very readable account of a range of materials, their uses and in
particular the role of materials in sustainable development in a world of increasing population
and finite resources.)
Askeland, D. R., and W. J. Wright. The Science and Engineering of Materials, 7th edn. Boston,
MA: Cengage Learning, 2011. (Comprehensive coverage of a wide range of materials for
undergraduates and the interested general reader.)
Atkins, P. Atkins’ Molecules, 2nd edn, p. 94. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003.
(Very well-written account of a wide range of molecules and their properties for the general
reader and specialist.)
Bansal, N. P., and J. Lamon (eds). Ceramic Matrix Composites: Materials, Modeling and
Technology. Chichester: Wiley, 2015. (A detailed and comprehensive account of
composites.)
Bolton, W., and R.A. Higgins. Materials for Engineers and Technicians, 6th edn. London:
Routledge, 2015. (For both the specialist and the interested reader.)
Boysen, E., and N. Boysen. Nanotechnology for Dummies, 2nd edn. New York: Wiley, 2011.
(Suitable for the general reader and specialist.)
Press, 1991. (A reference book with a comprehensive account of a wide range of ceramic
systems.)
Buzak, S., and D. Rende. Colloid and Surface Chemistry: A Laboratory Guide for Exploration
of the Nano World. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, 2014. (Contains instructions on how to
prepare a range of colloidal systems.)
Christie, R. M. Colour Chemistry, 2nd edn. Cambridge: Royal Society of Chemistry, 2015.
(This book covers a wide range of materials used for producing coloured products.)
Currano, J. N., and D. L. Roth (eds). Chemical Information for Chemists: A Primer. Cambridge:
Royal Society of Chemistry, 2014. (Chapter 3 gives a comprehensive account of the patenting
process.)
Daintith, J. (ed.). A Dictionary of Chemistry, 6th edn. Oxford: Oxford University Press,
2008. (A very useful reference book with nearly 5000 entries.)
Daintith, J. (ed.). A Dictionary of Physics, 6th edn. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009.
(A very useful reference book with nearly 4000 entries.)
DeRosa, T. F. Engineering Green Chemical Processes: Renewable and Sustainable Design. New
York: McGraw-Hill, 2015. (The majority of references are in the patent literature and these
are used with great effect to describe industrial processes.)
Dodgson, M., and D. Gann. Innovation: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford: Oxford University
Press, 2010. (A useful description for the development of Kevlar.)
Donald, G. The Accidental Scientist: The Role of Chance and Luck in Scientific Discovery.
London: Michael O’Mara Books, 2013. (A very useful account of the development of Post-it
notes and cellulose nitrate.)
Appendix 1 305
Downie, N. A. The Ultimate Book of Saturday Science. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press,
2012. (Excellent technical descriptions of experiments for the amateur and professional scientist.)
van Dulken, S. Inventing the 21st Century. London: British Library, 2014. (Informative text
for a general and specialist audience.)
Dunmur, D., and T. Sluckin. Soap, Science, and Flat-Screen TVs: A History of Liquid
Crystals. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2014. (Highly readable account of the develop-
ment of liquid crystals and their applications.)
Emsley, J. Molecules at an Exhibition. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998. (Well-written
account of a wide range of materials for the general reader.)
Espacenet, http://worldwide.espacenet.com. (For anyone interested in patent searching.)
Freemont, P. S., and R. I. Kitney (eds). Synthetic Biology: A Primer. London: Imperial
College Press, 2012. (An introductory overview of synthetic biology.)
2014. (Comprehensive and detailed account of polymer systems.)
Fu, Jie (ed.). Dyeing: Processes and Applications. Hauppauge, NY: Nova Science Publishers,
2014. (Very informative coverage of different types of dyeing processes used for textiles.)
Sustainability. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2012. (Covers a very wide range
of materials and applications.)
Giustino, F. Materials Modeling Using Density Functional Theory. Oxford: Oxford University
Press, 2014. (A very advanced text suitable for the specialist.)
Glynn, J. My Sister Rosalind Franklin. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012. (A very
readable account of the DNA story with reference to the work of Rosalind Franklin.)
Goldstein, D. (ed.). The Oxford Companion to Sugar and Sweets, pp. 190–1. Oxford: Oxford
University Press, 2015. (Refers to candy floss and contains excellent descriptions of sugars,
starches and other food ingredients.)
Gordon, J. E. The New Science of Strong Materials, 2nd edn. London: Penguin, 1991.
(Informative for both the general reader and specialist.)
Gratzer, W. Giant Molecules: From Nylon to Nanotubes. Oxford: Oxford University Press,
2013. (Informative for both the general reader and specialist.)
Hall, C. Materials: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2014.
(A useful description for the development of integrated circuits.)
Hartel, R. W., and A. Hartel. Candy Bites: The Science of Sweets. New York: Springer, 2014.
(Informative for the general reader.)
Hester, R. E., and R. M. Harrison (eds). Fracking, Issues in Environmental Science and
Technology, vol. 39. Cambridge: Royal Society of Chemistry, 2015. (A comprehensive
text for the specialist.)
Hosford, W. F. Iron and Steel. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2012. (A very clear
account for the general reader and students of the processes involved in iron and steel production
and the properties of these materials.)
Johnstone, B. Brilliant!: Updated edition. Amherst, NY: Prometheus Books, 2015. (A very
readable account of the development of blue light-emitting diodes by Shuji Nakamura.)
Kerton, F., and R. Marriot. Alternative Solvents for Green Chemistry, 2nd edn. Cambridge:
Royal Society of Chemistry, 2013. (Overview of ionic liquids for the specialist.)
Lecce, L., and A. Concilio (eds). Shape Memory Alloy Engineering for Aerospace, Structural
and Biomedical Applications. Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann, 2015. (A specialist text.)
Lee, M. (ed.). Remarkable Natural Material Surfaces and Their Engineering Potential.
New York: Springer, 2014. (Outstanding illustrations and text for a range of materials in
the natural world.)
306 Appendix 1
Liu, P. S., and G. F. Chen. Porous Materials. London: Elsevier, 2014. (Comprehensive
account for students in the physical sciences.)
Lucas, J., P. Lucas, T. Le Mercier, A. Rollat and W. Davenport. Rare Earths: Science,
Technology, Production and Use. London: Elsevier, 2015. (Comprehensive and detailed
reference book.)
May, P., and S. Cotton. Molecules That Amaze Us. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, 2015.
(A very readable account of 67 compounds in 67 chapters for the general public and specialist.
Contains a comprehensive set of structural chemical formulae.)
Miller J. (Gen. Ed.). Miller’s Antiques Encyclopedia. London: Octopus Publishing, 2013.
(Comprehensive account of the materials used in a wide range of antiques and collectable items
such as porcelain.)
Mitchell, G. R. (ed.). Electrospinning: Principles, Practice and Possibilities. London: Royal
Society of Chemistry, 2015. (Comprehensive account of electrospinning for the specialist.)
Monk, P. M. S., R. J. Mortimer and D. R. Rosseinsky. Electrochromism and Electrochromic
Devices. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007. (Comprehensive account of
electrochromism.)
Ngo, C., and M. van de Voorde. Nanotechnology in a Nutshell: From Simple to Complex
Systems. Amsterdam: Atlantis Press, 2014. (Wide-ranging descriptions for the application of
nanotechnology for the general reader and specialist.)
Novotny, L., and B. Hecht. Principles of Nano-optics, 2nd edn. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press, 2006. (For serious students of chemistry and physics.)
Ozin, G. A., A. C. Arsenault and L. Cademartiri (eds). Nanochemistry: A Chemical Approach
to Nanomaterials. Cambridge: Royal Society of Chemistry, 2009. (A detailed text for
students in the physical sciences.)
Platt, C., and F. Jansson. Encyclopaedia of Electronic Components, vol. 2. San Francisco, CA:
Maker Media, 2014. (Clear account for both the interested reader and specialist.)
Rapley, R., and D. Whitehouse (eds). Molecular Biology and Biotechnology. Cambridge:
Royal Society of Chemistry, 2015. (For undergraduates and postgraduate students as well as
the interested non-specialist.)
Ross, D., C. Shamieh and G. McComb. Electronics for Dummies. Chichester: Wiley, 2010.
(Suitable for the general reader and specialist.)
University Press, 2014. (Describes the preparation of ceramic materials in the form of
powders, fibres, coatings and monoliths by chemical syntheses such as sol-gel processing and
hydrothermal synthesis.)
Chemistry, 2014. (Describes how development of materials, for example graphene and
hydrogels, can be followed by a technical analysis of the patent literature.)
Sinclair, I. Electronics Simplified, 3rd ed. Oxford: Newnes, 2011. (Comprehensive and clear
descriptions for the general public and specialist.)
Solymar, L., D. Walsh and R. R. A. Syms. Electrical Properties of Materials, 9th edn. Oxford:
Oxford University Press, 2014. (For students in the physical sciences.)
Smith, Jr, D. W., S. T. Iaccono and S. S. Iyer (eds). Handbook of Fluoropolymer Science and
Technology. Chichester: Wiley, 2014. (A detailed reference work.)
Stewart, I. C., and J. P. Lomont. The Handy Chemistry Answer Book. Canton, MI: Visible
Ink Press, 2014. (Recommended to readers of all ages and educational background who want
to know clear answers to a wide range of questions on chemistry.)
Appendix 1 307
Thackray, A., D. C. Brock and R. Jones. Moore’s Law. New York: Basic Books, 2015.
(Refers to the work of Gordon Moore who proposed Moore’s Law. Recommended for the
general public and anyone interested in the development of the electronic age of integrated
circuits.)
Tilley, R. J. D. Understanding Solids: The Science of Materials. Chichester: Wiley, 2013. (For
students in the physical sciences.)
Tindell, H. Engineering Materials. Marlborough, UK: Crowood Press, 2014. (Comprehensive
account of metals and alloys for the enthusiastic hobbyist and specialist.)
Tyrell, J. A. Fundamentals of Industrial Chemistry: Pharmaceuticals. Polymers and Business.
New York: Wiley, 2014. (The majority of references are in the patent literature and these are
used with great effect to describe industrial processes.)
United Kingdom Intellectual Property Office, http://www.ipo.gov.uk. (For anyone interested
in intellectual property.)
United States Patent and Trademark Office, http://www.uspto.gov. (For anyone interested in
patent searching.)
Walton, D., and P. Lorimer. Polymers, p. 97. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005.
(Refers to aliphatic polyamides.)
Weightman, G. Eureka: How Invention Happens. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press,
2015. (An account of the use of gutta percha in underwater cables.)
Woolfson, M. M. Resonance: Applications in Physical Science. London: Imperial College
Press, 2014. (Includes a concise account of stimulated and spontaneous emission of light that
is relevant to lasers.)
World Intellectual Property Office, http://www.wipo.int/portal/index.html.en. (For anyone
interested in patent searching.)
Appendix 2
Selected Patent Documents
Referred to in the Text
Andrews, B. M., N. Carr, G.W. Gray and C. Hogg. Liquid crystal compounds. European
Patent 0097033 B, 1990. (Refers to cyanobiphenyl liquid crystals.)
Baekeland, L. H. Method of making insoluble products of phenol and formaldehyde. United
States Patent 942,699, granted on 7 December 1909. (Refers to phenol-formaldehyde
resins.)
Banting, F. G., and C. H. Best. Extract obtainable from the mammalian pancreas or from
related glands of fishes. Canadian Patent Application 234336 A, published 18 September
1923. (Refers to insulin.)
Baynes, B. M., et al. Biological synthesis of 6-aminocaproic acid from carbohydrate feed-
stocks. United States Patent 8,404,465, granted on 26 March 2013. (Refers to recombin-
ant 6-aminocaproic acid.)
Benavides, J. M. Method for manufacturing high quality carbon nanotubes. United States
Patent 7,008,605, granted on 7 March 2006. (Refers to fullerenes.)
Borbely, J. Additives for cosmetic products and the like. United States Patent Application
2008/0070993, published on 20 March 2008. (Refers to chitosan and hyaluronic acid.)
Bowe, M. J., D. L. Segal, C. D. Lee-Tuffnell, D. C. W. Blaikley, J. A. Maude,
J. W Stairmand and I. F. Zimmerman. Catalytic reactor. United States Patent
8,118,889, granted on 21 February 2012. (Refers to synthetic diesel.)
Brandenberger, J. E. Composite cellulose film. United States Patent 1,266,766, granted on
21 May 1918. (Refers to cellophane.)
Buchanan, C. M., and N. L. Buchanan. Cellulose esters and their production in halogenated
ionic liquids. United States Patent 8,273,872, granted on 25 September 2012. (Refers to
cellulose.)
Buehler, W. J., and R. C. Wiley. Nickel-based alloys. United States Patent 3,174,851,
granted in March 1965. (Refers to shape memory alloys.)
Carlick, D. J., R. W. Bassemir, R. Krishnan and R. R. Durand. Low rub printing ink. United
States Patent 5,158,606, granted on 27 October 1992. (Refers to polytetrafluoroethylene.)
Carothers, W. H. Diammine-dicarboxylic acid salts and process of preparing same. United
States Patent 2,130,947, granted on 20 September 1938. (Refers to nylon.)
Chen, L.-Z., C.-H. Liu, J.-P. Wang and S.-S. Fan. Method for using a Poisson ratio material.
United States Patent 8,545,745, granted on 1 October 2013. (Refers to auxetic materials.)
Choi, S. J., J. Palgunadi, J. E. Kang, H. S. Kim and S. Y. Chung. Amidium-based ionic
liquids for carbon dioxide absorption. United States Patent 8,282,710, 2012. (Refers to
industrial effluents: carbon dioxide.)
Cohen, S. N., and H. W. Boyer. Biological functional molecular chimeras. United States
Patent 4,740,470, granted on 26 April 1988. (Refers to recombinant DNA technology.)
Appendix 2 309
Cohen, S. N., and H. W. Boyer. Process for producing biologically functional molecular
chimeras. United States Patent 4,237,224, granted on 2 December 1980. (Refers to
recombinant DNA technology.)
Dicosimo, R. Production of peracids using an enzyme having perhydrolysis activity. United
States Patent 8,329,441, granted on 11 December 2012. (Refers to bleaching agents.)
Earle, M. J., K. R. Seddon and N. V. Plechkova. Production of bio-diesel. United States
Patent Application 2009/0235574, published on 24 September 2009. (Refers to bio-
diesel.)
Edmonds, J. T., and H. W. Hill. United States Patent 3,354,129, 1967. (Refers to poly
(p-phenylene sulphide).)
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310 Appendix 2
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Appendix 2 311
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312 Appendix 2
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Index
Page numbers in italics refer to figures and tables.

Page numbers in bold type refer to items in the glossary.
3D printing ancient works of art 120 bioadhesives 125–6

see three-dimensional anti‐ageing skin biobutanol 126–7
printing 51 treatments 121 biocomposites 127
6-aminocaproic acid 257 anti‐reflection coatings 122 biodegradable hydrogels
antibodies 121 127
ab initio models 156 antigens 5 biodegradable hygiene
abrasives 113 antimicrobial peptides 51 products 127–8
acetate rayon 15 antimicrobial resistance 51, biodegradable materials 4, 39
acetone 111, 127 130 healthcare applications
acetylsalicylic acid (aspirin) aramids (aromatic 50–1
5, 45, 113, 210 polyamides) 76, packaging 280
acids 188 117, 122 biodegradable nanoparticles
acrylic fibres 36, 78, Artemisia annua 122 128
104, 114 artemisinin 122 biodegradable plastics 128
acrylic paints 114 artificial fertiliser 123 biodegradable polymers 3, 34
additive colour mixing 114 artificial nails 123 biodegradable stents
additive manufacturing 115 artificial sweeteners 17, 123 128–9
advanced ceramic aspartame (Nutrasweet) 17, biodegradable sutures 129
materials 115 123 biodiesel 17, 129
aerogels 104, 115, 225 Aspdin, Joseph 250 bioethanol 17, 39, 129–30,
aerosol synthesis 56, 73 associated gas 124 134, 143, 198
aerosol-derived powders 116 auxetic materials 83, 124 biofilms 130
aerosols 48, 116 Avastin 46 biofuels 130, 141
after-glow pigments 116 biomass 131
algal biomass 116–17 backlights 124–5 biomaterials 131
aliphatic polyamides 76, 117 Baekeland, Leo 33, 230 biomimetic materials 131
alkaline fuel cells 68 Bakelite 33, 230 biopharmaceuticals 5–6,
alloys 7–8, 109 bamboo 125 45–6, 132
aluminium oxide 115 band gaps 125 bioplastics 132, 151
aluminium quinolate 274 Banting, Frederick 189 biopolymers 132
Alzheimer’s disease 37, 78, Bardeen, John 108, 294 bioprinting 49, 133
119 Barthlott, Wilhelm 204 bipolar transistors 24
amino acids 37, 117 Basil process 188 bitumen 289
AMOLEDs (active matrix Bayer, Otto 248 bleaching agents 134
organic light-emitting Bayer process 115 Bletchley Park 111
diodes) 117–18 Bednorz, Georg 108, 285 block copolymers 27, 32, 243
amorphous metal foams 118 Berzilius, Jons Jakob 139 bone china 134
amorphous metals 118 Bessemer process 281 borosilicate glasses 229
amorphous silicon 118–19 Bickerstaff, Kenneth 169 Böttger, Johann 250
amplification 77 bio‐1, 3‐propanediol Boyer, Herbert 258
amylase enzymes 16 (Sorona) 133 Brattain, Walter 108, 294
amyloid fibrils 78, 119–20 bio‐based chemicals 126 Brazilian bioethanol 134
amylose 280 bio‐based resins 126 breathable fabrics/
anatase phase 100 bio‐succinic acid 133 garments 103, 135
314 Index
brominated flame chewing gum 146 de Mestral, George 296

retardants 135 China blue method 289 decaffeinated coffee 104, 156
Brownian motion 18 Chinese porcelain 147, 250 defects 90
bullet-proof vests 36, 135 chitin 16, 147 density functional theory
butanol 126 chitosan 16, 147 156–7
butterfly wings 9, 89, 131, cholesteric phases 58, 103, deoxyribose 16
150, 193 148 diabetes 18, 46, 157, 189
butterscotch 102 cholesterol 280 diamonds 151
chondroitin sulphate 148–9 Diesel, Rudolf 129
camphor 226 Church, Alonzo 22 diesel particulates 157–8
candy floss 15, 135–6 cis‐isoprene 258 digital computers 23
caramels 102 clays 212 diodes 54
carbohydrates 16, 136–7, 283 climate change 61, 110–11 direct band gap
carbon aerogels 137 clingfilm 34 semiconductors 158
carbon capture 66–7 coal gasification 149 directed self‐assembly 27
carbon dioxide 104, 188 codeine 46 disordered systems 18
carbon fibre 104, 137–8 codons 160 disposable nappies 101, 127,
carbon fibre composites 138 Cohen, Stanley 258 158
carbon nanotubes 138–9 Cold War 111 disruptive technologies
carbon–SiC braking systems collagen 149–50 81–4
139 collodion 14, 150 DNA 32, 37, 91, 109,
Carlson, Chester 119 colloidal crystals 150 158–60, 242, 252
Carothers, Wallace 34, 218, colloidal systems 48, 101, DNA chimera 258
220, 221 150–1 DNA computers 28
‘cat’s whisker’ radios 21 coloured diamonds 28, 151 dopants 23, 24
catalysts 139–40 commercial bioplastics 151 drug delivery 47, 160
catalytic converters 140 comminution 55, 56 Dummer, Geoffrey 190
catalytic cracking 140 composite materials 88–9, 152 dye-sensitised materials
cathodoluminescence 231 computability 22–3 160–1
cellophane 15, 140 concrete 152
cellulase enzymes 141 condensation polymerisation Ebola virus 303
celluloid 14, 141 76 Edison, Thomas 22, 137
cellulose 13–15, 141–2 conducting polymers 152 Einstein, Albert 43, 196
cellulose acetate 142 contact angles 153 elastane (Lycra) 229
cellulose-derived contrast agents 153 elastin 161
hydrocarbons 142–3 Cooper pairs 45 elastomers 32, 162
cellulose nitrate 14–15, 143 copolymers 3, 32, 154 electrical transmission lines
cellulose xanthate 15, 142 copper indium gallium 162
cellulosic ethanol 143 diselenide 154 electricity consumption 62
cellulosics 15, 34 cosmetics 101, 123, 154 electroceramics 115, 163
ceramic glazes 143–4 creep 7 electrochromic materials
ceramic honeycombs 144 Crick, Francis 109, 159 163
ceramic materials 87–8, 90, CRISPR 82 electroluminescence 54, 163
144–5 critical materials 71–2, 154–5 electron-hole recombination
ceramic matrix composites cross‐laminated timber 155 54
145 crosslinking 33 electronic inks 164
ceramic precursors 145 cubic zirconia 155 electrospinning 164
ceramic stains 145–6 current energy (oceans) 66 emulsion polymerisation 76,
ceramic superconductors cyanobiphenyl liquid crystals 164
82–3, 108, 285 58, 155–6, 217 energetic materials 6–7
chalcogonides 228 Czochralski process 25, 26, energy supplies 61–9
chemical mechanical 64, 72, 266 engineering ceramics 164
planarisation 146 engineering fabrics 165
chemical vapour deposition ‘dangling’ bonds 118 engineering plastics 165
74, 75 de Forest, Lee 22 enriched uranium 8
Index 315
enzymes 17 fused deposition hair dyeing 181–2

epoxy adhesives 165 modelling 292 hairy adhesives 182
erythromycin 46 fusion materials 174 half‐lives 63
ethanol hand decoration 145
see bioethanol galactose 16, 17 hard candy 102
evaporative deposition 74 gallium arsenide 158, 174, Harry Potter books 84
excimer lasers 165–6 197, 224 healthcare 43–52
excitation 59 gallium nitride 174–5, 224 heavy water 63
exfoliating creams 166 gas hydrides 175 hemicelluloses 182
exoskeletons 16, 147 gas phase reactions 56 heteropolymers 183
expanded PTFE (ePTFE) gecko lizard 2, 181 heterostructures 183, 255
103 Geim, Andre 83, 179 hexagonal ferrites 281
extrinsic semiconductors 166 gene editing 82 hierarchical structures 183
generic drugs 175 high-temperature ceramic
fabric conditioners 166 genes 176 composites 183–4
faded jeans 166–7 genetic engineering 46, 109–10 high-temperature fuel cells
fats 167 genome editing 82 172
Fawcett, Eric 33, 111, 241 genomes 36–7, 176 Hoffmann, Felix 113
fermentation 9, 39, 167 geothermal energy 65 hollow textile fibres 184
ferroelectric materials 167–8 Gibson, Reginald 33, 111, homopolymers 3, 243
ferromagnetic materials 168 241 Hull, Charles 281
fibre-reinforced plastic glass ceramics 176–7 Humira 5, 46, 184, 210
composites 168 glass epoxy composites 177 hyaluronic acid 184–5
fibreglass 88, 168 glass fibres 177 Hyatt, John 14, 141, 226
field‐effect transistors (FETs) glass transition hybrid vehicles 218
24–5 temperatures 177–8 hydroelectric energy 66
First World War 111 global warming hydrogels 50, 66, 101, 185,
first-generation biofuel 198 see climate change 216, 269, 301
Fischer–Tropsch reaction glucosamine 178 hydrogen 185
124, 287, 288 glucose 13, 15, 16, 17, 102, hydrogen bonds 7
flax fibre 169 210, 283 hydrogen peroxide 181–2
Fleming, Alexander 46 glycine 277 hydrophilic materials 185–6
float glass 169 glycogen 17–18 hydrophilic polymers 186
flow-through filters 292 glycolic acid 166 hydrophobic aerogels 186
fluorographene 169 glycoproteins 178 hydrophobic ionic liquids
fluoroplastics 236 Goodenough, John 68 186
fluoropolymers 170 Goodyear, Charles 32, 162, hydrophobic materials 186–7
fluorosilicones 40, 273 297 hydrothermal processing 56
flywheels 170 Gore‐Tex 103, 178 hydrothermal synthesis 73
foamed metallic glasses Gosling, Raymond 104, 109, hydroxyapatite 187
see amorphous metal foams 159
food emulsions 170–1 Graduate (film) 1 Iijima, Sumio 138
formica 171 Graham, Thomas 150 immunoglobulins 46
fracking 171, 268 Gram-negative bacteria 51 in vivo production 5
Franklin, Rosalind 104, 109, graphene 83, 108, 179, 285, 295 incandescent light bulbs 10
159 graphene oxide 179 indigo 187
freeze-drying 171 graphite oxide 179, 180 indirect band gap
Friedel–Crafts reaction 248 Gray, George 58 semiconductors 187
fructose 15, 16, 102, 283 green chemistry 180 indium 71
fudge 102 greenhouse gases 61 indium tin oxide 188
fuel cells 68–9, 172, 173 Griffith, A. A. 88 industrial effluents 188
Fuller, Buckminster 172 gutta percha 32, 33, 180–1 injection molding 14
fullerenes 172 inkjet printing inks 189
furan‐2, 5‐dicarboxylic Haber–Bosch process 123 insulating fibres 189
acid 173 hafnium diboride 183 insulin 18, 46, 109, 189
316 Index
integrated circuits 26, 109, liquid crystals 55, 57–8, 59, molten carbonate fuel cells 69
190, 191 103, 124, 201, 276 monoclonal antibodies 46,
intellectual property 10–11, lithium batteries 202 210
95–6 lithium–air batteries 201–2 monosaccharides 15, 16, 210,
see also patents, trademarks lithium-ion batteries 67–8, 283
intercalation compounds 67 202–3 Montgomerie, William 162
interconnects 25, 190 living polymers 203 Moore, Gordon 27, 109, 211
international conflicts 111 lotus leaves 204, 265 Moore’s Law 27, 211
intrinsic semiconductors 190 lotusan 204 morphine 46
intumescent coatings 192 Lycurgus cup 120, 214 MOSFETs (metal oxide
ion implantation 74, 192 lyocell (Tencel) 15, 104, 204 semiconductor field effect
ionic liquids 192 transistors) 211, 294
iridescent organisms 193 Mackintosh, Charles 300 MRI
iridescent pigments 193 macro-defect-free cement see magnetic resonance
isoprene 258 204–5 imaging
magnesium 195 MRSA (methicillin-resistant
junk DNA 176 magnesium fluoride 122 Staphylococcus aureus)
magnetic resonance imaging 46, 130
kaowool 189 (MRI) 44–5, 83, 153, Muller, Karl 108, 285
Kapton 239 205 Mullis, Kary 76
kerasep membranes 296 magnets 217
keratin fibres 194 Maiman, Theodore 44, 253, n‐type semiconductors 219
Kevlar 36, 37, 135, 194, 201 263 nacre (mother-of-pearl)
Kilby, Jack 190 maltose 16, 280 211
Kistler, Samuel 115 Manhattan Project 35, 62, Nafion 172, 212
Kwolek, Stephanie 36, 194 103, 111, 249 Nakamura, Shuji 175
mannose 16 nanocellulose 212
L‐DOPA (dihydroxy maritime energy sources nanoclays 212
phenylalanine) 126 65–6 nanocomposites 212
lactase 17 Mars Pathfinder probe 115 nanoencapsulation 101
lactic acid 39, 241, 242 matrices 4 nanofibres 213
lactose 16, 17 mauveine dye 205, 206 nanofiltration membranes
laminated safety glass 195 Meissen porcelain 90, 147, 213
lanthanide dopants 195 250 nanoliposomes 101
lanthanide-based magnesium metal foams 206–7 nanomaterials 213
alloys 195 metal-organic chemical vapour nanoparticle-based art 214
laser printing inks 196 deposition 74, 76 nanoparticle-based
laser-based materials 196 metallic glasses batteries 214
lasers 44, 195, 196 see amorphous metals nanoparticle-based
latex 32, 196–7 metallic nanoparticles 207 medicines 214–15
lectins 51 metamaterials 83–4, 90, 207 nanoparticles 47, 99–100,
LED televisions 197 methane clathrates 175 207, 215
leuco dyes 187 methotrexate 207–8 nanophosphors 215
light-emitting diodes (LEDs) mica 89, 193, 208 nanotechnology 47–8, 101,
53–5, 57, 197–8 micellar systems 208 215–16
lighting technology 10, micelles 47, 100, 208 nanowires 216
53–9 microelectromechanical Natta, Guilio 302
lignin 198 systems 209 natural polymers 4, 34
lignocellulose 13, 198 microlaminates 209 natural product hydrogels 216
lipids 198–9 microstructures 9, 87–91, 209 natural rubber 216–17
liposomes 47, 101, 199 Milstein, Cesar 5, 46, 121 nematic liquid crystals 58,
lipsticks 199 Ming dynasty (China) 250 103, 217, 276
liquid crystal displays 200 mobile phones 72 neodymium 71, 217
liquid crystalline moisturisers 210 neodymium-based
polymers 201 molluscs 211 magnets 217
Index 317
neoprene 33, 217–18 p–n junction diodes 237–8 piezoelectric materials 234
Nextel 5, 189, 225 p‐type semiconductors 252 piezoelectric polymers 234
nicalon 271 paclitaxel (Taxol) 46 Pilkington, Alistair 169
nickel-metal hybrid papillae 204 Piria, Raffaele 113
batteries 218 paramagnetic materials 168 Plant Bottle material 234–5
Niewland, Julius 218 Parkes, Alexander 226 plant dyes 235
nitinol 48, 49, 90, 128, 218, Parkesine 14, 226 plant oils 235
268, 286 partially crystalline plasma spraying 74
nitrocellulose materials 226 plasma-enhanced chemical
see cellulose nitrate patent trolls (non‐practicing vapour deposition 74–5
Nomex 36, 194, 219 entities) 11, 95, 227 plasmonics 235
non‐practicing entities patents 10–11, 93–7, 175, plastics 236
see patent trolls 226–7 see also synthetic polymers
Noryl 219 PEEK (polyether ether PLEDs (polymer light-
Novoselov, Konstantin 83, ketone) 227 emitting diodes) 59, 236
179 penicillin G 46 plenum cables 236
nuclear fuel 220 peptides 227 Plunkett, Roy 35, 103, 249
nuclear fusion 174 peracids 134 plutonium 300
nuclear magnetic resonance Perkin, William Henry 205, plywood 237
(NMR) imaging 235 PMOLEDs (passive matrix
44, 205 perovskite 64, 228 organic light-emitting
nuclear power 62–4, 220 perovskite-based solar cells diodes) 237
nucleotides 159 228 point-contact transistors 23,
nutraceuticals 220 personalised medicines 228 26, 108
nylon 34–5, 37, 76, 220–1 petrochemical sources 4, 39 Poisson ratio 124
phase separation 27 polyacetals 238
ocean thermal energy 66 phase-change polyacetylene 238–9
‘October: The Labours of the chalcogonides 228–9 polyacrylonitrile (PAN) 36,
Months’ (stained glass phase-change materials 229 78, 104, 114
window) 214 phase-separated glasses 229 polycarbonate 239
odour-free adhesives 221 phase-separated polymers polycarbosilanes 40, 78,
oil shale 221 229 239
olefin-based polymers 221 phenol-formaldehyde resin polycrystalline silicon 8
oligonucleotides 222 230 polyester 78, 239
oligopeptides 222 phenolic resins 230 polyetherimide 240
oligosaccharides 16, 222 PHOLEDs (phosphorescent polyethylene 240
Onnes, H. Kamerlingh 44 organic light-emitting see also polythene
opal 89, 150 diodes) 231 polyglycolic acid 50
opalescent materials 222 phospholipids 199 polyhydroxyalkanoates 241
optical amplifiers 223 phosphorescence 231 poly‐3‐hydroxybutyrate
optical fibres 223 phosphoric acid fuel cells 68 241
optical properties 91 phosphors 55–6, 231–2 polyimides 240
optical tweezers 224 phosphorus-based flame polyisoprene 32, 33
optical waveguides 224 retardants 232 polylactic acid 39, 50,
optoelectronic materials photochromic materials 232 241–2
224 photocopiers 119 polymer blends 242–3
organic aerogels 225 photolithography 25, 26, 233 polymer exchange membrane
organic light-emitting diodes photoluminescence 55, 116, fuel cells 172
(OLEDs) 36, 58–9, 225 231 polymer foams 243
osmotic energy 66 photonic crystals 89–90, 100 polymerase chain reaction
osmotic pressure 17–18 photonic materials 232–3 (PCR) 76–7, 242
oxadiazoles 51 photopolymers 233 polymers 31–2, 110, 243
oxide fibres 77 photoresists 25, 233 polymethyl methacrylate
oxide–oxide composites physical vapour deposition 74 (PMMA) 243–4
225–6 Pichia pastoris 302 polyoxymethylene 238
318 Index
polypeptides 117, 244 radiofrequency sputter shale gas 268

polyphenylene oxide deposition 75 shape memory alloys 90, 268
(PPO) 219, 244 raffinose 16 shape memory hydrogels
poly‐(p‐phenylene Ralstonia eutropha 241 269
sulphide) 244 rapeseed oil 256 shape memory polymers 49,
poly‐(p‐phenylenevinylene) rayon 257 269
(PPV) 36, 245 reactive textile dyes 257 shark skin 269–70
polyphosphazenes 40, 245 recombinant 6‐aminocaproic sialons 270
polypropylene 245–6 acid 257 Shockley, William 108, 294
polysaccharides 16, 246, 283 recombinant cis‐isoprene silicon 72
polysilanes 246 258 silicon carbide fibre
polysilastyrene 247 recombinant DNA 46, 109, composites 271
polysilazanes 40, 247 258 silicon carbide fibres 40, 78,
polystyrene 32, 247 recombinant face cream 259 271
polysulphones 36, 248 recombinant proteins 302 silicon carbide LEDs 272
polytetrafluoroethylene recycling 259–60 silicon chips 6, 25–7, 272–3
(PTFE) (Teflon) 35, refractory materials 260 silicon nitride 273
103, 111, 186, 249–50 Reinitzer, Friedrich 201 silicon-based solar cells 270,
polythene (polyethylene) 32, renewable energy 8 271
33–4, 111, 226, 240, 241 renewable materials 8–9 silicones 40, 273
polyurethanes 243, 248 resonance 44 silk 105, 277
polyvinylchloride (PVC) 248 reverse osmosis 3, 260–1 silver nanoparticles 273–4
polyvinylidene chloride (Saran ribose 16 sintering 49
wrap) 249 RNA 261, 262 small-molecule OLEDs
polyvinylidene fluoride 36, 249 Round, Henry 21, 54, 163 (SMOLEDs) 58–9, 274,
porcelain 90, 147, 250 Roundup 261–3 275
porosity 149 rubber 32–3, 216–17 smart materials 274
Portland cement 204, 250–1 ruby laser 263 smart phones 274–5
post‐it notes 251 Rutherford, Ernest 84 smart textiles 275
prepregs 251 rutile phase 100 smectic phase liquid
proppants 252 crystals 58, 103, 275, 276
proteins 37–8, 117, 252 saccharification 15, 264 sodium cyclamate 17
proton exchange membrane saccharin 17 soft contact lenses 276
fuel cells 68 Saccharomyces cerevisiae soft matter 18
pulsed laser deposition 75 302 sol‐gel processing 75, 276
pure materials 253 salicylic acid 113, 166 solar cells 64
Pyrex 253 samarium-based magnets 264 solid oxide fuel cells 69
pyroelectric materials 253 scaffolds 264 solid-state lighting 277
Schectman, Daniel 256 Sorona 39
quantum cascade lasers Schönbein, Frederick 14, 143 Space Race 111
253–4 Second World War 111 sphene 277
quantum computing 27–8 second-generation biofuel spider silk 105, 277
quantum confinement 91 39–40, 143, 198 spin‐on‐glass materials 278
quantum dots 54, 56–7, 59, security markers 265 spintronic materials 278
64, 215, 232, 254 selective laser sintering 291 split-ring resonators 84
quantum entanglement 27 self-cleaning glass 265 sporting equipment 278
quantum wells 255 self-cleaning paint 265 spray‐dyeing 279
quantum wires 255–6 self-cleaning titania-coated sputtering 75
quartz crystal 234 glass 266 stain-resistant clothing 279
quasicrystals 256 self-healing materials 266 stained glass windows 214
qubits 28 semiconducting-grade stainless steel 105–6, 279
silicon 266 starch 16, 279–80
radioactive waste 277 semiconductor lasers 267 starch nanoparticles 280
radiofrequency magnetron semiconductors 267 statins 280–1
sputter-deposition 75 Semon, Waldo 248 stealth materials 281
Index 319
steel 281 tar sands 289 ultrafiltration membranes

stents 48, 127–8 Technoflon 297 103, 296
step-growth Teflon ultraviolet light 99
polymerisation 76 see polytetrafluoroethylene uranium nuclear fuel 62, 220
stereochemistry 32 tempur 269, 289
stereolithography 281 tensile stress/strength 48, 88 vacuum tubes 21–2
stevia plant 17 Tesla, Nikola 22 van der Waals force 3, 181
stimulated emission 43–4 textile fibres 103–4 vancomycin 46
stranded gas 124 textile printing 289 vapour-liquid-solid
styrene 203 thermal barrier coatings 290 growth technique 216
styrene-acrylonitrile- thermal spraying 50, 75, 279 Velcro 296
butadiene 36, 282 thermochromic liquid Veselago, Victor 83
styrene-butadiene rubber 282, crystals 290 viscose rayon 15
296 thermoplastics 32, 290 Viton 297
subtractive colour thermosetting plastics 291 vulcanisation 32–3, 297
mixing 282–3 thin films 73–6 vulcanite (ebonite) 297,
subtractive machining 283 thin-film transistors 298–9
succinic acid 39, 133 (TFTs) 118, 291 Vycor 297
sucralose (Splenda) 17, 123 thorium nuclear fuel 63
sucrose 16, 102, 283 three-dimensional printed washing‐up liquid 100
sugars 10, 15–18, 283 metals 291 waterproof cosmetics 300
sunscreens 99–100, 284 three-dimensional printed waterproof garments 300
super twisted nematic liquid plastics 292 Watson, James 109, 159
crystals 287 three-dimensional (3D) wave energy 65
superabsorbent polymers 284 printing 49, 82, 113, 132, weapons-grade plutonium
superalloys 8, 284 292 300
supercapacitors 285 three-way automotive wearable technology 300–1
superconductors 44–5, 157, catalysts 292 Weizmann, Chaim 126
285 Through the Looking Glass Westinghouse, George 22
supercritical fluids 104, 156 (Lewis Carroll) 81, 93 wet wipes 127
superelastic materials 286 tidal energy 66 Wiley, Ralph 34, 249
superglue 286 tissue engineering 264 wind energy 65, 301
superhydrophobic titanium dioxide 100, 275 Wint‐O‐Green mints 301
materials 286 toughened materials 293 ‘wonder materials’ 71, 82–4
superlattices 287 trademarks 96, 293 wound dressings 301
superposition 28 traditional ceramics 293
surfaces 2 transistors 23–5, 108–9, 294 X‐ray crystallography 109
surfactants (surface active triacetone triperoxide 295 xylose 264
agents) 57, 100, triboluminescence 301
208 Trichoderma reesei 166–7 yeast 301–2
surgical implants 50 tritium 174 Young’s modulus 48, 88
synthesis gas (syngas) 287 tuberculosis 51
synthetic biology 288 tungsten oxide 163 zeolites 302
synthetic diesel 288 turbostratic structures 104 Ziegler, Karl 302
synthetic materials 32 Turing, Alan 22, 111 Ziegler–Natta catalysts
synthetic polymers 31, 33, twisted nematic liquid 33–4, 302–3
34, 35 crystals 295 Zircaloy 63, 109, 303
preparation 76 two-dimensional materials 295 zirconia 50, 155
see also plastics Tyranno 271 zirconium diboride 183
synthetic rubber 288, 296 tyre compositions 296 ZMapp 303

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MATERIALS FOR THE 21 ST CENTURY

Dedicated to my brother, Jeffrey Segal

tomography while self-testing for measuring blood glucose concentrations is

on which direction of research to follow. The book will also be of interest to

Approximate Timeline for Developments in Materials xiii

3.7 Directed self-assembly of block copolymers 27

7 Energy Supplies for the 21st century 61

10.10 Optical properties 91

Glossary: Listing of 500 materials in alphabetical order 113

Approximate Timeline for

600 AD—Chinese soft porcelain

1907—Bakelite (Leo Baekeland)

1985—Fullerenes (Harold Kroto)

Materials for the 21st Century. David Segal.

1.2 The signiﬁcance of surfaces on

1.3 The 20th century: A golden age

If a molecule is designated by the letter A, then a homopolymer formed from this

Synthetic polymers are derived from petrochemical sources and throughout

Biodegradable materials will decompose in the environment over time to carbon

1.4 The 21st century: A golden age for natural

A pressing medical condition in the 21st century is the potentially increasing

Petrochemical sources are derived from oil.

1.5 From candy ﬂoss (cotton candy) to composites

Reinforcement of a matrix with ﬁbres increases the toughness of the composite,

1.6 Biopharmaceuticals: From small

1.7 Chips with everything

1.8 Energetic materials and terrorism

A hydrogen bond is an interaction between molecules that have hydrogen atoms

1.9 Speciality metallic alloys

Alloys are materials that consist of two or more metals.

Creep is the continuous deformation of a material, usually a metal, by a constant stress

Note that superalloys contain a number of metallic additives to nickel, in particular

1.10 Renewable energy

Polycrystalline silicon is distinct from a silicon component that is a single crystal

1.11 Renewable materials

In fermentation, enzymes, for example in yeast, catalytically convert sugar to

1.12 The importance of microstructure

1.13 Lighting technology

Incandescent light bulbs are light bulbs with a tungsten ﬁlament.

1.14 Sugars and foods

1.15 Intellectual property and materials

1.17 Further reading

Felice, M. Materials for aeroplane engines. Materials World (2013), 52–3.

A simple deﬁnition of cellulose is that it a natural polymer of glucose molecules,

Materials for the 21st Century. David Segal.

2.3 Candy ﬂoss (cotton candy)

2.4 Sugars and carbohydrates

Table 2.1 Common sugars and their classiﬁcation

species, such as monosaccharides. Sucrose, which is used as granulated sugar in

Exoskeletons are their shells.

Bioethanol, a biofuel, is produced in commercial quantities by the enzymatic

2.5 Storage of sugar in the body

to produce a source of energy. The high molecular weight of glycogen compared to

The hormone insulin, which is a protein, is produced in the pancreas and

Brownian motion is the continuous random movement of microscopic solid par-

2.7 Further reading

3.2 Cat’s whisker, vacuum tubes and relays

Materials for the 21st Century. David Segal.

3.3 Computability and the foundations

contacts but have been superseded by transistors based on doped semiconducting

3.5 Silicon chips

The smallest feature that can be obtained by current photolithographic pro-

3.6 Moore’s Law

If zirconia is heated to a high temperature, around 1000 C, it undergoes a phase