TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES - CAVITE CAMPUS

CQT. AVENUE, SALAWAG, DASMARIÑAS CITY

CET 318
MATERIAL TESTING

WRITTEN REPORT
SOIL

SUBMITTED BY:

FAJILAGO, GLYDEL M.

SUBMITTED TO:
ENGR. ALDRIN DELA CUESTA

JANUARY 24, 2019

HISTORY OF SOIL
The early concepts of soil were based on ideas developed by a German chemist, Justus von
Liebig (1803–1873), and modified and refined by agricultural scientists who worked on samples
of soil in laboratories, greenhouses, and on small field plots. The soils were rarely examined
below the depth of normal tillage. These chemists held the "balance-sheet" theory of plant
nutrition. Soil was considered a more or less static storage bin for plant nutrients—the soils could
be used and replaced. This concept still has value when applied within the framework of modern
soil science, although a useful understanding of soils goes beyond the removal of nutrients from
soil by harvested crops and their return in manure, lime, and fertilizer.
The early geologists generally accepted the balance-sheet theory of soil fertility and applied it
within the framework of their own discipline. They described soil as disintegrated rock of
various sorts—granite, sandstone, glacial till, and the like. They went further, however, and
described how the weathering processes modified this material and how geologic processes
shaped it into landforms such as glacial moraines, alluvial plains, loess plains, and marine
terraces. Geologist Nathaniel Shaler (1841–1906) monograph (1891) on the origin and nature of
soils summarized the late 19th century geological concept of soils.

DEFINITION OF SOIL
Soil is a mixture of organic matter, minerals, gases, liquids, and organisms that together
support life. Earth's body of soil is the pedosphere, which has four important functions: it is a
medium for plant growth; it is a means of water storage, supply and purification; it is a modifier
of Earth's atmosphere; it is a habitat for organisms; all of which, in turn, modify the soil.

Access to good soil is very important for building a modern infrastructure. Soil is directly used to
make building materials, such as cement and brick, as well as indirectly used to grow the plants
used to make building materials such as wood boards and insulation fibers. Historically, many
homes and other structures were made from soil or soil that was caked and dried into blocks.
These included earthen homes cut into hillsides, homes where mud was “plastered” onto the
walls, and adobe homes.

Since soil is everywhere, all structures are also built on soil. Selection of sites with the best soil
is an important engineering decision in the building process. Soil maps are a great tool to help
engineers determine the best location for their design. Soil maps are created by soil scientists and
present information such as:
• the slope of the land surface;
• soil biological, chemical, and physical properties; and,
• potential for water runoff, drainage, or storage.
TYPES OF SOIL
Soil is a natural resource that can be categorized into different soil types, each with distinct
characteristics that provide growing benefits and limitations. Identifying the type of soil you
require for a project is paramount to support the healthy growth of plant life. Soil can be
categorized into sand, clay, silt, peat, chalk and loam types of soil based on the dominating size
of the particles within a soil.

Sandy Soil – are light, warm, dry and tend to be acidic and low in
nutrients. Sandy soils are often known as light soils due to their
high proportion of sand and little clay (clay weighs more than
sand). These soils have quick water drainage and are easy to work
with. They are quicker to warm up in spring than clay soils but
tend to dry out in summer and suffer from low nutrients that are
washed away by rain. The addition of organic matter can help give
plants an additional boost of nutrients by improving the nutrient
and water holding capacity of the soil.

Clay soil – are heavy soils that benefit from high nutrients. Clay
soils remain wet and cold in winter and dry out in summer. These
soils are made of over 25 percent clay, and because of the spaces
found between clay particles, clay soils hold a high amount of
water. Because these soils drain slowly and take longer to warm
up in summer, combined with drying out and cracking in summer,
they can often test gardeners.

Silt soil – are light and moisture retentive soils with a high fertility
rating. As silt soils compromise of medium sized particles they are
well drained and hold moisture well. As the particles are fine, they
can be easily compacted and are prone to washing away with rain.
By adding organic matter, the silt particles can be bound into more
stable clumps.
 Peat soil – are high in organic matter and retain a large amount of
moisture. This type of soil is very rarely found in a garden and often
imported into a garden to provide an optimum soil base for planting.

Chalk soil – can be either light or heavy but always highly alkaline
due to the calcium carbonate or lime within its structure. As these
soils are alkaline they will not support the growth of ericaceous
plants that require acidic soils to grow. If a chalky soil shows signs
of visible white lumps then they can’t be acidified and gardeners
should be resigned to only choose plants that prefer an alkaline soil.

Loam soil – are a mixture of sand, silt and clay that are combined to
avoid the negative effects of each type. These soils are fertile, easy
to work with and provide good drainage. Depending on their
predominant composition they can be either sandy or clay loam. As
the soils are a perfect balance of soil particles, they are considered
to be a gardeners best friend, but still benefit from topping up with
additional organic matter.

GEOTECHNICAL PROPERTIES OF SOIL

Different geotechnical property of soils has different influence on the civil engineering
structures. They also depends upon each other. The properties are discussed as under:

1. Specific Gravity
Specific gravity is the ratio of the mass of soil solids to the mass of an equal volume of water. It
is an important index property of soils that is closely linked with mineralogy or chemical
composition and also reflects the history of weathering. It is relatively important as far as the
qualitative behavior of the soil is concerned and useful in soil mineral classification, for example
iron minerals have a larger value of specific gravity than silicas. It gives an idea about suitability
of the soil as a construction material; higher value of specific gravity gives more strength for
roads and foundations. It is also used in calculation of void ratio, porosity, degree of saturation
and other soil parameters. Typical values of specific gravity are given in Table 1.
 2. Density Index
The degree of compaction of fine grained soils is measured in relation to maximum dry density
for a certain compactive effort, like 90% of light compaction density or proctor density. But in
case of coarse grained soils, a different sort of index is used for compaction. Depending upon the
shape, size, and gradation of soil grains, coarse grained soils can remain in two extreme states of
compaction, namely in the loosest and densest states. Any intermediate state of compaction can
be compared to these two extreme states using an index called relative density or density index.
The soil characteristics based on relative density are shown in Table 2.

3. Consistency Limits
The consistency of a fine-grained soil is largely influenced by the water content of the soil. A
gradual decrease in water content of a fine-grained soil slurry causes the soil to pass from the
liquid state to a plastic state, from the plastic state to a semi-solid state, and finally to the solid
state. The water contents at these changes of state are different for different soils. The water
contents that correspond to these changes of state are called the Atterberg limits. The water
contents corresponding to transition from one state to the next are known as the liquid limit, the
plastic limit and the shrinkage limit.
The liquid limit of a soil is the water content, expressed as percentage of the weight of the oven
dried soil, at the boundary between the liquid and plastic states of consistency of the soil. The
soil has negligibly small shear strength. The plastic limit of a soil is the water content, expressed
as a percentage of the weight of oven dried soil, at the boundary between the plastic and semi-
solid states of consistency of the soil.

4. Particle Size Analysis

The percentage of different sizes of soil particles coarser than 75 µ is determined by sieve
analysis whereas less than 75 µ are determined by hydrometer analysis. Based on the particle
size analysis, particle size distribution curves are plotted. The particle size distribution curve
(gradation curve) represents the distribution of particles of different sizes in the soil mass. It
gives an idea regarding the gradation of the soil i.e. it is possible to identify whether a soil is well
graded or poorly graded. In mechanical soil stabilization, the main principle is to mix a few
selected soils in such a proportion that a desired grain size distribution is obtained for the design
mix. Hence for proportioning the selected soils, the grain size distribution of each soil is required
to be known.

5. Compaction
Soil compaction is one of the ground improvement techniques. It is a process in which by
expending compactive energy on soil, the soil grains are more closely rearranged. Compaction
increases the shear strength of soil and reduces its compressibility and permeability.
Murthy explained that when an earth dam is properly compacted, the shear strength of the
material is increased and dam becomes more stable. Since the soil becomes dense, its
permeability gets decreased. The decrease in the permeability of the dam decreases the seepage
loss of the water stored. The settlement of the dam also decreases due to the increase in the
density of the materials.

6. Consolidation
When a soil layer is subjected to compressive stress due to construction activities, it undergoes
compression. The compression is caused by rearrangement of particles, seepage of water,
crushing of particles, and elastic distortions. Settlement of a structure is analyzed for three
reasons: appearance of structure, utility of the structure, and damage to the structure. The
aesthetic view of a structure can be spoiled due to the presence of cracks or tilt of the structure
caused by settlement. Settlement caused to a structure can damage some of the utilities like
cranes, drains, pumps, electrical lines etc. Further settlement can cause a structure to fail
structurally and collapse. Settlement is the combination of time-independent (e.g. immediate
compression) and time-dependent compression (called consolidation).
 7. Permeability
The amount, distribution, and movement of water in soil have an important role on the properties
and behavior of soil. The engineer should know the principles of fluid flow, as groundwater
conditions are frequently encountered on construction projects. Water pressure is always
measured relative to atmospheric pressure, and water table is the level at which the pressure is
atmospheric. Soil mass is divided into two zones with respect to the water table: (i) below the
water table (a saturated zone with 100% degree of saturation) and (ii) just above the water table
(called the capillary zone with degree of saturation ≤ 100%).
Data from field permeability tests are needed in the design of various civil engineering works,
such as cut-off wall design of earth dams, to ascertain the pumping capacity for dewatering
excavations and to obtain aquifer constants. The permeability of soils has a decisive effect on the
stability of foundations, seepage loss through embankments of reservoirs, drainage of subgrades,
excavation of open cuts in water bearing sand, and rate of flow of water into wells.

8. Shear Strength
The shear resistance of soil is the result of friction and the interlocking of particles and possibly
cementation or bonding at the particle contacts. The shear strength parameters of soils are
defined as cohesion and the friction angle. The shear strength of soil depends on the effective
stress, drainage conditions, density of the particles, rate of strain, and direction of the strain.
Thus, the shearing strength is affected by the consistency of the materials, mineralogy, grain size
distribution, shape of the particles, initial void ratio and features such as layers, joints, fissures
and cementation. The shear strength parameters of a granular soil are directly correlated to the
maximum particle size, the coefficient of uniformity, the density, the applied normal stress, and
the gravel and fines content of the sample. It can be said that the shear strength parameters are a
result of the frictional forces of the particles, as they slide and interlock during shearing. Soil
containing particles with high angularity tend to resist displacement and hence possess higher
shearing strength compared to those with less angular particles.

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF THE SOIL

1. Texture:

Texture refers to the relative proportions of particles of various sizes such as sand, silt and
clay in the soil. The percentages of sand, silt and clay in a soil could be determined in a soil
laboratory by two standard methods - hydrometer method and pipette method. Both methods
depend on the fact that at any given depth in a settling suspension the concentration of the
particles varies with time, as the coarser fractions settle at a faster rate than the finer.
 2. Structure:

The term texture is used in reference to the size of individual soil particles but when the
arrangement of the particles is considered the term structure is used. Structure refers to the
aggregation of primary soil particles (sand, silt and clay) into compound particles or cluster of
primary particles which are seperated by the adjoining aggregates by surfaces of weakness.
Structure modifies the effect of texture in regard to moisture and air relationships, availability of
nutrients, action of microorganisms and root growth. Similarly a soil though has a heavy texture,
can have a strongly developed structure, thus making it not very satisfactory for aquaculture as a
result of this soil allowing high seepage losses.

Structure is defined in terms of grade, class and type of aggregates.

Grade: Grade of structure is the degree of aggregation and expresses the differential between
cohesion within aggregates and adhesion between aggregates. These properties vary with the
moisture content of the soil and it should be determined when the moisture content is normal -
not when unusually dry or unusually wet. The four major grades of structure rated from 0 to 3
are listed below.

0 - Structureless: no observable aggregation or no definite orderly arrangement of natural

lines of weakness. Massive if coherent; single grain if noncoherent.

1 - Weak: That degree of aggregation characterised by poorly formed indistinct

aggregates that are barely observable in place. When disturbed, soil
material that has this grade of structure breaks into a mixture of few
entire aggregates many broken aggregates and much unaggregated
material.

2 - Moderate: Well formed distinct aggregates that are moderately durable and evident
but not distinct in undisturbed soil. When disturbed, they break down
into a mixture of many distinct entire aggregates, some broken
aggregates and little unaggregated material.

3 - Strong: Durable aggregates that are quite evident in undisturbed soil that adhere
weakly to one another. When removed from the profile the sokl material
consists very largely of entire aggreates and includes few broken ones
and little or no nonaggregated material.

Class: The Class of structure describes the average size of individual aggregates
and Type describe their form or shape. The various class divisions are: very fine or very thin,
fine or thin, medium, coarse or thick and very coarse or very thick.

Water movement and drainage are poor in soils having blocky, prismatic, columnar and platy
structures. These structured soils especially the platy type are most suitable for aquaculture.
 3. Consistence:

It is the resistance of a soil to deformation or rupture and is determined by the cohesive and
adhesive properties of the soil mass. This is a term used to designate the manifestation of the
cohesive and adhesive properties of soil at various moisture contents. A knowledge of the
consistence of the soil is important in tillage operations, traffic and pond constructions.
Consistence gives also an indication of the soil texture.

Consistence is described for three moisture levels:

1. - Wet soil - non sticky, slightly sticky, sticky, very sticky; non plastic, slightly plastic,
plastic and very plastic.
2. - Moist soil - loose, very friable, friable, firm, very firm, extremely firm.
3. - Dry soil - loose, soft, slightly hard, hard, very hard, extremely hard.

Description of the consistence terms mentioned above can be obtained from “Guidelines for
Soil Profile Description” by FAO (FAO, 1974).

4. Partiole density:

-of soil is the mass per unit volume of soil particles (soil solid phase) - expressed in g/c.c.
Most soils have particle density of about 2.6 g/cc. Presence of organic matter decrease the
density and iron compounds increase the density.

5. Bulk density:

-of soil is the mass of soil per unit volume of soil (volume includes both soil and pores) -
expressed in g/c.c.

6. Pore space:

Particle density can be determined using specific gravity bottle technique and bulk density by
taking soil core samples of known volume in the field and determining the even dry weight.
Water and air movements through soil depends on the pore space and the size distribution of the
pores (microPores and macropores). Lower the pore space or higher the bulk density of the soil,
the higher the suitability of the soil for aquaculture.

7. Atterberg limits:

From the previous section it could be noted that consistence of soils changes with the amount
of moisture in the soil. Atterberg limits correspond to the moisture content at which a soil sample
changes it's consistence from one state to the other. Liquid limit (LL) and plastic limit (PL) are
two important states of consistence. Liquid limit is the percentage moisture content at which a
soil changes with decreasing wetness from the liquid to the plastic consistence or with increasing
wetness from the plastic to the liquid consistence, whereas the plastic limit is the percentage
moisture content at which a soil changes with decreasing wetness from the plastic to the semi-
solid consistence or from the semi-solid to the plastic consistence. Plastic index (PI) = LL - PL,
is the moisture content range at which the soil remains plastic.

8. Soil colour:

Soil colour gives an indication of the various processes going-on in the soil as well as the
type of minerals in the soil. For example the red colour in the soil is due to the abundance of iron
oxide under oxidised conditions (well-drainage) in the soil; dark colour is generally due to the
accumulation of highly decayed organic matter; yellow colour is due to hydrated iron oxides and
hydroxide; black nodules are due to manganese oxides; mottling and gleying are associated with
poor drainage and/or high water table. Abundant pale yellow mottles coupled with very low pH
are indicative of possible acid sulphate soils. Colours of soil matrix and mottles are indicative of
the water and drainage conditions in the soil and hence suitability of the soil for aquaculture.

9. Soil permeability:

It is the ability of the soil to transmit water and air. An impermeable soil is good for
aquaculture as the water loss through seepage or infiltration is low. As the soil layers or horizons
vary in their characteristics, the permeability also differs from one layer to another. Pore size,
texture, structure and the presence of impervious layers such as clay pan determines the
permeability of a soil. Clayey soils with platy structures have very low permeability.

Permeability is measured in terms of permeability rate or coefficient of permeability (cm per

hour, cm per day, cm per sec.).

Permeability rate or coefficient of permeability is determined in the laboratory by measuring

the rate of flow of water from a constant head of water through a colomn of soil at specific
moisture content and other conditions. It is determined in the field by digging a hole of
approximately 30 cm diameter, smearing the sides of the hole with heavy wet clay or lining with
plastic sheet and measuring the rate of infiltration of water by filling the hole repeatedly with
water and noting the time it takes for the water level to go down by a specific depth.

TYPES OF SOIL TESTS FOR BUILDING CONSTRUCTION

Various tests on soil are conducted to decide the quality of soil for building construction.
Some tests are conducted in laboratory and some are in the field. Here we will discuss about the
importance of various soil tests for building construction. The tests on soil are as follows:

o Moisture content test

o Atterberg limits tests
 o Specific gravity of soil
o Dry density of soil
o Compaction test (Proctor’s test)

Moisture Content Test on Soil

Moisture content or water content in soil is an important parameter for building

construction. It is determined by several methods and they are
o Oven drying method
o Calcium carbide method
o Torsion balance method
o Pycnometer method
o Sand bath method
o Radiation method
o Alcohol method

Of all the above oven drying method is most common and accurate method. In this
method the soil sample is taken and weighed and put it in oven and dried at 110o + 5oC. After 24
hours soil is taken out and weighed. The difference between the two weights is noted as weight
of water or moisture content in the soil.

Specific Gravity Test on Soil

Specific gravity of soil is the ratio of the unit weight of soil solids to that of the water. It
is determined by many methods and they are:
o Density bottle method
o Pycnometer method
o Gas jar method
o Shrinkage limit method
o Measuring flask method

Density bottle method and Pycnometer method are simple and common methods. In
Pycnometer method, Pycnometer is weighed in 4 different cases that is empty weight (M1),
empty + dry soil (M2), empty + water + dry soil (M3) and Pycnometer filled with water (M4) at
room temperature. From these 4 masses specific gravity is determined by below formula.
Dry Density Test on Soil

The weight of soil particles in a given volume of sample is termed as dry density of soil.
Dry density of soil depends upon void ratio and specific gravity of soil. Based on values of dry
density soil is classified into dense, medium dense and loose categories.
Dry density of soil is calculated by core cutter method, sand replacement method and water-
displacement method.

Core Cutter Method for Soil Dry Density Testing

In this methods a cylindrical core cutter of standard dimensions is used to cut the soil in
the ground and lift the cutter up with soil sample. The taken out sample is weighed and noted.
Finally water content for that sample is determined and dry density is calculated from the below
relation.

Sand Replacement Method for Soil Dry Density Testing

In this method also, a hole is created in the ground by excavating soil whose dry density is to be
find. The hole is filled with uniform sand of known dry density. So by dividing the mass of sand
poured into the hole with dry density of sand gives the volume of hole. So we can calculate the
soil dry density from above formula.

Atterberg Limits Test on Soil

To measure the critical water content of a fine grained soil, Atterberg provided 3 limits
which exhibits the properties of fine grained soil at different conditions. The limits are liquid
limit, plastic limit and shrinkage limit. These limits are calculated by individual tests as follows.
Liquid Limit Test on Soil

In this test, Casagrande’s liquid limit device is used which consist a cup with moving up
and down mechanism. The cup is filled with soil sample and groove is created in the middle of
cup with proper tool. When the cup is moved up and down with the help of handle the groove
becomes closed at some point.
Note down the number of blows required to close the groove. After that water content of soil is
determined. Repeat this procedure 3 times and draw a graph between log N and water content of
soil. Water content corresponding to N=25 is the liquid limit of soil.

Plastic Limit Test on Soil

Take the soil sample and add some water to make it plastic enough to shape into small
ball. Leave it for some time and after that put that ball in the glass plate and rolled it into threads
of 3mm diameter.
If the threads do not break when we roll it to below 3mm diameter, then water content is
more than the plastic limit. In that case reduce water content and repeat the same procedure until
crumbling occurs at 3mm diameter. Finally find out the water content of resultant soil which
value is nothing but plastic limit.

Shrinkage Limit Test on Soil

In case of shrinkage limit, the water content in the soil is just sufficient to fill the voids of
soil. That is degree of saturation is of 100%. So, there is no change in volume of soil if we
reduce the shrinkage limit. It is determined by the below formula for the given soil sample.

Where M1 = initial mass V1= initial volume M2= dry mass

V2= volume after drying Pw = density of water.

Proctor’s Compaction Test on Soil

Proctor’s test is conducted to determine compaction characteristics of soil. Compaction of

soil is nothing but reducing air voids in the soil by densification. The degree of Compaction is
measured in terms of dry density of soil.
 REFERENCES
https://www.soils.org/files/sssa/iys/may-soils-overview.pdf
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_soil_science
https://www.boughton.co.uk/products/topsoils/soil-types/
http://article.sapub.org/10.5923.j.re.20170704.03.html
http://www.fao.org/docrep/field/003/AC172E/AC172E04.htm
https://theconstructor.org/geotechnical/types-of-soil-tests-construction/12679/