Fuel 227 (2018) 394–400

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Fuel
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Full Length Article

Effect of exhaust gas recirculation on a CRDI engine fueled with waste T

plastic oil blend
⁎
Archit S. Ayodhyaa, , Venkatesh T. Lamanib, Parashuram Bedarc, G.N. Kumara
a
Department of Mechanical Engineering, National Institute of Technology Karnataka, Surathkal 575025 India
b
Department of Mechanical Engineering, BMS College of Engineering, Bangalore, Karnataka 560019, India
c
Heat Power Technology, SJ Govt Polytechinic College, Bangalore 560001 India

A R T I C LE I N FO A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The inevitable rise in the usage of plastic poses a serious threat to the environment owing to their non-biode-
Waste plastic gradable nature. The lack of proper infrastructure for treating and recycling plastic wastes give rise to the
CRDI engine disposal problem. However, the oil synthesized from these waste plastics can be used as an alternative fuel for C.I
EGR engines which not only helps to tackle the disposal problem but also aids in recovering precious energy from
Combustion
these wastes. This experimental investigation aims to study the effects of plastic-diesel blend(P30) fuel on the
Performance
performance, emission and combustion characteristics of a twin cylinder CRDI engine operating at different EGR
Emission
rates (0%, 10% & 20%). The experimental results showed a slight drop in the engine performance while oper-
ating with plastic blend, mainly overall due to its higher viscosity and lower heating value. The vast upsurge of
NOX emissions with plastic blend was mitigated by the aid of EGR methodology. Marginal increase in the dis-
charge of regulated emissions like HC, CO and soot were noticed for both plastic blend as well as EGR operations.
The experiments were carried out for five different loading conditions varying from 0% to 80% in steps of 20%
each and found out that waste plastic-diesel blend can be successfully used as an alternative fuel in diesel
vehicles without any prior modifications in the engine.

1. Introduction oil in a DI diesel engine. Increase in thermal efficiency and reduction in

Fossil fuels have been the principal sources of energy to power this
planet since their advent in the 18th century; of which diesel is of ut-
most importance because of its superior qualities like higher thermal
efficiency, durability and lower fuel consumption [1]. However, the
escalating rate of diesel fuel consumption, increased outflow of foreign
exchange & its detrimental impact on the environment has induced
researches to search for alternative fuels.
Approximately 10–20 million tons of plastic end up in the oceans
each year. A study carried out by World watch institute in the year 2015
estimated that 5.25 trillion plastic particles weighing a total of
268,940 tons are currently floating in the world’s oceans [2]. Plastics
are fundamentally composed of hydrocarbons with optional additives
such as colorants, stabilizers & antioxidants [3]. Waste plastics can be
converted into useful oil by the process of pyrolysis and catalytic re-
formation. The pyrolysis oil has similar properties in comparison to
petroleum fuels as plastic material is derived from crude oil; although
the physical and chemical properties are prominently reliant on raw
plastic waste [4]. Mani et al. [5] studied the effect of using waste plastic
smoke (up to 40%) were notable achievements; however CO, HC and
NOXemissions intensified. Kalargaris et al. [6] and Ananthakumar et al.
[7] on the contrary reported a reduction in brake thermal efficiency as
the higher viscosity of waste plastic oil blends resulted in poor atomi-
zation, vaporization & combustion. Elevated percentage of aromatic
compounds in waste plastic oils blends results in the rise of exhaust
emissions, which can be further controlled by the addition of oxyge-
nated compounds like alcohols, esters & ethers. Damodharan et al. [8]
and Devaraj et al. [9] reported positive findings for n-butanol and
diethyl ether addition respectively to waste plastic oil blends, achieving
higher brake thermal efficiency and reduced NOX emissions.
Waste plastic oil tends to shoot up the NOX emissions, which being a
major threat to our environment has to be carefully controlled. A
number of in-cylinder methods like fuel-water emulsion [10], steam
injection [11], exhaust gas recirculation [12], retarded injection timing
[13] have been studied to control NOX emissions, of which EGR sug-
gests to be the most promising technique. The thermal, dilution and
chemical effects produced by EGR controls the combustion temperature
which assists in bringing down the NOX emissions. The application of

⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: archit_9325@yahoo.com (A.S. Ayodhya), gnkumar33@gmail.com (G.N. Kumar).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2018.04.128
Received 27 February 2017; Received in revised form 25 January 2018; Accepted 25 April 2018
0016-2361/ © 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
A.S. Ayodhya et al. Fuel 227 (2018) 394–400

Nomenclature HC hydrocarbon
BHC unburned hydrocarbon
C.I compression ignition DF diesel fuel
CRDI common rail direct injection WPO waste plastic oil
EGR exhaust gas recirculation P30 30% waste plastic oil + 70% diesel fuel
NOX nitrogen oxides ECU electronic control unit
NO nitric oxide BTDC before top dead center
NO2 nitrogen dioxide CA Crank angle
H2O water BTE brake thermal efficiency
CO carbon monoxide HRR heat release rate
CO2 carbon dioxide EGT exhaust gas temperature

EGR is usually accompanied by aggravated engine performance and
marginal rise in the regulated emissions [14], hence the percentage of
exhaust gases to be re-circulated is necessary to optimize.
After going through the literature it has been found that no research
work has been carried out related to high pressure (100 MPa) plastic
fuel injection. Therefore, this work attempts to improve the perfor-
mance, combustion& emission characteristics by incorporating waste
plastic oil blend in a high injection pressure diesel engine under EGR
operation.
2. Experimental setup and methodology
2.1. Fuel properties and extraction
The conversion of waste plastic into useful fuel occurs through the
pyrolysis process. This process involves anaerobic thermal degradation
of waste plastics into three products: solid, liquid and gaseous. The exit
gas from the reactor is condensed using a series of condensers and this
condensed liquid is used as a fuel for experimental investigations. The
properties of the pyrolysis products depend on the type of plastic feed to
the reactor and process parameters such as temperature, catalyst and
residence time [15,16].
The various fuel properties as presented in Table 2 were in-
vestigated using standard instruments as per ASTM standards.

The instruments were calibrated as per the manufacturer’s manual.
The schematic description of the experimental setup is shown in Fig. 1.
A dual cylinder, 4-stroke CRDI diesel engine coupled with an open ECU
(NIRA) was used for the experimental investigation which was loaded
by eddy current type dynamometer; specifications of the engine are
given in Table 1. Measurement of combustion pressure at each crank
angle was made by M108A02 PCB piezotronics make pressure trans-
ducer which utilized the average values of 100 completed cycles as
pressure data for the calculation of combustion parameters. The engine
speed was determined by a rotary encoder which displayed the mea-
sured value in rpm on a digital indicator. Fuel flow consumption was
recorded on volume basis with the help of a burette and a stop-watch.
K-type thermocouples were installed for the purpose of exhaust gas
temperature measurement. Suitable manometers and rotameters were
mounted for interfacing airflow and cooling water flow rate. A Labview
based software package “Enginesoft” is also provided for online per-
formance evaluation.
The exhaust gas recirculation unit is managed by an arrangement
consisting of ECU, vacuum pump and a solenoid valve. The ECU as per
the input given by the user sends signals to the vacuum pump which
operates the solenoid valve. The solenoid valve regulates the flow of
exhaust gases to be recirculated in proportion to the signals fed by the
ECU to the vacuum pump. It also uses an electrical actuator for precise
valve control.
AVL DI Gas 444 gas analyser with recommended filters was made
use of to measure the concentrations of unburned hydrocarbons (HC),
carbon monoxide (CO) and nitric oxide (NO) in the exhaust line. It
measures CO in percentage volumes whereas HC & NO in ppm. Smoke
opacity was measured using an AVL 437 smoke meter.
The engine performance, combustion and emission data were noted
for different loads varying from 0% to 80% in steps of 20% at a constant
speed of 2000 rpm. Waste plastic oil was selected for blending with
diesel on volume basis where P30 denotes a blend consisting of 70%
diesel and 30% waste plastic oil. P30 blend ratio was selected in par-
ticular as it had similar properties in comparison to diesel. EGR rates of
0%, 10% and 20% were employed as an intention to reduce NOX
emissions. Three trial readings were noted after the engine had very
nearly achieved steady state conditions, and the average of these trials
was taken for calculation purposes.
2.2. Error analysis
Estimation of uncertainties and error is essential while conducting
any experimental investigation. Uncertainties may appear because of
several factors like: environmental conditions, calibration, observation,
instrument selection and incorrect reading. Error analysis quantifies the
accuracy of the experiments being performed. The uncertainties of
dependent parameters like brake power, fuel consumption and brake
thermal efficiency were computed by partial differentiation method
using the uncertainty percentages of various instruments as shown in
Table 3. The uncertainties for independent parameters were found by
calculating the mean, standard deviation & standard error for the re-
peated set of 20 readings.
The total uncertainty of the experimental investigation is,
= Square root of {(uncertainty of CO)2 + (uncertainty of
HC)2 + (uncertainty of NO)2 + (uncertainty of
soot)2 + (uncertainty of load)2 + (uncertainty of
speed)2 + (uncertainty of time)2 + (uncertainty of brake
power)2 + (uncertainty of fuel consumption)2 + (uncertainty of
brake thermal efficiency)2}
= Square root of {(0.1)2 + (0.8)2 + (0.1)2 + (1.7)2 + (0.1)2
+ (0.1)2 + (0.9)2 + (0.1)2 + (1)2 + (1.1)2}
= ± 2.5%.
2.3. FT-IR of waste plastic oil
FTIR analysis gives a brief idea about the presence of various func-
tional groups in the fuel sample. This method categorizes the chemical
bonds in a molecule by generating an infrared absorption spectrum results
for several functional groups present in the waste plastic oil. It has ab-
sorption bands in the region of 4000–400 cm−1 with several peaks. When
subjected to infrared radiation, chemical bonds contract, stretch and ab-
sorb these radiations in a particular range of wavelength independent of
the structure of the rest of the molecules. The FTIR spectra of plastic fuel as
shown in Fig. 2 was recorded by Bruker series FTIR spectroscopy. Table 4
gives the information about the different functional groups present in the
oil sample which were detected by matching the peak wave numbers with
standard data given by Coates [18].

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A.S. Ayodhya et al. Fuel 227 (2018) 394–400

Table 2
Properties of diesel and waste plastic oil.
Fuel properties Test method Diesel Waste Plastic oil

3
Density (kg/m ) ASTM D4052 832 915
Lower calorific value (MJ/kg) ASTM D240 41.6 37.8
Kinematic viscosity (cSt) ASTM D445 2.3 3.52
Colour – Yellow Brown
Flash Point (°C) ASTM D93 50 42
Fire Point (°C) ASTM D93 56 44
Cetane Number* ASTM D 613 05 54 50

* Referred from Vijayabalan & Kaimal [17].

Table 3
List of uncertainties of different parameters.
Measurement % Uncertainty

CO 0.1
HC 0.8
NO 0.1
Soot 1.7
Load 0.1
Speed 0.1
Fig. 1. Schematic layout of an experimental setup. Time 0.9
BP 0.2
Fuel Consumption 1.0
Table 1 BTE 0.9
Specifications of the engine.
Parameter Details
for P30 blend in delayed compared to DF; and also a slightly higher
Engine make and model Mahindra, Maxximo (900 cc) peak pressure is achieved. The maximum in-cylinder pressure for P30 is
Type Dual Cylinder, four stroke, CRDI
81.86 bar whereas for DF it is 81.18 bar. In diesel engines the peak in-
Stroke × bore 83 × 84 mm
Power Rating 18.4 kW at 3600 rpm cylinder pressure is dependent on the amount of fuel taking part in the
Compression ratio 18.5 initial stages of uncontrolled combustion which is governed by the
Injection timing 12 °BTDC delay period [20]. Higher viscosity of P30 extends this delay period
Injection pressure 1000 bar leading to greater amount of fuel concentration to be combusted in the
Aspiration Natural aspiration
pre-mixed combustion phase. Longer ignition delay of waste plastic oil
Cooling system Water cooled
Dynamometer Eddy current, water cooled blends is the cause for higher in-cylinder pressure [21,22].
There is a minor drop in maximum in-cylinder pressure to 80.61 bar
and 79.17 bar with the application of 10% and 20% EGR rates re-
3. Results and discussions spectively. The re-circulated air substitutes substantial amounts of
oxygen by CO2 + H2O which act as heat absorbing agents and thereby
3.1. Brake thermal efficiency suppress the combustion process. This suppression of the combustion
process results into lowering of the in-cylinder pressure by 1.5% for
Brake thermal efficiency is the measure of how efficiently an engine 10% EGR and by 3.3% for 20% EGR rates respectively. Sathiyamoorthi
converts the thermal energy of fuel to mechanical output. The im- et al. [23] also reported similar observations while operating with EGR.
provement in BTE with load is due to reduced heat losses. It is observed
from Fig. 3 that BTE increases from 21.01% at 20% load to 39.2% at
80% load for DF and from 21.34% at 20% load to 40.14% at 80% load 3.3. Net heat release rate
for P30 blend. The minute rise in BTE of 1.52%, 3.4%, 2.3% & 2.4% for
20%, 40, 60% & 80% load respectively may be credited to lower ca- The heat release rate for DF and different blend cases is illustrated in
lorific value and longer ignition delay of plastic blend fuel. This ignition Fig. 5. It is observed that DF exhibits a lower heat release of 101.22 J/
delay is a result of lower cetane number of P30 fuel; as a result of which °CA as compared to P30 which has a maximum heat release rate of
greater quantity of fuel is combusted in the pre-mixed phase which 112.23 J/°CA. Also, the combustion for P30 blends is delayed by nearly
improves the combustion process. Also combustion of P30 releases less 3–4 °CA because of its higher viscosity. The longer ignition delay for
heat due to its lower calorific value, hence reducing heat losses and P30 blends makes possible better fuel-air mixing by allowing added
improving BTE. mixing time, which being the major reason for higher HRR. Another
The reduction in BTE with EGR application at all loads is due to the factor which may contribute to higher HRR in waste plastic oil blends is
deficiency of oxygen concentration inside the combustion chamber and the presence of additional 1.5%–3.3% oxygen by weight [6,21].
large replacement of air by exhaust gases [19]. Furthermore, EGR in- The application of EGR had an outcome of reduced peak heat re-
creases CO2 concentration inside the combustion chamber which in- lease rate to 104.44 J/°CA for 10% EGR and to101.98 J/°CA for 20%
creases the heat capacity of the mixture and brings down the BTE as the EGR rates respectively. This is due to the reduction in oxygen con-
working mixture now absorbs more heat energy. centration within the combustion chamber which is been replaced by
CO2 + H2O, thereby reducing the intensity of pre-mixed combustion
3.2. Cylinder pressure vs crank angle [24]. Mani et al. [25] also reported similar results in their experimental
work.
Fig. 4 shows the in-cylinder pressure readings recorded at different
crank angles for 80% load condition. It is noticed that the combustion

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A.S. Ayodhya et al. Fuel 227 (2018) 394–400

3.4. Oxides of nitrogen Table 4

FTIR analysis of waste plastic oil indicating functional groups.
NOX emissions are important constituents to be studied while Functional group Assignment Wave number
testing alternative fuels. NOX is a general term used to represent two (cm−1)
components namely nitric oxide (NO) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2). The
–CH3, branched alkane Methyl C–H stretch 2957.53
formation of NOX is vastly dependent on three factors: in-cylinder
CH2, branched alkane Methylene C–H stretch 2920.81
temperature, oxygen concentration & residence time for reactions to CH2, branched alkane Methylene C–H stretch 2859.62
occur [26]. NOX emissions increase proportionally with load due to C]C, Alkene Alkenyl C]C stretch 1652.13
development of higher in-cylinder temperature. It is observed from CH2, Alkane Methylene C–H bend 1460.40
Fig. 6 that NOX emissions vary from 58 ppm at 20% load to 855 ppm at –CH3, Alkane Methyl C–H stretch 1378.82
C–C Skeletal C–C vibrations 1268.67
80% load for DF and from 59 ppm at 20% load to 1265 ppm at 80%
C–O, Alcohol Tertiary alcohol, C–O stretch 1154.14
load for P30. The principle reason for this increased NOX emissions is ]C–H, Alkene Trans-C–H out-of-plane bend 964.79
the higher HRR for P30 fuel blend. Moreover, fuels with aromatic ring C–H, Alkene Vinylidene C–H out-of-plane 887.25
structure such as waste plastic oil tend to have a higher adiabatic flame bend
CH2, Alkane Methylene –(CH2)n – rocking 748.56
temperature resulting into higher heat release rate which shoots up the
C–H cis-C H out-of-plane bend 699.60
in-cylinder temperature thus increase the formation of NOX [27]. Ad-
ditional amount of fuel bound oxygen and longer ignition delay which
promotes premixed combustion are also reasons for higher NOX emis- gaseous hydrocarbons unburned along the cylinder wall and crevice
sions. volume [7].
The lowering of NOX emissions with increasing EGR is due to di- Further increase in unburned hydrocarbon emission occurs with the
lution of the working mixture caused by the replacement of free oxygen application of EGR as a result of dilution of air leading to lower oxi-
by CO2 + H2O, which being inert absorb energy from the combustion dation rates. In addition, lower combustion temperature because of
chamber and bring down the peak cylinder temperature. Reduced cy- increase in heat capacity of the working mixture causes incomplete
linder temperature and oxygen concentration with the application of combustion; hence higher UBHC emissions [23].
EGR aids in the lowering of NOX emissions. Maximum NOX reduction of
36.3% was found out at 20% EGR rate for 80% load condition.
3.6. Carbon monoxide

3.5. Hydrocarbon
Unburned hydrocarbons consist of fuel that is partially burned, and
is an important parameter to measure the combustion inefficiency.
Higher concentration of HC at lower loads is noticed because of poor
fuel distribution and lower in-cylinder temperature as observed in
previous investigations [6,28]. From Fig. 7 it is evident that P30 blend
has slightly higher concentration of UBHC decreasing from 26 ppm at
20% load to 7 ppm at 80% load compared to DF whose concentration
varies from 24 ppm at 20% load to 44 ppm at 80% load. P30 blend
emits more HC emissions due to the following reasons: firstly, the
higher viscosity of the blend limits proper mixing of the fuel resulting
into several local spots of rich and lean mixtures [29]. Lean mixture
zones are too lean to burn whereas the fuel-rich zones do not have
enough oxygen to burn the entire fuel. Secondly, unsaturated aromatic
compounds present in the P30 blend were indestructible during the
combustion process [30]. Another reason might be the inability of the
fuel spray to penetrate deeper into the combustion chamber leaving
CO emission is mainly due to poor mixture preparation, air en-
trainment, lack of sufficient oxygen and incomplete combustion [31].
CO is a toxic intermediate product formed during the combustion of a
hydrocarbon fuel; therefore its emissions should be controlled. The
reduction in ignition delay at higher loads result in less quantity of fuel
being present in the delay period and hence CO emissions are lesser
[21].
Moreover, Carbon monoxide requires a temperature of 1200 °C to
oxidize into CO2. Low loads will have lower combustion temperature
and therefore, higher CO emissions. It can be seen from Fig. 7 that CO
concentration for P30 decreased from 0.3% at no load to 0.04% at 80%
load condition. For the same load variations, CO concentration for DF
decreased from 0.16% to 0.02%. Higher CO emissions from P30 blends
may be attributed to poor mixture preparation (due to higher viscosity
of P30) and the presence of local rich regions which invariably produce
CO.
As seen from Fig. 8, it is clear that CO emission further increases
marginally with the application of EGR and in proportion with the %

100
964.79

95
1154.14
1652.13 1268.67
90
Transmittance (%)

748.56
85 1378.82
887.25
2859.62 699.60
80 1460.40

2957.53
75

70
2920.81

3500 3000 2500 2000 1500 1000 500

-1
Wave Number cm

Fig. 2. FTIR spectrometry of waste plastic oil.

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A.S. Ayodhya et al. Fuel 227 (2018) 394–400

Fig. 6. Variation in oxides of nitrogen with load and EGR.

Fig. 3. Variation of brake thermal efficiency with load and EGR.

Fig. 4. Variation of in-cylinder pressure with load and EGR. Fig. 7. Variation of unburned hydrocarbon with load and EGR.

Fig. 5. Variation of heat release rate with load and EGR. Fig. 8. Variation of carbon monoxide with load and EGR.

398
A.S. Ayodhya et al.
Fig. 9. Variation of soot with load and EGR.
Fig. 10. Variation of exhaust gas temperature with load and EGR.
rate. The replacement of free oxygen by the re-circulated combustion
products result into incomplete combustion which raise the CO emis-
sions. CO concentration was 0.31%, 0.34% at no load and 0.045%,
0.06% at 80% of full load for 10% and 20% EGR rates respectively.
Mani et al. [25] also quoted similar results.
3.7. Smoke emissions
Solid soot particles suspended in the exhaust gas form a major
portion of the particulate matter which needs to be monitored. Smoke
opacity increases with the increase in load for any given fuel, as seen in
Fig. 9 as well. Soot emission increases from 0.4% at zero load to 15.4%
at 80% load for DF whereas for P30 it varies from 0.6% at zero load to
16.2 at 80% load condition. High viscosity and low volatility of plastic
fuel leads to the formation of non-homogeneous charge within the cy-
linder which does not combust completely [7], hence resulting into
higher smoke emissions for plastic fuel blends. Another possible reason
is the presence of high aromatic content in plastic oil which causes poor
spray characterization and mixture formation resulting into high com-
bustion inefficiency [32]. This is in accordance with previous in-
vestigations that reported higher smoke emissions for WPO blends
[7,21].
It is also observed that application of EGR further magnifies the soot
399
Fuel 227 (2018) 394–400
emissions. This is mainly due to the admission of exhaust gases back
into the combustion chamber which lowers the oxygen concentration in
the intake system causing combustion instability [33]. Moreover, soot
emission concentration increases proportionally with % EGR as seen in
Fig. 8. Maximum soot concentration is obtained at 80% loading for P30
blend operating at 20% EGR rate.
3.8. Exhaust gas temperature
Fig. 10 depicts the variation of exhaust gas temperature at various
load conditions. EGT rises from 129.94 °C at no load to 353.04 °C at
80% load for DF. For P30 blend, the EGT increases from 131.87 °C to
368.82 °C for the same load variations. The increase in EGT with engine
load is the clear outcome of excess amount of fuel being utilized by the
engine to meet up the power requirement. Higher EGT for P30 blend is
due to higher heat release rate and also due to the presence of addi-
tional fuel bound oxygen which ensures better combustion. This trend
can also be justified by the prolonged ignition delay period of P30
blends [6].
Dilution of the working mixture with the induction of EGR reduces
the peak cylinder temperature and hence a reduction in EGT is ob-
served. Minimum EGT of 130.87 °C and 129.87 °C for 10% and 20%
EGR rates respectively is found at 0 load condition while maximum EGT
of 356.28 °C (10% EGR) and 354.28 °C (20% EGR) is found at 80% load
condition.
4. Conclusions
The conclusions drawn from the present investigation using WPO-
DF fueled four stroke CRDI engine with and without EGR are sum-
marized as:
• The engine was able to operate successfully with waste plastic oil
blend of 30% without any modifications being done.
• Improvement in brake thermal efficiency of 2–3% was attained with
P30 blend.
• Higher peak pressure & heat release rate for P30 blend were ob-
served because of its longer ignition delay and higher viscosity.
• NO emissions increased for P30 blend because of higher adiabatic
X
flame temperature and higher heat release rate.
• Other measured emissions like CO, HC and soot marginally in-
creased because of poor mixture preparation.
• The thermal, dilution and chemical effect caused by the introduction
of EGR deteriorates the engine performance by reducing brake
thermal efficiency, heat release rate and peak cylinder pressure.
• CO, HC and soot emissions aggravate with EGR due to improper
combustion.
• Maximum NOX reduction of 36.3% was achieved with the help of
20% EGR rate.
• Finally, WPO-DP blend of 30% along with optimized EGR rate of
10% can be used as an alternative fuel for C.I engines.
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