Principles and Plant Breeding Methods of PDF

PRINCIPLES AND PLANT
BREEDING METHODS OF FIELD

CROPS IN INDIA
SOUMENDRA CHAKRABORTY
TAPASH DASGUPTA
NEW DELHI PUBLISHERS

NEW DELHI
Soumendra Chakraborty and Tapash Dasgupta (2011) Principles and Plant Breeding Methods of Field
Crops in India, pp 290, New Delhi Publishers
© Publishers
First Edition 2011
ISBN 978-81-907421-91
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced,

stored in a retrieval system or transmitted, by any means, electronic,
mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise,
without written permission from the publisher.
New Delhi Publishers

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Soumendra Chakraborty
DEDICATED TO
My Father Late Sri Sukhendra Nath Chakraborty and
Mother Late Smt. Sandhya Chakraborty
And
To my wife Smt. Somdutta Chakraborty
and my daughter most adorable little Aadrita Chakraborty
Tapash Dasgupta
DEDICATED TO
My Son Himadri Shekhar Das Gupta
This page intentionally left blank
UTTAR BANGA KRISHI VISWAVIDYALAYA
PUNDIBARI, COOCH BEHAR, WEST BENGAL
PIN CODE: 736 165, INDIA
Vice Chancellor
Professor Asit Kumar Das
M. Sc (Ag.) Ph.D.
Foreword
Plant Breeding evolved as a natural phenomenon by man using his scientific attitude towards
discovering ways to find more production of crops in order to meet the demand of fulfillment
of hunger to end shorter years of mortality. The overall development of human beings is going
on, they find different new innovative ways to live in a meaningful way of life and development
of science progressed. It is in a broader sense, the massive eagerness to live, to defeat the
enemy outside and to keep the generations year after year, to survive and adapt in this world
along with other animals, science has progressed and different innovative approaches of man
lead to the development of science of plant breeding along with other branches of science.
Food grain production in India has increased since independence enormously especially due to
green revolution, the father of which is M.S. Swaminathan in India. He introduced dwarf
wheat and rice having different characteristics exactly suitable for production in India. Different
breeding programmes were taken off afterwards by which crossing of local varieties with
these introduced varieties were done in order to face difficulties like environmental calamities,
disease and pest attacks, lodging problems etc. Norman Borlogue brought green revolution in
1966. He introduced lodging resistant wheat variety from IRRI. Rice variety like IR8 was also
introduced here and food grain production has gone from 54.92 million tonnes in 1949-50 to
218.2 million tonnes in 2009-10 ( Economic survey of India).The production of food grains
has reached such a stage that India has contributed 16% of the total food grain production of
the world.
This book written by Dr. Soumendra Chakraborty and Prof Tapash Dasgupta specially focuses
on the origin and distribution, floral morphology, methods of grain production, putative parents,
related wild species and hybrid seed production of each field crop which are of immense value
to contribution of human need in day to day life.
This book is meant for UnderGraduate, Post Graduate Students where syllabus of Plant Breeding
discipline is scrupulously followed.
I personally feel that they have done a commendable job for the Students, Researchers, Teachers
(vi)
and even people employed in the Seed companies by writing the book so lucidly. I Congratulate
them for their heartful endevour in writing such a book and wish all the readers will be benefited
immensely from it.
I wish them good luck for their overall effort for writing such a Nice Book.
Sd/-
(Asit Kumar Das)
(Professor Asit Kumar Das)
Vice Chancellor
Preface
This book is specifically written for the undergraduate and Post Graduate Students following
the same syllabus of State Agricultural Universities and ICAR Institutes . This book will be an
indispensible guide and immensely helpful for JRF, NET and ARS examination giving in the
discipline of plant breeding. All necessary important points are given which are basic and the
students will be benefited if he can go through the book properly while attempting the ARS-
NET examination.
It is a text book and it comprises of chapters with field crops grown in India in different states
of the country following principles, procedure of breeding and problems in breeding of field
crops in India. It has cereals, pulses, oil seeds, fibre crops, forage crops and general breeding
methodologies and particular steps involved in breeding of disease resistant crops, pest resistant
crops, abiotic stress resistant crops, tools involved in hybrid seed production etc. The chapters
of each crop has short, lucid, point by point approach beginning from it’s origin, wild relatives,
classification of different species, floral biology, anthesis and pollination, breeding objectives,
parentage of different popular varieties in India, their duration, distant hybridization, detail
different methods of breeding, quality assessment of different crops like oil percentage of oil
seed crops, ginning percentage of cotton, detail methodology of hybrid seed production of
cotton, rice, maize, castor, sunflower etc.
Detail steps of hybrid seed production of different crops, crossing of A (male sterile ) with R
line (restorer line), maintenance of A line with B line (maintainer line) in a field, specific spacing
distance and moreover production of foundation seeds and certified seeds from each crop
maintain the ISTA rule where hybrid seed production is possible are given step by step with
precautions where the breeder should adopt for genuine production of certified or foundation
seeds.
The main agricultural field crops where the syllabus follows in any agricultural university while
teaching breeding of field crops in undergraduate and post graduate programmes . It is useful
in seed science and technology programme also in any agricultural university where hybrid
seed production of all field crops is vividly described.
(viii)
This book will be also immensely helpful for the farmers, seed production companies when
they are involved in seed production of different crops as well as hybrid seed production.
We will be extremely happy and thankful to all the students and think our effort will be fruitful
if this book will help the students as a whole. Any further improvement regarding the book is
highly solicited and appreciated.
Tapash Dasgupta
Acknowledgement
Firstly, we wish to acknowledge very much our collegues of Uttarbanga krishi Viswavidyalaya
Mr. Arup Sarkar, Mr. Subhendu Roy, Professor B.C. Saha, Dr. Bidhan Roy, Dr. Saikat Das of
Geneics and Plant Breeding and Dr. Sabyasachi Kundagrami, Department of Genetics and
Plant Breeding of Institute of Agricultural Science, Calcutta University for their immense help
for writing such a book for the aspiring students who will sit for competitive examinations and
also meeting the need of syllabus usually taught in the undergraduate and post graduate
programme in all agricultural universities.
We personally wish to acknowledge the Honourable Vice Chancellor, Uttar Banga Krishi
Viswavidyalaya, Professor Asit Kumar Das for inspiring us to write this book so that it will be
beneficial for the students of all agricultural students pertaining to the discipline of plant breeding
both in undergraduate and post graduate studies. We also wish to acknowledge Professor
Ashis Sinha Roy, Dean of Agricultural Sciences, Professor Prabir Kumar Mukhopadhya, Director
of Extension of Uttar Banga Krishi Viswavidyalaya and Prof. Asit Kumar Dolui, Dean, Institute
of Agricultural Science, for their invaluable suggestion for writing this book so that it will be
beneficial for the students in all respect.
We wish to acknowledge Dr. Dhiman Mukherjee, Incharge, AICRP MAP,Uttar Banga Krishi
Viswavidyalaya,Dr. Samuel Rai, Project Co-ordinator, Darjeeling Krishi Vigyan Kendra, and Mr.
M.W. Mokhtan, Dr. Tapas Kumar Pandit for supporting in various ways for writing this manuscript.
We wish to acknowledge Professor Ranjit Kumar Sarkar, Ex-Dean, Institute of Agricultural
Science, Calcutta University, for valuable suggestions on agronomic part of each crop of the
book effectively.
We also wish to acknowledge Professor Aloke Kumar Mondal, Institute of Agricultural Science,
Calcutta University, for invaluable suggestions regarding Seed Production techniques, their
conservation, Seed standards, Hybrid Seed Production of different crops for writing this book
successfully.
We also wish to acknowledge Professor Prakash Kanti Das, who was a reknowned Teacher of
Bidhan Chandra Krishi Viswavidyalaya, helped a lot for writing this manuscript.
(x)
It is a great pleasure to acknowledge Prof. Saroj kumar Sanyal, Vice Chancellor, Bidhan Chandra
Krishi Viswavidyalaya who is a pioneer and world famous in his field.
We wish to acknowledge Dr. Raghunath Sadhukhan, Reader, Genetics, Bidhan Chandra Krishi
Viswavidyalaya, helped us in constructive way so that the book will serve the purpose of the
students as a whole.
We also personally wish to acknowledge Professor M. Hussain, Professor Pranab Chatterjee,
Professor S.K. Ghosh, Professor Sanjib Chakarborty, Professor A.K. Basu, Professor Nirmal
Mondal, Professor H.K. Sarkar of Bidhan Chandra Krishi Viswavidyalaya for invaluable
suggestions and moral support for writing this book.
We wish to the opportunity to acknowledge Profoundly Professor R.K.Maiti, Chief Editor and
Founder , IJAEB, and Managing Director Mr Chanchal Mukherjee,NDP who recognized the
manuscript as an invaluable tool for Undergraduate and Post Graduate Students of all Agricultural
Universities in India pertaining to the disciple Plant Breeding and Seed Science and Technology.
We wish to acknowledge most profoundly Mr. S. Roy, father in law, Mrs. M.Roy, mother in
law, wife Mrs. Somdutta Chakarborty and little daughter Aadrita Chakraborty (of Dr. Soumendra
Chakraborty)for continuous support for writing this book within a proper short time.
We wish to acknowledge adorably son Mr. Himadri Sekhar Dasgupta (of Prof Tapash Dasgupta)
for continuous moral support for writing this manuscript.
Tapash Dasgupta
SYLLABUS
THEORY
Place of Origin - Putative Parents - Related Wild Species - Classification - Objectives of
Breeding - Methods of Breeding – Quantity – Quality – Stress - Conventional – Innovative -
Heterosis Breeding - Distant Hybridization and important varieties in following Crops
1. Cereals: Rice, Wheat, Maize,Sorghum,Ginger Millet, Pearl Millet, Foxtail Millet, Kodo
Millet, Little Millet, Proso Millet and Barn Yard Millet.
2. Pulses: Redgram, Soybean, Greengram, Blackgram, Horsegram and Cowpea
3. Oilseeds: Lablab, Groundnut, Til , Mustard, Castor, Sunflower, Safflower and Niger.
4. Fibre Crops: Cotton,Jute and Mesta
5. Forage Crops: Guinea Grass, Napier, Pearl Millet-Napier, Cenchrus sp.,
6. Fodder Crops : Cowpea, Desmanthus, Lucerne, Subabul.
7. Sugars: Sugarcane, Sugarbeet
8. Breeding for Pest Resistance.
9. Breeding for Disease Resistance.
10. Breeding for Abiotic Stress - Drought and Cold.
11. Breeding for Abiotic Stress - Salinity and Alkalinity.
12. Breeding for Quality of Produce.
13. Procedure for Release of a Variety, Patent right, Breeders right and Gene Patenting,
Nucleus and Breeder Seed Production.
14. Varietal run down, Renovation, Maintenance of Varietal Purity of Field Crops.
(xii)
Syllabus for ARS Main Examination

(Descriptive Type Questions)
Agricultural Scientists Recruitment Board
Krishi Anusandhan Bhavan, Pusa
New Delhi
PLANT BREEDING
Unit 1: Reproductive Systems and Plant Breeding
Crop Domestication. Vavilovian laws and Centres of Diversity. Early Developments in Plant
Breeding. Emergence of Scientific Plant Breeding. Objectives and accomplishments in Plant
Breeding and the role of National and International Institutes. Role of Plant Introductions in
Crop Improvement. Gametogenesis and Fertilization. Modes of Sexual and Asexual Reproduction
and its relation to Plant Breeding Methodology. Apomixes, Incompatibility and Male Sterility
systems and their use in Plant Breeding.
Unit 2: Botanical Classification, Description and Economic Uses of Field Crops
Origin, Distribution, Classification, Description and Utilization of Economic Plants: Cereals
(Wheat, Rice, Maize, Sorghum, Pearl Millet, Minor Millets); Pulses (Pigeonpea, Chickpea,
Black Gram, Green Gram, Cowpea, Soybean, Pea, Lentil, Horse Gram, Lab-Lab, Rice Bean,
Winged Bean, Lathyrus, French and Butter Beans, Lima Bean); Oilseeds (Groundnut, Sesamum,
Castor, Rapeseed Mustard, Sunflower, Niger, Oil Palm, Coconut, Linseed); Fibres and Sugar
Crops, Fodder and Green Manures; Medicinal and Aromatic Plants.
Unit 3: Plant Breeding Methods
Breeding methods for self-Pollinated, Cross-Pollinated and Clonally Propagated Crops. Mass
Selection and pure line Selection. Component and Transgressive Breeding. Backcrossing. Single
Seed Descent. Multilines. Recurrent Selection: intra- and inter Population Improvement.
Development of Synthetics and Composites. Hybrid Breeding and Genetic basis of Heterosis.
Ideotype Breeding. Mutation Breeding.
Unit 4: Plant Breeding for Stress Resistance and Nutritional Quality
Genetic basis and Breeding for Resistance to Diseases and Insect-Pests. Breeding for vertical
and Horizontal Resistance to Diseases. Genetic and Physiological basis of abiotic Stress Tolerance.
(xiii)
Breeding for resistance to Heat, Frost, Flood, Drought and Soil Stresses. Important quality
Parameters in various Crops, their Genetic basis and Breeding for these Traits.
Unit 5: Biometrical and Population Genetics for Crop Improvement
Hardy Weinberg Law. Linkage Disequilibrium. Genetic load. Polymorphism. Quantitative
characters. Multiple factor inheritance, Polygenic variation. Breeding value, Heritability.
Response to selection, Correlated Response. Estimates of variance Components and covariance
among relatives. Mating designs with random and inbred parents. Estimation of Gene effects
and combining ability. Components of variation and their partitioning. Effects of linkage and
Epistasis on Estimation of Genetic Parameters. Maternal effects. Genotype-Environment
interactions and Stability of Performance. Heterosis and its Biometrical basis.
Unit 6: Biotechnological Tools for Crop Improvement
Recombinant DNA Technology. Plant tissue Culture and its Application in Crop Improvement.
Genomic and cDNA Libraries. DNA Sequencing. Recombinant DNA Technology. Gene Cloning
Strategies. Genetic Transformation and Transgenics. Types of Molecular markers. Marker
based Genetic Diversity analysis. Gene Tagging, QTL Mapping and marker aided Selection.
Genome Projects and Utilization of Sequence formation.
Unit 7: Plant Genetic Resources and their Regulatory System; Varietal Release and Seed
Production
Plant exploration, Germplasm introduction, Exchange, Conservation, Evaluation and Utilization
of Plant Genetic Resources. Convention on Biological Diversity and International Treaty on
Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture. Intellectual Property Rights. Biodiversity
Act. Plant Variety Protection and Farmers’ Rights Act. System of Variety Release and notification.
Types of Seeds and Seed Chain. Seed Production and Certification.
Unit 8: Statistical Methods and Field Plot Techniques
Frequency Distribution. Measures of Central Tendency, Probability Theory and its Applications
in Genetics. Probability Distribution and tests of Significance. Correlation, Linear, Partial and
multiple Regression. Genetic Divergence. Multivariate analysis. Design of experiments - basic
Principles, Completely Randomized Design, Randomized block Design and split plot
Design.Complete and Incomplete block Designs. Augmented Design, Grid and Honeycomb
Design. Hill Plots, Unreplicated Evaluation. Data Collection and Interpretation.
History of Plant Breeding
It started when man first chose certain Plants for Cultivation. There is no recorded History
when the Plant Breeding started.
1. As early as 700 BC Babylonians and Assyrians artificially Pollinated the date Palm.
2. In 1717 Thomas Fairchild produced the first Artificial Hybrid by crossing Sweet William
and Carnation.
3. Joseph Kolreuter, a German made extensive crosses in Tobacco and Solanum between
1760 and 1766 and studied the Progenies in detail.
4. Thomas Andrew Knight (1759 - 1835) was the first man to produce several new fruit
varieties by using artificial hybridisation.
5. Le coutier, a farmer published his results on selection in wheat in the year 1843. He
concluded that progenies from single plants were more uniform
6. Patrick Shireff a Scotsman practiced individual plant selection in wheat and oats and
Developed some Valuable Varieties.
7. Vilmorin (1857) proposed individual plant selection based on progeny testing. This was
known as ‘Vilmorins principle of progeny testing’. He proposed this progeny testing in
sugar content in sugar beets (Beta vulgaris). But this method was in- effective in wheat.
This clearly demonstrated the difference between effect of selection in cross and self
pollinated crops.
8. Nilsson and his associates at Sweedish Seed Association, Svalof Sweeden (1890) refined
the single plant selection
9. In 1903 Johansen proposed the famous ‘pure line theory’ which states that a pure line is
progeny of a single self fertilised homozygous plant. He proposed this theory based on
his studies in Phaseolus vulgaris.
10. G.H.Shull work in maize is the fore runner for the present day hybrid maize programme.
He described in detail about the effect of inbreeding.
(xv)
11. During 1960‘s Norman Borlaug, the Nobel laureate developed Mexican semi dwarf
wheat varieties which paved the way for green revolution in wheat. The dwarfing gene
was isolated from wheat variety Norin 10. Later on this Mexican dwarf were introduced
in the India by Dr.M.S. Swaminathan and a number of high yielding wheat varieties like
Kalyan sona, Sharbathi sonara were developed.
12. In rice the identification of dwarf Dee Gee Woo Gen from a tall rice variety by a Taiwan
farmer revolutionized rice breeding. Using this DGWG at IRRI during 1965 the wonder
rice IR 8 was released.
13. Nobilisation in Sugarcane by C.A.Barber and T.S.Venkatraman is another Monumental
work in Plant Breeding.
Centres of Origin
The Cultivation of Plants is one of man’s Oldest Occupations and Probably Began when he
Selected some Plants for his use. One of the old belief regarding to the Origin of Cultivated
plants was that they came to man as a gift from God. By the end of 18th Century People
Started questioning about the Origin of Cultivated Plants.
Darwin (1868) considered that the cultivated plants arose by profound modifications in the
wild plant.
Alphonse de Candolle (1863) a Swiss botanist first attempted to solve the mystery about
evolution of crop plants. In his “ Origin of cultivated plants” he studied 247 plant species of
cultivated plants.
He Classified the Economic Plants into six Classes;
1. Plants Cultivated 4000 years ago.
2. Plants Cultivated 2000 years ago.
3. Plants Cultivated less than 4000 years.
4. Plants Cultivated 2000 to 4000 years.
5. Plants Cultivated before the time of Columbus.
6. Plants Cultivated after the time of Columbus.
It is N.I.Vavilov who proposed the concept of ‘Centres of Origin’. He proposed the concept
based on his studies of a vast collection of Plants at Institute of Plant Industry, Leningrad. The
concept is that Crop Plants evolved from Wild Species in the area showing great diversity and
that place is termed as primary centre of Origin. Later on from the primary centre the crops
moved to other places due to the activities of man.
There are certain areas where some crops exhibit maximum Diversity of forms but this may
not be the centre of origin for that particular Crop. Such centres are known as Secondary
Centres of Origin. e.g. Sorghum.
(xvii)
The primary centre of origin for this crop is Africa but India exhibits maximum Diversity for
this Crop.
Vavilov Originally proposed Eight main Centres of Origin.
Eight main centres of origin are recognised by Vavilov, they are:
1.China, 2.Hindustan, 3.Central Asia, 4.Asia Minor, 5.Mediterranian,6.Abyssinya, 7.Central
America, 8.South America.
1. The China Centre

It consists of the mountainous regions of Central and Western China and the neighbouring
low lands. It is the largest and oldest independent centre.
The crops originated in this centre are:
i. Primary Centre of Origin

Soybeans, Radish, Proso millet, Opium, Brassica, Onion.
ii. Secondary Centre of Origin

Maize, Cowpea, Turnip, Sesame.
2.The Hindustan Centre

This includes Burma, Assam, Malaya, Java Borneo, Sumatra and Philippines, but excludes
North West India, Punjab and North Western Frontier Provinces. The crops originated in this
centre are:

Rice, Redgram, Chickpea, Cowpea, Greengram, Turmeric

Cucumber, Radish ,Noble canes, Cotton (Gossypium arboreum), Hemp, Coconut
3.The Central Asia Centre
It includes North West India, all of Afghanistan, the Soviet Republics of Tadjikistan and Tian
Shan. It is also known as the Afghanistan centre of origin. The crops originated in this centre are:

Wheat, Pea, Broad Bean, Green gram, Sesame , Safflower ,Onion,Garlic, Cotton(G.herbaceum).

Rye.
(xviii)
4.The Asia Minor Centre

This is also known as the Near East or the Persian Centre of Origin. It includes the interior of
Asia Minor, the whole of Transcaucasia, Iran and Highlands of Turkmenistan. The crops
originated in this centre are :

Triticum, Rye, Alfalfa, Cabbage, Oats.

Rape, Black Mustard, Turnip.
5.The Mediterranean Centre

The crops originated in this centre are :
Primary Centre of Origin

Many valuable cereals and legumes such as Durum Wheat,Chikpea,Emmer Wheat, Beets,
Barley, Peppermint, Lentil, Pea,Broad bean.
6.The Abyssinian Centre

It includes Ethiopia and hill country of Eritrea. The crops originated in this centre are:
i. Primary centre of Origin

Sorghum, Pearl millet, Lentil, Khesari, Sunflower, Castor, Coffee, Okra

Broad bean
7.Central American Centre

This includes South Mexico and Central America.It is also referred to as the Mexican Centre
of Origin. The crops originated in this centre are:

Maize, Lima Bean,Melons,Pumpkin, Sweet Potato,Arrowroot,Cotton (G.hirsutum).
8.The South American Centre

This Centre includes the High Mountainous Regions of Peru, Bolivia, Ecuador, Colombia, parts
of Chile, and Brazil and whole of Peraguay The crops originated in this centre are:

Potato, Maize, Lima bean, Peanut,Egyptian Cotton (G.barbadense),Tobacco, Tapioca
(xix)
Later in, 1935, Vavilov divided the Hindustan Centre of Origin into two Centres, viz., Indo
Burma and Siam- Malaya— Java Centre of Origin. The South American Centre was divided
into three centres, namely, Peru, Chile and Brazil-Paraguay Centres of Origin. At the same
time he introduced a new centre of origin, the U.S.A. Centre of origin. Two plant species,
Sunflower(Helianthus annuus) and Jerusalem Artichoke (H.tuberosus) originated in the U.S.A.
Centre of origin.
Thus the centres of origin may be more appropriately called the centres of diversity. The
centres of origin may not be the centres of origin of the species concerned, but they are the
areas of maximum diversity of the species. Within the large centres of diversity, small areas
may exhibit much greater diversity than the centre as a whole. These areas are known as
Microcentres .
Objectiion to Vavilov ‘s Theory

According to Vavilov whenever a Crop Plant Exhibits maximum Diversity, that place is the
centre of Origin for that Crop. But this view is no longer valid. e.g. Maize and Tomato.
For Maize the Centre of Diversity is Peru but Archeological evidence shows Mexico as Centre
of Origin. For Tomato, South America is considered to be Primary Centre of Origin but it is
Mexico as per Archeological Evidence.
Secondly Vavilov stated that primary centre is marked by a high frequency of dominant genes in the
centre and recessive genes towards the periphery. But it is not so. e.g. Wheat, Maize, Oil Palm
Vavilov’s claim that centre of origin confined to Mountainous Regions only. But this is not the
case. For e.g. Maize exhibits Maximum Diversity in Plains.
Many Crops have more than one centre of origin e.g. Balsam, Sorghum. In some crops
centre of Domestication cannot be determined for want of suitable evidence.
To counter the objection, Zhukovsky, a Student of Vavilov has proposed ‘mega centre’ Theory.
He divided the world into 12 regions. Mega gene centres were the places where cultivated
plant species exhibit diversity and micro gene centre is the place where wild species occur.
Harlan stated that each crop may have been repeatedly domesticated at different times in different
locations or may have been brought into cultivation in several regions simultaneously. We cannot
pin point a single centre of origin. Harlan developed the idea of ‘Centre’ and ‘Non- centre’.
According to him ‘centre’ means places of agricultural origin and ‘non centre’ where agriculture
has been introduced. Harlan divided the world in to three centres and three non centres.
Law of Homologous Series

This is proposed by N.I Vavilov. According to this law “the characters found in one species
also observed in other related species”. Thus diploid, tetraploid and hexaploid wheats show a
series of identical characters. So also in case of diploid and tetraploid cotton. Similarly Genus
Secale Duplicates the variation found in Triticum.
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Contents
Foreword – I ................................................................................................................ iii

Preface ........................................................................................................................... v
Acknowledgement ....................................................................................................... vii
History of Plant Breeding ............................................................................................ xii
Centres of Origin ........................................................................................................ xiv
Part–I: CEREALS
1 Rice ............................................................................................................................... 2
2 Wheat ......................................................................................................................... 35
3 Maize ........................................................................................................................... 40
4 Sorghum ..................................................................................................................... 50
5 Finger Millet .............................................................................................................. 64
6 Pearl Millet ................................................................................................................. 67
7 Fox Tail Millet ............................................................................................................ 77
8 Kodo Millet ................................................................................................................. 78
9 Proso Millet ................................................................................................................ 79
Part-II: PULSES
10 Red Gram ................................................................................................................... 82
11 Black Gram(Urd, Ulundu) ........................................................................................ 92
12 Green Gram (Mung Bean)........................................................................................ 99
13 Horse Gram .............................................................................................................. 101
14 Soy Bean ................................................................................................................... 102
15 Cowpea ...................................................................................................................... 105
Part–III: OILSEEDS
16 Lab Lab ..................................................................................................................... 112
17 Ground Nut (Monkey Nut, Peanut) ....................................................................... 114
(xxii)
18 Til ............................................................................................................................... 125

19 Mustard and Rape Seed .......................................................................................... 131
20 Castor ....................................................................................................................... 135
21 Sunflower.................................................................................................................. 141
22 Safflower ................................................................................................................... 150
23 Niger .......................................................................................................................... 152
Part–IV: FIBRE CROPS

24 Cotton ....................................................................................................................... 154
25 Jute ........................................................................................................................... 173
26 Mesta (Bimli Jute) ................................................................................................... 176
Part –V: FORAGE GRASS

27. Breeding Forage Crops ........................................................................................... 178
28. Forage Grasses ........................................................................................................ 181
29. Tapioca (Cassava) .................................................................................................... 185
Part–VI: SUGAR CROPS

30. Sugar Cane ............................................................................................................... 188
31. Sugar Beet ................................................................................................................ 191
32. Sweet Potato ............................................................................................................. 194
Part–VII: TUBER CROPS

33. Potato ........................................................................................................................ 197
Part–VIII: BREEDING FOR QUALITATIVE CHARACTERS

34. Breeding for Insect Resistance .............................................................................. 201
35. Breeding for Disease Resistance ........................................................................... 203
36. Breeding for Abiotic Stress Resistance ................................................................. 207
37. Breeding for Quality Characters ........................................................................... 210
38. Seed Multiplication and Released of a Variety .................................................... 216
Part– IX: SALIENT POINTS OF HYBRID SEED PRODUCTION OF FIELD CROP

39. Salient Points of Hybrid Seed Production of Field Crops ................................... 222
40. Hybrid Seed Production in Sunflower ................................................................... 248
Appendix–1: Specific Terminologies with Hybrid Seed Production ............................... 258
Appendix–II: Tools Employed in Hybrid Seed Production .............................................. 261
Index ................................................................................................................................... 264
Part–I
Cereals
1. Rice P- 2
2. Wheat P- 35
3. Maize P- 40
4. Sorghum P- 50
5. Finger Millet P- 64
6. Pearl Millet P- 67
7. Fox Tail Millet P- 77
8. Kodo Millet P- 78
9. Proso Millet P- 79
1
Rice
Oryza sativa (2n=24)
Rice is one of the oldest cultivated crops. The two cultivated species of rice are
i) Oryza sativa - Asian rice
ii) O.glaberrima - African rice.
The three races in cultivated Asian rice are

i) Indica
ii) Japonica (Sinica)
iii) Javanica.
Origin of Cultivated Rice

The views regarding the origin of rice can be grouped in to two classes viz.,
a) Polyphyletic Origin
b) Mono
Rice 3
i.Polyphyletic: Common ancestor

Originated from Several species. According
to this theory, the two forms of cultivated South & South East Asia Tropical Africa
rice viz., Asian rice O.sativa and African
rice O.glaberrima have evolved PerennialO.rufipogon O.longistaminata
independently in their respective regions
from several species. Annual O.nivara Weedy annual O.barthii
O.spontanea
O.sativa O.Staffii O.glaberrima
indica japonica javanica
ii. Monophyletic
According to this theory both Asian rice and O.perennis
African rice arose from a common parent
(O.perennis). This view is the most accepted one
because both Asian rice and African rice are similar O.glaberrima O.sativa
except in glume pubescence, ligule size and colour
of pericarp which is red in African rice.
According to polyphyletic origin the present day rice varieties have originated from several
species. According to monophyletic origin a single species has given rise to all varieties of
cultivated rice. Viz.
Oryza glaberrima most of the modern rice workers believe that origin of cultivated rice
monophyletic. From oryza perennis rose the Asian rice in South East Tropical Asia and African
rice in the upper valley of Niger River in Africa.
Oryza sativa L.
Paddy is a self-Pollinated crop with cross Pollination to an extent of 0-4%. Inflorescence is a
panicle, Borne on the Peduncle of the last internode. The main axis is Glabrous to Ciliate. The
main axis gives rise to Primary Branches. From the Primary Branches the Secondary Branches
arise. Rarely tertiary branches are seed. Spikelets are Borne on Primary and Secondary Branches.
The Number of Spikelets Borne on Primary Branches shows no variation. It is the number of
Secondary Branches that contribute Significantly to the total number of Spikelets on a
Panicle which may vary from 80 to 300 in a panicle.
The Individual Spikelet consists of Small Rachis in which two Rudimentary glumes are borne.
Above the glumes lemma and palea are present, which represent Bract and Bracteole
respectively. The lemma is five nerved, leathery and boat shaped. The palea is three nerved.
The lemma and palea enclose the Gynoecium and androecium. A pair of Lodicules represents
4 Principles and Plant Breeding Methods of Field Crops in India
perianth. The androecium consists of six Stamens, Bilobed Anthers, Basifixed, Linear and
Pendulous. The Gynoecium consist of superior Ovary, monocarpellary, Unilocular, Two Styles
with plumose stigma.
Panicle emerges 4 to 5 days after the boot leaf is completely out. The flower opening starts
from the tip of the primary and secondary branches and proceeds downwards. Normally 6 to
8 days are required to complete flowering in a panicle. Under normal conditions flower opening
is between 7 and 10 am. The flower remains open for 10 minutes and afterwards it closes. The
dehiscence of anthers is independent of spikelet opening. The dehiscence may takes place
before opening up of flowers or after flower opening. The stigma is receptive for three days.
The pollen grains are viable for 10 minutes under field conditions.The seed multiplication
ratio is 1:80(Varieties) and 1:100 (Hybrids).
Fruit Structure
The Fruit is caryopsis. The seed is having Lemma and Palea, which may be hairy or slightly
hairy. Below the lemma and palea, the lower and upper glume are present. The colour of the
lemma and palea may be Orange, Yellow,Golden Yellow, Brownish Black and Grey. In case of
the Hulled Grain at the top of the grain the Silk Integuments are present, which may be Orange,
Black, Yellow, Brown, Reddish Brown and Red Violet. The Colour of the Grain also varies as
that of the Silk integument Colour. The Endosperm may be Translucent or Opague and has
pearl spot which may be in the centre or side.
Species in the Genus Oryza

According to the latest view the genus oryza include 20 wild species. Out of these two are
cultivated diploids viz. O.sativa and O.glaberrima and rest are wild species which include both
diploid and tetraploid forms.
Botanical name Chromosome No. Genome Origin

O. sativa 24 AA Asia
O. nivara 24 AA Asia
O. meridionalis 24 - Australia
O. longistaminata 24 AA Africa
O. rufipogan 24 AA Asia
O. glumaepatula 24 - America
O. grandiglumis 48 CCDD America
O. glaberrima 24 AA Africa
O. barthii 24 AA Africa
O. australiensis 24 EE Australia
O. latifolia 48 CCDD America
O. alata 48 CCDD America
O. eichingeri 24 CC Africa
48 BBCC
O. minuta 48 BBCC Asia
O. punctata 48 BBCC Asia
(Contd.)
Rice 5
Botanical name Chromosome No. Genome Origin
O. officinalis 24 CC Asia
O. granulata 24 - Asia
O. meyeriane 24 - Asia
O. ridleyi 48 - Asia
O. longiglumis 48 - New Guninea
O. brachantha 24 FF Africa
O. schlechter - - New Guinea
Related species of rice and their contributing characters in rice improvement
Species Genome Useful traits
O.alata CCDD High biomass production

O.australiensis EE Drought tolerance, BPH resistance
O.barthii AA Drought avoidance, BLB resistance
O.brachyantha FF Yellow stem borer and leaf folder
resistance
O.eichengeri CC BPH, GLH, WBPH resistance
O.grandi glumis CCDD High biomass production
O.granulata Unknown Shade tolerance, adaptation to acrobic
soils
O.latifolia CCDD High biomass production
O.longistaminata AA Drought tolerance
O.meridionalies AA Elongationability
O.meyeriana Unknown Shade tolerance, adaptation to aerobic
soils
O.minuta BBCC BPH, GLH, WBPH, BLB and blast
resistance
O.nivara AA Grassy stunt virus resistance
O.officinatis CC, BB, CC BPH, GLH, WBPH resistance BPH
resistance
O.prnetate BB, BBCC BPH resistance
O.ridleyi Unknown Shade tolerance, stemborer, blast and
BLB resistance
O.rufipogon AA Source of CMS
Wild Species
There are twenty valid species in the genus oryza of these two are cultivated i.e.
1. Oryza sativa
2. Oryza glaberrima
In the remaining 18 species nine are diploid ones.
Six - Tetraploid ones, Two - Mixed Diploid, One - Chromosome number not Reported.
Some of the wild Species Utilised in Breeding Programme are

Oryza perennis - Co 31 GEB 24 × O. perennis
Oryza nivara - IR 34 One of the parents is O.nivara resistant to grassy stunt disease.
Breeding Objectives
1. High Yield Potential 2. Adaptability and Stability of Yield 3. Early Maturity 4. Resistance to
Lodging, and Shattering 5. Resistant to Cold Temperature 6. Resistant to Salinity and Alkalinity
7. Resistant to Diseases 8. Resistant to Pests
9. Improved Grain Quality,
a) Grain Shape and Size
b) Texture of Endosperm and Quality of Starch in Endosperm
c) Aroma & Cooking Quality
d) Colour of Kernel
f) Milling out turn
10. Breeding for alternate source of Dwarfing Gene
11. Breeding Varieties Suited for Direct Seeding
12. Breeding varieties for Dry Lands
13. Breeding Varieties for Deep Water Conditions
14. Breeding Varieties for Export - Scented Rice
15. BreedingVarieties to Control Wild Rice
16. Breeding Varieties to suit any other local Conditions.
1. High Yield Potential

Grain yield of Rice is a complex character. It is influenced by many Morphological Traits and
Physiological Process. These along with Interaction of Environment decide the yield potential.
It is Necessary to Assemble in the Rice Variety a Desirable combination of Genes for those
Plant Characteristics, that will enable the Rice Plant to give higher yields.
To Get Higher yield we must have an ideal Plant type. The ideal Plant type is
(i) Short Stature
(ii) Thick, Stiff Culm
(iii) Compact Panicle that hold the Plant erect
(iv) Short, Narrow, erect leaves to effectively utilise Solar Radiation
(v) High Tillering
Rice 7
(vi) Non/Low Photo Sensitivity

(vii) Nitrogen Responsive
(viii) Flag leaf angle should not be more than 400
2. Adaptability and Stability of Yield

Wide adaptability across locations is desired since Rice is grown over a large variety of
Agroclimatic zones which are varying. IRR1 varieties are having wide adaptability. Characteristics
associated with wider adaptability are:
(i) Low sensitivity to temperature variations
(ii) Low sensitivity to changes in light intensity
(iii) Resistant to wide spectrum of pests and Diseases
Across seasons refers to the consistency with which a variety produces satisfactory yield in
an area where biotic and abiotic conditions may vary every season of a year. Tolerance to local
fluctuations in biotic and abiotic stress is important.
3. Early Maturity
This character is desired to have multiple cropping. It is also helpful to overcome terminal
drought and to escape from pest and diseases.
In Rice the optimum early Maturity will be around 105 days. When the duration is reduced still
further, the yield is also reduced Correspondingly.
CR 666, Akashi, Co 41 are varieties having less than 100 days duration
4. Resistant to Lodging and Shattering

This is also a complex character. Non lodging lines will have
(i) Short stature
(ii) Thick strong culm
(iii) Short internode
(iv) Leaf sheath tightly encircling the culm
Grain shattering is also a complex character. Wild rices are having this character. So while
using wild rice as parents this should not be linked with desirable trait which is to be transmitted.
5. Resistance to Cold Temperature

More suited to cumbum valley and Gudalur taluk of Nilgiris. Japonica rice varieties are more
cold tolerant
e.g. MDU 2 cold tolerant (Co 25 × IR 8)
6. Resistant to Salinity and Alkalinity

Parts of Trichy and Dharmapuri districts of Tamil Nadu face this problem and in Sundarban
region in West Bengal and Western Coastal line of Maharashtra ,Gujarat ,Karnataka and Eastern
side Orissa,Andhra Pradesh face this problem
Old varieties : SR 26 B, Gettu, Dasal
Latest Co 43 (Dasal x IR 20), ADT 35, TRY 1, TRY 2
7. Resistant to Diseases
Blast, Helminthosporium, Bacterial leaf Blight, Tungro virus are some of the important diseases.
Blast resistant varieties
IR 20,( Medium duration)
Co 37 - short duration
Co 25 - Long duration
Grassy stunt : O.nivara
Blast and BLB : O.minuta tetraploid
resistant Co 45 - resistant to RTV, Blast and BLB.
PY 3 - RTV, BLB
8. Resistant to Pests
Brown plant hopper, Stem borer, Rice gall midge are important pests.
Stem borer donor : TKM 6,IR 20, (IR 262 TKM 6)
PY 3 - Bharathidasan - Resistant to BPH, O.officinalis BPH Resistant
9. Improved Grain Quality

a) Grai Shape Size and Texture
Rice cultivars can be classified based on the size, shape and texture of the grain. According to
FAO the trade grades are
Length
Extra long - over 7 mm length, Long - 6 to 7 mm; Medium - 5 to 5.99 mm;Short - below 5mm.
Shape
Based on Length / Breath ratio.(L/B ratio). Basmathi, Ponni, Slender -over 3 L/B; IR 20 Medium
- 2.0 to 3.0 L/B; Co 37 Bold - 2.0 to 2.39 L/B
Rice 9
Texture
Two main Types are recognized
i. Hard starchy grain with (translucent) vitreous fracture
ii. Soft dextrinous grain with opaque fracture. It is Known as glutinous rice.Hard starchy
types are the major one consumed. They differ in their translucency, hardiness and
presence or absence of abdominal white depending on starch content. They remain dry
and flaky when cooked. Soft dextrinous grain become sticky and clot on cooking and
usually used for special dishes. These types are preferred by people using chop sticks
for eating.
b) Aroma and Cooking Quality

Some varieties give aroma when it is cooked. Varieties like Basmati scented rice there will be
elongation in the cooked rice also. The aroma is due to certain chemicals present in endosperm.
An alkaloid PANDAMARILACTIONE is the cause of fragrance. This alkaloid is present in
the leaves of Pandanus also.
e.g. Basmati 370, Zeeraga Samba, ADT41, Kalabath, Seetha bogam
The cooking quality varies with the variety and grain type. Long grain varieties remain dry and
flaky when cooked, while medium and short grain varieties are sticky and chewy. Preference
for a particular variety differs with use. In evaluating rice varieties cooking tests are conducted
for
a) amylose content b) Water absorption properties c) gelatinisation test d) grain elongation
ratio e) protein content f) par boiling quality g) milling out turn
c) Nutritive Value
Protein in brown rice is about 8% while in polished rice it is about 7% Inheritance of protein
content is complex. It depends on environment and nitrogen application. When protein content
is increased there will be lowering of lysine content.
d) Colour of Kernel
The preference for particular kernel colour varies with region to region. In Kanyakumari and
Kerala red rice is preferred. Depending on local needs the varieties are to be evolved.
TKM 9 – Red rice, (TKM 7 × IR 8)
e) Milling out Turn
The unhusked rice grain is known as Rough rice or paddy. The miller converts it to brown rice
by scouring off the outer bran layer. The value of rough rice depends largely on its milling
quality which is determined by head rice and total rice that is obtained from rough rice.
Head rice: Whole grain and large broken pieces.
Total Rice: includes all rice recovered after milling.
10. Breeding for Alternate Source of Dwarfing Gene

All the present day cultivars are result of breeding with dwarfing gene Dee - Gee - Woo - Gen.
There is danger in using the same source. If Dee - Gee - Woo - Gen becomes susceptible to a
new pest or disease, the whole programme will collapse. So it is necessary to seek alternate
sources of dwarfing gene. Efforts are underway to identify alternate source thro’ conventional
and non - conventional breeding techniques.
11. Breeding Varieties Suited for Direct Sown Conditions

This again a location specific problem. In cauvery delta region getting cauvery water becomes
an uncertainty these days. To minimize water requirement direct sowing of rice is recommended.
The varieties for direct seeding must be quick growing and suppress weed growth.
12. Varieties Suited for Dry Land Conditions

In certain parts of Ramnad and Chengalpet rice is grown as dryland crop. Local land races like
kurivikalayan and puttu rice are grown. To suit these needs varieties are to be evolved.
13. Deep Water Paddy

Areas in tail end parts of cauvery delta need deep water paddy. It is again a location specific
problem TNR 1 and TNR 2 are useful varieties against this problem.
14. Varieties Suited for Export

The scented rice Basmati 370 is exported to Arab countries. The limitation in this programme
is Basmati 370 grown in all areas cannot be exported. The importing countries prefer the
Basmati Rice grown is valleys of Himalayan Range only. The rice grown in those areas alone
pass the chemical test. This must be due to effect of environment. Efforts are underway to
identify export quality scented varieties grown in other parts of the country
15. To Breed Varieties to Control Wild Rice

This again a location specific problem. In states of Bihar, Maharastra, Madhya pradesh and
Punjab the wild rice O.sativa var. fatua is often creating problems. So it is necessary to have
marker genes in cultivated rice to isolate them from wild ones. Purple colour stem is a marker
character.
16. Breeding Varieties to Suit any Other Local Problems

e.g. To Identify varieties to cultivate in areas of turmeric cultivation where a short duration 70
days Rice Variety can be fit in between two turmeric crops
Satari – Short Duration (70 days).
Rice 11
Rice Varieties Using Different Breeding Techniques

1.Introduction
All the IRRI Rice Varieties from IR 8 to IR 72. Other Examples are Basmati from Punjab,
Mashuri from Malaysia, CR 1009 from Orissa.
2. Pure Line Selection

Co 9 – Short duration
Co 32 – Medium duration
Co 19 – Long duration
3. Hybridization and Selection

a) Pedigree Method
i) Inter Varietal
Co 37 Vaigai TN 1 × Co 29 - Short duration.
Co 41 CuL 2410 × IR 22 - Short duration
Co 43 Dasal × IR 20 - Medium duration.
Co 44 ASD 5 × IR 20 - Medium duration, suitable for late planting.
Co 45 Rathu Heenathi × IR 3403 - 207 - 1 - Medium duration, Resistant to blast, BLB and RTV.
Ponmani (CR 1009) Pankaj × Jagannath - Long duration.
ii) Inter-Racial
Japonica x indica cross: ADT 27 (Norin 10 × GEB 24)
Mashuri (Taichung 65 × ME 80)
iii) Inter Specific Crosses

Co 31 : (O.perennis × GEB 24) Drought resistance.
IR 34 Complex cross, one of the parent is O.nivara
b) Back Cross Method of Breeding

Co 37 male sterile line.
Sabarmati and Jamuna.
4. Mutation Breeding
a) Spontaneous Mutation :GEB 24 - From Athur Kichili Samba known as KONAMANI, fine
Grain and Quality Rice.

ADT 41 - Dwarf mutant of Basmati 370.
b) Induced Mutation
Jagannath rice from Orissa - semi dwarf. Parbhani - from Maharastra
Prabavathi, Satari - Short duration, gamma irradiated, AU 1 - from Tamil Nadu.
5. Heterosis Breeding
CORH 1: IR 62829 A / IR 10198 - 66-2 R
CORH 2 : IR 58025 A / C 20 R
ADT RH 1: IR 58025 A /IR 66 R
Important Rice Varieties

Short Duration
Name Parentage Duration (Days)
TKM 9 TKM 7 × IR 8 105

Co 37 (Vaigai) TN 1 × Co 29 115
ADT 36 Triveni × IR 20 110
IET 1444 TN 1 × Co 29 115
PY 2 Kannagi x cu 12032 115
IR 50 IR 21153-14 × IR 28 Y 110
IR 36 Multiple cross derivative 120
TPS 1 IR 8 × Katti Samba. 115
PMK 1 Co25 × ADT 31 115
ASD 16 ADT 31 × Co 39 115
ASD 17 Multiple cross derivative 110
ADT 37 BG 280 - 1-2 × PTB 33 105
IR 64 Multiple cross derivative 115
ASD 18 ADT 31 × IR 50 110
ADT 41 Dwarf mutant of Basmati 115
ADT 39 IR 8 × IR 20 125
ADT 20 IR 18348 × R 25869 × IR 58 110
ADT 43 IR 60 × White Ponni 110
TKM-11 C 22 × BJ 1 120
Co 47 IR 50 × Co 43 110-115
Medium duration
IR 20 IR 262 × TKM 6 135
Bhavani Peta × BPI 76 135
Paiyur – 1 IR 1721 - 14 × IR 1330 - 33 – 2 150
Co 43 Dasal × IR 20 135
Co 44 ASD 5 × IR 20 135
(Contd.)
Rice 13
Name Parentage Duration (Days)
Ponni, White Ponni Taichung 65 × ME 80 140

MDU 2 Co 25 × IR 8 135
ADT 38 Multiple cross derivative 135
ADT 40 RPW 6.13 × Sona 145
Co 45 Rathu Heenathi × IR 3403 - 261 – 1 140
TKM 10 Co31 × C 22 135
TPS 3 RP 31-492 × LMN 140
PY 6 (Jawahar) IR 8 × H4 135
Co 46 T 7 × IR 20 125
Long duration
CR 1009, Savithri Pankaj × Jagannath 155-160
ADT44 Selection from OR 1128-7-S1 145-150
Rice Hybrids
CoRH 1 IR 62829 A/IR 10198-62-2-R
CoRH 2 IR 58025 A/C 20 R
ADTRH 1 IR58025A/IR 66 R
HYBRID RICE
The utilization of the dwarfing gene (d1) from the mutant variety Dee-Gee-Woo-Gen (DGWG)
discovered in Taiwan in 1960s led to the development of Semidwarf, high tillering, nitrogen
responsive, high yielding varieties of rice throughout the world. Consequently the yield level of
rice in the tropics raised even 8-10 t/ha. Close observation of the yield performance of HYVS
had revealed that the realised yield in such varieties are showing a plateauing trend . Among the
various strategies proposed to break the yield plateau in rice productivity, exploitation of heterosis
through the development of rice hybrids had been proved to be successful.
Heterosis in rice was reported by Jones in USA as early in 1926 and Ramaiah in 1933. But the
research work on hybrid rice was initiated in 1964, in China by Yuan Long Ping (Father of
Hybrid Rice). The identification of ‘Wild Abortive’ or ‘WA’ type cytoplasmic male sterility in
1970 was a breakthrough in hybrid rice breeding. In 1971 China accepted Hybrid Rice Research
as a national cooperative project and in the year 1976, Hybrid Rice became a reality in China,
for the first time in world, by the release of commercial rice hybrids suited for sub-tropical and
temperate zones. Since then many of the rice growing countries had accepted the strategical
approach of exploitation of heterosis through the development of commercial rice hybrids. And
as such rice hybrids were released in countries like Vietnam (for subtropical zone), Korea (for
temperate zone); besides these countries, research on hybrid rice is progressing in countries like
Philippines, Indonesia, Malaysia, Thailand, United States, Egypt, Colombia and Brazil.
Although research on the commercial utilization of heterosis in rice has made tremendous
gains during the last 20 years, it is still in its infancy stage because the high yield potential of
hybrid rice has not been fully tapped yet. And hence various approaches are adopted in major
rice growing countries of the world to maximize the yield potential advancements of hybrid
rice production.
Breeding Techniques for Developing Hybrid rice Involve the Following

a) Three-line method or CGMS system (Cytoplasmic genic male sterility system)
This system now a days known as CMS system, involving three lines viz- cytoplasmic, genic
male sterile line (A), maintainer line (B) and restorer line (R) is the most commonly used
method in China and outside. Until 1985, more than 95% of the CMS lines used in the commercial
indica rice hybrids, were of CMS-WA type which make the hybrid rice vulnerable to biotic and
abiotic stresses. And hence attempts to identify new sources of male sterile cytoplasm led to
the identification of CMS system like GA (Gambiaca), Di (Disi), DA (Dwarf wild rice), BTC
(Chinsurah Boro II) and IP (Ido Paddy 6). Mechanism of male sterility maintenance and hybrid
seed production in three-line system given in fig.1.1.
Many years experience had undoubtfully proved that the CGMS system involving sporophytic
and gametophytic male sterility is an effective way of developing hybrid rices and will continue
to play an important role in the next decade. However there are some constraints and problems
in such a system. The most serious is that yields of existing hybrid rice varieties including
newly developed ones, have stagnated (Yuan, 1994). They have already reached their yield
plateau, and are unable to increase the yield potential through this approach and hence new
methods and materials were adopted. In this regard two-line hybrids are promising ones, to
raise the yield ceiling in hybrid rice.
b) Two-line Method of Rice Breeding

Two-line hybrids can be evolved through
i) Mechanical means
ii) Application of gametocides
iii) Use of cytoplasmic male sterility (CMS)
iv) Use of genic male sterility (GMS)
v) Use of environmentally induced genic male sterility (EGMS)
In rice EGMS system is commonly used. In EGMS systems two kinds of rice lines are made
use of viz. PGMS (Photosensitive Genic Male Sterility) and TGMS (Thermosensitive Genic
Male Sterility) which had been developed successfully in China. In this system male sterility is
mainly controlled by one or two pairs of recessive nuclear genes and has no relation to cytoplasm.
Developing hybrid rice varieties with these system has the following advantages over the
classical CMS system, as given below.
i) Maintainer lines are not needed
ii) The choice of parents for developing heterotic hybrids is greatly broadened.
iii) No negative effect due to sterile cytoplasm
iv) Unitary cytoplasm situation of WA will be avoided.
Rice 15
In this system the exploitation of heterosis can be achieved by developing intervarietal and
intersubspecific F1 hybrids. In 1991, China had released hybrid combinations using this
approach, and some of these combinations out yielded the best existing hybrids by 10–20%
(Yuan, et al., 1994).
Detailed studies about physiological and ecological requirements of EGMS lines had been
made in China and Japan. Work is progressing in India and International Rice Research Institute,
in Philippines to identify best suited rice hybrids through this approach, for commercial
exploitation. TGMS system is considered useful in tropical and subtropical regions where as
PGMS system is useful in temperate regions.
Other possible approaches to develop two-line hybrid breeding system includes identification
of a genic male sterility system which would revert to male fertility response to application of
growth regulators and also the chemical induction of male sterility.
c) One-line Method of Rice Breeding
Rice hybrids can be developed and popularised through the following concepts
i) Vegetative propagation
ii) Micro propagation
iii) Anther culture hybrids
iv) Apomictic lines
Among the above for large scale cultivation, apomictic lines and anther cultured materials will
be economical.
CGMS SYSTEM IN RICE

A line
rf1 rf1
Sterile rf2 rf2
Maintenance
A line B line
Sterile rf1 rf1 x rf1 rf1 Fertile
rf2 rf2 rf2 rf2
Male Sterile ↓ Male Fertile
Sterile rf1 rf1
rf2 rf2
Male Sterile A line
Sterile rf1 rf1

↓x Fertile Rf1 Rf1
rf2 rf2 Rf2 Rf2
A line R line
Sterile Rf1 rf1
Rf2 rf2
Fertile F1 Hybrid rice

Fig. 1.1. Hybrid Rice Production
FUTURE STRATEGIES
Wide Hybridization
Wide hybridization work in rice started as early as in 1934 to incorporate agronomically important
genes available in wild species to cultivated varieties. A variety CO 31 was developed by
crossing GEB 24 and O.perennis. Though there was a slowdown in this approach during mid
period between 1940 and 1996, the work on wide hybridization has been intensified with
financial support from Department of Biotechnology. The major objective of this programme
is to produce male sterile lines with diverse cytoplasmic bases and derivatives with good
restoration capacity.
Tissue Culture
Work on rice tissue culture was initiated in 1978 with a major objective of synthesizing dihaploids
through anther culture. The programme was successful and resulted in a promising culture
from a cross combination of IR 50/ARC 6650. Attempts were made to find out the genotypic
responses to tissue culture using wild species of rice and cultivated varieties. In vitro screening
for salt tolerance was carried out. Most of these studies were carried out by the post graduate
students of this Directorate. A dihaploid line from TNRH 10 rice hybrid is in the evaluation
stage. The work is being further strengthened at the Centre for Plant Breeding and Genetics.
Two Line Breeding for Hybrid Rice

For synthesizing rice hybrids, attempts to use temperature sensitive genetic male sterility
(TGMS) and photoperiod sensitive genetic male sterility (PGMS) are made. To exploit this
potential, a separate Hybrid Rice programme has been done.
Exploring Apomixis
Apomixis is an alternative to dihaploids being explored to fix the heterosis in rice. Serious
attempts are being made at IRRI. Besides this, attempts are being made to exploit potential of
cytological techniques and molecular approaches to understand the phenomenon of apomixis.
Molecular Marker Analysis

Molecular marker analysis is a new and useful tool for the rice breeders. The construction of
molecular marker map of rice paved the way for mapping the rice genes to specific locations
of rice chromosomes. A marker aided selection laboratory established at present will be utilized
for mapping the genes controlling resistance to WBPH, BPH, quality traits and TGMS. A
programme to map the favourable. Quantitative Trait Loci (QTLs) available in wild species
responsible for yield and their components and transfer them to cultivated varieties is in progress.
Finger printing of rice varieties will be another area of interest to catalogue all the accessions
of rice, considering the wealth of germplasm available at different Paddy Breeding Stations.
Hybrid Rice Seed Production

Hybrid vigour in rice has been first reported by Jones (1926). This has led to speculation
Rice 17
regarding the production of hybrid rice by utilising cytoplasmic male sterility. Most japonica
rice has normal cytoplasm, but indica varieties with sterile cytoplasm and fertility restoring
system have been identified. But difficulties have been encountered in obtaining sufficient seed
set by cross pollination to make hybrid rice seed production economically feasible. After the
implementation of UNDP/FAO project entitled “Development and use of hybrid rice technology
in India” - the hybrid rice production in India has become a success story.
Hybrid rice seeds were produced using (cytoplasmic genic male sterility) three line system.
The two genes Rf1 and Rf2 are the genes for fertility restoration.
The process of hybrid rice production involves continuous supply of agronomically improved
cytoplasmic male sterile line (A), maintainer line (B) and fertility restorer (R) line in
system. Maintainer and restorer lines are maintained by selfing, while CMS line and F1 seeds
are produced with efforts to enhance cross pollination in field. F and S refer to fertile and
sterile cytoplasm. Rf and rf are fertility restoring and non restoring gene respectively.
Row ratio and spacing of A and R lines in the main field

R R A A A A A A A A R R
0 0 * * * * * * * * 0 0
0 0 * * * * * * * * 0 0
0 0 * * * * * * * * 0 0
15cm ↑
↓
0↔ 0 ↔ * ↔ * * * * * * * 0 0
30cm 20cm 15cm (male : female ratio = 2 : 8)
Technique of Hybrid Rice Seed Production

The following points are to be taken in to account for a successful hybrid rice production.
1) Choice of Field: Fertile soil, protected irrigation and drainage system, sufficient sunshine.
No serious disease and insect problem.
2) Isolation: To ensure purity of hybrid seed and avoid pollination by unwanted pollen
isolation is a must.
a) Space Isolation : No other rice varieties should be grown except pollen parent with
a range of 100m distance.
b) Time Isolation: a time of over 20 days is practiced (The heading stage of other
variety over a 100m range should be 20 days earlier or later over the MS line).
c) Barrier Isolators: Topographic features like wood lot, tall crops to a distance of
30m/artificial obstacles of (plastic sheet) above 2m height.
3) Optimum Time for Heading and Flowering

Favourable climatic condition for normal flowering are
(i) Mean temperature 24-28°C
(ii) Relative humidity 70-80%
(iii) Day and night temperature difference 8-10°C.
(iv) Sufficient sunshine
(v) Sufficient breeze.
4) Synchronization of Flowering
As the seed set on MS line depends on cross pollination it is most important to synchronize the
heading date of the male and female parents. In addition, in order to extend the pollen supply
time, the male parent is usually seeded twice or thrice at an interval of 5–7 days.
5) Row Ratio, Row Direction and Planting Pattern

Row ratio refers to the ratio of number of rows of the male parent to that of the female parent
in the hybrid seed production field. The layout of row ratio depends on
(i) The growth duration of the R line
(ii) Growth vigor of the R line
(iii) Amount of pollen shed and
(iv) Plant height of the R line.
The Principles Include

* R line should have enough pollen to provide enough chances of pollination
* The Row direction should be nearly perpendicular to the direction of winds prevailing
at heading stage to facilitate cross pollination.
Practically, a row ratio of 2:8 is currently widely used in indica hybrid seed production.
Generally, the R line is transplanted with two to three seedlings per hill and separated by a
spacing of 15cm from plant to plant, 30cm from one row of restorer to another and 20cm
from CMS line. The MS line is transplanted with one to two seedlings per hill with a spacing
of 15x15 cm.
A Good Population Structure to Get More Seed Yield is given below

a) Seedling/hill b) Hills/sq.m c) effective tillers/sq.m
A line = 1-2 A line = 30 A line = 300
R line = 2-3 R line = 5 R line = 120
Rice 19
6) Prediction and Adjustment of Heading Date

Even if the seeding interval between both parents is accurately determined, the synchronization
of their flowering might not still be attained because of variation in temperature and difference
in field management. Hence it is necessary to predict their heading date in order to take measures
as early as possible to make necessary adjustments by examining the primordial initiation of
panicle.
Adjustment of flowering date can be made by applying quick releasing nitrogen fertilizer on the
earlier developing parent and the later developing parent should be sprayed with 2% solution
DAP. By this measure a difference of 4 to 5 days may be adjusted.
7) Leaf Clipping, Gibberellin Application and Supplementary Pollination

These techniques are very effective for increasing the outcrossing rate.
a) Leaf clipping: The leaves taller than the panicles are the main obstacles to cross pollination
and, therefore, should be cut back. Generally leaf clipping is undertaken 1-2 days before
the initial heading stage, and more than 2/3 rd of the blades of flag leaves are cut back
from the top.
b) Application of Gibberellin: (GA3) GA3 can adjust physiological and biochemical
metabolism of rice plant and helps in hybrid seed production by stimulating the elongation
of young cells. In most of the CMS lines, about 20-30% of spikelets of a panicle are
inside the flag leaf sheath (exertion is only 70%). GA3 affects exertion of panicle
completely out of flag leaf sheath. In India recommended dose of GA3 is 50g/ha using
knapsack sprayer and 25g/ha with ultra low volume sprayer.
Advantage of GA3 Application

a) Enhances Panicle and Stigma Exertion
b) Speed up Growth of Late Tillers and Increase Effective Tillers
c) Flag Leaf angle is increased
d) Reduces Unfilled grains
e) Enhances Seed Setting and Seed Yield
f) Spraying Stage: 5% of panicle Emergence
g) Spraying time: 8-10AM is the best time.
h) Supplementary pollination : Shaking the R lines panicles by rope-pulling or rod driving
during anthesis can enhance the crossing rate. This is carried out during peak anthesis
(10-12 AM).
8) Rogueing
To get 98% purity of CMS lines and R lines, in addition to strict isolation, a thorough rogueing
is also necessary.
9) Harvesting and Processing

a) The male parent Harvested first.
b) Care should be taken to avoid admixture of Male and Female lines.
c) Female line should be threshed separately in a well cleaned threshing floor.
d) Seed field dried in shade to 12% moisture content.
e) Packed in suitable, cleaned gunny bags after grading.
Example: Hybrid Rice CORH - 1 (MGR Rice) : Released in1994 Short duration, medium fine
grain (Parentage : IR 62829A × IR10198-66-2R)
Breeding method: Three line Breeding.
Season: May-June (Kar-Kuruvai),Duration : 110-115 days, Yield : 6380 kg/ha.
Seed Production Techniques for Corh 2 Hybrid rice

Parentage: IR 58025 A × C 20 R
Selection of Field
Previous crop should not be of rice. If previous crop is rice, irrigate the field and there by the
dropped seeds will germinate which can be puddled in. If the pervious crop is having dormancy
means, we must be careful to see that the dropped seeds are all germinated and puddled in.
Isolation Distance
Isolation distance should be 100 meters. If time isolation is to be followed, there should not be any
rice crop near by within 100 meters, in the process of flowering while the crop in seed production
plot is in flowering. There must be a difference of 30 days in flowering for the near by crop.
Season: April - May and Dec - January month of sowing.
Seed rate: A line: 20 kg / ha
R line: 10 kg / ha.
Nursery
Apply 2kg DAP to the nursery. Adopt 1kg / cent of nursery for both A line and R line while
raising the R line 5 kg seeds can be raised on the same date when A line is raised. The rest 5 kg
can be sown five days after first sowing.
Manuring of main field

10 tonne FYM / ha.
NPK Application
Basal dressing 50 kg/ha 60kg/ha 20kg/ha, Tillering stage 50kg/ha - 20kg/ha, Boot leaf stage
50kg/ha - 20kg/ha.
Rice 21
Planting date : A line - 25–30 days after sowing.

R line - 20–25 days after sowing.
Planting Ratio : 8 rows of A line: 2 row of R line.
Spacing
A line: 10cm between rows, 15 cm within rows . Single seedling / hill
B line: 30 cm between rows, 15 cm within rows,Two seedlings / hill.
The space between A line and R line is 20 cm 22cm
Plant Protection
Follow the plant protection measures adviced for rice. Avoid spraying or dusting during anthesis
and pollination i.e. early morning period.
Rogueing and Removal of Pollen Shedders

From the beginning rogueing is to be done in both A line and R line. Pollen shedders are to be
removed along with tillers. In A line seed set may not exceed 40%. If plants having a setting of
70 to 80% means they are rogues and they have to be removed before harvest.
Special Techniques
i. Pulling of ropes across the plot
ii. Shaking the R lines with bamboo poles.
Harvest
Harvest the R line first. Then harvest the hybrid. Thresh it properly dry it with 12% moisture
and bag it.
Seed production in Paddy

Methods of seed production
a) Varieties
The seeds are sown in isolation and by open pollination seeds are allowed to set and later
multiplied in different stages. Nucleus seeds are preserved by ear to row method.
b) Hybrids
The tool involved in hybrid seed production is known as cytoplasmic genic male sterility
system. It is a three line breeding system, where three lines (A, B and R lines) are involved. A
line is a male sterile line and serve as female parent of F1 hybrid. B line is the maintainer line of
A line and is male fertile. It is isogenic to A line in all aspects except male fertility. R line is the
male line in actual hybrid seed production. It restores the fertility of A line and hence it is
known as restorer line.
In hybrid seed production programme particularly in breeder and foundation seed stages, A line
is multiplied with the use of B line and is produced in isolation from R line which is multiplied
as that of variety. In certified seed production A line and R line are crossed to produce actual
hybrid seed.
Season
The hybrid seed yield is higher in Rabi (January-April) season compared to Kharif (May-
August) season. Seeding of parental lines should be done in such a way that flowering coincides
with the following favourable climatic conditions. Daily mean temperature should be 25-30
°C. The RH should range from 70-80%. The difference in temperature between day and night
should be 8-10 °C. There should be sufficient sunshine with moderate wind velocity (2-3m/
sec.). The location should be free of continuous rain for one week during flowering. For
CORH1 hybrid seed production , May-June and December-January are the ideal season for
sowing.
Land Requirement
Land should be fertile with good irrigation and drainage facilities.It should be free from volunteer
plants. It should have good sunlight and aeration. The seed crop should be isolated from other
varieties of the same crop.The field should not have been grown with the same crop in the
previous season. If grown, it should be the same class of seed for the same variety and
approved by seed certification agency.
Isolation
Isolation distance is 3 m for varieties in both foundation and certified class of seed. For hybrid
the isolation requirement is 200 and 100 m at foundation and certified seed stages respectively.
When space isolation is not possible the time isolation of over 21 days or barrier isolation with
polythene sheets of 2m height or barrier crops like sesbania, sugarcane and maize covering a
distance of 3m would serve as isolation.
Seeds and sowing time ( In India including south India)

Month of sowing Duration of the varieties
December – January Below 120 days

April – May Below 120 days
April – May Below 120 days
May – June Below 120 days
June – July Below 120 days
July- August 130–135 days
August 130-135 and above 150 days
September – October 130-135 days
November – October 115 - 120 days
November – October 130-135 days
Rice 23
The basic seeds should be obtained from authenticated seed source with respective certification
seed tag and purchase bill. The seed requirement will be 20 Kg, 10 Kg and 10 Kg ha-1 of A, B
and R lines, respectively. The seeds are sown in nursery beds and are transplanted in the
mainfield. The seed rate for varieties is 60 Kg ha-1.
Upgrading of Seeds
Upgrade the seeds on weight basis before sowing by density grading using common salt
solution having a specific gravity of 1.13 (1.5 kg of salt in 10 litres of waters) and collect only
the heavy seeds that sink at the bottom and rinse with water.
Presowing Seed Hardening Treatment

The paddy seeds are soaked in 1% KCl solution for 10 hours in 1:1 ratio. Then they are dried
back to original moisture content (11-12%). Then the seeds are treated with Captan/Thiram @
4g Kg-1 and also with Azospirillum/ Azatobacter @ 3 pockets/acre seeds. To raise wet nursery
the rice seeds should be pregerminated as the seeds will not germinate in the waterlogged
anaerobic condition since oxygen is very essential for germination, which is not available in the
submerged condition. For pregerminating, the seeds are soaked overnight in loosely tied moist
gunny bags. Then the gunny bags are tied tightly with thread. This bags are incubated in dark
for 24 hours. The emerged plumule can be seen as white dots on the gunny bags after 24
hours.
Dormancy Breaking Treatment

Seeds may be soaked in 0.18% conc. HNO3 (240 ml in 45 liters of water) at 1:1 equal volume
for 12–16 hours. The seeds may then be air dried to original moisture.
Seed Treatment
Treat the seeds with panostine quazatine at 0.2 % dissolved in dichlormethane or with cuman
at 1.0 % dissolved in 20% PEG for 12 hours to kill H.oryzae internally seed borne pathogen
then air dry the seeds.
Nursery Management
For hybrid seed production female and male nurseries should be raised separately. Sparse
sowing in nursery beds @ 1 Kg/cent should be practiced to get robust seedlings. Application
of DAP @ 2 Kgs/cent if not possible apply straight fertilizers 16 kg of urea and 120 kg of super
phosphate. Basal application of DAP is recommended when the seedlings are to be pulled out
in 20–25 days after sowing. If seedlings are to be pulled out at 25 days , application of DAP is
to be done 10 days prior to pulling out. In case of clayey soils where root snapping is a
problem DAP has to be applied at 1 kg per cent 10 days after sowing.
Advantages of Phosphorous Application to Nursery

i. Seedlings absorb and store phosphorous and utilize even at later stages of crop growth.
ii. If 30 % recommended phosphorous as per soil test is applied to main field besides
nursery application, higher yield can be realized.
iii. Application of phosphorous to nursery is very economical.
For proper synchronization of flowering of male and female parents in hybrid seed production,
staggered sowing should be done for male parent. In CORH 1 hybrid seed production, for
May-June sowing the male parent (R line) should be sown 5 days and 10 days after the sowing
of female whereas, 10 days and 15 days staggering should be given for December-January
sowing.
For A line seed production B line should be sown 6 and 10 days after the sowing of A line
in both the season. The days of staggering varies according to the location, season and
duration of parents. Seedlings are to be transplanted at the age of 25 days. In nursery, on the
occasion of raising nurseries of different genotypes nearby, separate irrigation channels should
be formed for each genotype.
Root Soak Treatment

Prepare the transplants giving root soak treatment with 100 ml of chlorpyriphos 20 EC and
2.5 kg per liter of urea dissolved in water for 20 minutes.
Age of Seedlings
The optimum age of seedlings for transplanting is 18-22 days for short, 25-30 days for medium
and 35-40 days for long duration varieties.
Pulling Out of the Seedlings

Pull out the seedlings at the appropriate time and tie the seedlings into a convenient bundles of
5-8 cm diameter with soft materials such as banana twine and keep the root portion submerged
in water. Do not allow the seedlings to dry.
Main Field Preparation

The male either B or R line and female (A line) can be planted in the row ratios of 2:8 or 2:10.
Planting the seedlings perpendicular to wind direction will facilitate higher outcrossing. The
male rows are to be planted first (2 rows) and should be followed with female rows (8/10
rows). Care should be taken not to mix the seedlings of A and R lines. Female should be planted
as single seedling and male as 2-3 seedling/hill. A good population structure to get more seed
yield will be 300-420 effective tillers of A line and R line, respectively/m2.
Sodic Soils
For sodic soils with pH values of more than 8.5 plough at optimum moisture regime, apply
gypsum at 50% requirement uniformly, impound water, provide drainage for leaching out
soluble salts and apply green leaf manure at 5 t/ha , before 10 to 15 days of transplanting. Mix
37.5 kg of zinc sulphate ha-1 with sand to make a total quantity of 75 kg and spread the mixture
Rice 25
uniformly on the levelled field. Do not incorporate the mixture in the soil. Under sodic soil,
paddy responds well to these soil amendments.
Saline Soils
For saline soils with EC values of more than 4 m.mhos / cm, provide lateral and main drainage
channels (60 cm deep and 45 cm wide), apply green leaf manure at 5 t/ha at 10 to 15 days
before transplanting and 25 % extra dose of nitrogen should be applied in addition to
recommended dose of P and K and ZnSO4 at 25 kg /ha at planting.
Manures and Fertilizers

Farmyard manure can be applied on last puddling @ 12.5 tonnes/ha. The recommended dose
of NPK for the hybrid seed production is 150:60:60 Kg ha-1. The P is added at last puddling
stage. The N and K are applied in three splits viz., (1) Basal (2) Active tillering and (3) Panicle
initiation stage. Additional nitrogen application delays panicle development whereas P and K
promote the same. For varieties the recommendation is 150:50:50 Kg ha-1 of NPK and N is
applied in three split doses.
Bio-fertilizer Application
When bio-fertilizers are used through seed, seedlings and main field apply only 75% of N
recommended for the area by the soil testing laboratory. For low land rice Azospirillum
strain IPI responds well.
Application of Zinc Sulphate

Mix 25 kg of zinc sulphate with sand to make a total quantity of 75 kg and spread the ZnSO4 +
sand mixture uniformly on the leveled field. Do not incorporate in the soils as there will be ZnSO4
interaction. When green manure (6.25 t/h) is applied, it is enough to apply 12.5 kg ZnSO4 /ha.
Correction of Zinc Deficiency

Basal application of ZnSO4 at 25 kg/ha or foliar spray of 0.5 % ZnSO4 at 30,40 and 50 days
after planting for medium and long duration varieties and 20,30 and 40 days after planting for
short duration varieties.
Deficiency Symptoms
Nitrogen Deficiency
Plants become stunted and yellow in appearance first on lower leaves. In case of severe
deficiency the leaves will turn brown and die. Deficiency symptoms first appear at the leaf-tip
and progress along the midrib until the entire leaf is dead.
Potassium Deficiency
Bluish green leaves when young, older leaves irregular. Chlorotic and necrotic areas, grain
formation is poor, weakening of the straw which results in lodging of crop.
Magnesium Deficiency
Leaves are chlorotic with white tips.
Iron Toxicity
Brown spots on the lower leaves starting from tips and proceeding to the leaf base and turns
into green or orange purple leaves and spreading to the next above leaves.
Zinc Deficiency
Lower leaves have chlorotic particularly towards the base. A deficient plant exhibits a brown
rusty appearance.
Application of Lime
Apply lime to acid soils based on the soil analysis for obtaining normal rice yields. Apply 2.5
tonnes of lime ha-1 before last ploughing. Apply lime at this rate to each crop upto the 5th crop.
Basal Application of Gypsum

Gypsum at 500 kg / ha applied as basal dressing with NPK in the main field in non calcareous
heavy soils.
Hybrid Rice Seed Production

How to formulate the Male Sterility system in Rice
Rice strictly a self pollinated crop. In hybrid rice seed production, cytoplasmic male sterility
system is mainly utilized to produce bulk quantity of seed. There are three types of breeding
systems they are as follows.
(i) Single line breeding: It is based on apomixis and tissue culture.
(ii) Two line breeding
a) Emasculation and dusting method.
b) Use of Environmentally Induced Genic Male Sterility (EGMS) system.
In rice EGMS system is commonly used. In EGMS system two kinds of rice lines are made
use of viz., PGMS (Photo sensitive Genic Male Sterility) and TGMS (Thermosensitive Genic
Male Sterility) which have been developed successfully in China. In this system male sterility
is mainly controlled by one or two pairs of recessive nuclear genes and has no relation to
cytoplasm. Developing hybrid rice varieties with this system has the following advantages
over the classical CMS system as given below.
(i) Maintainer lines are not needed.
(ii) The choice of parents for developing heterotic hybrids is greatly broadened.
(iii) No negative effect due to sterile cytoplasm.
Rice 27
(iv) Unitary cytoplasm situation of Wild Abortive will be avoided.

In this system, exploitation of heterosis can be achieved by developing inter-varietal and inter-
subspecific F1 hybrids. In 1991 China had released hybrid combinations using this approach
and some of these combination out yielded the best existing hybrids by 10-20 (Yuan, et al,
1994).Other possible approaches to develop two line hybrid breeding system includes
identification of genic male sterility system which would revert to male fertility in response to
application of growth regulators and also the chemical induction of male sterility. Temperature
sensitive genic male sterile lines like SA2, F61, TS 29, TS 18, TS 6 are governed by a single
parent recessive gene and they turn into sterile under high temperature regimes i.e. 22.0oC
(day) /24.0oC (night) especially when subjected at stage II-IV while the same plants under low
temperature regimes turn male fertile and introduce selfed seeds.Keeping this principle, hybrid
seed can be produced by placing the TGMS sterile plants under high temperature regimes in
between non TGMS male fertile plants in 6:2 or 8:2 ratio of TGMS : non TGMS lines. The seed
produced on the TGMS plants will be the two line rice hybrid which can be given to farmers.
TGMS bound hybrid presently under testing are e.g. TRYHT 97025, 97038, 97040, 97052,
97076, 98014 and (JP 2 × Lunishree).
c) Using Chemical Hybridizing agents / Gametocides
Characteristics of an Ideal Gametocide

1. It should make the stamen sterile without affecting the normal functioning of the rest of
the plant to ensure the quality and quantity of the hybrid seed on the female parent.
2. It should be safer to human and animals.
3. It should be stable and persistent one, should not be altered by unfavourable weather
conditions.
4. Should have high rate of emasculation and produce long exerted stigma.
5. Should have high rate of hybridization through male sterility and low rate of selfing.
(e.g.) Chemical emasculants / gametocides
1. Malic Hydrazide : 1-2 dichloropyridoxin 3,6 dione Crystals of MH will not dissolve in
water. To get required strength of MH, first we have to dissolve in NaOH 10 N (least
quantity of NaOH should be used) and later make it up with water.
2. Ethrel : 2 chloroethyl phosphoric acid
6000-8000 ppm 1st spray - one week before boot leaf stage
4000-6000 ppm 2nd spray - boot leaf stage.
By spraying this we can get 90% male sterility.
3. RH 531
4. Zinc methyl arsenate - 4000 ppm
5. Sodium methyl arsenate - 2000 ppm
6. Calcium sulphomate - 2000 ppm

7. Fussol (Flavo acetamide)
Mechanism of Chemical Emasculation

The male gametocide (Methl arsenates etc.,) are absorbed by leaves and translocated to panicle
within 30 minutes of spraying. Male gametocides in panicle amounts 0.001 % of the total
spraying. Within 6 hours the amount reaches to 0.01% of the total spray used. They are
present in pistil, stamen and lodicules within the spikelet in the ratio 2:1:1 which makes the
pollen to sterile.
Successfulness of Chemical Emasculation technique: Pre requisites are

1. Use of Appropriate Dosage of Emasculants
Gametocide must emasculate stamen and not compromising pistal sterility.
2. Even Coverage of GameTocides
Each plant in the natural community must receive equal dose of gametocide during EEP (Effective
Emasculation Period).
3. Timely Application
Timely application of gametocide is necessary to achieve effective male sterility.
iii. Three line breeding.

Characteristics of Cytoplasmic Male Sterile Line
1. Should have complete pollen sterility to avoid self fertilization.
2. Should have stable pollen sterility at different environments.
3. It should have good adaptability to cultural practices.
4. Should have good agronomic potential.
5. Should have fair to good general combining ability (e.g.) cytoplasmic genetic male sterile
lines.
Flowering and Synchronisation

The flowering period of male (6-8 days) and female (8-10 days) vary between the parents. For
perfect synchronisation of flowering between male and female parent is essential for seed set.
The synchronisation can be achieved by adopting any one of the following techniques.
1. Staggered Sowing
By sowing/planting the male line (early parent) in different dates so that its flowering coincide
with female. In nursery sowing of early parent (male) can be 2-3 days later than late parent
Rice 29
(female). Even in main field, for continuous supply of pollen to the female, the male parent can
be planted in 3 different dates. Hence the supply of pollen will be continuous and seed set will
be proper.
2. Urea Application
Apply Urea @ 35 Kg ha-1 to the advancing parent (Flowering delayed due to enhancing of
vegetative growth by application of urea) or spray (2-3 sprays) 20 Kg urea in Knapsack
sprayer in 500 lit. of water ha-1 instead of power sprayer. This should be done from 4th stage
of panicle initiation which is around 70 days after sowing.
3. Withholding of Irrigation
Draining of water in R line can delay its flowering by 2-3 days.
4. GA3 Application
The panicle exertion in female parent is not full. Good panicle exertion will help in improving
the seed set. Spraying of GA3 @ 50g ha-1 at 15-20% flowering stage in three split doses in
consecutive days with knapsack sprayer at 500 litres of spray solution per hectare will increase
the seed set and final yield. Morning 8 am to 10 am and evening 5 to 6 pm are ideal for taking
up spraying of GA3. Note: GA3 is not soluble in water. Hence it should be dissolved with little
amount of (1 gm in 10 to 20 ml) 75% alcohol and then volume is made up to the requirement.
5. Rope Pulling/Rod Driving

Passing of rope or rod across the population 3 to 4 times daily for 7-10 days during anthesis
will supplement the pollination mechanism and aid in outcrossing in hybrid seed production.
The normal anthesis time is between 10 a.m - 1.00 p.m and 3-4 pm
Rouging
From vegetative phase upto harvest the seed production plot should be checked for rouging
out volunteer, diseased and off type plants. Rouging should be done daily from earhead emergence
to dough stage. The pollen shedders (presence of B line in A line) and other off types are to be
checked at all times and the same should be removed to maintain genetic and physical purity of
seeds.
Weed Management
Pre-emergence
Use butachlor 2.5 l ha-1 or Thiobencarb 2.5 l ha-1 or Fluchloralin 1 l ha-1 or Pendimethalin
3 l ha-1 or Anilophos 1.25 l ha-1 as pre-emergence application. Alternately, pre-emergence
application of herbicide mixture viz., Thiobencarb 1.2 1 + 2,4 DEE 1.5 l ha-1 , butachlor 1.2 l
+ 2,4 DEE 1.5 l ha-1, Fluchloralin 1.0 l + 2,4 DEE 1.5 l ha-1 or Pendimethalin 1.5 l + 2,4 DEE
1.5 l ha-1 followed by one hand weeding on 30-35 days after transplanting will have a broad
spectrum of weed control in transplanted rice. Any herbicide has to be mixed with 50 kg of
sand on the day of application (3-4 days after transplanting) and applied uniformly to the field
in 2.5 cm depth of water on the 10th day after planting. Water should not be drained for 2 days
from the field (or) fresh irrigation should not be given.
Post Emergence
If herbicides are not used as pre-emergence, hand weeding should be given on 15th day after
transplanting, 2,4 D sodium salt (Fernoxone 80% WP) 1250 g dissolved in 625 l ha-1 of water
is sprayed with a high volume sprayer, three weeks after transplanting or when the weeds are
in 3-4 leaf stage.
Field Standards
The accuracy of roguing is checked for 2 times i.e., before and after flowering by Seed
Certification Officer.
Characters Maximum Permitted (%)

Foundation Seed Certified seed
Varieties
Off types 0.050 0.20
Objectionable weed plants 0.010 0.020
(wild rice)
Hybrids
Off types in seed parent 0.050 0.20
Off types in Pollinator 0.050 0.20
Pollen shedders in female 0.050 0.10
Objectionable weed plants 0.010 0.020
PEST MANAGEMENT
In nursery
Army worm
Drain water from the nursery and spray chlorpyriphos 20 EC 80 ml or Endosulfan 35EC 80
ml during late evening.
Thrips
Phosphomidon 85 WSC 25 ml or Monocrotophos 36 WSC 40 ml Endosulfan 35 EC 80 ml.
White Tip Nematode

Presoaking for 12 hours, sun drying for 6 hours per day for 2 or 3 days prior to sowing to
denematize the seeds.
Rice 31
Green Leaf Hopper

Fenitrothion 50 EC 80 ml, Phosphomidon 85 WSC 25 ml, Quinolphos 25 EC 80 ml, Endosulfan
35 EC 80 ml.
In Main Field (per hectare)

Brown Plant Hopper
Phosphomidon 85 WSC 500 ml, Monocrotphos 36EC 1250 ml, Phasalone 35 EC 1500 ml,
Carbaryl 10% dust 25 kg , methyl demton 25 EC 1000 ml, Acephate 75 SP 625 gms,
Chlorpyriphos 1250 ml, Dichloravas 76 WSC 350 ml, Neem seed kernel extract 5% 25 kg,
Neem oil 3% 15 liters, Illuppai oil 6% 30 litres.
Leaf Folder
Fenitrothion 50 EC 1000 ml, Phosphomidon 85 WSC 300 ml, Monocrotophos 36 WSC 1000
ml, Chlorpyriphos 20 EC 1250 ml, Phasolone 35 EC 1500 ml, Carbaryl 50 WP 1 kg, Quniolphos
25 EC 1000 ml, Fenthion 100 EC 500 ml, Dicholorvas 76 WSC 250 ml, Neem seed kernel
extract 5% 25 lit or kg.
White Tip Nematode

Chlorpyriphos 20 EC 1250 ml, Phosphomidon 85 WSC 300 ml, Monocrotophos 36 WSC 1
litre.
Rat
Use 1 part poison bait of zinc phosphide with 49 parts popped corn / rice/ dry fish or warfarin
0.5 % 1 part with 19 parts of popped corn / rice / dry fish or bromodiolone 0.25 WW (1:49)
at 0.005 %.
Disease Management
Blast
Edifenphos 500 ml, carbendazim 250 gms, IBP 500 ml, Tricyclozole 75 WP 500 gms. Spray
pseudomonos fluorescens 500 gms ha-1dissolved in 500 liters of water and used for one hectare.
Biological Control Treat seeds with chalk based formulation of Pseudomonos fluorescens @
10 gms per kg of seeds and soak in 1 liter of water overnight. Decant the excess water and
allow to sprout the seeds for 24 hours and then soak. Biocontrol agents are compatable with
bio-fertilizers. Bio-fertilizers and biocontrol agents can be mixed together for seed soaking.
Fungicides and biocontrol agents are incompatible.
Brown Spot
Spray edifenphos 500 ml, Mancozeb 1000gms when grade reaches 3. If necessary, repeat 15
days later.
Bacterial Leaf Blight

Streptomycin sulphate + Tetracycline 300 gms + Copper Oxy Chloride 1250 gms per ha.
Grain Discolouration
Mancozeb 1000 gms or IBP 500 ml or carbendazim 350 gms per hectare at boot leaf stage.
Spray Pseudomonos fluorecencs (Pf 1 TNAU formulation) @ 1 kg ha-1 twice once at booting
and again 15 days after first spraying or neem formulation (neem oil) 60 EC (A) 3 % and neem
oil 60 EC (C) 3 % twice at booting and again 15 days after first spray.
Physiological Maturity
Turning of green seeds (Caryopsis) to straw yellow colour is the stage of physiological
maturation in paddy. The earheads should be harvested when the seeds have attained maximum
physiological maturity (in 28 and 31 days respectively for short and medium duration varieties)
after the 50 per cent of the spikelets in the panicle have flowered. At this stage 90% of the
seeds will be straw coloured and associate with moisture content of 20% for short and
medium duration varieties and 17% for long duration varieties.
Harvest
When the panicle turns to straw yellow colour the yellowing of plants is activated. At that stage
the irrigation to the seed production plot is with-held and this hastens the drying of the plants/
seed. The plants are harvested with intact panicles. The male parent (B/R line) should be
harvested first and removed from field and then the seed parent (female) is harvested. Care
should be taken to avoid the admixture of female and male lines during harvest.
Threshing
The harvested plants are stacked in a cleaned (free from other variety and volunteer plant
seeds) threshing floor. Then either by hand beating or with the use of LCT threshers under
large scale production for separation from the plants. The preferable moisture for threshing is
15-18%. This will avoid the occurrence of mechanical injury to the seeds.
Drying
The seed should be dried to a safe moisture content of 10-13% under normal drying conditions.
Grading of Seeds
The chaff, illfilled, under sized and oversized seeds are to be removed to maintain the physical
purity of the seed to 99-100 %. It is done through processing. The seeds are graded in OSAW
cleaner cum grader using proper sieves. The sieve sizes recommended for different varieties
of paddy are:
Size of Seed Sieve Size

Long slender : 1/16 × 3/4 (1.3mm × 19 mm)
Rice 33
Slender (IR 50): 1/15 × 3/4

Medium slender (IR 20, Co 43): 1/14 × 3/4 (1.5 mm × 19mm)
Short bold (ADT 36, 37, 38, 39,TKM 9, Ponmani): 1/13 × 3/4 (1.8 mm × 19 mm)
Seed Treatment
The seeds are to be treated with Thiram/Bavistin @ 4g and 2g respectively Kg-1 as slurry
treatment or for bulk storage, the seeds will be fumigated with celphos @ 3 g/m2 in airtight
condition for 7 days (or) Decis + Thiram @ 0.04 + 2.5 g Kg-1 as slurry treatment.
Seed Standards (Varieties & Hybrids)

Standards for each class Factor Foundation Certified
1. Pure Seed (min.) 98.0% 98.0%

2. Inert matter (Max.) 2.0% 2.0%
3. Huskless Seeds (Max.) 2.0% 2.0%
4. Other crop seeds (Max.) 10/kg 20/kg
5. Other distinguishable Varieties (Max.) 10/kg 20/kg
6. Total weed seeds (Max.) 10/kg 20/kg
7. Objectionable weed Seeds (Max.) 2/kg 5/kg
8. Germination (Min) 80% 80%
9. Moisture (Max.)
a. Previous container 13% 13%
b. Vapour proof container 8% 8%
Storage
The seeds can be stored upto 1-2 year under ambient storage condition without much reduction
in germination (80%) provided they are free from rice moth. In moisture vapour proof containers
they can be stored for more than 3 years provided the initial moisture is below 8%.
Particulars of Rice Varieties/Hybrids
Varieties Parentage Duration (days)
TKM 9 TKM 7 × IR 8 100-105

IR 20 IR 262 × TKM 6 130-135
Bhavani Peta × BPI 76 130-135
ADT 36 Triveni × IR 20 110
IR 50 IR 2156 -14 × IR 28 × IR 36 105
CO 43 Dasal × IR 20 135-140
Ponmani Punkaj × Jagannath 155 - 160
White ponni Taichung 65/2 Mayang Ebos-80 135-140
ADT 38 IR 1529 -6080 -3-2/IR 4432 -52 -6-4/IR7963 -30-2 130-135
ADT 39 IR 8 /IR 20 120-125
(Contd.)
JJ92 (ADT 41) Dwarf mutant of Basmathi 370 105-115

Hybrids
CORH -1 IR 62829 A /IR10198-66 2R 115
ADTRH 1 IR 58025 A /IR 66 R 115
CORH 2 IR 58025 A / C20 R 125
Commercial Cultivation of CORH 1(MGR) Rice Hybrid

Total duration : 110–115 days
Season: May-June sowing ,December- January sowing
Seed rate: 20 kg /ha, Nursery area 20 cents/ ha
Sowing the seed 1 kg/cent. DAP as basal 2 kg / cent
Gypsum -10 days before pulling out of the seedlings : 4 kg / cent
Farm Yard Manure: 12.5 tonnes / ha.
Inorganic Fertilizers
Basal, First top dressing at active tillering, Second top dressing at panicleinitiation stage
150:60:60: NPK kg ha-1
N P K (kg ha-1)
50: 60: 20(basal), 50–20( first top dressing), 50–20 (second top dressing)
Seedling Age :20-25 days
Transplanting
one Seedlng/Hill- Spacing in fertile soil, 25 × 10 cm (40 hills per sq. m.)
Spacing in normal Soil: 20 × 10 cm (50 hills per sq. m)
Plant Protection: Need based protection
Irrigation & Post-Harvest Technology : Similar to other normal varieties.
2
Wheat
Triticum sp. ( x =7 )
(Gothumai/Kottampam/Gothi/Godi/Genhu/Gam)
Wheat is the most important cereal in the world, giving about one-third of the total production,
followed closely by rice. In temperate regions it is the major source of food. The chief use of
wheat is, the flour for making bread.
Chromosome Number
Diploid: 2n = 14, Tetraploid:2n = 28, Hexaploid:2n = 42
Place of Origin
Diploid : Asia minor
Tetraploid : Abyssinia, North Africas
Hexaploid : Central Asia
Classification
Ploidy level Species Common name Genome
Diploid
T.boeticum (T.aegilopoides) Wild einkorn AA
(2n=14) 2 species T.monococum Einkorn AA
Tetraploid
(2n=28) 7 species T.dicoccoides Wild Emmer AA BB
T.dicoccum Emmer AABB
T.durum Macaroni wheat AABB
(Contd.)
Ploidy level Species Common name Genome
T.persicum Persian wheat AABB

T.turgidum Rivet wheat AABB
T.polonicum Polish wheat AABB
T.timopheevi - AA BB
Hexaploid
(2n= 42) 5 species T.aestivum Common or bread wheat AABBDD
T.compactum Club wheat AABBDD
T.sphaerococcum Dwarf wheat AABBDD
T.spelta Spelt wheat AABBDD
T.macha Macha wheat AABBDD
Fourteen Species of Wheat According to Vavilov

1.T.boeoticum; 2.T.monococcum; 3.T.dicoccoides; 4. T.dicoccum; 5.T.durum, 6.T.persicum;
7.T.turgidum; 8.T.polonicum; 9.T.timopheevi; 10.T.aestivum; 11.T.sphaerococcum;
12.T.compactum; 13.T.spelta; 14.T.macha.
Origin of Diploid Wheat
(Wild einkorn) T.boeticum (T.aegilopoides)
¯
Natural mutation and selection
¯
T.monoccocum
Cultivated diploid
AA (2n = 14)
T. boeoticum is probably the ancester for all the cultivated wheats
Origin of Tetraploid Wheats
T.boeoticum × Aegilops spelltoides
AA 2n=14 ¯ BB 2n = 14
F1 Sterile (2n=14) (AB)
Natural mutation and doubling
T.dicoccoides 2n = 28
¯
Wild emmer AABB (by natural selection)
Wheat 37
T.dicoccum (Emmer wheat)AABB (2n=28) Cultivated

Origin of Hexaploid Wheats
T.dicoccum x Aegilops squarrosa
AA BB ¯ DD
Sterile ABD (2n = 21)
Natural doubling
¯
T.aestivum AABBDD (2n = 42)
Related Species of Triticum

1. T. boeoticum: forms with one to two seeded spikelets occur. The brittle ears shatter at
maturity into individual spikelets armed with awns which provide an effective means of
seed dispersal.
2. T.monococcum: Primitive diploid form domesticated, evolved fromT.boeoticum by
mutation and selection..
3. Aegilops speltoides: (2n=14;B genome). It is naturally cross-pollinating. It is the recognized
donor of the B genome.
4. T. dicoccoides:It is an amphidiplod form resulting from the hybridization of T.boeoticum
and Ae.speltoides.
5. T.dicoccum: The spikes are dense, bearded and laterally compressed, the spikelets are
two grained and the grains are retained within the glumes after threshing (speltoid). It is
the oldest of the cultivated wheat.
6. T.durum: Free thrashing wheat with naked grains, important of the tetraploid wheats.
Grains contain high glutin.
7. Ae. squarrosa: (2n=14; D genome) It is the source of D genome in the cultivated hexaploid
wheat, high adaptability.
8. T. spelta: Hexaploid species, considered an amphidiploid from hybridization between
T.dicoccoides and Ae.squarosa.
The most important of all the hexaploid wheat is the common bread wheat, T.aestivum grown
in all parts of the tropics and sub tropics. This hexaploid wheat from which most modern
wheats have been developed. It exhibits an extremely wide range of morphological and
physiological variation and ecological adaptation.
Breeding Objectives
1. High yield
High yield depends on
a) The number of heads / unit area
b) The number of grains/head.

c) The average weight of grain
While breeding for high yielding varieties all the above three components must be looked into.
Omitting any one of them may not yield results. Further while breeding for high yield it is
necessary to combine into a variety a favourable combination of genes influencing all yield
process.
2. Breeding Non- lodging Varieties

This is achieved after the identification of dwarfing gene in Japanese variety Norin 10. Most of
our dwarf wheats are two gene dwarfs. e.g. Sonara 63, sonara 64, kalyan sona. Emphasis is
now on triple gene dwarfs.
3. Breeding for Disease Resistance

Rust is the major disease. Both stem rust and leaf rust are important ones. There are different
races of rust. So while breeding for rust resistance horizontal resistance is to be looked into.
Back cross method of breeding and development of multi lines are the methods.
4. Breeding for Insect Resistance

Hesisan fly is the major pest. Resistance in most varieties is through Antibiosis.
5. Breeding for Quality

Different wheat varieties vary greatly in their chemical composition which is considerably
influenced by environment. The varieties of hard wheat or bread wheat which have higher
gluten content. The soft wheat contain lesser gluten content which is suitable for cake making,
pastries. The durum wheats are unsuited for either cakes or bread but they are suitable for
making macaroni.
So depending upon the use the quality breeding objective is to be fixed.
Methods of Breeding
1. Introduction
Semi dwarf wheat from Mexico, Sonara 63, Sonara 64, Mayo 64, Lerma Roja 64
2. Pure Line Selection

Earlier varieties like P4, P6, P12 evolved at pusa institute are result of pure line selection from
local population.
3. Hybridisation and Selection

a) Inter Varietal
Wheat 39
A number of successful derivatives were developed at IARI New Delhi and Punjab. NP 809 -
New pusa multiple cross derivative.
However all these varieties were lodging and poor yielder when compared to other countries.
Hence the wheat hybridization programme was changed by Dr. M.S. Swaminathan during
1963. Borloug was invited to our country and he suggested for introduction of semi dwarf
varieties from Mexico. As a result four commercial spring wheat varieties viz., Sonara 63,
Sonara 64 Mayo 64 and Lerma Roja 64 were introduced. However they had red kernel hard
wheats. These were utilised in our breeding programme and amber colour wheat varieties like
Kalyan Sona, Safed Lerma, Sharbati Sonara were released, these are double gene dwarfs.
b) Inter Specific Crosses

To get Hessian fly resistance. So also for rust resistance.
c) Back Cross Method of Breeding

Rust resistance in Chinese spring from Thatcher.
4. Hybrid Wheat
At Kansas Agri. Expt. Station USA male sterile lines were identified by crossing
T.timophevi × T. aestivum : Bison variety
By repeated back crossing a male sterile line resembling Bison was evolved. At present USA
and Canada are doing work on this.
Dr. M. S. Swaminathan did extensive work on this with gamma rays.Sharbati, Sonara with
increased protein content was evolved.
6. Development of Multilines
Borlaug developed multilines against rust. MLKS 15 was developed at IARI.
Multi line is a mixture of pure lines which are phenotypically similar but genotypically dissimilar.
Each line is produced by separate back cross method of breeding. Each line having resistance
against a particular race of a disease.
3
Maize
Zea mays (2n = 20)
Place of Origin: Mexico.
Origin of Cultivated Maize

The genus Zea was previously considered as monotypic. Later on teosinte has been included
Euchlaena mexicana has been changed as Zea mexicana
Another wild relative is Tripsacum (gamma grass). All the three are inter crossable.
Three Views About Origin

1. From Teosinte it arose. Teosinte is having cob and tassel and easily crossable. This
theory was not accepted based on cytological studies.
2. Maize arose from pod corn Zea mays var. tunicata through natural mutation. This view
is the most accepted one. But origin of pod corn is not known.
3. All the three came from common ancestor but this common ancestor lost during evolution.
Ideal Plant Type in Maize

i. Plant with up right leaves which will increase photosynthesis. ii. Extended grain filling
period to have uniform well matured grains. iii. Cob with increased row no. > 15. iv. Multi cob
plant
Floral Biology
The inflorescence is unisexual and monoecious. Staminate (male) inflorescence is terminal are
known as tassel and pistilate (female) is axillary are called as cob.
Maize 41
Tassel
It is a terminal lax panicle with spikelets arranged in rows in central axis and lateral branches.
Spikelets occur in pairs. One is pedicelled and the other sessile but identical; the glumes G1,
and G2 are long and membranous; with in the glumes there are two florets, both staminate.
The florets posses lemma and palea and two fleshy lodicules, stamens are three in number,
versatile, and pistil is rudimentary.
Cob
The ear - bearing branch is much like main shoot. It is produced in lateral branch in the axil of
one of the longest foliage leaves. The leaf covers the cob like structures called husk (bracts).
These husks are enlarged leaf sheaths from each node, forming a protective covering around
the terminal inflorescence. The ear is a spike with thickened axis one which paired spikelets
are borne longitudinal rows. Each paired spikelets is two flowered, having ‘cupola’. Both the
spikelets are sessile and identical. Each spiklet is two flowered, having a pair of small membranous
glumes. The lower flower is non-functional, represented by a lemma and palea. The upper one
is fertile and consists of a membranous lemma and palea and a knob shaped ovary long thread
like style called silk. The style is receptive throughout the length and at the tip is usually cleft
into two branches. Lodicules are generally absent.
Maize is an example for protoandry. Pollen shedding begins three days before the silk emerge
from the cob. It is estimated that normal plant produces 2,50,00,000 pollen grains. Under
normal conditions pollen is viable for 12-18 hours. Fertilization occurs within 12-18 hours
after the silk have been pollinated. The entire silk is receptive.
Breeding Objectives
1. Yield
Complex character controlled by polygenes. Attention is to be paid to have ideal plant type.
Varietial hybridization as a maize breeding method did not gain popularity. The main reason for
this is difficulty in getting superior segregants.
2. Breeding for Pest and Disease Resistance

Shoot fly, Stem borer, Heliothis are major pests. Mexican varieties are resistant.
Downy mildews, leaf blight and helminthosporium are major diseases. Co1, CoH2 are resistant.
Taiwan lines are resistant to downy mildew.
3. Breeding for High Protein

Composed of two fractions. a) Protein in endosperm known as Zein which is nutritionally not
balanced since it is lesser in lysine and tryptophan. 80% protein found in endosperm. b)
Protein in germ (embryo) 20% balanced one. By increasing the embryo size we can increase
protein content.
4. Breeding for Increased Oil Content

12–15% in germ. By increasing the embryo size we can increase oil content.
5. Alternate Sources of Cytoplasm

CMS - T. susceptible to Helminthosporium, C and S Resistant.
6. High Yielding Baby Corn

Z.mays. var. sachharata, Sweet corn. The green cobs can be eaten as salad. The cobs can be
harvested 45 days after sowing. CoBc 1 is latest variety of baby corn.
Breeding Methods
1.Introduction
Initially the varieties were all introduced one.
Sikkim primitive 1,Sikkim primitive 2.
Mexican line were first introduced during 16th century by portugeese.
2.Mass Selection
Prior to 1945 mass selection was the only method used for maize improvement.
KT 1 - U. P.
RAS 1 - Rajasthan.
By adopting mass selection technique it is possible to get yield increase by 19% per cycle.
3. Ear to Row Selection

It is first proposed by Hopkins for improving oil and protein content of maize. This method
involves selection of a number of phenotypically desirable ears out of a population grown in
isolation. The selected cobs are harvested on single plant basis and keeping part of the seeds &
remaining sown in rows. Based on the best performing rows during next season the reserve
seeds are sown.
This method is suitable for characters having high heritability like oil content and protein
content. But it was not helpful to get increased yield.
4.Modified Ear to Row Method

Proposed by Lonquist
i) Best ear heads from population selected (100 No.) and harvested on single plant basis
and threshed individually.
ii) The single heads harvested are raised in progeny rows in more than one location
representing different environment with local checks.
iii) In the main station the progeny rows are used as crossing block. Pollen from best plants
are collected, mixed and used for crossing the rows.
Maize 43
Select best five plants from each rows and harvest them separately record the yield. On
the basis of performance of over all locations only top 20% progenies are selected.
These 20% will include the five plants selected.
iv) The seeds from 5 plants selected are sown in progeny rows and cycle is repeated.

Not popular since isolation of superior recombinants was not made.
Instead of using CGMS lines, detasseling the female inbred line is followed in India. Since use
of CGMS line is costlier compared to detasseling it is not followed.
Crossing the inbreds of indigenous x exotic origin resulted in release of best hybrids.
Indian × Indian - 24 to 43% yield increase.
Indian × U.S. dent 58 %
Indian dent × Caribbean Flint 47 to 54 %
i.Single cross hybrid - CoH 1, CoH 2. ii.Three way cross hybrids - Ganga -5 iii .Double cross
hybrids - CoH 3 iv. Double top crop hybrid - White kernel hybrids - Ganga safed 2, Histarch,
Ganga 4.
7. Population Improvement
Recurrent selection technique was initiated by Dhawan in 1963. The initial synthesis of
composites were done from high yielding inter varietal crosses which exhibited minimum
inbreeding depression.
Kisan, Jawahar, Vikram, Sona, Vijay, Amber.Co 1 K. 1
SEED PRODUCTION
Method of Seed Production
(a) Varieties
Raise the varieties under isolation and allow the seeds to set by open pollination.
(b) Synthetics
The lines that combine well among themselves are mixed and allowed to set seed by open
pollination.
(c) Composites
These are produced by open pollination among a number of outstanding strains usually not
selected for combining ability with each other.
(d) Hybrids: Inbreds

The basic genotype used for hybrid seed production is known as Inbreds. It is relatively a true
breeding strain resulting from repeated selfing.
Tool Employed for Seed Production

In maize, hybrid seed production is achieved through detasseling, which is the physical removal
of male part from the female plants and thereby allowing the plant to act as female which is in
turn crossed with selected male plant and effect seed setting. This is possible in maize alone
due to the monoecious and protandry nature of the flowers.
Types of Hybrids
In maize, single, double and three way cross hybrids are available.
(i) Single Cross Hybrid: It is the cross between 2 inbreds, where one serve as female and
other as male.
(e.g.) COH1 : UMI 29 × UMI 51
COH2 : UMI 810 × UMI 90
(ii) Three way cross Hybrid: It is the cross between a single cross hybrid (A×B) which
serve as female with another inbred (C) which serve as male parent.
(e.g.) Ganga 5 : (CM 202 × CM 111) × CM 500
(iii) Double Cross Hybrid: It is a cross between 2 single crosses (A×B) and (C×D) involving
4 inbreds (A,B,C,D)
(e.g.). Deccan hybrid -(CM 104 × CM 105) × (CM 202 × CM 201)
COH3 -(UMI 101 × UMI 130) × (UMI 90 × UMI 285)
Steps in Hybrid Seed Production

Seed Production Stages
Class of Seed
Breeder Seed Foundation Seed Certified Seed
1.Varieties/Inbreds
A A+ A++
(Multiplied at Different Stages)
2.Single Cross Hybrid
A, B A, B AXB
(A and B Multiplied Separately under Isolation)
(Contd.)
Maize 45
Breeder Seed Foundation Seed Certified Seed
3.Three ways Cross Hybrid

A, B, C AxB, C (AxB)xC
4. Double Cross Hybrid
A, B,C, D (AXB), (CXD) (AXB)X(CXD)
Season
The best season is November - December. The pollination should not coincide with rain for effective
seed setting. The dry temperature favorable for seed setting is 37oC.
Rainfed / Irrigated Season Varieties/Hybrids
Rainfed (June- July) COH1, CO1, COH2, COH3,COBC1

(Sep- Oct) CO1, COH1,COH2,COH3,COBC1
(Jan- Feb) k1,GANGA5,COH1,CO11,COH2,COH3,COBC1
Land Requirement
The land selected should be fertile and should be free from volunteer plants. The same crop
should not have been grown in the previous season.
Isolation Distance (m)
Seed Production System Foundation Seed Certified Seed

Inbreds, varieties 400 200
synthetics, composite
Single cross (Hybrids)
Singe cross (Parents) 400 -
Other Hybrids - 300
Seeds and Sowing

Seed should be purchased from authenticated source with tag and bill.Proper stage of seed
should be used. The seeds should be sown in ridges and furrows at 4 cm depth one seed/ hole
in case of Ganga 5, CO 1 and two seeds per hole in the case of K1.
Seed Rate Spacing

Varieties: 10 kg/ha 45 × 10 cm
Hybrids: Female: 12 kg/ha 60 × 25 cm
Male : 4 kg/ha 60 × 25 cm
Pre-Sowing Seed Treatment

Seeds are treated with Thiram or Captan @ 4g/kg. After fungicide treatment seeds are treated
with 3 packets (600 g / ha) of azospirillum. Halogenise the seeds with either chlorine or iodine
as dry or slurry treatment at 3 g/kg of seeds and store in polythene cloth to maintain seed
viability more than 10 months.
Planting Ratio Border Rows

Single cross Hybrid 4:2 4
Double cross Hybrid 6:2 3
Three way cross Hybrid 6:2 4
Note: For multiplication of A lines (A × B) 12 kg/ha, 4 kg/ha of seed and planting should be
taken in the ratio of 4:2 female to male line.
Manure’s and Fertilizers

Compost: 12.5 ton/ha
NPK: 100:75:75 kg/ha
(i) Basal: 40:75:40 NPK kg/ha
(ii) Top Dressing: 50:0:0 N kg/ha (20 days after sowing) 10:0:35 N & K kg/ha (40 days after sowing)
Foliar Application: 2% DAP spray (50% flowering stage)
Detasselling
The tool employed in hybrid seed production of maize is known as detasselling. Tassel is the
male inflorescence of maize. Detasselling is removal of tassel/male flowers from the plant.
Detasselling should be done in the female parent of hybrid alone. It should be removed before
anthesis and immediately after emergence. Detasselling should be completed when the tassel is
well out of the boot leaf but before the anthers shed the pollen. It is done everyday from
anthesis, upto 14 days.
Procedure for Detasselling

The stem is to be held with left hand and the tassel is to be removed with right hand in one
upward pull. The pulled tassel should be taken away from the field and burried beyond the
isolation distance. In any case no spikelet should be left which may cause genetic contamination.
The leaves also should not be removed as it favour reduction of seed yield.
Roguing
Roguing, is the removal of unwanted, offtype and diseased plant from the seed production
plot. The roguing is done based on leaf waveriness, tassel colour, cob shape, stem colour, silk
colour, number of leaf, and presence or absence of auricle.
Maize 47
Weed Management
i) Apply the pre-emergence herbicide, Atrazine 50WP at 500 g/ha (900 lit of water) 3 days
after sowing as spray on the soil surface using knapsack/rocker sprayer fitted with flat
fan (or) deflection type of nozzle followed by one hand weeding on 40–45 days after
sowing. For maize + Soybean intercropping system, apply pre-emergence alachlor at
4.0 l/ha or Pendimethalin at 3.3 lt/ha on 3rd day after sowing as spray.
ii) Apply herbicide when there is sufficient moisture in the soil do not disturb the soil after
herbicide application .Hoe and hand weed on the 17th or 18th day of sowing, if herbicide
is not applied. Note : If pulse crop is to be raised as intercrop, do not use atrazine.
Deficiency Symptoms
Nitrogen Deficiency
Leaves become yellow, older leaves show drying at tips with progress along mid veins, stalks
become slender.
Phosphorous Deficiency
Leaves are purplish green during early growth. Growth spindly, slow maturity irregular ear
formation.
Leaves show yellow or yellowish green streaks become corrugated tips and marginal scorch. Tip
end in ear are poorly filled. Stalks have short internode - plants become weak and may fall down.
Magnesium Deficiency
Older or lower leaves are the first to become chlorotic at margins and between veins. Streaked
appearance of leaves. Necrotic or chlorotic spots seen in leaves.
Zinc Deficiency
Older leaves have yellow streaks or chlorotic striping between veins. In several cases, unfolding
of young leaves may be white or yellow.
Iron Deficiency
Interveinal chlorosis. The entire crop may exhibit bleached appearance.
Application of Micronutrient
12.5 kg of Micronutrient mixture should be mixed with sand to make a total quantity of 50 kg
/ha is to be applied.Apply the mixture over the furrows and two thirds in the top ridges, if ridge
planting is followed.If bed system sowing is followed, apply the Micronutrient mixture over
the furrows.Do not incorporate the micronutrient in the soil.
Field Standards
Character Foundation Seed Certified Seed
1. Off type (max.) 0.01% 0.05%
2. Shedding tassel (max.) 0.5% 0.5%
3. Diseased plants (max.) 0.05% 0.1%
Shedding Tassel
Some of the tassel, which may remain inside the boot leaf during detasselling due to improper
removal of tassel. This may shed pollen and cause genetic contamination. Hence detasselling
should be perfect without shedding tassel.
Pest and Disease Management

Mix any of the granular insecticides with sand and to make up to a total quantity of 50 kg and apply
in the leaf whorls on the 20th day of sowing. Quinolphos 5 G 15 kg/ha, carbaryl 4 g 20 kg/ha.If
granular insecticides area not used, spray Quinolphos 25 EC 1 lit of carbaryl 50 WP 1kg/ha on the
20th day of sowing for the control of stemborer, weevils, and aphids (500 lt of spray fluid/ha.).
Downy Mildew
CO 1, COH 1 and COH 2 are resistant to downy mildew. Rogue out affected plants. Spray
Metalaxyl 701 WP @ 1 kg/ha, Mancozeb 1 kg/ha 20 days after sowing.
Leaf Spot
Spray Mancozeb or Captan 1 kg/ha when the disease intensity reaches grade 3.
Irrigation
Regulate irrigation according to the following growth phase of the crop Germination phase 1
to 14 days, Vegetative phase 15 to 39 days, Flowering phase 40 to 65 days, Maturity phase 66
to 95 days. Irrigation should be given once in a week after life irrigation (3rd day after sowing).
The critical stages for irrigation which affect the seed quality are silk formation stage and
milky stage of cob.
Harvesting
The cobs of male should be harvested first and are to be removed from the field. The female
cobs are harvested as once over harvest. The crop reaches physiological maturation 45 days
after flowering. Darkening of silk and drying up of husk to yellow colour are the visual symptoms
of physiological maturation.
Dehusking
At threshing floor, the husk of the cob is to be removed either mechanically using maize
dehusker or manually.
Maize 49
Cobsorting
This is an important operation to maintain genetic purity in this crop. The dehusked cobs are
sorted out for true to typeness based on row number, kernel colour, Kernal size, pith colour,
and arrangement of seeds in the cob. The odd ones are removed for the purpose of maintaining
genetic purity. The kernal colour variation in maize is termed as metazenia effect which is the
influence of foreign pollen on the female parent.
Shelling
At the moisture content of 15-18% the kernals are separated from the cob, either manually by
beating with sticks or mechanically using maize sheller. In both the cases mechanical injury
caused to the seed should be avoided.
Drying
The shelled seeds are dried to 12% moisture content for further safe handling.
Processing
The kernals can be size graded using 18/64" round perforated metal sieve as the middle sieve
in OSAW cleaner cum grader.
Seed Inbreds Hybrids Inbreds/Hybrids
Standards FS FS CS
Pure seed (%) (min) 98 98 98
Inert Melter (%) (max) 2 2 2
Other Crop seed (%) (max) 10/kg 5/kg 10/kg
Other Distinguishable varieties based on Kernal Colour & Texture (max)
10/kg 10/kg 20/kg
Weed Seeds (max) None None None
Germination % (min) 80 80 80
Moisture Content (%) (max)
a. Previous Container 12 12 12
b. Vapour Proof
Container 8 8 8
Storage
The seed can be stored well upto one year in gunny/cloth bags after seed treatment with thiram
@ 4 kg-1 or Decis @ 0.04ml kg-1. In moisture vapour proof container the seeds can be stored
upto two years. The important storage insect is Sitophilus oryzae and storage fungus is
Aspergillus spp.
Future Thrust
1. Development of broad based, genetically diverse gene pool of populations.
2. Evaluation of the performance of these base populations thro’ recurrent selection procedure.
3. Development of Superior Inbreds.
4. Development of Superior Hybrids.
4
Sorghum
Sorghum bicolor (2n = 20)
Place of Origin: Africa
Progenitor of Sorghum
1. S.arundinaceum;2. S.verticilliflorum;,3. S.sudanense; 4. S.aethiopicum
Classification
Right from 16th century there were number of classification for the genus sorghum. The
famous among them is Snowden’s classification (1936) later refined by Garber (1950) and
by Dogget (1970).
Sorghum
↓ ↓
Section I Section II
Sorghum (True Sorghum) Para sorghum (other
Sorghum)
↓ ↓ S. versicolor
Sub section Sub section S. introns
Arundinaceae (2n=20) Halepensia (2n=20, 40) S. nitidum
S. halepense S. plumosum
↓ ↓ S. miliaceum S. purpureosericeum
Series Series S. almum
Spontanea(grass) Sativa(grain) S. propinquum
S.sudanense S.vulgare S.radolphianum
S.aethiopicum S.subglabaesence
S.virgatum S.dochna
S.verticillifolium
S.stapfii
Sorghum 51
The latest classification was done by Harlan and De Wet (1972). Five basic races of sorghum
based on coverage of glumes:
1. Bicolor (B): Grain elongate, glumes clasping the grain which may be completely covered
or ¼ exposed.
2. Guinea (G): Grains flattened dorso-ventrally.
3. Caudatum(C): Grains asymmetrical, glumes 1/2 the length of the grain.
4. Kaffir (K): Grains symmetrical (spherical), glumes clasping in varying length.
5. Durra (D): Grains rounded obovate, wedge shaped at the base and broadest slightly
above the middle; glumes very wide.
According to them, the cultivated sorghum Sorghum bicolor is divided in to five basic races
based the coverage of glume on the grain.
Hybrid Races
This consists of all combinations of the basic races
1. Guniea bicolor (GB) 6. Guinea kaffir (GK)
2. Caudatum bicolor (CB) 7. Guinea durra (GD)
3. Kaffir bicolor (KB) 8. Kaffir caudatum (KC)
4. Durra bicolor (DB) 9. Kaffir durra (KD)
5. Guinea caudatum (GC) 10. Durra caudatum (DC)
Wild Sorghum sp.

S.halapense: Both 2n=20 and 2n=40 forms are available utilized for forage sorghum
improvement.
S.sudanense: Utilized for improvement of forage sorghum.
S.nitidum: Found in Kodai Hills. Processes shoot fly resistance and dormancy.
S.staffii: Found in Southern districts, used for inducing dormancy.
Cultivated Sorghum
Grouped in to two types
a) Tall, tropical late maturing adapted to short day length photo sensitive, longer internodes.
e.g. Land races.
Land Races of Sorghum

1. Peria Manjal Cholam; 2. China Manjal Cholam; 3. Sen Cholam, 4. Talaivirichan Cholam;
5. Vellai Cholam; 6. Irungu Cholam; 7. Makkattai
b) Temperate, dwarf plant adapted to longer day length, photo in sensitive, shorter internodes,
long panicles, high yielding varieties.
Floral Biology
Sorghum is an often cross pollinated crop. Usually compact or semi compact or loose (lax)
panicle. Terminal peduncle erect or recurved to give a pendant or goose neck appearance.
Spikelets occur in pairs on the lateral branches of the panicle. One is sessile while the other
spikelet is pedicelled. Sessile spiklet is bisexual or hermaphrodite; Pedicelled one is male or
sterile. Sessile spikelet is comparatively larger than staminate spikelets.
i) Fertile or Sessile Spikelet

It has two glumes of approximately equal length (G1 and G 2) having two florets is fertile,
bisexual conists of a membranous lemma (L2) with two cleft at apex and long or shot arm a
small thin delicate palea (P2). Two lodicules present adjacent to fertile lemma. Lodicules are
fleshy and truncate. Stamens are three in number, versatile, pistil with roundish single celled
ovary and two long styles ending in feathery stigma.
ii) Staminate or Pedicelled Spikelet

Spikletes are with long and short pedicel, two leathery boat shaped glumes enclosing two
florets. The lower floret is represented by lemma only and the upper floret is staminate with
short awned lemma, palea absent, lodicules two ,stamens three, pistil absent.
Flower opening starts after 2 to 4 days of emergence of panicle from the boot leaf. Flowering
starts from the tip of the panicle and proceeds downwards. Flowering completes in 7 days.
The pollen is viable for 10 to 20 minutes under field conditions. Fertile pollen will be lemon
yellow in colour. Older pollen grains will normally turn orange. Receptivity of stigma starts
two days before opening and remains for several days. Flower opening and anthesis will be
form 2.00 am to 8.00 am.
Breeding Objectives
1. High Yield
Productivity genes are present in durra, roxburghi, Caudatum and Zera - Zera.
Direct components: Panicle length and breadth panicle weight, number of primary branches,
number of seeds / panicle and 100 seed weight.
Indirect components: Plant height, leaf area index endosperm texture.
2. Short Duration
Fit in multiple cropping programme. Co22 is the shortest duration having a duration of 70
days. The drawback in this variety is it is dwarf and farmers who are in need of cattle feed
may not cultivate this. 105–100 days is optimum. This can be grown in two seasons instead of
a long duration land race. e.g. Co25 - Co 26.
Tropical lines having dominant maturity gene Ma and temperate lines having recessive ma
gene.
Sorghum 53
3. Breeding drought resistant varieties with low HCN content in the early stages of
growth
75% of sorghum is grown under rainfed condition. It is highly essential to breed varieties,
which can with stand initial as well as terminal drought. Further in dry land varieties there will
be high HCN content in the stem during early vegetative phase. This limits the use of varieties
as cattle feed. To overcome this it is essential to breed varieties with low HCN content. Low
HCN content exhibits partial dominance reaction. More than one gene involved in controlling
this trait.
4. Breeding non - Lodging Sorghum

This is essential for southern districts, The hybrid sorghum tall (90 days duration) grown
during N.E monsoon has a tendency to snap at nodes and lodge at maturity. This leads to
considerable loss. To replace this the new hybrid COH3 having duration of 105 days was
introduced. But it was not suitable because it could not withstand terminal drought. Dwarf
character is conditioned by genes DW1 to DW4.
5. Resistance to Pests
Shoot fly, stemborer, midge and earhead bug are the important pests of sorghum. Sources like
S.nitidum, S.virgatum are available against pests. Some of the land races in south India like
local irungu cholam are resistant against shoot fly. Efforts are under way to evolve resistant
varieties.
Resistance may be - Non preference for oviposition because of presence of trichomes.
Antibiosis - Silica content in the plant body, Recovery resistance by producing side tillers.
6. Resistance to Diseases
Sorghum downy mildew, helminthosporium blight, grain mould are the important diseases.
The inheritance is complex and poly genic.
7. Breeding for Sweet Sorghum

Because of self sufficiency in rice, use of sorghum as human food is fast dwindling. So to find
out alternate uses for sorghum, breeding sweet sorghum is one strategy. From the stem juice,
ethanol can be produced which is a renewable source of energy. Brazil stands first in this.
There are two types of sorghums.
a) Syrup Varieties: Syrup for table purpose can be produced from this. This is also
suitable for ethanol production.
b) Sugar Varieties: contains more of sugars and less of combustible organics. Not suitable
for ethanol production compared to syrup varieties.
Normal sorghum contains 12%, TSS (Brix) where as sweet sorghums contain around 18%
TSS. The juice will be extracted and sterilised. After sterilisation the juice is treated with yeast.
After 48hrs, distillation is done to extract alcohol. Around 45% alcohol is recovered.
8. To Breed Red Grain Varieties Suitable for Biscuit Making

Madurai: Tirumangalam area biscuit is made from Sencholam found in south India.
Salem: boiled red grain used for consumption.The variety Paiyur 2 is a red grain variety.
9. Breed Varieties with Nutritional Quality

Normal protein = 7-8 % with 1.9 to 2.5% lysine, 9.3 to 11.6% leucines
Increase in protein upto 12% is possible, but the problem is disability.
Two high lysine Ethiopean lines IS 11167 and IS11758 with 15% protein. The hl gene is
monogenic recessive and seeds are shrivelled and red in colour.
10. To Satisfy local Needs

Small pearly white grain is used for preparing ‘Kali’ which has high keeping quality. S.roxburghi
is suitable and is grown in many districts in south India. The varieties Co19 and Paiyur 2 are
examples.
11. To Isolate Alternate Sources of Cytoplasmic Genic Male Sterile Lines

The existing CMS lines are having A1 cytoplasm as base. There are other sources viz., A2 , A3,
A4 and A5. But all of them are in grassy sorghum and susceptible to foliar diseases. This we
have to improve. There are local ones like Maldandi 35 GA, G.I.A. but they are season bound
and long duration.
Breeding Techniques
Sorghum is often cross pollinated crop. So to maintain varietal purity isolation distance of 400
meters is necessary. Compared to other often pollinated crop like red gram, maintenance of
inbreds is easy in sorghum. By putting brown paper and selfing the genetic purity can be
maintained.
1. Introduction
Varieties of milo and kafir sorghum introduced from USA are used in conversion programme
to convert the local long duration photo sensitive varieties to short duration, non-photo sensitive
lines.
2. Selection
Old varieties like Co1, Co2, Co4 are all selection made from local land races.

a) Inter Varietal
(IS 4283 × Co 21) × CS 3541, Three way cross derivative Co 25, (MS 8271 × IS 3691) -
Single cross derivative Co 26
Sorghum 55
b) Inter Specific
Co 27 Sorghum. (Co11 × S.halapense)
Use of CMS lines
CSH 5 - 2077 A × CS 3541
CoH 4 - 296 A × TNS 30
X ray mutant from CSV 5 (148)
Co21 (699 Tall), Co 19 is a natural mutant from Co 2
6. Back cross Method : Co 20

(Bongan hilo × Co1 )- Co20 . Striga resistance was evolved by back crossing. By following
backcross method of breeding sorghum conversion programme was initiated. The long duration
photosensitive germplasm was converted in to photo insensitive short duration sorghums.
This was done at USA. Similar programme was done at ICRISAT also.
With the use of cytoplasmic genetic male sterility as well as genic male sterility we can go for
population improvement. The local land races can be used as pollinators and by half sib family
selection, we can isolate lines. We can follow recurrent selection idea to develop superior
inbreds.
8. Use of Apomictic lines

Some apomictic lines have been identified which can be utilised in breeding programme and by
vegetative propagation we can fix up heterosis. e.g. R473 from Hydrabad.
Some Sorghum Varieties and their Parentage

Variety Parentage Duration
K5 Reselection from IS 3541 95

K7 K3 × M 35-1 110
Co19 (Talaivirichan cholam) mutant from Co 2 145
Co 25 Three way cross derivative 105
Co 26 MS 8271 × IB 3691 110
Co 27 Co 11 × S.halapense 60
Co21 mutant of CSV 5 105
(Contd.)
K8 IS 12611 × SPV 105 85

K9 M 36200 × Tenkasi vellai 120
K 10 K 7 × SPV 102 115
K 11 K 7 × A 6552 115
Paiyur-1 Co19 × Co24 145
BSR – 1 multiple cross derivative 110
Paiyur 2 (Sencholam) PLS from IS 15845 95
Hybrids
CoH 2 (Kovil Patti Tall) 2219 A × IS 3541 90
CoH 3 2077 A × Co 21 110
CoH 4 296 A × TN 30 110
CSH 5 2077 A × CS 3541 100
SEED PRODUCTION
Methods of Seed Production

1. Varieties: By open pollination under isolation.
2. Hybrids
a. Tool employed CGMS (Cytoplasmic genic male sterility) systems
b. Lines involved : A, B and R line (Both cytoplasm and nucleus are involved in sterility
system).
Stages of Seed Production / Multiplication

a) Varieties : Breeder seed —> Foundation seed —> Certified seed
b) Hybrid : Breeder seed : A multiplied using B
B & R multiplied under isolation
Foundation seed: A multiplied using B
R multiplied under isolation
Certified seed : A and R crossed to produce hybrid seed Hybrids and their parents
A (female) × R (male) A (female) × R (male)
1. CSH5 : MS2077 A × CS3541
2. CSHI : CK6017 A × IS84
3. CCH9 : MS296A × CS3541
4. COH3 : MS2077A × 699 tall
5. COH4 : MS296A × TNS30
6. K tall : MS2219A × IS3541
7. COH3 : MS2077A × CO21
8. COH4 : MS296A × TNS30
Sorghum 57
Particulars of Varieties
Varieties Duration (days) Parentage
Seed yield (kg ha-1)

CO 26 105-110 Derivative of MS 82714 × IS 3691
Rain fed -4500kg/ha
Irrigated -6000kg/ha
CO 20 (fodder) 55-60 Selection from CO 11 × SI halapense
-
K4 90 CO 18 × K 2
Rainfed -300kg/ha
K8 85 IS 12611 × SV 108
Rainfed -2440kg./ha
Paiyur 1 145-150 CO 19 × CO 24
Rainfed- -1000kg/ha
CO 25 115-120 3 way cross
Rainfed -3680kg/ha
APK 1 105-110 Hybrid derivative of TNS 30 × CO 26
Rainfed -2619kg/ha
K 10 110-115K 7 × SPV 102
Rainfed -1600kg/ha
Season
The best season is November - December. The pollination should not coincide with rain for
effective seed setting. The dry temperature favorable for seed setting is 37oC.
Land Requirement
Land should be fertile and should not be problematic soil viz., calcareous or acidic soils.The
previous crop should not be the other varieties of the same crop to avoid genetic
contamination.The same variety can be the previous crop provided it was certified.
Isolation
(M) Foundation stage(M) Certified seed stage (M)
Varieties 200 100
Hybrids 300 200
400 400 (for the presence of Johnson grass)
400 200 (for forage sorghum)
Seeds and Sowing

The seed should be from an authenticated source with tag and bill.The suitable class of parental
seed should be used. For Certified Seed Production Foundation Seed should be used. For
Foundation Seed, Breeder Seed should be used.
Seed Rate
Seeds are sown in ridges and furrows at a depth of 2-4 cm along the sides of ridges.
Irrigated Transplanted 7.5 kg / ha
Rainfed Direct sown 15.0 kg / ha
Irrigated Direct sown 10.0 kg / ha
Transplanted Crop has the Following Advantages

a. Main field duration is reduced by 10 days.
b. Shoot fly which attacks direct sown crops during the first weeks and which is difficult
to control can be effectively and economically controlled in the nursery itself.
c. Seedling which show chlorotic and downy mildew symptoms can be eliminated, thereby
incidence of downy mildew in the main field can be minimised.
d. Optimum population can be maintained as only healthy seedlings are used for
transplanting.
e. Seed rate can also be reduced by 2.5 kg ha-1.
The spacing adopted are

Variety 45 × 15 cm Hybrid 45 × 30 cm.
A line :45 × 30 cm.
R line :45 × solid line (45 cm solid row spacing).
Presowing Seed Treatment

1. For dryland sowing or summer sowing seeds are to be hardened using 2% KH2 PO4 for
10 hrs. seeds are soaked in equal volume and the seeds are dried back to original moisture
content.
2. Seeds can also be hardened by soaking the seeds in 1:0.6 volume in 1% prosopis and
pungam leaf extract and further be pelleted with pungam leaf powder using 10% maida
as the adhesive material, which is a pollution free eco friendly treatment.
3. Seeds can be treated with 5% carbofuran 3G to protect the seed from shootfly infestation.
Planting Ratio
In hybrid seed production at foundation seed stage i.e., the female line multiplication A and B
lines are to be planted in 4:2 ratio and at certified seed stage the A and R line are to be planted
in 5:2 ratio.
Border Rows
In both the stages of multiplication, the seed production plot should be surrounded with 4
rows of male line for adequate supply of pollen and to prevent natural out crossing.
Sorghum 59
Live Markers
For easy identification of male line, live markers are used. Live markers are other crops that
are easily distinguishable by their varying phenotypic character. The crops preferable for live
markers are sunflower, daincha etc.

Compost: 12.5 t ha-1 (at last ploughing).
NPK: 100:50:50 kg ha-1.
Basal: 50:50:50 kg ha-1 (P and K at last ploughing).
Top dressing : 25 kg N after 1st weeding 25 kg N after boot leaf stage (45 days).
Foliar spray :Spray 2% DAP thrice at 10 days interval after flowering to enhance the seed set.
Micronutrient Mixture
Mix 12.5 kg ha-1 micronutrient mixture with enough sand to make a total quantity of 50 kg and
apply the mixture over the furrows and on the top one third of the ridges. If micronutrient
mixture is not available, mix 25 kg of Zinc sulphate with sand to make a total quantity of 50 kg
and apply on the furrows and on the top one third of the ridges.
METHODS OF PERFECT SYNCHRONIZATION AND NICKING
1. Different Seed Treatments to Parental Lines

The late parent may be given with hardening treatment to enhance the speed of germination
and the early parent may be given with pelleting treatment to delay the speed of germination.
2. Staggered Sowing
Based on the difference in duration of flowering of parental lines the early parent may be sown
late and late parent may be sown earlier in such a way that both flower at the same time (e.g.)
To achieve synchronized flowering of the parental lines and quick disposal of the produce,
sowing the parental lines from 15th November to 15th of January is most advantageous. The
flowering period should coincide with cool and low temperature for proper seed set. Under
Coimbatore conditions in south India, for CSH 5 the female parent (MS 2077 A) must be sown
10-15 days earlier to the male (CS 3541), for K tall MS 2219 A must be sown 3-5 days later to
IS 3541 and for CSH 6 the female parent MS 2219 A can be sown simultaneously. With CS
3541 and for CSH 9 the female parent MS 206 A must be sown 7-10 days earlier than male CS
3541 in November-December season.
3. Application of Nutrients
The urea at 1% conc. may be sprayed at primordial initiation stage (35–40 days) to the lagging
parent.
4. Irrigation Management
One irrigation is with-held to the late parent to make early flowering.
5. Chemical Spray
Malic hyrazide 500 ppm or CCC 300 ppm is sprayed to the advancing parent at 45th day.
6. Pre-Harvest Sanitation Spray

Spray carbendazim or carboxine for black mould attack or rain soaked earheads.
Roguing
Roguing should be done periodically to remove off types, pollen shedders, volunteer plants
based on the original characters explained by the breeder.
Weed Management
Apply the pre-emergence herbicide atrazine 50 WP - 500 g ha-1 on 3 days after sowing as spray
on the soil surface, using backpack/ knapsack / rocker sprayer fitted with a flat fan nozzle
using 900 lt of water ha-1 .
Sorghum is slow growing in early stages and is adversely affected by weed competition.
Therefore keep the field free of weeds upto 45 days. For this, after preemergence herbicide
application, one hand weeding on 30–35 days after sowing may be given.If pulse crop is to be
raised as an inter-crop in sorghum do not use atrazine.Hoe and hand weed on the 10th day of
transplanting if herbicides are not used. Hoe and weed between 30–35 days after transplanting
and between 35–40 days for a direct sown crop, if necessary.
Deficiency Symptoms
Zinc
Deficiency symptoms first appear in the newly formed leaves at 20 to 30 days age. Older
leaves have yellow streaks or chlorotic striping between veins.
Iron
Interveinal chlorosis will be observed. If the deficiency continues the entire leaf including the
veins may exhibit chlorotic symptoms. Newly formed leaves exhibit chlorotic symptoms. The
entire crop may exhibit bleached appearance, dry and may die.
Sorghum 61
Field Standards
Foundation Certified
Seed % seed %
Offtypes (max) 0.01 0.05
Pollen shedders (max) 0.05 0.10
Designated diseased plants
(max) 0.05 0.10
Irrigation
For increasing the seed set percentage the crop should be irrigated once in a week. The
primordial initiation, vegetative, milky and maturity stages are the critical stages for irrigation.
If irrigation is with-held in these stages, the seed set may be poor and the seed size will be
reduced.
Pest and Disease and Their Control

Shootfly
In nursery, spray any one of the following for an area of 120 sq.m., Endosulfan 35 EC 18 ml,
Demeton 25 EC 12 ml; Dimethoate 30 EC 12 ml. In main fields for direct sown crop, spray one
of the following per ha-1, Endosulfan 35 EC 500 ml, Demeton 25 EC 500 ml; Dimethoate 30 EC
500 ml (250 1t of spray fluid ha-1). Keeping 12 nos. of fish meal traps/ha effectively reduces the
damage.
Stem Borer
Mix any of the following insecticides with sand to make up a total quantity of 50 kg ha-1 and
apply in leaf whorls. Quinolphos 5 G 15 kg; Endosulfan 4 G 15 kg; Phorate 10 G 8 kg;
Carbofuran 3 G 17 kg; Carbaryl 4 G 20 kg, Carbaryl + Lindane (Sevidol) 4 G 20 Kg; Endosulfan
4 D 10 kg; Phosalone 4 D 10 kg; Fenthoate 2 D 5 kg or Endosulfan 35 EC 750 ml or Carbaryl
50 WP 1.00 (500 l spray fluid ha-1).
Mites
Spray 3.75 kg wettable sulphur or 1500 ml Dicofol per ha. Direct the spray fluid towards the
under surface of the leaves. ETL for sorghum mite = 5 mites/cm2 of leaf area. Designated
diseases 1. Kernal smut 2. Head smut.
Sugary Disease of Sorghum

It is specific for Hybrids. If A line is pollinated and fertilized, the ovule which is rich in sugar
will burst and oozes out sugar in drops. These drops will be attracted by pathogens, and
ultimately the earhead and its yield will be reduced. This can be controlled by spraying with
thiram 0.2% two times of boot leaf stage. Plants showing the symptoms of honey dew will
also to be removed and destroyed from the plots.
To control insects either monocrotophos or rogar (0.03%) can be sprayed initially. At later
stage, to prevent grain mould and earhead bug, endosulphan (0.07%) can be given even as
preharvest sanitation spray to avoid the primary infestation of storage insects. Addition of
Bavistin or vitavax to the insecticide at 10g/10 lit solution will enhance the protection to the
seed for safe storage.
Downy Mildew
Seed treatment with metalaxyl at 4 g kg-1 of seed. Rogue the infected plants upto 45 days after
sowing and spray metalaxyl 500 g or mancozeb 1 kg of ziram 1 kg or zineb 1 kg ha-1. Spray
mancozeb 1250 g ha-1 after noticing the symptoms of foliar diseases, for both transplanted and
direct sown crops.
Charcoal Rot
Treat the seeds of sorghum with Trichoderma viride @ 4g kg-1 of seed.
Harvesting
The seed attains physiological maturity at 40–45 days after 50% flowering where the seed
moisture is around 30%. The formation of dunken layer (black layer) on the seed serves as a
external symptom of physiological maturation. The earheads are harvested at harvestable maturity
stage where the moisture content is around 20–25%.
The male and female lines are to be harvested separately to avoid mixtures in later stages. The
male rows are to be harvested first and removed from the field and then the female rows are
harvested separately. Delay in harvest leads to mould attack and also amenable for field damage.
Ultimately the seed quality and yield will be reduced.
Threshing
At the time of threshing the seed moisture content should be reduced around 15-18%. Threshing
can be done by beating the earheads with bamboo sticks. While using the mechanical threshers,
care should be taken to avoid mechanical damage.
Drying
After threshing, the seed moisture content should be reduced to 8% either by drying directly
under the sun or with artificial seed dryers.
Processing
The sorghum seeds can be processed in OSAW cleaner cum grader using 9/64" round perforated
metal sieve as middle sieve.
Sorghum 63
Seed Standards
Standards Foundation seed Certified seed
1. Physical purity % (max) 98.0 98.0

2. Inert matter % (max) 2 2
3. Other crop seed (max) 5/kg 10kg-1
4. Weed seeds (max) 10kg-1 20 kg-1
5. Other distinguishable varieties (max) 10 kg-1 20 kg-1
6. Ergot disease (max) 0.020% 0.040%
7. Moisture content (max) (by number)
a. moisture pervious container 13.0 13.0
b. moisture vapour proof container 8.0 8.0
8. Germination % (min) 75 75
Seed Storage
The seeds are to be slurry treated with Thiram @ 2g kg-1 as pre-storage treatment.The treated
seed can be stored upto 12 months under open storage and upto 18 months in moisture vapour
proof containers, provided it is not infested by the storage insects.
Storage pests Rice weevil (Sitophilus oryzae) Treat the seeds with Monocrotophos or
Cholorpyriphos 4 ml kg-1 of seed.
Mid Storage Treatment

To upgrade the quality of seed during storage, the seeds are to be soaked in double the volume
of disodium hydrogen phosphate (3.6 mg/1 lt of water) solution for six hours and then dried
back to its original moisture content.
Future Thrust
1. Characterisation of released varieties and hybrids.
2. Differentiation of A1, A2, A3 and A4 cytosteriles through molecular markers
3. Diversification of male sterile lines.
4. Use of Apomictic lines to develop hybrids.
5
Finger Millet
(2n = 36)
Ragi - Eleusine coracana Gaertn.

Finger millet / Kezhvaragu / Keppai / Mutthair / Thamida / Nacheni / Mandal)
Finger millet is an important staple food in parts of East and Central Africa, and India, particularly
in Karnataka. It is used for malting and brewing.
Place of Origin
India. According to Krishnaswamy(1952) the cultivated species of E.coracana arose as a
allotetraploid from its wild relative E.indica. Asia and Africa are supposed to be place of origin.
The African types are having bolder grain.
Classification
The genus Eleusine consists of eleven species. Of these six are diploids and five are tetraploids.
Eleusine indica is a diploid with 2n = 18.
Eleusine coracana and E.africana are tetraploids (2n = 36)
Origin of Cultivated Species

E. indica is considered as one of the parent for the tetraploid E.africana. E.coracana were
mutants selected from of E. africana.
Finger Millet 65
E. indica.diploid (2n=18) × Closely related taxon

↓
Chromosome doubling
E.africana (2n =36)
↓ introgression
mutant
E.coracana (2n = 36) tetraploid
Hybridisation and introgression between E.coracana and E.africana continued and still continues
in the highlands of Tropical Africa.
Characters of Eleusine
Inflorescence is contracted into a number of digitate spikes of spikelet.
Spikelet consists of more than two florets subtended by two glumes.
Cultivated Types of Ragi

There are two cultivated types of ragi.
1.Indian ragi, E.coracana and 2.African ragi , E.africana.
African Ragi
It has long fingers, bold grain, stiff straw, photo sensitive and uneven grain maturity phase.
Indian Ragi
Short fingers, small grains, photo insensitive.
Wild Relatives
The genus Elevsine comprises of 11 species of which 6 are diploids and 5 are tetraploids
(2n = 36)
1. Eleusine indica,2. Eleusine oligostachya,3. E.tristachya,4. E. poranansis, 5. E.jaegeri,
6. E.flacifolia
(4n=72)
1. Eleusine coracana, 2. E.Africana,3. E.longipoides, 4. E.verticillata, 5. E.cagopoides,
Breeding Objectives
1. Evolution of 80 days duration ragi suitable for irrigated conditions.
2. Breeding short duration drought resistant varieties suitable for rainsfed conditions
3. Breeding for high protein white ragi varieties suitable for malt making.
4. Blast resistant varieties.

5. Breeding varieties for sodic soils and tannery effluent affected soils.
Breeding Techniques
1. Introduction
Indaf 5 Ragi from Karnataka.
2. By Selection
Pure line selection. Earlier varieties were all evolved by pure line selection.
Co7,Co11, Co12, Paiyur 1, TRY I.

The African types are with long fingers, bold grain with stiff straw. Further they are
photosensitive and have un even grain maturity. Because of this character they are not
recommended for cultivation in India. The Indian types are with short fingers, small grains and
photo insensitive. The African types are utilised in hybridization programme, to develop extra
long fingered varieties coupled with disease and drought resistance. The Indian African cross
derivatives are known as Indaf varieties which are interspecific.
Other State Varieties

e.g. Indaf 5 cauvery × IE 929
Indaf 9
Varieties
IS 1540 × EC 2985 Co6 white ragi
Co13 (Co7 × TAH 107) Co9 white ragi
Artificial induction of male sterility through use of gametocide, GA3, 2-4-D are being attempted.
T20 - mutant from AKP - 7.
6
Pearl Millet
Pennisetum glaucum (2n = 14)
(Cumbu, Bajra, Bulrush millet)

Place of Origin: West Africa.
Taxonomy : The genus pennisetum is having more than 140 species. Stapf (1954) has divided
the genus pennisetum in to five sections viz.,
1. Gymnothrix, 2. Eupennisetum, 3. Penicillaria, 4. Heterostachya, 5. Brevivalvula
The cultivated Pennisetum glaucum belongs to the section penicillaria.
Origin and Putative Parents

Stapf included 32 species is penicillaria. Of these 32 species found is Africa, six annuals are
considered wild and probable ancestors of the cultivated one. They are:
1. Pennisetum perottettii, 2. P. molllissimum, 3. P. violaceum, 4. P. versicolor, 5. P. adonense,
6. P. gymnothrix
The cultivated species of pennisetum is believed to have originated thro’ hybridization with in
these six species.
Floral Biology
It is a highly cross pollinated crop. The flowers are protogynous and aid in cross pollination.
Cumbu is a tall erect annual. Inflorescence is a contracted panicle/ fuciform panicle/false
spike, terminal, dense. The length and thickness of panicle varies with variety. The main
rachis bears numerous rachilla arranged spirally. The number of spikelet per rachila maybe 25.
Each spikelet contains two florets, with a short membranous outer glume (G1) and a longer
inner glume (G2). Lower floret usually male, consisting of an oblong pointed lemma (L1)
enclosing 3 stamens palea (P1) and lodicules absent; occasionally sterile, upper floret with a
broad pointed leathery lemma, which may be hairy or hairless at tip, a thin oval palea, 3
stamens with long filaments and bilobed, dorsifixed, versatile anthers, and ovary with 2 styles
jointed at base of the fruit (Caryopsis).
The spike emerges about 10 week after sowing, The styles begin to produce 2-3 days later
(Protogynous), first at the inflorescence and proceeds downwards over a period of 24 hours
and it takes two days to complete the entire spike. Exerted stigma remains receptive for 12-24
hours. Anthers usually emerge after the styles are dry. Emergence of anthers takes place in 2
distinct waves. The first wave involves bisexual florets (upper floret); the second wave
usually 2-3 days after the first wave from the staminate florets (lower floret). The anther
emergence starts from middle of the spike and proceeds upwards and downwards. Anthesis
occurs throughout the day and night with the peak between 8.00 p.m. to 2.00 a.m. The plant
is thus markedly protogynous and cross-pollination normally occurs.
Wild Species Utilised in Breeding

The other species in this section is P.purpureum a rhizomatus perennial having chromosome
number 2n = 28 cumbu napier hybrid = BN1
Tetraploid × Diploid - Triploid.
P. squamulatum (2n = 46) - Drought and cold resistant having apomictic line crossed with
P. glaucum to evolve superior cold resistant fodder.
P. orientale : used for transferring apomixis.
P. setaceum, P. violaceum : To transfer male sterile genes to P. glaucum
Inter Generic Crosses
Buffel grass Cenchrus ciliaris or Pennisetum ciliare utilised to cross with cumbu for fodder
improvement
Breeding Objectives
1. Breeding for High Grain Yield

To get high yields the following plant characters are necessary
a) More number of Tillers
b) Well filled, Compact, Long panicle.
c) Heavy grains.
d) Uniformity of ripening.
Under irrigated conditions photo insensitivity and early maturity are essential for multiple and
relay cropping.
Pearl Millet 69
2. Breeding for Improved Grain Quality

It can be achieved by incorporating yellow endosperm to improve vitamin A content or white
endosperm to improve protein content.
3. Breeding for Drought Tolerance

This can be achieved thro’ evolving lines having shorter duration so that they can escape
drought, lines with more adventitious roots, lines with high leaf water potential and high
chlorophyll stability index are to be evolved.

Downy mildew is the major disease. Ergot and smut comes next. Of late, rust at late stage is
also becoming a major problem. Lines having Local Bellary cytoplasm (732 A) are observed to
be downy mildew resistant.
5. Breeding for Alternate Source of Cytoplasm in Male Sterile Lines

Original Tift 23 A evolved at Tifton, Georgia is highly susceptible to downy mildew. Because
of this the HB series went out of cultivation. The indigenous 732 A obtained from Bellary is
resistant. Similarly L 111A of Ludhiana is also tolerant. A1, A2, A3 and A4 are there 732 A
belongs to A4 cytoplasm.
6. Breeding for Sweet Cumbu to have High Forage Value

The forage bajra must have following characters.
a) high sugar content in the stem juice
b) Increased leaf number with more breadth.
c) Digestibility.
In this connection, a short day plant with photo sensitiveness is preferred because they remain
in vegetative phase for longer periods. It is ideal to breed dwarf varieties with reduced stem
height
Wild Species Utilised

P. purpureum,P. squamulatum,P. orientale,P. ciliare
Methods of Breeding
1. Introduction
Hybrid bajra from Punjab. Tift 23 A from USA
2. Selection
Pure line selection: Co 2, Co 3,
Mass selection the earlier released variety Co5 is result of mass selection. The variety Co6 is
selection from Nigerian accession MS 7625 selected for high tillering, long panicle, dense seed
setting and bold seeds along with downy mildew resistance.

Interspecific hybridisation.
Pennisetum glaucum × P.purpureum
Bajra napier hybrids.
4. Heterosis Breeding : Hybrid Bajra

In earlier days before the identification of male sterile lines utilising the protogynous nature
hybrids were released. The hybrids were produced by sowing both parents in the ratio of 1:1.
X1, X2 , X3 are examples for this. In this case two hybrids are obtained.
After the discovery of cytoplasmic genic male sterile line Tift 23A by Burton in Tifton, Georgia
led to development of hybrids. Earlier hybrids of India viz., HB1, HB2 to HB5 were produced
utilising Tift 23 A. But due to susceptibility to downy mildew they went out of cultivation.
Even before the discovery of CGMS lines by Burton it was discovered by Madhava Menon
and his coworkers at Coimbatore. Unfortunately due to failure of publishing it was not
recognised.
To over come the problem of downy mildew male sterile lines L 111A and 732 A were isolated
and at present used in breeding programme.
X5 L111A × PT 1921
X6 732 A × PT 3095.
X 7 L111 A × PT 1890
NHB 3 - 5071 A × J 104
There are number of CMS lines developed by private agencies like Nath seeds, Mahyco,
Mahendra.
ICRISAT entry WCC 75 is an example for population improvement. This was developed from
world composite by recurrent selection method. It was developed from derivatives of numerous
crosses between diverse sources of germplasm and Nigerian early maturing land races known
as ‘Gero’ millets. Another example is ICMV 155 of ICRISAT.
6. Synthetic Varieties
Synthetics are produced by crossing in isolation a number of lines tested for their GCA. E.g.
ICMS 7703.
It is a result of crossing between 7 inbred lines of India x African crosses
Pearl Millet 71
At IARI Tift 23 A was gamma irradiated and 5071 A resistant to downy mildew was evolved.
With this the hybrid NHB 3 was evolved (5071 A × J 104)
Future Thrust
1. Collection of un exploited land races and exotics, building up of germ plasm and utilising
them.
2. Development of early maturing restorers with good combining ability.
3. Genetic and cytoplasmic diversification of male sterile lines.
4. Devising methodologies for wide hybridization and use of genetic engineering to evolve
disease resistant varieties.
Bajra Varieties
Composites
K3 Composite 85
Co 7 Composite 90
WCC 75 Composite 95
Hybrids
X6 732 A × PT 3090 90
X7 L111A × PT 1890 90
NHB 3 5071 A × J 104 90
SEED PRODUCTION

Varieties: By open pollination
Hybrids: (a) Tool employed - CGMS system, (b) Lines involved - A,B and R line
Stages of Seed Production

(1) Varieties: Breeder seed —> Foundation seed —> Certified seed
(2) Hybrids: Nucleus Seed Production - By ear to row method
BS - A multiplied with B
B and R multiplied under isolation
FS - A multiplied with B
R multiplied under isolation
CS - A and R are crossed to produce hybrid seed
Popular Hybrids/Varieties
Varieties / Hybrids Duration(days) Parentage Seed yield (Kg/ha)
WCC 75 95 - Rainfed - 2000

Irrigated - 3000
X7 90 LIIIA × PT1890 Irrigated - 3294
Rainfed - 2513
X6 90-100 732A × PT3095 Rainfed - 2394
Irrigated - 3236
X5 90-100 LIIIA × PT1921 -
KM 1 MS514117 × J104
KM 2 MS5141A × K560 D230
K3 85 - Rainfed - 800
Irrigated - 1100
Season
Rainfed / Irrigated Season Varieties / Hybrids
Irrigated (March - April) WCC 75, K 3 ,CO 7, X 6, X 7

(January - February) WCC 75, CO 7, X6, X 7
Rainfed (June-July) WCC 75, K 3, X 7, X 6, X7, K4HB
The best season is October -December. The pollination should not coincide with rain for
effective seed setting. The dry temperature favorable for seed setting is 37oC.
Land Requirement
It should be fertile problematic soils should be avoided. The previous crop should not be of the
same crop, if the variety is same, it is should have been certified by seed certification agency.
Isolation
Foundation seed Certified seed
Varieties 400 200

Hybrids 1000 200
Seeds and Sowing

Seed should be from authenticated source.Seed used should be of proper stage of seed in seed
multiplication programme (e.g.) FS for CS production. Seeds are sown in ridges and furrows
method.
Seed Rate
1. Varieties: 8 kg/ha
2. Hybrids :1. A line : 6 kg/ha
3. R line : 2 kg/ha
Pearl Millet 73
Spacing
1. Varieties: 45 × 20cm
2. Hybrids A line : 45 × 20cm, R line : 45 cm solid row
Removal of Ergot Affected Seeds and Sclerotia to Prevent Primary Infection

Dissolve 1 kg of common salt in 10 liters of water. Drop the seeds into the salt solution.Remove
the ergot and sclerotia affected seeds which will float.Wash seeds in fresh water 2 to 3 times
to remove the salt on the seeds.Dry the seeds in shade
Presowing Seed Management

Use graded seeds for sowing.Treat the seeds with three packets (600 g) of Azospirillum
inoculant.Treat the seed with Azospirillum or pellet the seed with arappu leaf powder.
Nursery Preparation
Apply phorate 10 G 180 gms or carbofuran 3G 600 gms mixed with 2 kg of moist sand,
spread on the beds and work into the top 2 cm of the soil to protect the seedlings from shootfly
infestation.
The seeds are sown in nursery and then are transplanted to mainfield at the age of 20-25 days.
Seeds are sown in lines, in raised bed nursery and are transplanted at seedling stage to mainfield.
Seeds can be treated with Metalaxyl @ 6g/kg to avoid the incidence of downy mildew.
Nursery Area
7.5 cents Apply 750 kgs of FYM or compost and incorporate by ploughing. Cover the seeds
with 500 kg of FYM.
Planting Ratio
At FS stage: 4:2
At CS stage : 6:2 (Even upto 16:2 the seed set will be proper)
(Winter season) October - December, the parental lines of Pusa 23 bajra can be raised in the
ratio of 8:2 for maximising hybrid seed production.
Border Rows
At FS stage : 4 (B line)
At CS stage : 8 (R line)
Main Field Preparation

The field is made to fine tilth and is formed into ridges and furrows. The seedlings can be
transplanted from nursery or on direct sowing, the extra seedling per hill can be pulled out and
transplanted at gaps at 20-25 days after sowing.To avoid shootfly infestation a propylactic
spray with rogar can be practiced one week after transplanting.

Compost: 12.5 ton/ha
NPK: 100 : 50 : 50 kg/ha
Basal: 50 : 50 : 50 N P K kg/ha
Top: 50 kg N/ha (30-35 days-tillering phase)
Foliar spray: DAP 1% solution is sprayed at peak flowering stage to enhance uniform flowering
and increased seed set.
Synchronisation of Flowering
The extent of synchronization problem between parents is comparatively less in cumbu than
sorghum and paddy due to the tillering habit of the crop. The pollen weight is less and flying
capacity is more in this crop. The pollen viability and stigma receptivity is also for longer
duration owing to these factors the nicking problem is less in this crop. But, for hybrids with
widely varying parents either staggered sowing, or urea application or DAP spray or withholding
of irrigation to late parent can be practiced.
Roguing
Roguing is done severely at 3 stages viz., seedling stage, tillering stage and grain formation
stage based on leaf colour, leaf waviness, grain colour, earhead shape, size etc. to maintain
genetic purity of the crop.
Field standard Maximum permitted (%)
FS CS
Off types 0.050 0.10
Pollen shedders 0.050 0.10
Downy mildew diseased plants 0.050 0.10
Ergotted ear heads 0.020 0.04
Jerking
This is done on 20-25 days after transplanting or 30-40 days after direct sowing. The
early formed earheads of the first tiller are pulled/removed so that physiological changes will
occur in plant and flowering of all the tillers will occur evenly.
Irrigation
Field is irrigated immediately after sowing and on 3rd day life irrigation is given. Then once
in 10 days irrigation has to be given. The critical stages for irrigation are tillering, milk stage
Pearl Millet 75
and maturation stage. Proper and adequate irrigation increase the seed set and yield of
quality seed.
Pests
Aphids, Jassids
Diseases
To control ergot disease carbendazim @ 500 gms/ac or Ziram 1000 ml or Manozeb 1 kg/ ac is
sprayed at 2 stages. First at 5-10% of population is in flowering phase and 2nd at 50% flowering
stage.
Downy Mildew
Growing downy mildew resistant varieties CO 7, WCC 75 is recommended. Transplanting
reduces disease incidence. At the time of planting infected seedling should be removed. In the
direct sown crop, infested plants should be removed upto 45 days after sowing as and when
the symptoms are noticed. Treat seeds with Metalaxyl at 6 g kg-1 followed by one spraying
with Metalaxyl 500 g or Ridomil MZ WP 2 kg ha-1 or Mancozeb 1 kg ha-1.
Harvesting
Seeds attain physiological maturation 30-35 days after 50% flowering. This stage coincides
with change of seed color from green to straw yellow and formation of dunken layer at the
point of attachment to the panicle. The moisture content of seed at this stage will be 30-
35%. Due to the tillering habit, the maturation of earhead may not be uniform, hence the
harvest can be done in 2 pickings to avoid the ill effects of delayed harvest, where seeds are
exposed to adverse environmental condition, which may invite fungal and insect activity.
Selection of 5 to 7 tillers for seed purpose is preferable.
Threshing
The earheads are dried for 2-3 days on the threshing floor. Threshing is done at a moisture
content of 15-18% either manually (stick beating) or mechanically (LCT thresher).
Processing
The seeds should be processed in OSAW cleaner cum grader using 4/64" round perforated
metal sieve as middle sieve one for obtaining uniformity in the sample. For WCC 75 alone 5/
64" round perforated metal sieve should be used as middle sieve.
Seed Standard
1. Physical purity (%) (min) 98 98

2. Inert matter (%) (max) 2 2
-1
3. Other crop seed (max) 20 kg 40 kg-1
4. Weed seeds (max) 10 kg-1 20 kg-1
5. Ergot affected seeds (max) 0.020 % 0.040 %
6 Germination % (min) 80 80
7. Moisture content (%) (max)
a. Moisture pervious 12 12
b. Moisture vapour proof 5 5
Seed Storage
The seeds can be stored upto 12 months on pre-storage seed treatment with Thiram @
4 gms kg-1. The seed can be stored upto 24 months if the seeds are stored in polyethylene
bags (700 gauge) and treated with Thiram.
Mid Storage Correction

Upgradation of seed quality during storage can be (at the time of reduction of germination
below certification standard) done by hydration dehydration treatment using double the
volume of Na2PO4 ( Di-sodium phosphate) 10-4 Molar solutions for 4 hours (36 mg / lt of
water). Dry the seeds to 8 percent moisture content, dry dress with Thiram or Captan
75% WP at 2 g kg-1 of seeds to maintain shelf life to 10 months, with minimum loss in
vigour and viability.
7
Fox Tail Millet
Setaria italica (2n = 18)
A. Floral Biology
Inflorescence is a spike, terminal, drooping. The spikelets are oval or eliptical in shape with
two to three bristles. The spikelets contain two flowers partially protected by two membranous
glumes. Lower floret with L1 and P1, sterile; upper floret with L2, P2, stamens three, styles
two, fruit a caryopsis.
B. Anthesis and Pollination

Flowering proceeds from the top downwards in the main panicle and similarly from the
tip down wards in each of the panicle branches. The stigmatic branches are the first to
emerge. The anthers after emergence start dehiscing by longitudinal slits from the top to
bottom the process taking about three minutes. Five to Ten minutes after the emergence
of the first anther, the other two are pushed out. After pollination the lodicules shrink and
the glumes begin to close. The time taken for an earhead to complete its flowering varies from
ten to fifteen days. From the third to sixth day to emergence a large number of flowers open.
There are two times of flowering during a day, one between 10 p.m. and 12 midnight and
other between 6 a.m. and 8 a.m. Self pollination is rule.
8
Kodo Millet
Paspalum scrobiculatum (2n = 40)
A. Anthesis and Pollination

The Spikelets are highly cleistogamous. Only 10-15% of Spikelets open under ambient condition.
Spikelets at the middle of spikes open first, gradually spread to either ends. Spikelets open
after midnight i.e. from 2.30 AM to 3.00 AM and continue till sunrise.
Barn Yard Millet

Echilinochloa colona (2n = 34, 48, 54, 72)
The spikelets are more or less crowded on the spike like branches of the panicle. The anthers
are purple in colour. Order of flowering is from tip to the bottom of panicle. The total flowering
period extends from 19-22 days. Anthesis - 5 AM to 10 AM. Self pollination is the general rule.
Varieties
Pureline selection - RAU 3
9
Proso Millet
Panicum miliaceum
Inflorescence is a drooping panicle. The spikelets contain two flower partially enclosed by
the glumes. The flowers open between 10AM to 12 noon. The spikelets open and close with
in 7 minutes. The anthesis begins from tip of the panicle and proceeds down wards.
Flowering completes within 7 to 10 days. Self pollination is the rule.
Varieties: Pure line selection - BR 7
Emasculation and crossing technique in small millets
Hand emasculation is tedious because of small sized florets. To over come this the Russian
method is followed. The principle in this method is to induce artificial flower opening by
increasing the temperature 1-20 C and immersing the panicle in normal cold water prevent
anther dehiscence but flowers will open.
Method
i) Select the panicle which first commenced flowering
ii) Remove the already opened florets
iii) Rub the selected panicle in between hands to increase the temperature by 1 to 20 oC for
two minutes.
iv) Immerse the panicle in cold water
v) The flowers will open but anthers will not dehisce
vi) Take out panicle from water and remove unopened flower
vii) From opened florets remove anthers
Pollination
1. Collect the panicle from male parent which are in the process of flowering. Shake the
panicle on the emasculated florets. Tie the male panicle to the emasculated female panicle.
Cover it with butter paper bag which was immersed in water. The water in butter paper bag
will maintain humidity.
Minor Millet Varieties
Co 4 Selection from Gujarat local 70 days.

Co 5 Co1 × A113/2 90 days.
Co 4 Pureline selection 75 days.
Co 1 Pureline selection 75 days.
Co 2 Selection from Ananthapur local 85 days.
Poriyu 2 Pure line selection 80 days
K1 Pure line selection 100 days.
Part–II
Pulses
The Pulse Crops in general give lower yields than the cereals. Pulses are rich in protein and it
takes more energy weight for weight to synthesise protein than carbohydrates. When you
compare the energy requirement of various metabolic pathways. one gram of glucose can give
rise to 0.8g of carbohydrate but on an average only about 0.5 g protein and even less of oil.
Further maintenance of nitrogen fixation in roots require prolonged use of photosynthate and
thus may reduce the energy available for storage in seeds. Other reasons for low yield are
1. Raised in submarginal lands.
2. Indeterminate growth habit.
3. Irregular flowering
4. Photosensitiveness.
The protein from pulses are incomplete. Legumes are good source of lysine, tryptophan and
threonine but are low in suphur containing amino acids methionine, cystine and cystene which
are adequate in cereals. So a mixture of cereals and pulses are recommended for food. Many
grain legumes contain toxic inhibitors which are removed while cooking.
Red Gram P- 82
Black Gram P- 92
Green Gram P-101
Soy Bean P-102
Cowpea P-105
10
Red Gram
(Arhar, Tur)
Pigeon pea: Cajanus cajan (2n = 22)

Place of Origin: Africa / Asia
Wild Species: Cajanus kerstingii
Related crossable genera : Rhynchosia
Putative Parent
The view is that cultivated cajanus arose from Atylosia. Atylosia lineata may be the progenitor
of cajanus. In Western ghats A.lineata and A.sericea are known to local people as ‘barn tur’
(wild tur) so also in West Bengal and orissa A.scaraboides and A.cajanifolia are known as wild
tur. The genus Atylosia has now been included in Cajanus.
Two botanicaly distinct varieties were described. Cajanus cajan var. bicolor (Arhar) perennial,
late maturing, large bushy plant bearing purple streaked yellow flower. The pods are dark
purple mostly cultivated in North India. Cajanus cajan var. flavus (Tur) short duration early
maturing. Color of standard petal yellow. Pods green, glabrous cultivated in South India.
But the above classification is no longer valid because there are number of intermediate forms
and it is hard to differentiate the varieties because of often cross pollination nature of the crop.
Floral Biology
Axillary or terminal raceme borne on long peduncle, The flowers are yellow or purple. Based
on the back of the standard petal colour, the variety is identified. Flowers are papilonaceous,
bracteolate, ,bracteolate, clayx five, gamosepalous, and corolla with keel petals free, stamens
(9+1) diadeplhous and didynamous, ovary superior with a few ovules. Fruit is a pod.
Red Gram 83
Anthesis usually occuars, between 8 a.m. to 5.00 p.m. Flowers may remain open from 6 to 68
hours. Fertilization occurs five hours after pollination. Red gram is an example for often cross
pollinated crop. The cross pollination occurs mainly due to bees and thrips. Pigeon pea is an
often cross pollinated crop where natural out crossing is recorded upto 40-70%.
Breeding Objectives
1. Evolution of long duration high yielding variety suitable for rainfed to replace the
local land races
SA1 - Released during 1940,Co6 - result of mutation breeding
2. To evolve short duration (105 days) varieties suitable for irrigated / mixed crop
with ground nut.
ICPL 87 – ICRISAT-Vamban 1 - 110 days.
3. Breeding for Bold Grain Type with Desirable Seed Coat Color
HY 3C long duration variety with dull white seed coat and bold grains.
4. Breeding for Vegetable Type

Hosur area - Green pods with bold seeds are used as substitute for green peas. Perennial types
like Attapadi local are used . BSRI is a perennial red gram whose green pods are used as
vegetable.
5.Breeding for Resistance to Pests

Heliothis is the major pest, Terminal cluster types are highly susceptible. All our varieties are
highly susceptible.
Sterility mosaic, root rot, blight are important diseases. Wild species Cajanus scaraboides,
C.lineata are having resistance.
7. Breeding for High Protein Content and Quality

Mean protein content 23%. The wild species have 27% to 29% Red seed coat contains more
polyphenol (Tannin) than white seed coat. So preference is towards white seed coat. Red grain
contains lesser amount of sulphur containing amino acid. When we increase protein content
there will be lesser amount of these amino acids. So care is to be taken to increase them.
8. Breeding High Yielding Perennial Redgram suitable for Bund Cropping

BSR 1, Attapadi selections
Breeding Methods
1. Introduction
e.g. Prabhat short duration variety from IARI, ICPL 87 from ICRISAT.
2. Pure line Selection

Earlier Breeding work was based on the assumption that Redgram is a self pollinated crop.
However it was later found to be often cross pollinated crop. SAI is a pure line selection from
Tirupathur local.

Inter Varietal: VBN 1 ( Prabath × NY 34) (T.12 × 102)
Inter Generic: C. cajanus × Cajanus lineata
C.cajanus × C. scaraboides are being attempted
4.Population Improvement
Using male sterile line and recurrent selection methods.
Two populations are used, one is seed parent and the other is pollen parent. The seed parent
must have one or two easily identifiable recessive character and the pollen parent more dominant
genes. The seed and pollen parents are sown in alternate rows so as to maximize natural cross
pollination.
The F1’s and selfed ones are identified in, So generation. The identified F1s are space planted
in the next generation S1. In S2 generation they are yield tested in 3 environments and best
ones are either recycled or taken to conventional breeding programme.
5.Mutation Breeding
Co2 - Chemical mutagenesis EMS, Co5 - Mutant of Co 1 gamma rays, Co6 - Mutant of SA 1
gamma rays.
Ms T 21 × ICPL 87109 CoRH 1
Ms Co 5 × ICPL 83027 CoRH 2
Red Gram Ideal Plant Type - long Duration

The genotype that have steady rate of growth and have a moderate harvest index.
High Seed Weight

Long pods
Red Gram 85
Increased number of pod bearing branches.
Short Duration
Dwarf in nature with erect branches having high dry matter production. High seed wt., long
pods, increased no of seeds / pod, less flower drop.
Red Gram Varieties

Varieties
Varieties Parentage Duration
SA 1 Pureline selection from Thirupattur local 160-180

Co 3 Mutant of Co1 90-95
Co 4 Pure line selection from gene pool 90-95
Co5 Mutant of Co 1 100-110
Co6 Mutant of SA 1 160-180
Vamban 1 (Prabath × NY 34) (T12 × 102) 95-100
APK 1 PLS from ICPL 8710 95-105
VBN2 ICPL 341 × BSR local 170-185
Hybrids
CoRH 1 Ms T 21 × ICPL 87109 110
CoRH 2 Ms Co 5 ×ICPL 83027 110
Hybrid Seed Production of CoRH. 1 Pigeonpea

In the exploitation of hybrid vigour for commercial cultivation, efficient production of hybrid
seed is essential for which a full knowledge of the various steps involved in hybrid seed
production is necessary to achieve the twin objectives of maximizing the hybrid seed production
and improvement in quality of hybrid seed.
For hybrid seed production, a ratio of 4:1 of male sterile pollen parent is adopted. Sufficient
isolation distance i.e., more than 200 metres for the hybrid seed production plot is needed.
There should not be any pigeonpea crop within a radius of 200 metres from the seed production
plot. Since the male sterility is maintained in heterozygous state following the test cross principle,
there would be fertile and sterile plants in the ratio 1:1 in the male sterile population. It is
therefore imperative to remove the male fertile plants in the male sterile population before
flower opening. The roguing should be done thoroughly to avoid contamination by the pollen
from any left out fertile plants.
Steps involved in Hybrid Seed Production

1.Selection of Site
(i) Fertile field with an irrigation source
(ii) Previous crop should not be pigeonpea
(iii) Isolation distance of 200 m from any other variety of pigeonpea.
2. Fertilizer
(i) Farm yard manure @ 20 cart loads per hectare
(ii) 25 Kg N + 50 Kg of P as basal application
3. Sowing
(i) The female and male parents are sown in the ratio of 4:1 with two border rows of
pollinator parent.
(ii) The pollen parent (ICPL 87109) should be sown one week after sowing the female
parent (MS T.21).
(iii) Row spacing of 45 cm.
(iv) Plant to plant spacing should be 15 cm.
(v) Dibble 2-3 seeds per hill for the female parent
(vi) Seed rate (per hectare) for 4:1 ratio 40 Kg of female parent, 5 kg of male parent.
(vii) Sowing should be done during first fortnight of June or first fortnight of December.
(viii) The whole plot should be bordered with sunflower to increase the bee activity to effect
cross pollination.
4. Irrigation
(i) First irrigation after sowing and a life irrigation 2-3 days after sowing.
(ii) Irrigate the plot at 7-10 days interval depending upon the moisture in the field
5.Rogueing
(a) Male sterile line or female Parent
(i) Remove the off type plants.
(ii) Remove the male fertile plants by examining the colour of the anthers (yellow) at the
time of first flower formation, one-day before flower opening.
(iii) Rogueing should be completed in 7-10 days time.
(iv) Remove the late flowering plants also.
(b) Male fertile line or Pollen Parent

(i) Rogue out off types.
(ii) Remove the immature pods set in the plants from time to time to induce continuous
flowering and to ensure pollen availability for a longer period.
Red Gram 87
6. Harvesting
Collect the pods from the female parent i.e., male sterile parent. This will give the hybrid seeds.
Production and Maintenance of Male Sterile Line

Genetic male sterility is utilized in hybrid seed production: In case of pigeonpea, the male
sterile line will segregate in 1:1 ratio of fertile to sterile. For the maintenance of the male sterile
population (to be raised under isolation), the male sterile plants have to be identified and tagged
and the fertile plants have to be retained without tagging. The male sterile lines will be pollinated
naturally by the pollen from the male fertile plants in the population through insect pollinators.
After maturity, the seeds from the tagged male sterile plants are collected and will be used for
producing male sterile lines again or for producing hybrid seeds.
The main difference between the hybrid seed production and the male sterile line maintenance
is, sterile during hybrid seed production the male fertile plants from the male population are to
be rogued off, while they are retained during male sterile line maintenance.
Method of Seed production

Varieties
Under Isolation, the crop is raised and by open pollination seeds are allowed to set. The
nucleus seed production is by ear to row method.
Season
June — August SA 1, CO 4, CO 5
September — November CO 5, COH1, COH 2
Summer (February - March) CO 5,COH 1, COH 2, SA1,CO 3, BSR 1
Hybrids
The tool employed for production of hybrid seed is by genetic male sterility system (GMS)
where male sterility is maintained in heterozygous stage following the test cross principle,
there would be fertile and sterile plants in the ratio of 1:1 in the male sterile population (female
plant).
Common Hybrids Female Male
ICPH8 MS prabhat DT ICPL 161

COPH1 MSP 21 ICPL 87109
COPH2 MS CO5 ICPL 83027
Land Requirement
The land selected should not have been grown with pigeon crop in the previous season. It
should be fertile with good irrigation facilities.
Isolation FS CS
Varieties 200 100
Hybrids 200 100
Seeds and Sowing

The parental lines either for foundation or certified seed production should be bought from an
authenticated source with tag and purchase bill.
Seed Rate Spacing

Varieties
Short duration 25 kg ha-1 45 × 30 cm
Long duration 10 kgha-1 90 × 30 cm
Hybrid : Male 5 kg/ha 45 × 20 cm
Female 30 kg/ha 45 × 10 cm
Male 5 kg/ha 45 × 20 cm
Female 40 kg/ha
Seed Treatment
Treat the seeds with carbendazim orThiram @ 2 g/kg of seed 24 hours before sowing (or)
with talc formulation of Trichorderma virdie @ 4 g/kg of seed (or) Psedomonos Fluorescens
@ 10 g/kg of seed. Bio control agents are compatible with biofertilizers. First treat the seeds
with bio control agents and then with Rhizobium. Fungicides and bio control agents are
incompatible.
Fungicide treated seeds should be again treated with a bacterial culture. Treat with Rhizobial
culture CC 1. There should be an interval of at least 24 hours after fungicidal treatment for
giving the bacterial culture treatment. For red lateritic soil rhizobial culture VPR 1 is
effective.
Three packets of Rhizobial culture are sufficient for treating seeds required for one ha. The
bacterial culture slurry may be prepared with rice kanji. Dry the bacterial culture treated seeds
in shade for 15 minutes before sowing.
Planting Ratio
The male and female seeds are sown in 1:4 ratio or 2:8 (COPH1) and 1:6 for COH2 for
maximization of yield. Sow 2 rows of male line all around the Field as Border Row.
Synchronization Treatment
1.The pollen parent ICPL 87109 should be sown one week after sowing the female parent
(MST 21).
Red Gram 89
2.The field should be bordered with sunflower to increase the seed yield.
Season
The optimum time for taking up hybrid seed production is first fortnight of June or first
fortnight of December.
Seed Production Stages

Varieties: Breeder seed —> Foundation seed —> Certified seed
Hybrids: BS : multiplication of A (female) and R (male) under isolation
FS: multiplication of A (female) and R (male) under isolation.
CS: A and R crossed to produce hybrid seed

Compost :12.5 t/ha
NPK :25:50:0 kg/ha
Basal :25:50:0 kg/ha
Supplementary Foliar Application

Spray 250 liter’s of aqueous solution containing urea, DAP, muriate of potash and potassium
sulphate at 10.0, 2.6, 1.75 and 1.4 kg respectively with the addition of succinic acid at 40 gm
and teepol at 120 ml per hectare on the 55th and 70th day after sowing. The spray application
should be made only in the afternoon.
NAA Application
Apply 40 ppm of NAA (40 mg/lit ) this may be advantageously mixed with urea and spray.
Irrigation
1st irrigation immediately after sowing and 2nd 2-3 days after sowing. Subsequent
irrigation 8-10 days interval.
Flower Opening
60 days after Sowing
Weed Management
i) Spray fluchloraline 1.5l/ha (or) Pendimethalin 21/ha 3 days after sowing mixed with 900 l of
water using backpack / knapsack / rocker sprayer using flat type of nozzle. Then irrigate the
field. Following this, one hand weeding may be given on 30–35 days after sowing. Pre emergence
of pendimethalin at 1 kg ai ha-1 followed by one hand weeding is also effective in controlling
weeds. If herbicide is not given two hand weedings on 15 and 35 days after sowing.
Pest Management
If sucking pests are noted, spray Methyl demeton 25 EC 500 ml or Dimethoate 30 EC 500 ml;
or Phosphomidon 85 250 ml/ha (250 lt spray fluid /ha).
Roguing
In male sterile line or female parent
1. Remove the off type plants
2. Remove the male fertile plant by examining the colour of the anthers (yellow) at the time
of 1st flower formation, one-day before flowering.
3. Rogue out at 7-10 days interval till completion of flowering.
4. Remove the late flowering and early flowering plants.
In Male Fertile Line or Pollen Parent

1. Rogue out off types 2. Remove the immature pods set in the plants from time to time to
induce continuous flowering and to ensure pollen availability for longer period.
Pollination
1. To supplement pollination 5-8 beehives may be arranged per ha
2. To have the availability of pollen from the male parent for a prolonged period, clip off
pods from the male parent. This will induce more flowering.
Preharvest Sanitation Spray

The pod borer attack and bruchid infestation starts from the field. To avoid this 3 sprays at 10
days interval should be given on 3-5 days before harvest. The chemical recommended is
endosulphan or Malathion (0.07%).
Harvesting
The crop attained physiological maturity 32 and 38 days after anthesis in winter and summer
respectively. To avoid field exposure, matured pods should be harvested in 2-3 pickings.
In hybrids male line should be harvested first and female line should be harvested later on.
Processing
The seeds are to be graded using 10/64" ( B.S.S 5 × 5 ) round perforated metal sieve for
varieties and 12/64" (B.S.S. 6 × 6) for hybrids in OSAW seed cleaner cum grader for obtaining
uniform sized seeds. The seed deviate from original tan colour also to be removed. Rain at the
time of harvest may enhance the occurrence of off coloured seed and result in dimbled seeds.
These seeds are to be removed.
Red Gram 91
Seed Standards
Characters FS CS
1. Physical purity % (max ) 98 98
2. Inert matter % (max) 2 2
3. Other crop seed 5/kg 10/kg
4. Weed seeds 5/kg 10/kg
5. Other distinguishable varieties 10/kg 20/kg
6. Germination (%) (min) 75 75
7. Seed moisture content (%) (max)
a. Pervious container 9.0 9.0
b. Vapour proof container 8.0 8.0
Seed Storage
The seeds devoid of bruchid infestation can be stored upto one year under ambient storage and
upto 15 months under 700 gauge polyethylene bags.(700 gauge thickness) Seed can be mixed
with leaf powders of arappu, neem, notchi leaf powder, and fruit rind powder of sepindus
laurifolius and accacia concinna (soap nut powder) in 1:100 ratio for dual purpose storage.
Seed can also be mixed with activated clay in 1:100 ratio to avoid bruchid infestation.
11
Black Gram(Urd, Ulundu)
Vigna mungo (2n = 22, 24)
Place of Origin: India
Putative Parents
V. trinerivus / V. sublobata or V.mungo var. sylvestris.
Breeding Objectives
1. Evolving medium duration high yielding varieties for dry land cultivation. CO5 black
gram. Suitable for dry land cultivation.
2. Evolving short duration high yielding varieties suitable for irrigated conditions. This can
be used as mixed crop in cotton, turmeric Short duration varieties are CO2, Vamban 1,
2 and 3.
3. Evolving short duration varieties suitable for rice follow condition e.g ADT 3.
4. Breeding Varieties Resistant to Diseases. YMV is a serious disease. Leaf crinkle virus,
powdery mildew. VBN 1, Karaikal, BDN 1, VBN 2, VBN 3 - resistant to YMV.
5. Pest: White fly vector for YMV and leaf crinkle, leaf eating caterpillar
6. Breeding for Better Quality: 24% protein. There are lines having 27% protein. These can
be utilised Quality of black gram is determined by
a) Protein content, b) Methionine content 1.17%, c) cooking quality – Time, d) % of
hard seeds. e) Dhall recovery 70%
Floral Biology
Blackgram belongs to leguminaceae and is highly self-pollinated. The extend of cross
pollination is upto 5-10%. An auxiliary raceme that may be branched with clusters of 5-6
Black Gram 93
flowers on a short but later elongates peduncle. Flowers small, yellow and clustered at the top
of the peduncle. Flowers bracteate, braceolate, pedicellate, bisexual, hypogynous, zygomorphic,
complete, petamerous, gamosepalous, imbricate, corolla, papilionaceious. Keel petal sprially
coiled. Stamen 10 (9+1) diadelphous, didynamous, ovary superior unilocular with few ovules.
Flowers start opening early in the morning and are completely open between 7 to 8 a.m. The
anthers begin to shed pollen in the previous day evening before the flowers open and
anthesis is complete before mid-night. Self pollination is the rule.
Breeding Methods
1. Introduction :e.g. T.9 from U.P.
2. Pure line Selection : Co3 - Alangudi local,Co5 - musiri local
a) Intervarietial
KM 2 (Derivative from T9 × L.64),TMV 1 - Derivative from Midhiulundu × KM1, ADT 4-29
× AD 2 × 6114
VBN 3 - LBG 402 × LBG 17.
b) Inter Specific
Vigna mungo × V.mungo var.sylvestris - Pant nagar. YMV resistant lines obtained. But pod
shatters. More number of Back crosses suggested.
Vigna mungo × V.radiata for increasing pod length, digestibility. Sterility is the main problem.
Few plants obtained revert back to parental form.
4) Mutation Breeding
Variety Co4 - derived from Co1 by EMS treatment
5) Embryo Rescue: Attempted in inter specific crosses.
Ideal Plant Type

For irrigated and Rice fallows
Determinate type, short duration, high dry matter producing with 30cm plant ht. Photo insensitive,
for rainfed condition. Semi determinate with pod setting from base of the main stem; higher
pod length and more number of seeds/pod.
Black Gram Varieties

Varities
Co 4 Mutant of Co 1 70
Co 5 Pure line selection from Mustri Local 70-75
KM 2 Derivative from T 9 × L. 64 60-65
VBN 1 KM 1 × H 76-1 60-65
T9 Pure line selection 65-70
ADT 2 Derivative from Thirunelveli Local × ADT 1 70-75
ADT 3 Pure line selection from Thriunelveli Local 70-75
TMV 1 Derivative from Midhiulundu × KM 1 65-70
ADT 4 29/ ADT 2/Plant 6114 60-65
ADT 5 Pure line selection Kanpur variety 62
VBN 2 Reselection from T 9 70
VBN 3 LBG 402 × LBG 17 70

Varieties:The crop is raised under isolation and by self-pollination the seeds are allowed to set.
Popular Varieties
Blackgram: CO4, CO5, VBN1, ADT2, ADT3.
Stages of Multiplication : Breeder seed —> Foundation seed —> Certified seed
Season
June to August CO 4, KM 2, T 9, VBN 1, VBN 2, KM 2, TMV 1, CO 5,
Sep-November CO 5, KM 2, VBN 1, K1, VBN 2
Summer (February - March) KM 2, TMV 1, ADT 5, CO 5, T 9, CO 4
Blackgram Parentage Duration (days)
CO 4 Mutant of CO1 70
KM2 Derivative of T9 × L 64 60-65
VBN 1 KM 1 × H 76-1 60-65
Land Requirement
The land should be fertile and it should be prepared to fine tilth. Land should be free from
volunteer plants.
Isolation (m) FS CS
Field of other varieties 10 5
Field of same variety not confirming to 10 5
verietal purity requirements for certification
Black Gram 95
Seed and Sowing

The seeds should be selected from authenticated source and correct stage of seed should be
used for selected seed production. The off colour seeds should be removed from normal
coloured, since they record lower germination. Only graded seed should be used.
In blackgram the hard seed percentage may exceed to 10% at a time. At that time seeds should
be scarified with commercial sulphuric acid for 2 minutes and should be washed thoroughly
and used for sowing.
If field is infected with Macrophomina sp. the seeds are to treated with Trichoderma sp. @ 4
g kg-1 or Pseudomonos fluorescence @10 g/kg of seed. The seeds has to be treated with
fungicide (Thiram @ 2.5 g kg-1) and insecticide (Carbaryl @ 200 mg Kg-1) before sowing for
early protection against diseases and insects.
The seeds should be treated with 3 packets of multi strain Rhizobium culture /ha of seeds to
facilitate natural nitrogen fixation by the plants.
In dryland sowing, the seeds can be soaked in 1/3 volume of 100 ppm of ferrous sulphate
(Blackgram) or ZnSO4 (Greengram) and should be dried back to original moisture content by
shade drying.
Spacing
Blackgram 25 × 15 cm, Greengram 30 × 15 cm
Season
The seeds should be dibbled 3-4 cm depth at the side of the ridges. It can be grown in all 3
seasons but June-July is the best season. But sowing should be taken up in such a way that
maturation period does not coincide with rain, which will increase the off coloured seed per cent
in the seed lot. In summer production, hard seed content will increase compared to other seasons.

Compost: 12.5 kg/ha
Total: 25 : 50 : 0 NPK kg/ha
Basal: 25 : 50 : 0 NPK kg/ha
Foliar spray : With micronutrients on 25th and 40th DAS.
Composition of Micronutrients Mixture
Chemical Blackgram Greengram
Urea 7.5 kg 7.5-10.0 kg
DAP 1.95 kg 1.95-2.6 kg
K2O 1.31 kg 1.31-1.75 kg
K2So4 1.05 kg 50 g
Succinic acid 40 g 50 g
Teepol 125 ml 125 ml
These composition was diluted in 250 liter of water and given as spray to the crop at 25 and 40
days after sowing.
Water Management
Irrigate at the time of sowing followed by life irrigation on 3rd day. Irrigate at intervals of
10-15 days depending upon soil moisture and climatic conditions. Apply KCl at 0.5 % as foliar
spray during vegetative stage if there is a moisture stress.
Weed Management
Spray fluchloraline 1.5 lt/ha (or) Pendimethalin 2 1/ha 3 days after sowing mixed with 900 l
of water using backpack / knapsack / rocker sprayer using flat type of nozzle. After this one
hand weeding on 30–35 days after sowing gives weed free environment throughout the crop
period. If herbicide is not given two hand weedings on 15 and 30 days after sowing.
Pest Management
Apply any of the following insecticides at 25 kg/ha. Endosulfan 4% D; Quinolphos 1.5% D;
Phosalone 4% D and Carbaryl 5% D or spray per ha Endosulfar 35 EC 1.0 l or Monocrotophos
36 WSC 500 ml, (Spray fluid 500 lt/ha).
Disease Management
Apply any one of the following fungicide when the symptom of disease reaches grade 3.
1. Powdery mildew : Carbendazim 250 g or Wettable sulphur 2.5 kg/ha.
2. Rust : Mancozeb 1 kg or wettable sulphut 2.5 kg/ha.
3. Leaf Spot : Carbendazim 250 g/ha.
4. Tip Blight : Carbendazim 250 g/ha.
5. Yellow mosaic: Leaf curia and leaf Crinkle : Pull out and destroy plants infected in the
early stage of growth (up to 30 days) and spray any one of the following insecticides
after the appearance of the disease.
Monocrotophos 500 ml/ha, Methyl demeton 500 ml/ha and repeat after 15 days, if
necessary. For seed crop, the plants affected by leaf crinkle should be periodically
removed upto 45 days after sowing since the leaf crinkle virus is seed borne.
6. Root Rot: Treat the seeds with talc formulation of Trichoderma vridie @ 4 g/kg seed or
Pseudomonos fluoroscencs @ 10 g/kg seed.
Biocontrol agents are compatible with biofertilizers. First treat the seed with biocontrol agents
and then with Rhizobium. Fungicides and bio control agents are incompatible.
Spot Drench Carbendazim 1 g/lit or soil application of Pseudomonos fluorescens @ 2.5kg/ha
mixed with 50 kg of well decomposed FYM / sand at 30 days after sowing. Seed and Soil
application of Trichoderma virdie and Pseudomonos fluorescens. Apply neem cake @ 150 kg/
ha basely to reduce root rot and also to have nematostatic action against cyst nematode.
Black Gram 97
Roguing
It should be done from vegetative phase to reproduction phase, based on leaf colour, Plant
stature, leaf shape, pod colour, flower colour, and seed colour.In addition to the off types the
pest affected and mosaic plants should be removed.
Field Standards
Factor Maximum permitted %
FS CS
1. Off types 0.10 0.20
2. Plants affected by seed borne disease 0.10 0.20
Pest and Disease

Pests: Aphid, Whitefly, Jacid, Pod Borer.
Disease : Mosaic, leaf crinkle virus, Blight.
To control the yellow mosaic leaf curl and leaf crinkle virus affected plants, pull out and
destroy the plants exhibiting symptoms of virus diseases in the early stages of Growth (upto
30 days) and spray monocrotophos 500 ml ha-1 after the appearance of the disease. The
affected plants should be removed upto 45 days after sowing since the Virus is Seed Borne.
Irrigation
The crop should be irrigated immediately after sowing and the life irrigation is given on third
day. Subsequently irrigate the crop once in 10–15 day depending upon soil and climatic conditions.
The flowering and pod formation stages are critical periods of irrigation. Water stagnation
should be avoided at all stages.
Weed Management
Fluchloralin 1.5 lit/ha or pendimethalin 2.0 lit/ha can be sprayed as pre-emergence, 3 days
after sowing. It should be followed with one hand weeding on 30 days after sowing. If
herbicide is not applied 2 weedings on 15 and 30 days after sowing is recommended.
Pre-Harvest Sanitation Spray

To avoid bruchid infestation in the storage, crop should be sprayed with Endosulphon 0.07%
for 3 times at 10 days interval before harvest. Seeds attain physiological maturation 30 days
after 50% flowering. Where the colour of the pod is black and brown respectively in blackgram
and greengram. The pod moisture content at this stage will be 17-18%.
Processing
The pods are dried to 12-13% moisture content are thrashed and precleaned. The seeds should
be size graded using BSS 7 x 7 wire mesh sieve for homogenising the seed lot.
Seed Treatment
The graded seeds can be further dried to 7-8% moisture content and treated with chemicals
mentioned in the order of preference. Thiram 75% WDP and 75 g and Carbaryl 7.5 g dissolved
in 500 ml of water quintal of seed or activated clay in 1:100 ratio is dry dressed. The clay
should be free of acid and completely dried one.
Seed Standards
Characters FS CS
Physical purity (Max) % 98 98

Inert matter (Min) % 2 2
Other crop seed (Max) 5/kg 10/kg
Weed seed (Max) 5/kg 10/kg
Germination (%) (Min) 75 75
Moisture content
i) Open storage (Max) 9 9
ii) Vapour proof containers 8 8
Storage
Grain: Dry the Seeds adequately to reduce moisture level to 8%.
Seed: Admix 1 kg of activated Kaolin or Malathion 5% D for every 100 kg. Pack in polythene
lined gunny bags for storage. Neem seed kernel powder 3% effetively control the infestation
of storage pest, Bruchid beetle.
12
Green Gram (Mung Bean)
vigna radiata (2n = 22)
It is esteemed as the most wholesome among the pulses, free from the heaviness and tendency
to cause flatulence, which is associated with other pulses.
Place of origin: India, Wild relative: Vigna radiata var. sublobata
Breeding Objective
1. High yield, Medium duration Dry land Varieties: Co1 long duration, indeterminate
plant habit.
2. High Yielding, Short Duration Irrigated Varieties: Lines having rapid growth rate or
dry matter increase associated with high harvest index. They must give high biological
yield and productive racemes Co2.
3. Breeding for Green Gram Follows
ADT 2, ADT 3
4. Breeding for Disease Resistance: YMV, Leaf crinkle virus-Tarai local Lm 214 - resistant
a) Mung bean has highest digestibility among grain legumes from 83 to 90%. Varieties
having bold seeds to use as sprouts is the aim.
b) Transfer of high methionine content from black gram to green gram.
c) High dhall recovery – 80% and more
d) Less hard seed.
Breeding Methods
1. Introduction - Pusa baisaki
2. Pure line selection - Co1
3. Hybridisation and selection
Inter Varietal: ADT 1, ADT 2, Co 5, VBN 1
Inter specific: To transfer high methionine content from black gram to green gram. Green
gram × V.umbellata rice bean to transfer resistance to bean fly crossing with V.radiata var.
sublobata resistance to bruchids
Co4 - mutant of Co1
5. Embryo Culture
Green gram × Black gram
Ideal Plant Type

1. 60–65 days duration with determinate habit for irrigated conditions
2. 80 days duration with indeterminate type for dry land condition
Plants with more pods and seeds, increased branches poding from base of main stem with
synchronised maturity non - shattering habit.
Green Gram Varieties

Varieties
Paiyur 1 Pure line Selection from DPT 703 85-90
ADT 2 AB-33 x ADT 1 70-75
ADT 3 Hybrid derivative H 70-16 / Rajemdran / G 65 66
Co 4 Mutant of Co 1 85
KM 2 Hybrid derivative of No. 127 x S.9 65-70
VBN 1 Hybrid derivative of S.8 x PIMS 3 65
Co 5 Hybrid derivative of KM 2 x MG 50.10 (G) 70-75
K1 Co 4 x ML 65 70
Co6 WGG 37 x Co 5 65
Greengram: CO5, CO4, KM2, Paiyur I, VBN 1.
Season Varieties
June to August CO 4, KM 2, VBN 1, CO 5, Paiyur 1
Sep- November CO 4, KM 2, VBN 1, CO 5, Paiyur 1, K1
Summer (February - March) CO 4,KM 2, Paiyur 1.
13
Horse Gram
Macrotylema uniflorum (2n = 24)
Place of Origin: Hindustan centre

Putative Parent: Not known
Breeding Objectives
1. Increased yield
Co1 Mudukalathur local
2. Non-Photo sensitive, short duration varieties
3. Varieties with low trypsin inhibitors
Methods of Breeding
1. Introduction
HPK varieties from Himachal Pradesh.
2. Pure line Selection

Co1 from Mudukalathur local.
Paiyur 1 from Mettur local.

a) Intervarietal
b) Interspecific Dolichos lab lab x M.biflorum
Crossable
14
Soy Bean
Glycine max (2n = 40)
Place of origin: China

Probable ancestors: Glysine usuriensis
Slender, viny plant with small seeds grows wild is Japan, Manchuria and korea. It is considered
to be the progenitor for G.max Another view is that G.max arose form natural hybridization
between G.usuriensis and G.tomentella which grows wild in china. A fourth species Glycine
gracilis is intermediate between G.max and G.usuriensis. Cultivated types of G.gracilis are
found in Manchuria. All the above species are crossable with each other. Many other species
in Glycine have been identified but the exact classification of most of them is still in doubt.
Floral Biology
Flowers: small born on short auxillary condensed raceme bearing 3-25 flowers. Flower
white or violet purple with a papilionaceous corolla. Stamens 10, moadelphaous, ovary many
ovules, short style, incurved, congigate stigma. The stamens develop a tube around the pistil
and pollen from the anther is shed directly on the stigma. So soybean is self-pollinated crop.
Flower opens early in the morning. The pollen is shed normally shortly before or after the
flower opens. But pollen shedding may occur sometimes within the bud itself. Normally cross-
pollination does not exceed 1 per cent.Soybean is a highly self pollinated crop but Cowpea
though it is a self pollinated the extend of cross pollination is upto 15-20%. On insect activity
the extend of insect pollination will be higher. Both crop belongs to the family leguminoceae.
Breeding Objectives
1. Breeding for Short Duration High Yielding Varieties
The yield of soy bean plant is determined by size, number of seeds per pod and number or
Soy Bean 103
pods/plant. The number of pods/ plant is determined by no of nodes/plant, number of pods/

node. Each of the above components of yield are polygeneic in inheritance and so it is complex.
The duration is also determined by multiple genes. Maturity is correlated with height or the
plant. Early varieties will be short is stature.
2. Breeding Varieties Suitable for Rice Follows

Short plants 65 -70 days duration. Suitable for inter cropping also in banana and sugarcane.

a) Seed color and quality
b) Oil content and quality
c) Protein content
e) Seed coat color
May be yellow, green black, brown or combination of all the above colours. For oil extraction
yellow color is preferred because of high oil content where as black seeded varieties are low in
oil content but high is protein content. Seed coat color other than yellow will give unattractive
oil cake which is not preferred.
a) Oil content and quality

Oil content greatly determined by environment: Yellow seed coat varieties are rich in oil. Complex
character determined by poly genes.
b) Protein content and quality

Ranges from 35 to 50% protein content is negatively correlated with oil content so white
breeding for high protein content a compromise is to be made.
4. Breeding for Vegetable Type

AVRDC, Taiwan has evolved vegetable types
5. Breeding for forage type of Soybean

6. Breeding for non-shattering Type
e.g. Lee, Co2
7. Breeding for YMV resistant lines

Co2
Breeding Methods
1. Introduction
Ec 39821 from Taiwan - released as Co1
2. Pure line selection

Co1

Clark, Co 2 (AS 335 × UGM 21)YMV tolerance
Varieties
Co 1 – Pure line selection from EC 39821, Co 2 - (AS 335 × UGM 21), ADT 1 – Selection
from HILL.
15
Cowpea
Vigna unguiculata (2n = 22)
Putative Parent
Wild sub species V.unguiculate SSP. dekindtiana or SSP. menensis
Classification
According to Faris 1965 three subspecies are recognised.
1. Vigna unguiculata subsp. unguiculata (Syn V.u. subsp. catjang) - grain cowpea : Primitive
of all cowpea types. Pods 8 to 13cm long. Neither flabby nor inflated. Pods remain
erect at maturity.
2. V.unguiculata subsp. sinensis - Grain type cowpea. Pod length 20 to 30 cm. Pods are
not inflated. Pods fibrous when green. The stature of pods are pendent when matured.
Seed size medium 6-9 mm. Seeds are closely packed in the pod.
3. V.unguiculata subsp. sesquipedalis - Yard long bean - vegetable cowpea: Pod size may
be 30 to 100 cm, pendent. No fibre content is geeen pods. Seeds are sparsely arranged,
kidney shaped and usually double coloured. Pods inflated when green, shriveled on
drying.
Floral Biology
Auxillary raceme that may be branched with clusters of 5-6 flowers on a short but later
elongates peduncle. Flowers small, yellow and clustered at the top of the peduncle. Flowers
bracteate, bracteolate, pedicellate, bisexuall, hypogynous, zygomorphic, complete, pentamerous,
gamosepalous, imbricate, coroola papilionaceious, Keel petal spirally coiled, stamen 10 (9+1)
diadelphous, didynamous, ovary superior unilocualr with few ovules.
A High rate of Flower occurs in this crop. Normally a cowpea plant produces 100-500 flowers
of which 70 to 80% shed before anthesis in the remaining about half of them abort prematurely.
Under conditions flowers open between 7.00 a.m. to 9.00 a.m. The time of dehiscence of
anthers is from 10.00 a.m to 12.45 p.m. The dehiscence taken place before flower opening.
Distinguishing Feature
(i) Kidney shaped seed
(ii) White hilum surrounded by brown or black ring.
(iii) Pubescant througout plant body.
Breeding Objectives
1. Breeding for Medium Duration high Yielding Varieties for dry land Conditions
Co1 old variety resistance to YMV. Indeterminate Plant habit.
Co4 - 85 days duration. Seed colour mottled
C 152 - 85 days, buff color seed.
2. Breeding for Short Duration varieties Suited for Irrigated and Mixed Cropping
Conditions
Pusa do fasli - Short duration variety
Co6 - 70 days durations.
3. Breeding for Vegetable Cowpea

Co 2 - (C 521 × C 419), VBN 2 Selection from IT 81-D-1228-1 mottled seed.

Aphid borne mosaic virus - Co6 - (Ms 9804 × C 152)
Cercospora leaf spot,Fusarium wilt, YMV - Co1 resistant.
5. Breeding for Pest Resistance

Leaf hopper - Antibiosis and tolerance,Aphids - Antibiosis and tolerance,Pod borer - Antibiosis
6. Breeding for Forage Cowpea

Var. Co5 from Co 1 by gamma irradiation
Breeding Methods
1. Introduction
Iron cowpea, Russian giant
Cowpea 107
2. Selection
PLS cowpea Co1 is PLS from C 57 a local collection from Shirgali

a) Intervarietal: Co6 (Ms 9804 × C 152), Co2 ( C 521 × C 419)
b) Interspecific
V.u × V.vexillata - (having tuberous roots which is edible), V.u × V.umbellata.
Co5 Forage cowpea
5. Embryo Rescue Technique

For inter-specific crosses.
Ideal Plant Type

Short duration: Determinate plant with high harvest index The branching must be erect. Flower
drop to be minimum. Bushy plants are ideal
Long duration types.
Indeterminate plant habit with steady growth rate.
Cowpea Varieties
CO2 Hybrid derivative (C 521 × C 419) 90

CO 3 Pureline from C 152 Vegetable type 80
CO 4 Selection from Russian Giant 85
KM 1 Hybrid derivative (JC 5 × Dofasli) 60-65
Paiyur 1 Selection from VM 16 90
CO 6 MS 9804 × C152 65-70
CO 5 Mutant of CO 1 100
Forage Cowpea

The varieties are raised under isolation and by thorough roguing genetically pure seeds are
produced.
Seeds Multiplication stages
Breeder seed → Foundation seed → Certified seed
Varieties
Cowpea: CO1, CO2, CO3, CO4, CO6, C152, K M 1 Vamban 1, Vamban 2, Paiyur 1.
Soybean: CO1, CO2, ADT 1.
Land Requirement
The land should be fertile and should not have been grown with the same crop in the previous
season. If grown, it should be the same variety which was certified for the said class of seed.
Foundation Certified
Isolation(m) Cowpea 10 5
Soybean 3 3
Season
June-July and September - October. But there should not be rain or high humidity at the time
of harvest.
Seeds and Sowing

Seed should be obtained from authenticated source with tag and bill. The seeds are to be
treated with fungicides (capton 2 gm Kg-1) for better germination and establishment. Before
sowing seeds are to be treated with Rhizobium culture.
Seed rate Spacing
Cowpea : 20Kg ha-1 45×20 cm

Soybean : 80Kg ha-1 30×10 cm

Compost: 12.5tons ha-1
Cowpea: 25:50:0 NPK Kg ha-1
Soybean: 80:80:160 NPK kg ha-1
40 Kg N as Top dressing at flowering stage.
Foliar spray: 2% DAP at initiation of flowering and 15 days after the 1st spray. Spray Planofix
40 ppm together.
Pest and Diseases

Soybean: To control white fly spray methyl demeton 25 E.C. 500ml ha-1 or phosphomidon 86
EC @ 500ml ha-1 or Dimethoate 30 EC 500ml ha-1
Plant protection
(i) To control pod borer spray any one of the following insecticides. Carbaryl 5% 0.25Kg
Cowpea 109
ha-1 or Phasalone 4% 0.25 Kg ha-1 or Endosulphan 4% 0.25kg ha-1 or Quinolphos 1.5%

0.25 Kg ha-1 or Monocrotophos 0.04% 625ml ha-1.
(ii) To control yellow mosaic, pull out the plants and burn them.
Roguing
The off types and volunteer plants are to be removed as and when they occur from vegetative
to harvesting stage based on leaf colour, stem colour, growth status, flower colour, pod colour,
seed colour etc.
Field Standards FS CS
Offtypes (%) 0.10 0.50
Irrigation
Irrigation is given immediately after sowing. Life irrigation is given on 3rd day after sowing.
Subsequently the field is irrigated once in 7-10 days. Critical stages are flowering and pod
filling stage.
Important Operations
In Cowpea the tendril are to be clipped off (pinching) for good seed setting. Spraying of
NAA 40 PPM at flower initiation and at peak flowering stage will promote pod and seed
setting.
Pre-Harvest Sanitation Spray

Two weeks before harvest endosulfan0.07% should be sprayed twice at weekly interval to
control pod borer and primary infestation of Bruchids.
Harvesting
Cowpea : Due to continuous flowering habit the pod setting will be continuous. Seed attains
physiological maturation 27-30 days after sowing. The pods are harvested in picking which
are 4-5 in number. Once over harvesting leads to shattering of seeds. The pods at maturation
will be straw yellow in colour.
Soybean :Seed attains maturity 23-25 days after anthesis. The crop is harvested as once over
harvest with pods intact with plant. Yellowing of plant and browning of pods is the external
symptoms of physiological maturation.
Threshing
The pods of (Cowpea) and whole plants of Soybean are dried in the threshing floor and beaten
with pliable bamboo sticks for removal of seeds. The extracted seeds are winnowed to get the
seeds. The seeds should be dried to 10-12% moisture content under sun for good seed
storage.
Grading
The bulk seeds are graded using 14/64" and 10/64" round perforated metal sieve for soybean
and cowpea, respectively for homogenising the seed based on size. In cowpea for C02 alone
12/64" round perforated sieve is to be selected.
Seed Standards
The graded seed should possess the following characters for certification and sale as certified/
truthfully labeled seed
Parameter Cowpea Soybean
FS CS FS CS
Physical purity (min) % 98 98 98 98

Inert matter (max) % 2 2 2 2
Other crop seed (max) None 10/kg None 10/kg
Weed Seed (max) None 10/kg 5/kg 10/kg
Other distinguishable 5/kg 10/kg 5/kg 10/kg
variety seed (max)
Germination (max) 75 75 70 70
(including hard seed)
Moisture content (max)
(a) Open storage 9 9 12 12
(b) Moisture vapour proof storage 88 7 7
Seed treatment and Storage

The seeds should be treated with Captan+ Sevin @ 2g+200mg Kg-1 of seed for safe storage.
The treated seed can be stored upto one year in open storage and upto 2years in moisture
vapour proof containers, provided the seeds are devoid of bruchid infestation both primarily
and secondarily.

The varieties are raised under isolation and by thorough roguing genetically pure seeds are
produced.
Seeds Multiplication Stages

Varieties
Cowpea: CO1, CO2, CO3, CO4, CO 6, C152, K M 1 Vamban 1, Vamban 2, Paiyur 1.
Soybean: CO1, CO2, ADT 1.
Part–III
Oilseeds
Lab Lab 112

Ground Nut 114
Til 125
Mustard and Rape Seed 131
Castor 135
Sunflower 141
Safflower 150
Niger 152
16
Lab Lab
(2n=22, 24)
Lab lab purpureus var. typicus

Garden bean,‘Pandal avarai’,Lab lab purpueus var. lignosus,field bean Mochai.
Place of Origin : India
Distribution : India, Central America, China and Africa.
In India mostly cultivated, in southern states of Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh.
Var. typicus
Perennial. Twining herb. Cultivated as an annual. The pods are long, tapering. The long axis of
seeds parallel to the suture. With out oilglands and ‘Mochai’ smell. Entire pod is edible as
vegetable.
Var. lignosus
Semi erect bushy, perennial usually grown as annual. The pods are relatively shorter, oblong
and fibrous 4 to 6 almost round seeded. Seeds vertical to the suture Plants give ‘mochai’
odour.
Avarai Mochai
Habit Perennial Twining herb requires Semi erect bushy perennial,

support for normal performance cultivated as annual
Plant part No ‘Mochai’ odour ‘Mochai’ odour present
Pod Whole pod as vegetable. matured Green seeds alone as vegetable
green seeds vegetable pericarp tough, parchment like.
Seed arrangement Parallel to the length of suture Vertical
Photosensitivity Photosensitive Photosensitive
Lab Lab 113
Breeding Objectives
To Evolve non season Bound Vegetable Type, Short Duration Varieties.
In Mochai there is one non season bound, short duration - Thenkasi local DL 3196. By crossing
this with Panthal avarai, short duration, non season bound varieties were evolved. Example
Co 11, CO12, CO13.
Varieties
Mochai : CO1 Pure line selection,CO2 Pure line selection
Avarai (Bushy type) of MS 98678.
CO 9 Natural mutant of CO 6, CO 11, CO12, CO 13
17
Ground Nut (Monkey Nut, Peanut)
Arachis hypogaea (2n = 40)
Allo tetraploid
Genomic constitution AABB
Place of Origin: Brazil
Putative Parents and Origin of Cultivated Groundnut

The cultivated ground nut is a Allotetraploid having A and B genomes. The genus Arachis is
sub divided into 7 sections. The cultivated ground nut comes under section Arachis. This
section includes 12 species of which hypogaea is the only cultivated species having 2n = 40.
The other one is A.monticola. The rest ten species are diploids.
One view is that cultivated ground nut arose from cross A.cardinasi × A.batizoccoi. But this
view is not accepted by Prasad (1996). According to studies involving RFLP, PCR, isozyme
have led to the conclusion.
a) A.hypogaea had an allopolyploid origin.
b) A large amount of genomic differentiation between the diploid A and B genomes occurred.
c) Definite identification of progenitors of A.hypogaea has not been completed.
d) A.duranansis may be the female parent
e) A.batizoccoi would have contributed the smallest chromosome.
Floral Biology
Flowers are borne in axillary condensed cymes. Flowers are with long, tubular calyx. Corolla
five, free with standard, wing and keel petals. Androecium 8+2, four with linear anthers and
four with globose anthers and two staminoides, monodelphous. Gynoecium with long style
Ground Nut 115
passing through calyx tube ending in hairy and club shaped stimga. Ovary superior,
monocarpellary with one to four ovules.
Anthesis takes place between 4-6 a.m. Anthesis dehisces two hours before opening up of the
flower. Receptivity of the stigma is between 4 to 8 a.m.Seeds are produced by self pollination
and fertilization. Stigma remains enclosed in the keel petal even in fully opened flowers.
Hence self pollination is the rule. The cross pollination occurs to an extend of 0-5%.
Groundnut an Unpredictable Crop

Ground nut is popularly known as unpredictable legume. Since the pods are borne below
ground positively geotropic we cannot predict its performance before harvest as in the case of
other crops. Further Ground nut is highly influenced by environment.
If there is no favorable environment yield alone will not be affected but also the quality characters.
Less boron means low shelling % and more of immature seeds moisture stress leads to
lower yield as well as reduction in well developed kernels. Oil percentage is also influenced by
environment. Excess moisture leads to more vegetative growth and reduction in yield.
Compared to any other crop here. G × E interaction is more pronounced.
Besides abiotic stress, biotic stress also play a major role Rust and leaf spot in diseases, red
hairy caterpillar and leaf minor in pests cause major havoc.
Seed multiplication ratio is 1:5. This is also one of the bottlenecks in the spread of improved
varieties.
Classification
The genus Arachis is subdivided in to the following seven sections. (Gregory and Gregory,
1973)
Arachis, Erectoides, Rhizomatasae, Extranervosae, Triseminate, Ambinervosae, Caulorhizae.
Arachis 2n 2. Erectoides 2n 3. Rhizomatasae 2n

1. Arachis villosa 20 A.tuberosa 20 A.glabarata 40
A.batizoccoi 20 A.paragurensis 20 A.hagen beckii 40
A. cardinassi 20 4. Extra nervosae
A.chacoense 20 A.Villosulicarpa 20
A.monticola 40 A.marginata 20
A.hypogaea 40
5. Triseminate 6. Ambinervosae 7. Caulorhizae
A.pusilla 2n = 20 none, named A. repens 2n = 20
In hybridization programme intersectional hybridization is not successful but intra sectional

hybridization is successful keeping wild species as female is more successful.
According to Smart 1961 A.hypogaea has been sub divided in to two sub species
Viz. A.hypogaea subsp. hypogaea
A.hypogaea subsp fastigiata.

According to this hypogaea the first two nodes bear vegetative branches then next two branches
bear inflorescence.
Fastigiata
Inflorescence are borne on second and subsequent nodes of primary branches.
Karpavickas (1968) recognised two other botanical varieties in each of the sub species.
A.hypogaea subsp hypogaea.
var. hypogeae. Virginia type spreading.
var. hirsuta hirsuta type semi spreading.
A. hypogaea sub. sp. fastigata.
Var. fastigata (Valencia type).
subsp var vulgaris Spanish bunch.
In India the cultivated types are grouped into
i) Bunch type Valencia Spanish bunch.
ii) Semi spreading - Virginia bunch.
iii) Spreading - Virginia runner.
Breeding Objectives
It is cultivated with bunch type and semi spreading is confined to certain pockets only. So the
objectives are for bunch type.
1. Breeding high Yielding Bunch Ground nut with Dormancy Suitable for Dry land
Conditions
The dry land bunch type sown during June - July often caught up in early N.E. monsoon rains
which results in germination of varieties. So it is necessary to breed varieties having dormancy.
Semi spreading varieties are dormant TMV 7 slightly dormant varieties, BSR.1, ALR 2 dormant
for 15 days.
2. Breeding Varieties for Quality

a) High shelling percentage > 75%. Thin shelled varieties have high shelling percentage.
b) High oil content > 50%. TMV 10 the semi spreading variety is having 52% oil. Oil
content is highly influenced by environment. ALR.2 52% Oil
c) High sound mature kernel (SMK). Which is also influenced by environment. Increased
boron application results in high shelling percentage and high SMK %
Ground Nut 117
d) Table purpose varieties. Hand picked kernel for export market. Valencia types are suitable
for this.
3. Breeding Disease Resistance Varieties

Rust and leaf spot are causing major damage. If the onset of rust is in initial stage it results in
total failure. Late leaf spot hinders harvest of crop due to foliage loss. Tomato spotted wilt
virus or Bud nacrosis of late gaining importance. NCAC 17090 - resistant
4. Breeding for Pest Resistant Varieties

Red hairy caterpillar, leaf miner are major pests.
5. Breeding Short Duration (85 days) Varieties Suitable for Irrigated Conditions
Chico, VR1 3 - (R33-1 × Ah selection 1 ) 90 days.
Breeding Methods
1. Introduction
All the ground nut lines are introduced ones. Ground nut was introduced by East India Company
2. Selection
a) Pure line selection: TMV 2 - Selection from local Gudiyatham bunch.
b) Mass selection: JL 24 from Taiwan variety.

a) Inter varietal Bunch × Bunch - VRI 2 (Co2 × JL 24): SSP × Bunch - VRI 3 (R 33-1 × Ah
selection)
b) Inter specific
For transfer of disease resistance.
Arachis sp:
A.hypogaea x A.batizoccoi
↓
2n = 40 2n = 20 (Resistant)
Triploid sterile
↓ doubled
Hexaploid
↓
Reduced to tetraploid.
A. chacoense 2n = 20
A.monticola - for thin shelled conditions
Extranervosa sp.
A.villoulicarpa for increased number of pods.
Gregory in USA extensively adopted and released varieties.
Co2 EMS from POL 1
TMV 10 Natural mutant from Argentina local.
TG 1 to TG 6 (Vikaram) from BARC Trombay.
GNLM - Gujarat Narrow Leaf Mutant.
6. Embryo Rescue Technique

A.puscilla × A.hypogaea crosses. But not much successful. Cotyledon culture is a success.
7. Transgenic Plants
Transgenic plants for disease resistance. Transfer of a particular gene from wild species thro’
use of medium of carrier (plasmid) micro projectile bombardment direct transfer. Transfer of
disease resistance gene from wild species through plasmid is a success.
Ground nut Varieties

Bunch
Co 1 Ah 6279 x TMV 3 105
Co 2 Mutant from POL 1 105
ALR 2 Selection from ICGV 86011 105
TMV 2 Selection from Gudiyatham bunch 105
TMV 7 Selection from Tennesse white 105
TMV 12 Selection from Uganada variety 105
POL 2 Pollachi Red x Ah 2105 105
JL 24 Selection from Taiwan variety 105
VRI 1 TMV 7 x FSB 7-2 105
VRI 2 JL 24 x Co2 105
VRI 3 J 11 x Robout 33-1 95
VRI 4 VG 5 x NCAC 17090 110
BSR 1 Selection from ICGV 86143 110
Co3 VRI 2 (VG 55 x JL 24) 105
ALR 3 (R33-1 x KG 68) x (NCA 17090 x ALR 1) 105
Semi Spreading
TMV 10 Natural mutant from Argentina 130
TMV 8 Selection from Manapparai local 135
Spreading
TMV 3 Selection from west African variety ‘Bassi’ 140.
Ground Nut 119

Varieties: The crop is raised under isolation and seeds are allowed to set by self pollination.
Hybrids: Emasculation and dusting procedure is under research for release of hybrids.

Since it is highly self pollinated, and the multiplication ratio is very low (1:5-13), 5 stages are
allowed at foundation seed stage in the seed certification programme of groundnut.
Breeder seed → Foundation seed I, II, III, IV, V → Certified seed
Land Requirement
The land should be fertile and porous. Previous crop should not be groundnut of other varieties.
Season Varieties
Rainfed: April – May TMV2, TMV 7, JL 24, CO 2, VRI 2, VRI 3, ALR 2, VRI 4.
June – July TMV 2, TMV 7, TMV 10, VRI 3, VRI 4.
July – August TMV 2, TMV 7, TMV 10, CO 1, CO 2, JL 24, VRI 2, VRI 3, BSR 1, VRI 4
October TMV 7, TMV 2, CO 2, JL 24 VRI 2, VRI 3, BSR 1,VRI 4
Irrigated
Summer - April – July TMV 2, TMV 7, CO 1, CO 2, VRI 2, VRI 3, BSR 1, VRI 4
December – January TMV 2, TMV 7, CO 1, CO 2, VRI 2, VRI 3, VRI 4, BSR 1, VRI 4
February – March TMV 2, TMV 7, CO 2, JL 24, VRI 2, VRI 3, BSR 1, VRI 4.
(Optimum Season for Seed Production : Irrigated Crop : December - January, Rainfed : June-
July).
Harvesting and Maturation time should not coincide with rainy season since it may lead to
insitu Germination.
Important Varieties
1. Spreading type :TMV1, TMV3, TMV4
2. Semi-spreading type :TMV6, TMV8, TMV10
3. Bunch type :TMV2, 7, 9, 11, 12, ALR2,VRI1, VRI2, VRI3, JL24,CO1, CO2
4. Dormant varieties : TMV7 - 10 days, CO1 - 10-15 days,VRI2 - One week
5. Seed colour variation in groundnut varieties
Light Rose: TMV2,7, JL24, VRI 1, 2,3
Rose: CO1, CO2
Red: ALR1
Red mottled with white: TMV 10
Particulars of Groundnut Varieties
Varieties Parentage Duration (days) Oil (%) Pod Yield (kg/ha)
TMV 7 Pure line selection from TENNESSE 100-105 49.6 1400

TMV 10 Spontaneous mutant from Argentina 120-130 54.4 1650
JL 24 Mass selection from Taiwan 95-105 50.1 1650
VRI 2 JL 24 x CO 2 100-105 48.0 2060
VRI 3 J 11 x ROBU 33-10 90 48.0 1882
VRI 4 VG 5 x NcAc 17090 105-110 47.0 2171
BSR 1 ICGV 44 x (ROBUT 83-1 x NcAc 2821 100-105 44.5 2845
Isolation (M)
FS CS
Varieties 3 3
Seeds and Sowing

Kernals are used for sowing, broken, decoated, tip broken, yellow coloured (Aspergillus sp),
black coloured (diseased) and insect damaged seeds should be removed. The unsized and
oversized kernals are also removed and uniformly graded seeds should be used for sowing.
Pods should be obtained from authenticated source.The seeds are sown either behind the
country plough or in ridges and furrows and gap filling should be done within 10 days after
sowing.
Pre-Sowing Seed Treatment

The seeds should be treated with Trichoderma @ 4g/kg. It is compatible with biofertilizers.The
seeds can also be treated with thiram @ 4g/kg of seed or Carbendazin @ 2g/kg of seed. But
this is not compatible with trichoderma. These seed treatment will protect the young seedling
from root rot and collar rot infection.3.Seed can be treated with 600g/ha of rhizobial culture
using rice Kanji as adhesive.If seed treatment is not carried out 10 packets per hectare with 2
kg of FYM and 25 kg of soil before sowing can also be applied.
Presowing Seed Hardening

The seeds are soaked in 0.5% CaCl2 solution (1/2 the volume of seed) for 6 hrs. After 6 hrs
seeds are spread over moist gunny bags and covered with another moist gunny bag for 24 hrs.
After 24 hrs the seeds with sprouted radical should be separated at every 2 hours and dried
under shade and used for immediate sowing. The remaining non-viable dead seeds are rejected.
The viable seeds can be dried to original moisture content and stored for 7–10 days. The
rejects may be dried and used for commercial purpose.In dormant varieties the dormancy can
be broken by seed treatment with 200 ppm ethrel.
Seed rate Spacing

1. Bunch type 100–120 kg ha-1 25 × 15 cm
2. spreading type 80–100 kg ha-1 60 × 15 cm
3. Semi-spreading type 80–100 kg ha-1 45 × 15 cm
Ground Nut 121

1. Compost :12.5 tons/ha
2. Basal :40:40:60 NPK kg/ha
3. Boron (Basal) :10 kg/ha
4. Micronutrient mixture :12 kg/ha (at the surface of the soil)
After Sowing
1. Gypsum
On the 45th day after sowing Gypsum @ 400 kg ha-1 is applied to the plants on 40–45th days
after sowing for irrigated crop and on 40–70th day for rainfed crop depending on the soil
moisture. This will increase the easy penetration of pegs as well as pod formation and filling up
of pods.
2. DAP
Foliar spray with DAP 0.5% at flowering stage for proper seed setting.
Deficiency Symptoms
Calcium Deficiency
Leads to early abortion of seed, although normal pod matures, it contain either nil seed or
minute shriveled seed. Another disorder known as “Dark plumule” results in poor seed viability,
where as normal kernal plumule is light cream in colour.
Boron Deficiency
Increases single seeded pod and “hallow heart” seeds. Hallow is observed in between the
Kernels and sometimes darkened or off coloured. It leads to invasion of seed borne pathogens
results in poor seed quality. Apply borax 10 kg + Gypsum 200 kg/ha at 45th day after sowing
for boron deficient soils.
Zinc Deficiency
Light yellow stripes along with veins of leaf blade acute condition-vein chlorosis and cessation
of growth of terminal bud. Apply 25 kg ZnSO4 /ha basely for zinc deficient soils. If soil
analysis shows less than 1.3 ppm of zinc, soil application of 25 kg ZnSO4 is recommended.
For the standing crop, less than 39.4 ppm of zinc in leaves, foliar spray of 0.5% ZnSO4 is
recommended.
Iron Deficiency
Interveinal chlorosis: Depression on growth of aerial parts and roots. Stunted growth. For
correction of iron deficiency spray 1% FeSO4 on 30, 40 and 50 days after sowing.
Sulphur Deficiency
Stunted growth, uniformly chlorotic plants, thin stemmed and spindle appearance.
Weed Management
i) Pre-sowing
Fluchloralin at 2.0 lt/ha may be applied and incorporated.
ii) Re-emergence
Fluchloralin 2.0 lt/ha applied through flat fan nozzle with 900 l of water/ha followed by
irrigation. After 35-40 days one hand weeding may be given.
Pre emergence application of metachlor (1.0 kg ai/ha plus one hand weeding on 30 days after
sowing in more profitable. In case of herbicide spray is applied two hand hoeings and weedings
are given 20 and 40 th day after sowing.
Field Standards
Maximum permitted (%)
FS CS
1. Off types 0.10 0.20 (at final inspection)
Roguing
Removal of offtypes based on foliage colour, spreading habit, flowering and volunteer plants
should be done from vegetative phase upto harvest.
Irrigation
It should be given once in 10–15 days and it is must during flowering, pod formation stage and
seed filling stage.
Pest Management
Apply any one of the following insecticides at 25 kg/ha to control leaf miner and other insect
pests. Phosalone 4% D; Endosulfan 4% D, Carbaryl 10% D; Fenitrothion 2% D or spray
Endosulfan 35 EC 750 ml/ha, Dichlorvas 76 WSC 625 ml/ha; Monocrotophos 36 WSC 750 ml
/ha; Phosphamidon 85 WSC 375 ml/ha’ Chlorpyriphos 20 EC 1250 ml/ha; Phasalone 35 EC
750 ml/ha; Quinalphos 25 EC 750 ml / ha and Phenthoate 50 EC ml/ha in 375 l of water.
Disease Management
Rust: Spray the crop with any one of the fungicides when the disease intensity crosses grade
3. Mancozeb 1 kg/ha or Chlorothalonil 1 kg/ha, Wettable sulphur 2.5 kg/ha or Tridemorph 500
ml/ha. If necessary, repeat the spray 15 days after later.
Ground Nut 123
Leaf spot: Apply any one of the fungicides to the crop when the disease intensity crossed
grade 3. Carbendazim 500 g/ha. or Mancozeb 1 kg/ha; or Chlorothalonil 1 kg/ha. If necessary
, give the second round 15 days later.
Combined infection of rust and tikka: Spray with any one of the fungicides when the disease
intensity crosses grade.3. Carbendazim 250 g/ha + Mancozeb 1 kg /ha or Chlorothalonil
1 kg/ha. If necessary give second round 15 days later.Whenever insects and diseases occur
simultaneously apply any one of the sprayable insecticides along with any one of the sprayable
fungicides give above.NPV of Spodoptera litura is compatible with Carbendazim or Mancozeb.
Root rot: Spot drench Carbendazim @ 1g/lt or soil application of P. fluorescens @ 2.5 kg/
ha with 50 kg of well decomposed FYM /Sand at 30 days after sowing.
Harvesting
Drying and falling of older leaves and yellowing of the tip leaves indicate maturity. The colour
of the inner side of pod turns black. The seeds will move freely inside the pod (crackling
sound). On irrigation, the whole plants are uprooted at harvest. The moisture content of seed
at harvest will be around 35-40%.
Stripping
It is the process by which pods are removed from plants either mechanically or manually. The
machine used for stripping is groundnut-stripper.
Pod Verification/Pod Sorting

The stripped pods are verified based on pod shape, size, veination and waist characters. This
is important for maintenance of genetic purity.
Drying
The pods are dried to 10-12% moisture content.
Pod/Kernel Processing
Groundnut is stored as pod till sowing. Hence the basic processing is done with pod. Using
groundnut pod grader, the groundnut pods are graded based on size. The sieve size used for
grading is 22/64" to 24/64" round perforated metal sieves depending on varieties. Seeds are
graded using 18/64" to 20/64" round perforated metal sieve
Decordicator
The seeds are removed from pod using groundnut decordicator. The moisture content at that
time should be 16-18%.
Seed Drying and Seed Storage

Graded seeds should be dried to 7 - 8% moisture content. The seeds are treated with thiram
@ 2g kg-1 of seed. Under ambient conditions kernels can be stored for 6 months while in pods
upto 18 months.
Seed Standards
Standards for each class
Factor FS CS
1. Pure seed (min) % 96 96
2. Inert matter (max) 4 4
3. Other crop seed (max) None None
4. Weed seed (max) None None
5. Germination (kernels) (%) (min) 70 70 (Hand shelled)
6. Moisture content (kernels)
a. Pervious container 9 9 (Hand shelled)
b. Vapour proof container 5 5 (Hand shelled)
The pods can also be treated with thiram @ 3g/kg Pods can also be stored in gunny bags along
with CaCl2 @ 250 g/30 kg of pod, placed in a plastic container.
Breeding Objectives
To Evolve non season Bound Vegetable Type, Short Duration Varieties.
In Mochai there is one non season bound, short duration - Thenkasi local DL 3196. By crossing
this with Panthal avarai, short duration, non season bound varieties were evolved.
Example Co 11, CO12, CO13.
Varieties
Mochai: CO1 Pure line selection,CO2 Pure line selection
Avarai (Bushy type) of MS 98678.
CO 9 Natural mutant of CO 6, CO 11, CO12, CO 13
18
Til
Sesamum indicum 2n = 26
Place of 0rigin: Africa

Related species: So far 36 species were recorded in the genus sesamum 20 of them occur in
Africa.
Wild species utilised in breeding programme.
S.alatum 2n = 26: Resistant to phyllody S.alatum × S.indicum . Alatum is having dormancy.
S.malabaricum (2n = 26): Occurs in Travancore of Kerala. It freely crosses with cultivated
gingelly. Oil content is low 32% It is utilised to induce male sterility in cultivated sesame.
S.laciniatum 2n = 32: Tolerant to phyllody, drought and jassid resistant. Fertile auto allopoly
ploid produced by crossing S.indicum × S.laciniatum.
Sterile, Double.
S.prostratum occurs in South India (2n = 26).
Tolerant to drought.
Floral Biology
Flowers axillary, solitary or in groups of 2 to 3. Sepals five, united petals five, united bilabiate,
bell shaped. White or pink in colour. Stamens four, didynamous, epipetalous. Ovary superior,
bicarpellary, four to eight loculed, divided by false septa. The flowers arise in the axis of the
leaves and on the upper portion of the stem and branches. The number on the node of the main
shoot at which the first flower is produced is a varietal characteristics and highly heritable.
There is also a positive correlation between the height of the first fruit, plant height and total
yield. Height of first flower can be influenced by the environment. In some Indian varieties
flowers may occur simply in the leaf axils in the lower part of the stem, but two or three per
axil on the upper stem or higher branches. The characteristic of solitary flower is dominant
over three flowers/axil.
Flower are borne on very short peduncles with the two prominent, cup shaped extra nectaries
at their base. Two short linear bracts subtend the young flowers, arising at the base of the
pedicel just below the nectaries. But these are shed as the flowers mature. The short calyx
lobes are united at the base and are velvety, narrow and acuminate. The five lobes dister in size,
the lower being the longest and the upper the smallest bilabiate tubular corolla of five lobes.
Corolla colour is generally white or pale pink may be darker purple. The inner surface of the
tube may have red spots or the lower one may be black spotted or infrequently with purple or
yellow blotches. In India purple flower colour was dominant over white and purple white. The
stamens arise within the tube of the corolla, four being functional the fifth is sterile or completely
lacking. They are greenish white in colour and the connective of the anthers is prolonged in to
a short swollen beak. It has been reported that varieties which have 3 flowers in the leaf axil
have five stamens in the lateral flowers while the central one has only three. The ovary is
superior with 2 united carpels and eventually becomes 4 locules owing to the intrusive growth
of the parental placentas. However 6-8 and even 10 compartments have been recorded. Flower
opens very early in the morning wilt after mid-day and shed in the evening. The anthers split
longitudinally and pollen are released shortly after flower opens. The stigma becomes receptive
one day before flower opening and the retains the receptivity for a further day under
natural conditions, pollen remains viable for 24 hours.
Flower opening starts from 5.00 a.m and fades by afternoon. Anthesis between 3.a.m. to 4.
a.m. Receptivity of the stigma is upto 8.0 a.m. Selfing the flower is done by tying the unopened
corolla top by a thread. Sesamum is often cross pollinated crop.It is an often cross pollinated
crop where cross pollination extends upto 60% by insects.
Breeding Objectives
1. Breeding high yielding varieties tolerant to drought.
2. Breeding white seeded varieties. Finest quality of oil is obtained from white seeded lines.
3. Development of mono stemmed varieties. By this more population per unit area and
yield can be increased. Monostemmed varieties are low yielders.
4. Development of multicapsule / axil and multicarpellary varieties.
5. Rice fallow varieties: Shorter in duration.
6. Non- shattering varieties : African lines.
7. Resistant to disease: Powdery mildew; Phyllody - transfer from wild species.
Breeding Methods
1. Introduction
African lines.
Til 127
2. Pure line selection

TMV4 - local, TMV5 – local, TMV6 - Andhra local, SVPR1 - Western Ghat white seed variety

a) Inter Varietial: Co1 (TMV 3 x SI 1878) × SI 1878, TMV 3 (S.A local × Malabar
local), Paiyur-1
b) Inter Specific : Male sterile lines evolved by crossing with S.malabaricum.
4. Poly Ploidy Breeding

5. Heterosis Breeding: Epipetalous nature makes emasculation and crossing easier. Use of
CMS lines is also being attempted.
7. Embryo Rescue Technique.
Sesamum Vaieties
Co 1 (TMV 3 x SI 1878) x SI 1878 90

TMV 3 South Arcot local x Malabar local 80
TMV 4 Pure line selection 80
TMV 5 PLS from Srivaikundam local 80
TMV 6 Selection from Andhra local 85
SVPR 1 Selection from Western Ghat white 80
Paiyur 1 SI 2511 x SI 2314 90
VRI 1 Selection from Tripathur local 75
B. Seasame Varieties
Rainfed (June-July) : CO1, TMV4, VRI1
(October- November): CO1,TMV3,TMV5,SVPR1,VRI1
Summer Season: CO1,TMV3,TMV4,TMV6,PAIYUR1,VRI1,SVPR1
Irrigated
(February-March): TMV3,TMV4,TMV6,CO1,VRI1

The varieties are multiplied by open pollination where the crop is raised under isolation.
Stages of Multiplicaiton
Land Requirement
The land should not have been cultivated with the same crop in the previous season. If cultivated
it should not be the same variety proposed for cultivation.
Isolation FS CS
Varieties 100 50
Season
It can be grown in all 3 seasons viz., Rabi (Oct. Nov), Kharif (June-July) and summer
(Feb-March).
Seeds and Sowing

The seeds are to be pelleted with MnSO4 @ 50 mg kg-1 using maida 5% as adhesive and arappu
leaf powder as the filler material. The seeds can be sown, both in beds and channels or ridges
and furrows.
Seed Treatment: Treat seeds with Tricoderma viride @ 4kg/ha.this can be just before sowing.It
is compatible with biofertilisers . Such seeds should not be treated with fungicides or treat the
seed with thiram 4g or carbendazim @2g of seed before sowing.
Seed Rate: 3-4 kg ha-1
Spacing: 60 × 30 cm ( 11 plants/m2)
Compost: 12.5 t/ha
NPK :50:25:25 kg/ha (Basal), MnSO4 :5 kg/ha (Basal), DAP :Given as 1% foliar spray at 1st
flowering and again 10 days after 1st spray.
Roguing
Based on branching behavior, size of capsule, colour of capsule and colour of seed, the plants
are rogued for off types from vegetative phase to harvesting phase.
Water Management
Irrigate at sowing and give life irrigation on 7 days after sowing depending on soil moisture
condition, give one pre flowering irrigation (25 days) : one at flowering or two at pod
setting. An irrigation at flowering period is critical.
Weed Management
Apply Alachlor at 1.25 kg ai /ha on 20 th after sowing and irrigate the crop immediately.
Nutritional Disorders
Manganese Deficiency: leaves develop interveinal chlorosis, chlorotic tissue, later develop
light brown or husk coloured with necrotic lesions.
Zinc Deficiency: middle leaves develop chlorosis in the interveinal areas and necrosis along
the apical leaf margins. Mix 5 kg/ha of zinc sulphate with 45 kg of soil and broadcast evenly in
the beds after sowing. Do not incorporate the micronutrient in the soil.
Til 129
Pest Management
Apply one of the following pesticides per ha on 25- 35 and 50 th days after sowing.,if needed
to control shoot webber/pod borrer/gall midge. Dust 25 kg of Endosulphan 4D, Phasalone 4D,
Quinolphos 1.5d, Malathion 5D/ha or spray Phasalone 35 EC 1000 ml ,quinolphos 25 EC 1000
ml ,Dichlorvas 76 sc 500 ml , Monocrotophas 36 WSC 625 ml endosulphan 35 EC 1000 ml,
Carbaryl 50 WP 1000 g in 500 ml of water. Use alternate insecticides each time and avoid the
usage of same insecticide every time.
Disease Management
Phyllody:Remove and destroy the affected plants. Incorporating with sesamum+red gram
(6:1)reduces the incidence of phyllody and root rot.
Root rot: Spot drench Carbendazim 1g/lt or soil application of Pseudomonas fluorescens.@
2.5 kg /ha mixed with 50 kg of well decomposed FYM / sand at 30 days after sowing. Soil
application of neem cake ( 150kg/ha) combined with Tricoderma viride seed treatment
(4 kg/ha) effectively reduces root rot.
Storage pests: dust on gunny - Malathion 5D or Phasalone 4D or Carbaryl 10D. Mix 1kg of
activated clay with 100 kg of seeds after adequate drying of seeds.
Seed coat Colour Variation in Varieties

Varieties Colour of Seed Coat
TMV 3,4,5,6 Brown

Paiyur 1, CO1 Black
SVPR2 White
Field standards FS % CS %
Off types 0.1 0.2
Intercultural Operations
Earthing up should be done at fruiting stage to avoid lodging of the crop upto harvest.
Irrigation
Once in 15 days irrigation should be done and it is a must during flowering and pod filling
stage.
Pests and Diseases

Pests
Pod borer, Aphids, Jassids., Diseases :Phyllody, wilt
Harvesting
Harvesting is done when 75–80% of pods have become brown and bottom 1 to 2 pods have
dehisced. At this stage, the pod moisture content will be 50-60% and seed moisture content
will be 25-30%. Examine the 10 th capsule from the bottom by opening . If the seeds turn
black, harvest may be taken up for the black seeded varieties.If harvest is delayed ,the capsules
will dehisce resulting in yield reduction.
Stacking and Drying
The plants should be stacked upright down in the threshing floor, so that the immature pods of
the terminal edge also will mature. It is done for 3 days and during that period the moisture
content reduces to 15-18%.
Threshing
It is done manually by beating with pliable bamboo sticks.
Processing
The seeds are to be graded using round perforated metal sieves of size 5/64".
Seed Standards
FS CS
Pure seed (max) % 97 97
Inert matter (max) % 3 3
Other crop seed (min) % 1 1
Weed seed (min) % 1 1
Germination (max) % 80 80
Moisture content %
a. Open storage 8 10
b. Vapour proof container 8 8
Seed Storage
The seeds with 7-8 % moisture content are to be treated with thiram @ 2 g/kg. The treated
seeds stored upto 1 year in open storage and upto 2 years in 700 gauge polyethylene containers.
Soaking the seeds in double the volume Na2PO4 (10-4 molar) (3.6g/100 lt of water) can prolong
the storability of seed, if the salt is not available, potable salt free water alone can be used the
floters should be removed, soaked seeds should be spread over a clean gunny bag and air
dried, dressed with carbendazim @ 2g /kg of seeds and stored.
Particulars of Til Strain
Particulars Parentage Duration Yield Oil(%)
(days) (kg/ha)
CO1 TMV3 SI 1878 SI 1878 85-90 Irrigated- 750-790,Rainfed 450-650 51

TMV3 South arcot local Malabar 80-85 Irrigated- 625-700,Rainfed 400-650 51
TMV4 Pureline from sature local 85-90 Irrigated700-950 50
TMV5 Pure line from srivaiguntam 80-85 Rainfed 450-650 51
19
Mustard and Rape Seed
Brassica sp (2n = 16, 18, 20, 22, 36, 38 and 48)
Brassicaceae or cruciferae.
The genus Brassica contains more than 3000 species of which 40 are of economic importance.
Cultivated brassica can be broadly divided in to two distinct types viz.
Vegetable type : Cabbage, Cauliflower, turnip.
Oil seed type: Rape seed and mustard.
Taxonomy
Harberd (1972) examined 85 species of Brassica and grouped species of the genus into
cytodemes. These cytodemes are composed of different species with the same chromosome
number and which are cross fertile and other having species with different chromosome
number and cross infertile. According to him most important agricultural species are four
diploids, three allopolyploids, each belong to a separate cytodeme.
Four Diploids are

1. B.nigra - Black mustard; 2. B.oleracea – Cabbage; 3. B.campestris - Rape seed; 4. B.tourne
frotii - Wild turnip.
Three Allopoly Ploids

1. B.napus - Rape seed of Europe, 2. B.juncea - Indian mustard, 3. B.carinata - sthipplam
mustard (veg / oil seed).
The genetical relationship between the oilseed brassicas are diagramaticaly represented as
follows.
B.nigra BB
n= 8
B.carinata BC B.juncea AB
n= 17 ↓ n = 18
↑ ↑
B.oleracea CC → B. napus AC → B.campestris AA
n=9 n = 19 n = 10
B.napus will cross readily with B.campestris but with extreme difficulty in case of B.oleracea.
Rape Seed
Botanical name 2n Economic characters
1.Brassica campestris 20 Indian Rape Seed. Self sterile in nature. Important oil
seed crop of North India. 3 Cultivated types
i) B.campestris var. Brown sarson
ii) B.campestris var. Yellow sarson,iii)B.campestris var.
toria
1. B. napus 38 European Rape Seed. Self fertile.
Mustard
1. B.nigra 16 Black mustard : Native of Eurasia. 28% fixed oil.
2. B.alba 24 Used as medicine pungent due to glucoside sinigrin.
White mustard : Young seedling used as Salad, yellowish
seed 30 % oil.
3. B.juncea 36 Indian mustard. RAI 35% oil. Leaves used as herb
contains sinig rin
Breeding Objectives
1. Seed Yield
Yield is the end product of many biological processes which are under control of complex
polygenic systems. An ideal plant type is having increased branch number, pods per plant,
seeds per pod and seed size. Further yield increase could result from increase in biomass and
harvest index. Increased biomass can result from reduced photo respiration and increased
light saturated rate of photosynthesis.
2. Early Maturity
For use in various multiple cropping sequence.
3. Resistance to Abiotic Factors

Frost resistance is needed to prevent yield losses. Winter hardiness is very important.
Mustard and Rape Seed 133
4. Resistance to Biotic Stress

Powdery mildew,Black leg,Sclerotinia rot, alternaria blight,mustard aphid - so far no resistance
source identified.
5. Herbicide Resistance: (Atrazine simabine)

A few sources of resistance is available.
6. Shattering Resistance
B.napus - highly shattering, B. juncea - tolerant. Introgressive breeding done.
7. Increased oil Content and Quality

High oil content 45% yellow seed varieties > oil. For industrial purpose > Erucic acid.
Development of low erucic acid cultivars for edible purpose.Reduced linolenic acid content is
also desirable.
8. Meal Quality
Meal having less Glucosinolate content.
Breeding Methods
1. Introduction
Regina from Sweeden.
2. Simple Selection
E.G. Seeta, Krishna, Kranti.

Intervarietal
a) Bulk method; b) Pedigree method; c) single seed descent
Inter Specific
4. Back Cross Method
R S, mass selection.
CMS lines.
e.g. Regina, RLM 198.
8. Tissue Culture Technique for Production of Homozygous Diploids

Saline resistance screening. Induction of mutation in haploids.
9. Embryo Rescue Technique for Inter Specific Crosses

20
Castor
Ricinus communis (2n = 20)
Place of Origin: Ethiopia
Classification
Monotypic, all varieties of castor from giant perennials to short internode dwarf have the same
chromosome number.
Zugovosky (1962) has described three species in the genus Ricinus
1. R.communis
2. R.macro carpus
3. R.micro carpus
But this is not accepted by Botanists.
There are sub species which are considered to be ecological extreme varieties i.e. poly morphic
of cultivated type. They are
R. communis subsp persicus (Persian)
ssp.chinensis ( chinese species)
ssp. zanzi barensis ( Zanzibar)
ssp. sanguinens (Crimson species)
ssp. africanus (African)
ssp. mexicanus (Mexican)
Red castor Varieties (Popova 1930)

Subsp gibsoni
subsp cambogenisis
Floral Biology
Inflorescence borne in terminal, many ,flowering panicles 10 to 40 cm long, monoecious with
male at the base and female flowers at the top. Inflorescence is protogynous.
Male Flower
Occurs in 3-16 flowered cyme sepals 3 to 5, petals absent, stamens numerous with much
branched filaments. Anthers yellow in colour.
Female Flower
One to seven flowered cymes. Pedicels 4 to 5 mm long. Sepals 3-5 green connate, bursting
irregularly, petals absent, ovary superior. The female flowers are seen on the top 30-50% of
the inflorescence.
Cross pollinated crop protogynous and wind pollinated. Flower opening between 8 -12
noon. Female flowers set seed and fruits are developing before the male flowers open on the
same inflorescence. The anthers burst explosively on drying scattering copious pollen. Pollination
is by birds and to some extend by insects. The proportion of female and male flowers on the
inflorescence decides the success of cross pollination.
Breeding Objectives
1. Long duration varieties for dry lands
S.A.1, Co1 perennial - Tall - Normal internodal, high node number.
Intermediate - Normal internode, low node no (13 or 10).
2. Short duration high yielding varieties suitable for irrigated mixed cropping
conditions
TMV 5.
3. Breeding non shattering spineless varieties

Baker variety of USA Non - Shattering.
4. Breeding for Insect Resistance

Semi looper, jassid. Hopper burn - serious in dry land varieties.
Triple bloom - TMV 5.: Triple bloom condition gives resistance.
5. Breeding varieties with low ricinin content.
Breeding Methods
1. Introduction
Hospet varieties, Russian lines.
Castor 137
2. Selection
a) Pureline selection - Co 1 from Anaimalai local.
b) Mass selection
TMV 3- from South Arcot local.

TMV 5 (SA2 × S 248/2).
TMV 6. (VP 1 × RC 962)
By using recurrent selection technique.
Aruna castor: SA2 Natural Mutant from TMV 1.
GAUCH – 1, 100 % pistillate lines.
Geneic male sterility . Temperature plays a major role.
GCH 4
TMVCH 1 (LRES 17 × TMV 5)
Season Varieties
Rainfed (June - July) TMV 4, SA 1, SA 2, TMV 5, TMV 6, TMVCH 1

Garden land (border) TMV 4
Other varieties CI1 Aruna, Bhagya, RC-8 and Sowbagh
Hybrids GAUCH1, GCH2, GCH3, GCH4, GCH5, DCH 32.
GCH5 : Geeta x SH 72
GCH 4 : VP 1 x 48-1
DCH 32 : LRES 17 x REC 5
Particulars of Castor Varieties/Hybrids

Particulars Parentage Duration Yield (kg/ha) Oil %
TMV 4 Selection from SA 2 3.5 months 750 50

SA 1 TMV 1 xRC 1094 5 months 1000 53.8
TMV 5 SA 2 x S248/2 4 months 1100 50
TMVCH 1 LRES 70 x TMV 5- 5.5 months 1180 51.7
Land Requirement
A well fertile soil with good drainage should be selected. The crop can not tolerate alkalinity
and salinity. It performs well with medium to deep sandy loam and heavy loam soils are highly
suited for seed production.
Isolation (m) FS CS
Varieties & Hybrids 300 150
Season
Season has profound influence on sex expression. Summer and Kharif provide ideal male
promoting environment for undertaking seed production of the variety, male and female parents
of hybrids.
Rabi/winter is highly suitable season for hybrid seed production. Kharif and summer
encourages good expression of less productive plant which could easily eliminated through
timely roguing. Similarly the female parents when raised in male promoting environment produce
environmentally sensitive staminate flowers. Which are very essential for self production of
the female parents.
Sex expression Castor is monoecious with pistillate flowers on the upper portion of the
raceme and staminate flowers in different orders of racemes show wide variation both in and
among the genotyeps. It is maximum in the first raceme and declines thereafter progressively
in subsequent orders viz., secondary and tertiary. There is a proportionate increase in the
number of staminate flowers, the extend of male flowers being highest in later formed raceme.
This is associated with the genotypes and mean day temperature. Temperature is an important
factor and plays a major role in sex expression. At temperatures less than 32oC then plant
tends to female and more than 32oC then towards male.
Bloom
The presence of white waxy coating or bloom on plant confers certain advantages of natural
protection against extreme weather conditions (cold, drought). There are 4 types of bloom.
1. No Bloom - Bloom absent in all parts above the ground
2. Single bloom - Bloom only on stem
3. Double bloom - Bloom on stem, petioles, and lower side of leaves
4. Triple bloom - Bloom on all parts above ground
For deciding the blooming nature freshly emerged parts should be used.

Compost - 12.5 tons ha-1
NPK - 30 : 50 : kg ha-1
Castor 139
Seed Rate
Varieties: 10 kg ha-1, Hybrids: Male: 4 kg ha-1, Female : 6 kg ha-1
Spacing
Long duration Spacing Short duration Spacing
SA 1 90× 90 cm SA 2 60×45 cm
TMR 6 90×60 cm TMV 4,TMV 5 60×30 cm
Hybrids 90 × 40 to 90 × 60
Planting ratio
Male: Female : 3:1 or 4-6:1
Rouging
Removal of off-types is important in the following 4 stages.
Stages of inspection Characters looked for
1. 10 Days prior to flowering Stem colour, internode length

2. During flowering No. of Nodes upto primary raceme and sex expression
3. A week before first picking Spike and capsule character, Reversion to monoecious in second order
4. After 1st picking Reversion to monoecious (or) flower initiation in third order raceme
Field Standards
Character Varieties Hybrids
FS CS FS CS
1. Offtypes % (Max) 0.1 0.2 0.5 1.0
Irrigation
The critical stages of irrigation are primordial initiation and flowering in differential segmental
order branches. Moisture stress in sensitive crop growth stages may lead to production of
more male flowers in monoecious varieties.
Pest Management
Apply Endosulfan 4 D 25 kg/ha to control semi looper and other pests. Apply neem seed kernal
extract 3% + Neem seed oil 2% for control of castor semi lopper.
Harvesting
Castor produces 4 or 5 sequential order spikes, which can conveniently be harvested in 3-4
pickings starting from 90-120 days at 25-30 days interval. Observe the crop considering the
average duration of varieties (1) one or more capsules showing signs of drying (2) Cut the
mature raceme without the damage of the secondaries. (3) The dry the capsule in the sun
without the heaping it in the shade. (4) Use castor sheller and the separate seeds or beat the
dried capsule with wooden planks, winnow and collect the seeds.
Premature harvesting lead to reduced seed weight, oil content and germination. Since shattering
is not a problem in any variety harvesting can be delayed until all capsules in the spike are fully
dried. Even though the locules open in some non-dehiscent types, the membrane covering the
seed remain intact and source seed does not fall off to the ground.
Grading
The uniformity in seeds can be obtained by sieving the seeds using 8/64" round perforated
metal sieve.
Seed Standard
The minimum seed quality requirement of the seed crop is as follows:
Character FS CS
1. Pure Seed % (Max) 98 98

2. Inert matter % (Max) 2 2
3. Other crop seed % - -
4. Weed seed % - -
5. Germination % (Min) 70 70
6. Moisture content %
(a) Open storage 8 8
(b) Vapour proof container 5 5
Seed Storage
The seeds treated with Thiram @ 2.5 g/kg of seed can be stored upto 1 year in pervious
containers and upto 2 years in moisture vapour proof containers.
21
Sunflower
Helianthus annuus
Place of Origin: North America.
Classification
The genus comprises nearly 67 species - all native to America. Of these two are cultivated.
a) H.annuus - diploid 2n = 34
Oil seed crop.
b) H.tuberosus - Hexaploid 2n = 102.
Jerusalem artichoke - cultivated for tuber.
Wild Species - H.hirsutus, H.rigidus moderately resistant to Alternaria.
Putative Parent
Weed sunflower gave rise to cultivated one. The weed sunflower was modified by introgression
with H.petiolaris.
Floral Biology
Origin of sunflower is Southern United States and Mexico. It is produced in a large area in the
countries of Soviet Union, Argentina, Bulgaria, Rumania, Turkey and South America. In India,
sunflower is introduced in the year 1969.
Inflorescence is head consist of two type of florets, ray and disc. Ray forms the outer whorl
of the head. They have vestigial style and stigma without anther and hence sterile. Disc
florets are arranged in concentric circles in a fabinace fashion. Hermaphrodite, complete, with
inferior ovary, sepals modified into two papas scales. The five petals are united to form corolla
tube. Stamens free and attached to the base of corolla. Five anthers unite to form anther tube.
Styles is inside the anther tube and stigma bilobed.
The disc florets are protandrous. Flower opening start from outer whorl and proceeds
towards the centre of head. The head bloom within 5-10 days. The pollen grains are viable for
12 hours. Anthesis take place at 5-8 a.m. Self incompatibility operates leading to cross pollination.
It is a cross pollinated crop. The inflorescence is a head/capitullum with 2 types of
flowers viz. ray (unisexual) and disc florets (bisexual). Seeds sets in disc florets alone. The
anthers are syngeneious and the pollinating agents are honeybees.
Cultivars of Sunflower
a) Giant types
6–14 feet tall. Late maturing, Large heads 12 - 30" in diameter, seeds large, white or grey or
with black stripes. Oil content is very low. e.g. Mamoth Russian.
b) Semi Dwarf Varieties

Medium tall - 4 ½ to 6 feet, Early maturing. Heads 7 - 9" in diameter. Seeds smaller, black, grey
or striped. High oil content 35%. e.g. Jupiter, Pole star.
c) Dwarf Types
2 to 4½ feet tall. Early maturing. Head size 5½ - 6½ “ diameter. Small seeds, high oil content
37%.
e.g. Sunrise, Morden, Co1, Co2
Breeding Objectives
1.To Develop Short Duration Varieties Suitable for Dry land and Irrigated Conditions
Dryland successful in black soils only. In red soil under rainfed it is not successful.
2. Breeding Varieties with High oil Content

Ranges 38 to 48%. Complex character yield and oil content are negatively correlated. To
increase oil content the shell must be thin.
3. Breeding for Self Fertile Lines

Protoandry and self incompatability mechanism operates in sunflower. Hence hand pollination
is necessary. To avoid this self fertile lines can be evolved.
Maharastra hybrid susceptible to powdery mildew. Hence ban is there. Powdery mildew, rust,
charcoal rot, Alternaria. Wild species like H.hirsuta are moderately,resistance to Alternaria.
Sunflower 143
5. Resistant to Pests
Heliothis, Grass hopper Jassids.
Breeding Methods
1. Introduction
Morden from Canada.
2. Mass Selection
Ec 68414 from Russia. Co1 mass selection from Morden. Useful for characters which are
highly heritable. e.g. Plant height, Disease resistance.

a) Intervarietal
e.g. Co2 Derivative of multiple cross.
Co4 - (Dwarf × Surya)
b) Interspecific
Wild species of North American origin and best Soviet varieties were crossed and number of
varieties were evolved.
e.g. Progress, Novelty, Jubilee 60. They are resistant to Verticillium wilt also.
4. Mutation
Co3 (Mutant from Co2 thro’ gamma rays)
5. Head to Row and Remnant Seed Method

Developed by Pustovoit in Russia. By this method oil content is increased. In this method the
following are the steps:
a) From open pollinated type a large no (10,000 to 12,000) plants are selected based on
Head size.
b) The selected lines are analysed for oil content and high oil content lines are isolated
(1000 plants).
c) Part of the seed reserved and the part is sown in progeny rows along with check to
estimate yield.
d) Second season testing is also done. The best lines are identified.
e) The remnant seed of elite plants which give high yield were raised in isolation and
multiplied for crossing interse next season.
f) The multiplied lines also tested for oil content and high yielding high oil content lines
were raised in isolation and crossed interse.
By mass selection, recurrent selection and use of male sterile lines population can be improved
and utilised for breeding.
Development of inbred lines and crossing them to harness heterosis was first done as early as
1920 in Russia. During 1970 cytoplasmic geneic male sterility was identified in wild types and
obsolete cultivars. Now this system is being extensively used for production of hybrids.
First hybrid- BSH 1: CMS 234 A × RHA 274
BSH 2, BSH 8.
A number of CGMS lines were bred by Government as well as private seed growers and are
utilised now.
Male sterility can also be inducted by GA 100 ppm.
Seed Production
The Economic importance of the crop
• Oil is used for culinary purposes.
• Oil is also used for manufacture of soap and cosmetics.
• Oil is especially recommended for heart patients because of its high PUFA content.
Constraints
1. The Crop should not be rotated with sorghum because of the charcoal rot.
2. The Season of production is important because it is associated with the insect activity
and shelf life of seed.
3. Maintenance of buffer stock - It is very important for carry over purpose.
Oct - September sowing: The resultant seeds carry lesser oil, so that the storage potential of
the seed is very high.If the seed is sown during March-April. The resultant seeds carry more
oil therefore the seeds will have low seed storage potential.
Fillings
a) Pollination
It is a cross pollinated crop, normally the insect activity is less. For increasing the insect
activity bee hives should be kept in the seed production plot in adequate quantities. The insect
activity depends on the pollution and insecticides application.
Sunflower 145
b) Development of Axillary Flowers

Normally the axillary flowering takes place during the summer because of the high intensity of
light. So these type of axillary buds receive the nutrients and assimilate so that the main head
does not get the required quantity of assimilates for seed set there by illfillings occurs.
c) Micronutrients Deficiency
Zn & Fe composition is very important for the proper seed set in sunflower Zn is responsible
for the production of IAA. Fe deficiency leads to sterility of the pollen.
d) Self Incompatibility
e)Lot of insect activity is caused by Homeosoma electullum .The phytomelanin layer (or)
armoured black layer prevents the insect damage.
4. To Break the Dormancy

a) Soaking for 12 -16 hours (if inhibitor level is low).
b) Leaching of seeds is running water.
c) Ethrel treatment can be given (Chemical name; 2 chloro ethyl phosphoric acid - 300
ppm for 8 hours in air tight container).
d) Soaking of seeds in 0.5 % KNO3 for 16 hours.
Varieties
The elite seeds (Nucleus seeds) are produced by adoption of Pistowat model by open pollination
among themselves.
Popular Varieties
CO1, CO2, Morden, CO3, K1, K2 EC 68414, EC68415
Varietal Renovation Method
In open pollinated variety, selection of superior plants are made based on the quality characters
viz. Plant yield, 100 seed weight and oil content. The selected plants are harvested separately.
Then they are raised in rows individually. Seeds form promising plants are collected and this
form the super-elite seeds. Elite seeds multiplied from these seeds.
Hybrids
The tool employed for hybrid seed production is CGMS system, where male sterile lines are
crossed with restorer lines (male).
Hybrids KBSH1: CMS 234A × 6D 1
BSH1 : CMS 234A × RHA 274.
MSTH1: MHS 71 × MHR 48
Stages of Multiplication
Varieties: Breeder seed → Foundation seed → Certified seed.
Hybrids: BS - A line multiplied with B.
B and R line multiplied under isolation.
FS - A line multiplied with B.
R line multiplied under isolation.
CS - A and R are crossed to produce hybrid seed.
Land Requirement
The land should be free from volunteer plants. The field should not have been grown with the
same variety in the previous season provided it is certified under seed production programme.
Isolation (M) FS CS
Varieties 400 200

Hybrids 600 400
Season
Crop can be grown in all 3 seasons (Kharif, Rabi and Summer). For hybrid seed production
October sowing is the best.
Season Varieties
Rainfed (June–July) K1,EC 68415,K2,CO1,CO2,CO3,CO4

( October–November) K1,K2,MORDEN,CO1,CO2,CO3,CO4
Irrigated
April-May K1,K2,EC 68415,MORDEN,MSFH1,CO3
December—January K1,K2,EC 68415 , MORDEN, MSFH1, CO1, BSH1, CO3, CO4
Particulars of Sunflower Varieties

Particulars Parentage Duration Yield-irrigated/Rain fed Oil %
(days) Kg/ha
CO1 Selection from sernianka 66 800 37

MORDEN Selection from sernianka 65 900 38
K2 Spontaneous mutantEC101495 75 900 38
BSH1 234A RHA274 70 1000 37
Seeds and Sowing

The seeds should be purchased from authenticated source with concerned tag and bill.Fresh
Sunflower 147
seeds possess dormancy which limits to 45-60 days. Hence for good germination in field, 2-3
months old seeds should be used. To enhance the germination, the fresh seeds can be soaked
in 300 ppm of Ethrel for 8 hours or 0.5% KNO3 for 16 hours.Slow hydration of seeds in
between moist gunnies for 24 hrs and drying seeds are treated with thiram @ 2.5g/kg increase
the field emergence of the crop.
Seed Rate
15 kg ha-1.
Spacing
Hybrids Male: 4kg/ha 45 × 20 cm

Female: 12 kg/ha 60 × 30 cm
Planting Ratio: 8:1 or 4:1
Varieties 45 × 20 cm

Compost: 12.5 t/ha
NPK : 60:45:45 kg/ha
Basal : 45:45:45 kg/ha
Top: 15 kg N at 30 days after sowing
Foliar: 2% DAP (30 and 60 days after sowing)
20 ppm NAA (30 and 60 days after sowing)(280 g NAA in 625 lit of water)
Supplementary Pollination
Lack of honeybees may result in poor seed set. Hence pollination may be supplemented either
by rubbing the earhead with muslin cloth or by sibmating. This supplementary pollination is
done during the mid flowering (58-60 days after planting) in long duration varieties and 45-48
days after planting in short duration varieties, on alternate days between 7 and 11 am. for 2
weeks.Apply Neera (contains 20% sucrose, 5 % minerals and etc.,) on the above dates and
which attracts insects thereby increases the pollination.
Roguing
The plants are rogued from their vegetative phase to harvesting, based on plant height, head
size, branching habit, number of heads and colour of seeds.
Weed Management
Apply Fluchloralin @ 2 lit /ha before sowing and incorporate or apply as pre emergence spray
on3 rd day after sowing followed by irrigation or apply pendimethalin as pre emergence spray
on 3 rd day after sowing. spray this using knapsack or rocker sprayer using 900 lit water as
spray fluid.
Nipping
In hybrid seed produciton, male parents produce side branches, which help in supply of pollen
for effective seed set. In male line multiplication at FS stage the side branches (flowering
heads) can be removed off to enhance the yield of central head.
Field Standards
Factor Maximum permitted (%)
FS CS
Off types at and after
flowering 0.10 0.20
Objectionable weed None None
Plants affected by downy mildew 0.050 0.50
Plants infested with orabanche None None
Harvesting
The change of thalamus colour from green to yellow is the visual symptom of physiological
maturation, takes about 40-45 days after anthesis. The heads are harvested as once over
harvest. In hybrids male plants are harvested 1st and female plants harvested later on. To
enhance the maturation period Mgcl2 @ 20 kg/ha can be applied. This advances the maturation.
Threshing The harvested earheads are dried in sun and at a moisture content of 15-18%, the
seeds are removed, from the head either by hand threshing or mechanically using sunflower
thresher.
Drying
The seeds are dried under sun to reduce the moisture content to 10-12%.
Processing
The seeds can be processed using 9/64" round perforated sieve as middle sieve using OSAW
cleaner cum grader. The graded seeds can be further upgraded using specific gravity grader.
Seed standards FS CS
1. Physical purity (min) % 98 98

2. Inert matter (max) % 2 2
3. Other crop seed (max) % None None
4. Germination (min) % 70 70
5. Huskless seed (max) (By number) 2.0% 2.0%
(Contd.)
Sunflower 149
Seed standards FS CS
6. Total weed seeds (max) 5/kg 10/kg

7. Objectionable weed seed None None
8. Seed infested with Orabanche (max) None None
9. Moisture content %
a. Pervious container (max) 9.0 9.0
b. Vapour proof container (max) 7.0 7.0
Seed Storage
The seeds stored in gunny bag can be stored upto 10 months while in 700 gauge polyethylene
bags upto 15-18 months.

The seeds are soaked in double the volume of 10-4 NaH2PO4 solution for 2 hrs and dried to
original moisture content. (8%) effective controls the deterioration process in all sunflower
hybrids particularly in low vigour CMS parental lines.
Hybrid Sunflower BSH 1
For the production of sunflower hybrid seed (BSH 1) a planting ratio of (4:1) four lines of
female parents and one line of male parent is recommended. Hand pollination at flowering to
increase the seed set percentage and yield potential is recommended.The best time for
production is May to August for perfect synchronisation. Application of 90:90:40 kg NPK
/ha is optimum to get higher yield.
Hydration-dehydration treatment of 5 months old seed using Disodium Phosphate (10-4 M)
prolonged the shelf life upto one year.For KBSH 1 and LMMRSH 3 hybrid the optimum planting
ratio are 1:8 and 1:6 respectively.
Hybrid Sunflower BSH 3
For seed production of Hybrid sunflower BSH 3, a planting ratio of 1:6 is optimum.For
KBSH 1 the optimum planting ratio is 1:4. In this variety, the male parent lags behind the female
parent by 7 days under Southern Indian conditions and hence the male parent can be sown
seven days ahead of female for synchrony of flowering.
Steps
1.Development of inbreds. 2. Evaluation of inbreds for combining ability. 3.Conversion of
inbreds into CGMS lines and R lines. 4. Production of hybrids.
Varietial Renovation
In sun flower the varieties released are renovated annually to produce super elite (Breeder
seed) and Elite Seed (Foundation seed).
22
Safflower
Carthamus tinctorius (2n = 24)
Place of Origin: Africa

Related species: The wild species Carthamus oxycanthus is found in many parts of Punjab. It
is a dwarf bushy plant, very spiny, forming small achenes. The oil content is 15 to 16 percent
Classification of Safflower
Safflower can be grouped in to two broad categories.
1. The outer involucral bracts spinose, lanceolate mainly cultivated for oil. Flowers yellow
in colour.
2. Involucral bracts moderately spined or spineless which are cultivated mostly for the
dye than the spiny types. Flowers orange in colour.
Breeding Objectives
1. Breeding for High Oil Content
Normal oil content is 32% of which 72% is linoleic acid, the factor which reduces blood
cholesterol. Oil content is negatively correlated with yield. Wild species of C.oxycanthus having
28% oil were utilised in hybridization programme to increase yield and oil content but success
was not achieved.
2. Breeding for non-spiny Varieties with High Oil Content.

A very limited success was achieved Co1 safflower is an example for this.
3. Breeding Varieties Having Thin Shell

Thin shelled varieties have high oil content.
Safflower 151
4. Breeding Varieties for Dry land Conditions

Under dry land conditions the spiny nature will be more pronounced. How ever dry land
varieties with less pronounced spines were evolved. e.g. K.l.
5. Breeding Varieties Resistant to Pest and Diseases

Pests like Prodenia and Heliothis are important pests. The wild species C.oxycanthus is moderately
resistant to pests. This is being utilised in breeding programme.
23
Niger
Guizotia abyssinica (2n = 30)
It is a cross pollinated crop oil content is 35 to 45 %. The inflorescence is a head or capitullum

and heterogamons and florets are similar to that of sun flower. The breeding objectives and
methods are similar to that of sunflower.
Part–IV
Fibre Crops
Cotton 154
Jute 173
Mesta (BimliJute) 176
24
Cotton
(Gossypium sp.)
Diploid cotton: (2n = 26)

G.arboreum - Karunganni cotton
G.herbaceum - Uppam cotton
Tetraploid cotton: (2n = 52)
G.hirsutum - American cotton
G.barbadense = Egyptain cotton, sea island cotton.
A. Floral Biology
Simple, Solitary, Terminal extra axillary, petals yellow to cream in colour, hermophrodite,
bracteoles called as epicalyx, three in number, free and deeply serrated and persistent at the
base of the flower. Nectary gland is present on each bracteole. Calyx five united, cup shaped,
corolla five, polypetalous, a purple spot is present on the inner side of the claw of the petal
(petal spot) in some species. Androecium forming a staminal column (monadelphous), bearing
numerous anthers. Ovary superior penta carpellary, style slender, passes thro’ staminal column
with three to five lobed stigma, ovules many in axile placentation.
B. Anthesis and Pollination

There is much variation in case of flower opening. Asiatic cottons open between 8 and 10 AM.
American cottons open much earlier. Temperature affects the flower opening. After flower
opening the cream yellow colour corolla turns pink within a day and later changes to red. The
receptivity of the stigma is 8 to 10 AM.
Cotton 155
C. Selfing
Cotton is an example for often cross pollinated crop. Selfing is done by sealing the flower bud
by using thread, paper clips, wet clay or mud and other devices to prevent entry of insects
responsible for cross pollination.
D. Emasculation and Crossing

Emasculation is done by removing the staminal column by giving a cut with thumb nail.
Emasculation is done in the evening usually a day before flower opening. Immediately
after emasculation the flower is covered with colour butter paper bag for easy identification
next day morning. Pollen from the male flower is dusted on the emasculated flower by rubbing
the staminal column of the male parent. Immediately after pollination the flower is covered
with white butter paper bag and proper labelling is also done. This method is known as Doak’s
method.
E. Agencies dealing with Cotton Research

1. National Agency : CICR - Central Institute of Cotton Research, Nagpur.
2. State level : CICR - Regional Station, Coimbatore. All India Coordinated cotton
improvement project.
F. Varieties Released
1.Introduction
Cambodia cotton in South India, MCU-1.
1. Selection
K1 cotton reselection from SRT-1.

a) Inter varietal : MCU 5 - Multiple cross derivative
MCU 6 - Multiple cross derivative
MCU 8 - Single cross hybrid derivative.
MCU 9 - (MCU 5 × MCU 8)
MCU 11 - (MCU 5 × Egyptian hirsutum)
b) Interspecific Hybridization
Acala 1517 lines of G.hirsutum resistant to wilt and best fibre quality are due to natural crossing
with G.barbadense. Evaluation of tetraploid cotton is due to interspecific crossing and natural
doubling.
Old world diploid linted cotton x G.raimondii

(A genome) (Dgenome)
↓
F1 sterile
↓
Doubling
G.barbadense(AD genome)
Old world diploid linted cotton x G. thurberi
(A genome) ↓ (D genome)
F1 sterile
↓
(Doubling)
G.hirsutum
(AD genome)
Both intraspecific and interspecific hybrids are evolved in cotton.
a) Intraspecific
G.hirsutum(Gujarat 67) × G.hirsutum (American nectariless): Shankar (H4) cotton of Surat
b) Interspecific Hybrids
Varalakshmi : (Laxmi × SB 289E) (G.hirsutum) × (G.barbadense)
CBS 156 (Acala glandless × SB 10856) DCH 32 (DS 26 × SB 425)
(Jayalakshmi) TCHB 213 (TCH 1218 × TCB 209)
G. Hybrid Seed Production

1. DOAK’s Method of Hybrid Seed Production
In this method, manual emasculation of flowers is done one day before anthesis, and pollination
next day morning. For convenience, the parental varieties are grown in same fields in the ratio
of 4:1 (Emasculation and pollination is done as described earlier).
2. Use of Male Sterile Line

Cytoplamic. genic male sterility was developed by Vesta G. Meyer an American scientist. She
obtained CMS lines by transferring hirsutum genome to the cytoplasm of wild species
G.harknessi. Restorer lines were also developed in hirsutum and barbadense back ground.
Genic male sterility was also observed in cotton but utilisation is difficult due to segregation of
sterile line in 50:50 ratio of sterile and fertile and maintenance of sterile line is laborious.
Another type of male sterility is transformation of staminal column into a petaloid condition.
This was obtained when G.arboreum genome is transformed to cytoplasm of G.anamalum
Cotton 157
3. Practical Difficulties in use of CMS lines for Hybrid Seed Production

a) Lack of simply inherited restorer gene that maintains fertility over a wide range of
environment.
b) lack of development of good combiners possessing male sterile cytoplasm and restorer
factor.
c) Lack of dependable and economic method of controlling pollination by insect pollen
vectors.
MCU 7- Xray irradiated mutant of L 1143.
MCU 10 - Gamma irradiated mutant of MCU 4.
5. Population Improvement followed in USA

a) Recurrent selection : Pima S1 Pima S4 of G.barbadense.
b) Synthetic variety : Deltapine 15 developed at konyvllwer USA.
c) Composite : Pima 17 of G.barbadense.
H. Special Breeding Techniques in cotton

a) Bulked progeny method (Texas method)
In commercial cotton varieties with a broad genetic base is desirable so that they have the
adaptability to the requirement of varied and widely different environmental conditions. Texas
method provides such plasticity.
(i) Open pollinated seeds of selected F2 single plants are grown in replicated randomized
block design along with standard check variety. Best progeny are marked and harvested
on single plant basis. Yield and fibre quality will be assessed and best ones will be
selected and seeds will be bulked for testing in F4.
(ii) Again the F4 bulks are also tested in replicated randomised block design the process
done in F3 is repeated.
(iii) The F5 and F6 progenies are tested in MLT and later released as variety.
b) Mass pedigree selection technique of Harland

This system was used by Harland for the improvement of Peruvian cotton variety with spectacular
success.
First season: Examine a large number of selected single plant from a heterogenous commercial
crop and fix up specification or norms for making selection.
Second season
(i) Grow progeny rows of single plants in replication
(ii) Examine bulk samples from these progeny rows and eliminate rows failing to confirm to
the norms fixed during first season. This is known as bulk norm test
(iii) Examine the single plants in the selected progeny rows and eliminate the plants failing to
confirm to the norms. This is called ‘single plant norm test’.
Third season
Repeat the bulk norms test as done in second season and select the best lines.
Fourth season
Mix the seeds of selected lines and raise the multiplication plot and distribute them.
TCHB 213 Seed Production Guidelines

Parentage : TCH 1218 x TCB 209 (G.hirsutum) (G.barbadense)
For the seed production in an area of one acre, the female parent TCH 1218 is to be raised in
80 cents and the male parent TCB 209 in 20 cents.
Spacing: For female parent 4’ × 2’
Male parent: 3’ × 2’
Synchronisation
Sowing of male parent should be advanced by 15 days. The male parent should be sown 5
meters away from the female.
Seed rate: Female parent : 800 g
Male parent : 200 g
Season
August. Dibble the seeds of male parent at 2 seeds/hill on 1st August and female parent on 15th
August.
Emasculation and Pollination

Emasculate and pollinate as far as possible in the buds appearing during the first six to eight
weeks of reproductive phase to ensure good setting and development of bolls.
Restrict emasculation to each day evening from 3 to 6pm and pollination next morning between
9 AM to 1 PM.
Cover the male buds in the previous day evening with butter paper bag for their use in the next
day.
Cotton 159
Emasculated buds may be protected with butter paper bag. Tie a thread to the pedicel of the
bud immediately after pollination.
Close the crossing programme after 9th week from commencement of crossing and flowers
appearing subsequently are removed to facilitate proper development of crossed bolls.
Nip the top and side shoots to arrest further vertical and horizontal growth respectively.
Normally one flower from the male parent will cover 5 to 10 flowers of the female parent for
crossing.

Varieties
Under isolation, by open pollination, the varieties are multiplied. For nucleus seed production
selfing of flowers is done with cotton (lint) or red earth.
Hybrids
In cotton both inter and intraspecific hybrids are available.
Interspecific Hybrid
Varalakshmi : Lakshmi × SB289E (G.hirsutum × G.barbadense).
DCH 32 / Jayalakshmi : DS28 × SB 425(G.hirsutum × G.barbadense).
Intraspecific Hybrid
Suguna
Tool employed for Hybrid

The hybrid seed production in cotton is achieved through emasculation and dusting technique
which is the physical removal of male organ (Staminal column) from the female parent.
1. Emasculation and Dusting

At the time of flower initiation in female line, the flowers that are going to open next day are
selected and the petals are removed between 3-6 pm. With the help of nail or needle ,the total
staminal (Pollen + anther + anther tube) column are removed. Then the flowers are covered
with a definite colour cover for easy identification of the emasculated flower. In the morning
between 9 am - 12 noon, which is the anthesis time, the flowers of selected male parent are
plugged and dusted on the stigma of the emasculated flower on opening the cover. Then it is
again covered with different coloured cover to avoid pollination with other pollen and to identify
the emasculated and dusted flower from the rest. The pollen from a single flower is enough to
dust 4-5 female flowers. The pollen receptivity of the stigma is for 46 hours.
For easy identification of selfed boll from emasculated and dusted boll the bract can be removed
while emasculating, owing to the little contribution of bract to seed set and seed yield.
(e.g.) TCHB 213: TCH 1218 × TCB 21.
Particulars of Varieties/Hybrids
Varieties Parentage Season Irrigated Seed yield
/Hybrids /Rainfed (kg/ha)
MCU 5 Multiple cross Aug- January, Irrigated 1850
MCU7 X ray irradiation of x L 1143 EE Jan- February to May–June 1330
(summer) Irrigated
MCU 11 MCU 5 x Egyptian hirsutum
hybrid derivative Aug – January,Irrigated 2200
LRA 5166 Laxmi x Reba B.50 x AC 122 Sep-October to Jan - February 725
Rainfed
K10 K9 x 11876 hybrid derivative Sep-October to Jan – February 726
Rainfed
K11 (0794-1-DX 11876) x Multiple Hybrid derivative 1100
(0794-D x 11450) Oct- March Rainfed
Suvin Hyrbid derivative from the cross
Sujatha x St.Vincent Aug – February, Irrigated 1020
Jayalaksmi Interspecific hybrid of DS 28 G. hirsutum x SB 425 (VF) 2880
G. barbadense Aug-February, Irrigated
TCHB 213 Interspecific hybrid of TCH 1218 (G. hirsutum) Aug-February, Irrigated 2215
and TCB 209 (G. barbadense)
SVPR 1 MCU 7 × AC 129/2 February – July Summer – Irrigated 15-16 Qtl.
of kapas /ha
Savitha 17 x M 12 (Intra hirsutum hybrid) Aug-February, Irrigated 1800
HB 224 It is an interspecific hybrid involving G. hirsutum x G. barbadense.
Aug – February, Irrigated 2000
Hybrid Cotton Seed Production

In cotton, there are two methods of hybrid seed production viz., (1) conventional method, and
(2) male sterility method. These are briefly discussed below:
Conventional Method
In this method hybrid seed production is carried out by hand emasculation and pollination.
Breeder seed of male and female parents is used for the production of hybrids seed. This
ensures genetic purity in seed production. The female and male parents are planted in the same
field in separate plots in 4:1 or 5:1 ratio. The sowing of parental material is done in such a way
that there should be nicking in the flowering time of both the parents. For example, the female
parent of hybrid 4 i.e., G. 67 flowers one month later than the male parent (American Necatriless).
Here sowing of G. 67 is done one month before the sowing of male parent for nicking of their
flowering period. The off type plants are rouged out before initiation of crossing programme.
Crossing work is started after one week of flowering initiation. Flower buds, which are
likely to open the next day, are chosen for emasculation. Anthers of selected buds are removed
Cotton 161
gently with the help of nail as suggested by Doak (1934)and covered with tissue paper bag or
red colour to prevent natural outcrossing. The best time for emasculation is 3-6 pm.
Emasculated buds are pollinated the next day with the pollen of male parent. The best time for
pollination is 8-11 AM for south and central zone and 9A to 12.00 noon for north zone
because stigma receptivity is maximum during this period. Generally, one flower of male
flower pollinates 4 to 5 buds. After pollination, the red tissue paper bags are replaced by white
tissue paper bags for identification. A label or thread is also tied on the pedicel for identification.
In cotton, fertilization occurs after 12-30 hours of pollination. Hence, the cross-buds should
remain covered for 3-4 days after pollination. The straw tube used for cold drink is also used
for covering the stigma of emasculated buds before and after pollination.
Following are Some Important Sspects for Manual Hybrid Seed Production in Cotton
(i) Selection of right type of bud, removal of calyx, corolla and androecium whorl by
thumb nail method, protecting by isolation, pollination at right time chanced pollination
prevention by removal of uncrossed flowers, identification of emasculated bud and
crossed boll etc., are important steps for high purity and high setting percentage. Covering
with paper bags has now been dispensed with to reduce cost of hybrid seed production
without adverse effect on seed purity and quality due to negligible percent of out crossing
in cotton.
(ii) Administrative, financial and managerial systems for crossed seed production in handling
labour force, field inspection, harvest, pooling, ginning and seed processing besides
grow out test for genetic purity are crucial factors for success in the enterprise.
(iii) About forty million labour days of annual rural employment have been additionally
generated by hybrid cottons both through seed production and cultivation and specially
benefiting farm women.
(iv) Hybrid seed production in Asiatic cotton hybrids is very cumbersome, Costly and low
yielding on account of which progress is very tardy and low. Seed setting in Diploid is
about 25 per cent whereas, in tetraploid it is 40 - 45 percent.
Male Sterility Method

This method is used for hybrid seed production of only those hybrids, which have been
developed through the use of male sterility. Use of male sterility reduces only the cost of
emasculation. Pollination has to be done manually. Two types of male sterility systems are
used in cotton, viz., gene male sterility and cytoplasmic genic male sterility.
As many as 11 different genes have been identified governing the male sterility system. Weaver
(1968) reported two recessive genes ms5 and ms6. Mayer in USA developed stable cytoplasmic
male sterile cotton with cytoplasm from the wild diploid species, G. harknessii (d 2-2) and
genome of G. hirsutum. Now highly stable male sterile lines and desirable restorer lines with
full fertility restoration system have been developed. It is expected that it will soon be used in
hybrid seed production. The very first genetic male sterile line of G. arboreum (GMS -1 DS-5)
has been developed land used by CCS Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar. This GMS is
controlled by single recessive gene.
In GMS system, 11 loci have been identified, of which 10 are in G. hirsutum and one in G.
barbadense, Ms4, Ms7, Ms10 and Ms11 are dominant genes; Ms1, Ms2 and Ms3 behave as
single recessives and MS5,MS6, MS 8 and MS 9 enjoy duplicate recessive status in male
sterile background. All American varieties carry MS 5, MS 6 for restoring fertility. Gregg line
is the only good basic source of genetic male - sterility (ms5 ms 6) for developing stable GMS
female parents of any new hybrid to be produced. Four to five backcrosses are required for
converting the potential female parent into a genetic male sterile line and are achieved by
alternate selfing and selection, each time choosing lines gives 1F : IS. GMS line is maintained
by sibmating between fertile and sterile plants.
Use of Genic Male Sterility

In cotton, Gregg male sterility source is used. The male sterility is transferred to the female
parent through backcross technique. The male sterility is governed by two recessive genes
(ms5, ms6). A heterozygous male sterile genotype which segregate at one loci only (ms5, ms5/
ms6 ms6 or ms5 ms5/ms6 ms6) is identified. Cross-of this male sterile genotype with fertile
line will always produce male sterile and male fertile plants in 1:1 ratio. Fertile plants are
identified only when flowering starts. These are removed. The male sterile plants are pollinated
with pollen of male parent to get hybrid seed in case of male sterile parent, 3-4 seeds should be
sown per hill, because 50 per cent of the population (male fertile) is removed when flowering
starts.
Uses of Cytoplasmic Genic Male Sterility

In cotton G.harkessii cytoplasm is used as a source of cytoplasmic genic male sterility.
The male sterility is transferred to the female parent and restorer gene to the male parent by
backcross technique. The male sterile and restorer lines are planted in the same field but in
separate plots in 4:1 or 5:1 ratio. The crop is grown at wider spacing under irrigated conditions
to get continuous flush flowers for seed production. Crossing is started after one week of
flower initiation. The male sterile parent (female) is pollinated with the pollen of restorer (male)
parent. After pollination flowers are covered with tissue paper bags to avoid natural outcrossing
with crossing with other plants.
Reasons for Unsuccess of Hybrid Cotton in North Zone

The main reason for unsuccess of cotton hybrids in northern zone are 1. high cost of hybrid
seed 2. unsuitability for double cropping system 3. cold weather during boll opening and 4.
high temperature during sowing time and high yield potential of varieties.
Limitations of Hybrids
There are four main problems of cotton hybrids viz., 1. high cost of seed, high cost of
cultivation, 3. difficulty in seed production especially in interspecific hybrids.
Cotton 163
Cotton Seed Quality

Cotton is primarily a fibre-yielding crop. It is also an important source of edible vegetable oil
and protein. Thus, cotton is fibre, oil and protein yielding crop. Hence, the seed quality of
cotton is adjusted in two ways viz., 1. planting seed quality and 2. milling or crushing
seed quality. Despite manifold uses of cotton seed, a very little attention has been paid towards
improvement of cotton seed quality in the past. Now this aspect is gaining increasing importance
by cotton breeders.
Role of Private Seed Firms and Research and Development

Nearly 25 per cent of the area under Hybrid cotton which itself occupy nearly 40 per cent of
the total cotton area in the country, is under private hybrids notably by M/s Ankara, Raise,
Vikram, Ajit and Mahyco and others. It has also been reported that M/s Mahyco Monsanto and
M/s Rasi seeds are in the process of developing cotton hybrids “Bt” gene. About 10,000
quintals of private hybrid seeds were produced during 2000, besides an equal amount of
“Public Hybrid” seeds by State Seed Corporation and Private Seed Firms. The production of
hybrid seed is more than sufficient to cover about 50 per cent of the total cotton area this year.
Hybrid Parentage Year of Average Staple Spinning States where

release yield q/ha class count grown
Intra –hirsutum
H4 G 67 x American Nectariless 1970 30 L 50s Gujarat,
Maharastra, AP, MP
JKHy 1 Khandwa 2 (MB) x Reba B 50 (s) 1976 25 L 50s Madhya Pradesh, A.P
H6 Vishnu × SRT 1 1979 30 L 60s Gujarat, Maharastra,
MP, AP
PKVHy 2Ak 32 (s) DHY 286-1 1981 10R SM 40s Vidarbha
NHH 44 Bikaneri Narma x Ac 738 1983 25 SM 40s Maharashstra
Savitha T 7 x M12 1987 30 EL 60s Tamil Nadu, A.P.
H8 G.cot. 10 x Surat dwarf 1988 35 SM 60s Gujrat
MECH 4 C 601 x C 219 1991 35 L 40s Maharashtra
30sCIC C 15 / 2 x B.N 1991 30 SM 40s Maharashtra
RHH 1
Fateh LH 660 x Suman 1995 34 SM 30s Punjab
Dhanalaxmi H777 x 1695 - 175 J 1995 35 SM 40s Haryana
Maruvikas SCRF 1 x SCRH 1 1996 35 SM 40s Rajasthan
Omshankar zzSH 2379 (s) K 34007 (s) 1996 33 SM 30s Punjab, Haryana
Rajasthan
PKVHy 3 CAK 32 x DHY 286-IR 1993 15R L 40s Vidarbha, Gujarat
PKVHy 4 CMS based 1996 20R EL 50s Maharashtra
DHH 11 CPD 429 x CPD 420 1996 25 L 50s Karnataka
Varalaxmi Laxmi x SB 289 E 1972 25 EL 60s Karnataka, A.P.
Tamil Nadu, Gujarat
DCH 32 DS 28 x SB 425 YF 1981 30 EL 60s Karnataka, A.P.
Tamil Nadu, Gujarat
NHB 12 NS 15 SB 289 E 1989 30 EL 60s Maharashtra
HB 24 LRA 5166 x P4 1989 25 EL 60s Tamil Nadu, A.P.
(Contd.)
Hybrid Parentage Year of Average Staple Spinning States where

release yield q/ha class count grown
TCHB Karnataka
TCHB TCH 1218 x TCB 209 1989 25 EL 60s Tamil Nadu
DHB 105 CPD 428 x B 82 1996 30 EL 60s Southzone
Diploid Hybrids
DH 7 Sujay x G 27 1985 15R M 20s Gujarat
DH 9 4011 x 824 1988 15R L 40s Gujarat
DDH 2SM 88 x A 82-1-1 1992 10R M 20s Karnataka
Note: 1. Long, SM =Superior medium, M= medium, EL = extra long, R= Rainfed yield, S= short NO.
Steps Necessary for Efficiency in Seed Production

1. Emasculate and dust as far as possible buds appearing during the first six weeks of
reproduction phase to ensure good setting and development of bolls.
2. Restrict your emasculation to each day evening to 3 PM to 6 PM and pollination from
morning between 10 am to 1 pm to ensure highest purity of hybrid seeds. Emasculation
should be complete and perfect.
3. Choose optimum size of bud and avoid young or too old buds for emasculation.
4. Cover the male buds with paper packets previous day evening for their use next day.
5. Emasculated buds may be covered preferably with butter paper packets.
6. Do not forget to tie a thread to the pedicel of the bud immediately after pollination
7. Close your crossing programme after 9th week (from commencement of crossing) and
remove all buds and flowers appearing subsequently to facilitate the development of
crossed bolls.
8. Nip the top and side shoots at the stalks to stop further vertical and horizontal growth.
9. Light irrigation’s should be given as and when required. Excessive or scanty or inadequate
irrigation’s should be avoided especially during crossing and boll development period.
10. Continue irrigation till last pick of the crossed bolls. Frequency of irrigation depends on
weather factors like rainfall, temperature and wind velocity.
11. Pick up the ripe and completely opened bolls along with brackts and threads and collect
in baskets for second sorting. Bolls without threads may be bulk harvested as Laxmi
seed cotton.
12. Crossed bolls collected in baskets may be sorted out for second time to verify that they
are crossed bolls. Then collect the crossed seed cotton and store in gunny bags carefully
marked as crossed bolls.
13. Rain touch cotton or hard locks should be picked and kept separately to avoid poor
germination of hybrid seeds.
Cotton 165
14. Store the seed cotton in a cool dry place, till it is handed over to processing unit
15. Seed producers are required to keep a clear account of the cost of production of hybrid
seed.
(2) Genetic Male Sterility

Hybrids are also produced by employing genetic male sterility system in cotton, where the
female parent will segregate into 50:50 ratio of male sterile and male fertile plants. The male
fertile plants are removed and the male sterile plants are crossed with concerned male line.
(e.g.) Suguna : Gregg X K3400.
Land Requirement
The field should be fertile and formed into ridges and furrows. Black cotton soils are highly
preferable than other soils. Land should be free from volunteer plants and designated diseases
especially the wilt disease.
Season
Winter crop : Aug - Sep (After Aug. 15th).
Summer crop : Feb - March (Before Feb. 15th).
Seeds and Sowing

Speed should be obtained from an authenticated source with tag and bill.
Pre-Sowing Management
The seeds can be hardened with 1% prosopis and pungam leaf extract for rainfed/summer
sowing to resist water stress problem.Use of delinted seed is better than fuzzy seed to avoid
diseased and injured seed.
Seed Rate
Varieties: 15 kg/ha (fuzzy seed) 7.5 kg/ha (Naked seed).
Hybrids: 3.75 kg/ha (Jayalakshmi), 10 kg (TCHB 213).
Male: 2 kg/ha.
Female: 4 kg/ha.
Seed Treatment
Treat the seeds with azospirillum at 3 packets (600 gms/ha) and 2 kg of azospirillum / ha
mixed with 25 kg of FYM and 25 kg of soil and applied on the seed line. This saves 25 %
Nitrogen besides increasing yield.
Spacing
Commercial purpose : 70 × 30 cm Seed crop
1. Long duration : 90 × 30 cm
2. Short duration : 60 × 30 cm
Planting Ratio
8:2 but here it is a block system where flowers of 2 parts of male is sufficient to dust 8
parts of female parent. The male and female parents are raised at a isolation of 5m to avoid
genetic and physical contamination.
Isolation (m)
Varieties 50 30
Hybrids 50 30
Manure’s and Fertilization

Compost : 12.5 tons/ha
Total : 100:50:25 NPK kg/ha
Basal : 50:50:25 NPK kg/ha
Top dressing: 25:0:0 NPK kg/ha , (40-45 days after sowing), 25:0:0 NPK kg/ha(70-75 days
after sowing)
Foliar spray ( DAP): Spray DAP 2% (for A lines spray on 60,70,80 and 90th days after sowing.
( Soak 5 kg of DAP in 25 liters of water or over night and supernatant liquid should be taken
and mixed with 475 liters of water for spraying 1 hectare).
Micronutrient Application
Mix 12.5 kg of micronutrient mixture with enough sand to make a total quantity of 50 kg for
one hectare.
Nutritional Disorders
Nitrogen Deficiency
Yellowing and drying or firing of lower leaves. Plants light green lower leaves yellow.
Phosphorous Deficiency
Leaves dark green , plants dwarfed , maturity delayed
Cotton 167
Leaves show yellowish , white mottling , changing to light yellowish green, yellow spot occur
between veins, the centre of these die and numerous brown specks occur at tips and margins
between veins - tip and margin curl downward leaves finally become reddish brown.
Calcium Deficiency
Petioles bend and collapse - in seedlings there is collapse and death of primary nodule, terminal
buds and portion of hypocotyl.
Zinc Deficiency
General bronzing of the first three leaves pronounced interveinal chlorosis. The leaves become
thick and brittle with their margin turn upward - shortened internodes - bushy appearance.
Sulphur Deficiency
The leaf blades become uniformly yellow or chlorotic - old leaves as well as new leaves turn
yellow.a) In the case of zinc deficient soils ZnSO4 @ 50 kg /ha as basal or ZnSO4 0.5 % spray
thrice after 40th DAS.b) When reddening occurs in leaves apply 5% MgSO4, Urea and ZnSO4
0.1 % as foliar spray on 50th and 80th day to correct this malady.
NAA Application
Spray 40 ppm of NAA (40 mg of NAA dissolved in 1 litre of water) at 40 / 45th day. The high
volume spray liquid in 1125 litre /ha. Repeat the same dose after 15 days of first spray.
Topping
Arrest terminal growth by nipping the terminal 10-12th node for controlling excessive vegetative
growth.
Roguing
The crop should be rogued for offtypes, selfed plants, from vegetative phase to harvest phase
depending on plant stature, leaf size, leaf colour, hairiness, stem colour, flower colour, petal
spot, pollen colour, number of symbodia, boll size, boll shape, pittedness etc. to maintain
genetic purity.
Field Standards
Maximum Permitted %
Varieties Hybrids Varieties Hybrids
1. Off types 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.50

2. Pollen shedders – 0.05 – 0.10
Maximum permitted at any stage at and after flowering. Standard shall be met separately for
seed parent and pollinator .It shall be applicable in case male sterile line is used for the production
of hybrid seed .It includes selfed plants.
Pests and Diseases Management

Pest Management
Pest
Suggested control measure

Thrips
Spray any one of the following insecticides Methyl demeton 25 EC 500 ml/ha. Dimethoate 30
EC 500 ml / ha.
Aphids
Phosphomidon 85 WSC 300 ml / ha (500 lt spray fluid /ha)
Leaf Hopper
Spray monocrotophos 1000 ml / ha and NSKE 5% where the leaf hopper is a big menace.
Chemical spraying of Margocide 0.5 % or Neem oil 3% thrice at fortnightly intervals effectively
controls leaf hopper.
Thrips and Leaf Hopper

Spray pyroclofos 50 EC at 1.5 lt/ha.
Boll Worms
During the early stages of square formation apply Endosulfan 2 l/ha. During boll formation and
maturation stage, apply any one of the following insecticides per ha; Phosalone 35 EC 2.5 l,
Quniolphos 25 EC 2.0 l, Carbaryl 50 WP 2.5 kg (1000 lt of spray fluid/ha), Pyroclofos 50
EC @ 1.5 lt/ha. Quinolphos AF is equally effective as that of quinalphos EC and Endosulfan
EC. AF is desirable since it is ecofriendly as it is devoid of inflammable solvent which is used
in EC.
Pink Boll Worm

Where pink boll worm is a big problem, spray Triazophos 0.1 % and Endosulfan 0.07 % in
alternation even after 100 DAS.
(Whenever there is infestation by mite, use either wettable sulphur 1.25 kg/ha or dicofol 1.10
1t/ha. Relase the boll worm parasite. (Chelonus black burnii at weekly intervals from square
formation stage and apply either endosulfan or carbaryl at the above dosage as needed (When
the boll worm damage touches ETL of 10%.
Cotton 169
Disease management
1.Bacterial Blight (Angular leaf spot or Black Arm)
This occurs severely in summer tract. Adopt field sanitation and avoid stacking infested plants
in the field as the bacterium in affected plant material is viable upto 20 months.
i) Spray any one of the following chemicals when initial symptoms of the disease appear
on the foliage. Streptomycin sulphate + Tetracyline mixture 100 g + Copper Oxychloride
2 kg/ha. Copper oxychloride alone 2.5 kg /ha.
ii) Repeat spraying at 10 days interval twice if drizzling continues.
2. Alternaria Leaf Spot

Spray copper oxychloride or Mancozeb (1 kg) or Chlorothalanil (0.5 kg ) or Hexaconazole
(2.0 lt/ ha).
Grey mildew: Spray Carbendazim (250 g/ha).
3. Boll rot
Spray any one of the following : Carbendazim 500 g, Mancozeb 2.0 kg, Copper Oxy chloride
2.5 kg/ha, along with an insecticides recommended for boll worm from 45th day at fortnightly
interval.
4. Root rot
Spot drench Carbendazim @ 1 g / lit at the base of affected plants as well as surrounding
healthy plants. Apply neem cake @ 150 kg/ha to the soil and treat the seeds with talc based
Trichoderma viride @ 4 g/ha to reduce the root rot incidence.
Weed Management
Pre-emergence application of Fluchloralin 2 lt/ha or Pendimethalin 3.3 lt/ha or Thiobencarb
3.0 lt/ha followed by one hand weeding on 40 days after crop emergence. At the time of
herbicide application sufficient soil moisture must be there. Fluchloralin needs soil incorporation
or irrigation immediately after sowing. If sufficient soil moisture is not available for applying
herbicides hand weeding may be given at 10-20 days after crop emergence.
Irrigation Management
Once in 10 days. Critical periods are boll formation to boll maturation stages.
Specific Problems
Boll shedding will occur either due to extreme dry climate or lesser frequency of irrigation
or physiological disorder. By spraying 40 ppm of NAA and Cycocel at 20ppm, this can be
minimised.
Harvesting
The seed attains physiological maturation 45 days after anthesis. The initiation of hair line
cracks on the dried bolls are the physical symptoms of physiological maturation. At that time
the moisture content will be 30-35%. The bolls are harvested as pickings in cotton. Due to
continuous flowering habit once over harvest is not practiced. As and when the bolls burst
with hair line cracks the bolls are collected and dried. Normally five to seven pickings can be
practiced in a crop. But early 4-5 pickings are recommended for seed purpose.
Harvest in the morning hours upto 10 to 11 a.m. only when there is moisture so that dry
leaves and bracts do not stick to the kappa’s and lower the market value. Pick kappa’s from
well burst bolls only. Remove only the kappa’s from the bolls and leave the bracts on the
plants. As kappa’s is picked, sort out good puffy ones and keep separately. Keep stained,
discoloured and insect attacked kappa’s separately.
Kappa’s Sorting
The outer shell of boll is removed and kappa’s is sorted manually to pick good quality seeds.
Hard locks are to be removed (Kappa’s without proper bursting and lint is light yellow in
colour), since these kappa’s mostly result in poor quality seeds, due to boll worm or other
insect attack.
Ginning and Certification

1. Gin the crossed kappa’s in separate gins erected in authorised seed processing units or
farm gins under the close supervision of the authorities concerned to ensure purity and
avoid seed damage.
2. Sieve the seed in two types of mesh to remove small shriveled seeds, broken seeds and
clean perfectly from any dirt or dust.
3. After ginning, the seeds should be dried well and cleaned by hand picking. After cleaning,
certification agency will take sample for testing germination and genetic purity test.
Maximum Germination 65% and Genetic purity 90% should be maintained.
4. Certified seeds would be bagged in one kg bag, sealed and details regarding its origin,
germination, physical purity per cent and genetical purity percent, besides season of
production and passed on to sale agencies or respective producers for commercial sale.
5. Uncertified seeds would be procured by the concerned Department of Agency at the
market rate for the ordinary cotton seeds for further multiplication. This step is essential
to avoid unauthorised sale of substandard uncertified seed.
(Dead seeds may be removed by soaking acid delinted cotton seeds in monolayer for 3 h and
drying back to original moisture content. The seeds when put into potable water will separate
into sinkers and floaters. Dead seeds become buoyant and float. Sinkers may be soaked in
double the volume of 3.59 Disodium phosphate in 100 lt water for 2 h (Fuzzy seeds 1 h). The
soaked seeds should be air dried to original moisture content. The mid storage correction
improves the planting value of old seeds).
Cotton 171
Processing
The ginned seeds (or) the fuzzy seeds are graded by hand picking and by pressing on wire-
mesh sieves to remove the under sized seeds and dust.
Seed standards (%) for foundation and certified seed classes of cotton
Particulars Foundation seed Certifiedseed Hybrid seed certified
pure seed (minimum) 98 98 98

Inert Matter (Maximum) 2.0 2.0 2.0
Other crop seeds (Maximum) 5 kg 0.10 10 kg
Weed seeds (maximum) 5 kg 10 kg 10 kg
Genetic purity (%) 100 100 90
Germination (Minimum) 65 65 65
Moisture
Ordinary container 10 10 10
Vapour Proof Container 6 6 6
Isolation distance (meters) 50 30 -
Off types (%) 0.10 0.20 10
Acid Delinting of Cotton Seeds

Aim
To separate the seed from the lint and also to increase the free flowing nature of seeds by
delinting the harvested cotton with concentrated H2 SO4.
Principle
In cotton the fuzzy seed or linted seed cause the following problems in seed production.
1. It cause problems in sowing and population maintenance mainly because of the non free
flowing nature of the fuzzy seed.
2. Linted seed material may be contaminated with broken ,diseased seeds etc..
3. Since it contains lint we could not able to identify the contaminants(other varieties of
cotton) which makes quality assessment difficult.
Materials Required
Fuzzy cotton seed, Conc. H2SO4, plastic bucket, glass rod/wooden stick and water.
Procedure
Take the measured and required quantity of cotton seeds in a plastic container/bucket and add
Con. H2SO4 at the rate of 100 ml/kg of seed. While adding it should be added slowly with
constant stirring by using wooden stick for 2-3 minutes to facilitate uniform coverage, and
better treatment effect. After 3 minutes, all seeds will turn in to coffee brown/dark brown
colour,then wash the seeds immediately for 4-5 minutes with cold water until the acid nature
of the seed coat is removed. Care should be taken while washing. The improper washing will
affect the viability of seed. After thorough washing the entire seed should be placed in water in
the ratio of 1:10 to remove floaters and sinkers. Floaters can be removed and used for some
other purposes. The sinkers can be used for sowing / storage purpose. For large scale delinting
of cotton we can use” Cotton delinting machine”.
Advantages of Acid Delinting of Cotton

1.It eliminates the hard seed nature
2. It improves the germination percentage by way of removing the inhibitors in the pericarp.
3.It reduces the seed rate
4. Mechanical sowing is possible.
5. Seed borne pathogens eliminated.
Processing of Delinted Seed

The free flowing delinted seeds can be graded using 10/64" round perforated metal sieve,
which is recommended as standard sieve in OSAW cleaner cum grader for cotton.
The seeds can also be graded by specific gravity method by using floatation technique using
water. The seeds will separate into floaters and sinkers. The sinkers are good seeds. From
floaters reddish (immature) and damaged (seed with insect hole) are removed. The brownish
seeds which are good seeds are hand picked and used for sowing/storage.
Seed Standard
Characters Foundation seed Certified seed
1. Physical purity % (min) 98.0 98.0

2. Inert matter % (max) 2.0 2.0
3. Other crop seed (max) 5 kg-1 10 kg-1
4. Weed seed (max) 5 kg-1 10 kg-1
5. Germination (min) 65 65
6. Moisture content (max)
a. Moisture pervious 10 10
b. Moisture vapour proof 6 6
Seed Storage
The seeds can be stored upto 8-9 months in moisture pervious container and upto 12-15
months in moisture vapour proof containers. The seed treatment with Thiram @ 2.5 kg-1 or
chlorine based halogen mixture @ 3g kg-1 will protect the seed from storage fungi Aspergillus
spp and preserve the storability.

The fuzzy and delinted seeds can be soaked in double the volume of 10-4 molar solution of
Na2HPO4 for 2 and 1 hr respectively (3.59g/100 lt of water.) Then the seeds are shade and sun
dried to bring back to the moisture content of 10–12%.
25
Jute
Corchorus sp (2n=14)
Tiliaceae
The genus Corchorus includes about 40 species. In India only 8 species occur. Two cultivated
species are
C.capsularis: White jute 50 races occur in this
C.olitorius: Tossa jute 8 races occur in this.
Both the species are not crossable. Among the two olitorius yields more fibre/unit area. The
fibre is finer, softer, more, lustrous and less rooty than capsularis. Olitorius occupies about
25% of jute area in India. One of the draw backs of Tossa jute is pre mature flowering if the
varieties are sown earlier in March-April in early monsoon rains. The pre mature flowering
leads to profuse branching and deterioration in fibre quality.
Capsularis strains are characterised by a single flush of flowering at the end of single vegetative
period. Based on maturity, the varieties in Capsularis are divided in to:
Early-Flowering in July
Medium-August
Late-September.
Breeding Objectives
1. Breeding for High Yielding short Duration Jute Varieties
Early varieties are generally low yielders whereas late varieties are high yielders. So to combine
high yield with earliness is one of the main objectives. Yield is positively correlated with plant
height, basal diameter of stem, fibre-stick ratio. Higher photo synthetic capacity with increased
lamina length, breadth, petiole length and leaf angle at 400 also contribute to yield.
2. Breeding for Quality Fibre

In jute quality is negatively, correlated with yield. The quality characters are
a) Fibre length.
b) Fibre strength.
c) Fibre colour.
d) Lustre.
e) Percentage and quality of retting.
d) Proportion of faults such as roots, spects, knots.
Environment plays a major rote in quality. Alternate and fluctuating bright sunshine, humidity
and temperature and rainfall at minimal level are favourable for improved quality.
Further retting in clear and slow running water gives good quality fibre. The tall and thick
plants in general gives inferior fibre than that in short and thick plant.
3. Breeding for Pest and Disease Resistant Varieties

In pests, stem borer and aphids cause greater damage and in diseases Macrophomena is major.
Though resistance sources are available in other related species, the crossability barrier prevents
transfer.
4. Breeding Varieties for High Seed Yield

Since jute is cut for fibre at 50% flowering stage, it is essential to reserve some plants for
production of seeds. The fibre obtained from seed crop will be poor in quality. Hence it is
necessary to breed varieties specially for high seed production with out loosing quality characters.
5. Breeding for Olitorius Varieties Having non-Shattering Habit Coupled with non-
pre Flowering Habit.
JRO 524
JRO 7885
Sudan green × JRO 632
Breeding Methods
1. Germplasm Building and Utilisation
Central Jute Technological Research Institute, Calcutta is maintaining the Jute collections.
This shows wide range of variability thus offering a great scope for improvement by selection
and hybridsation.
Jute 175
2. Introduction
Introduced short duration varieties are Jap green, Jap red, Jaichung sudan green.

a) Inter Varietal
Multiple crossing and selection are followed both in olitorius and capsularis improvement. In
olitorius improved varieties are JRO 524, JRO 7885.In capsularis JRL 412, JRL 919.
Since yield and quality are negatively correlated a balance must be struck in breeding for
improved varieties.
b) Inter Specific Cross

So far not successful. Attempts were made by straight cross mixed pollen method, Stigmatic
paste method, self anther paste method, stigma cut method polyploidy breeding. But none of
them proved successful. Difference in embryo endosperm growth is the reason.
Using X rays useful jute mutants were obtained at Calcutta JRC 7447 and Rupali two varieties.
26
Mesta (Bimli Jute)
Hibiscus cannabinus
H.sabariffa Var.altissima
Malvaceae
In Thailand Siami jute or Roselle in India. Both the species are important jute supplements and
show wide adaptability unlike jute. At present both the species are known as Mesta.
Place of Origin: H.cannabinus have its possible origin in Africa H.sabadariffia - Asia.
Kenaf is used for making ropes, twines, fishing nets and also in the paper pulp making from
kenaf stalks especially fine paper, structural boards.
H.cannabinus: Mesta
Compared to jute mesta is of inferior in quality in respect of fineness, lusture, and colour.
Mesta varieties show poor performance in spinning because the fibre is coarse, stiff, brittle
and irregular in cross section mesta alone cannot be spun in jute machines unless it is mixed
with jute in some proportion.
H. sabadarifra var.altissima (Roselle)

Roselle is an useful substitute to jute. It is also called as Siamijute two types are available.
i.Tall non branching types cultivated for fibre. ii. Dwarf, bushy wild type used as green and
edible calyx as pickle.
Breeding Objectives
1. Breeding of high yielding short duration mesta varieties (Similar to Jute)
2. Breeding for quality fibre (Similar to Jute)
3. Breeding for pest and disease resistant varieties.
Part–V
Forage Grass
Breeding Forage Grasses 178

Forage Grasses 181
Tapioca (Cassava) 185
27
Breeding Forage Crops
Procedures in breeding forage crops are based upon the same genetic principles utilised in the
breeding of other crops. Yet, forage breeding presents certain difficulties which must be
recognised and understood by the breeder. The difficulties arise from the diversity in pollination
of the different species, irregularities in fertilization and seed setting, the perennial nature of
most forage species, and differences in the evaluation and maintenance of new strains. Examples
are :
(a) Most important forage species are cross pollinated. The heterozygosity in cross- pollinated
species makes it difficult to propagate and maintain the identity of lines.
(b) Self incompatibility is common in many forage species, limiting the extent to which
they may be inbred.
(c) Many forage species have small floral parts, making artificial hybridization tedious.
(d) Some grasses reproduce largely by apomixis (seed setting without union of sperm and
egg) presenting problems in crossing and obtaining gene recombination.
(e) Many forages are poor seed producers, or produce seed of low viability
(f) Many forages produce weak seedlings and stands are not easily established.
(g) Isolation and clean land on which new strains may be increased without contamination
are not always available.
(h) The initial evaluation of selected plants or lines in the breeding nursery is generally based
on the performance of spaced plants or rows, which may not accurately represent the
performance of the strain in a thickly seeded stand as grown by the farmer.
(i) Forage species are often seeded in mixtures with other species which complicates the
evaluation of individual strains.
(j) Strains may perform differently with different systems of grazing management
Breeding Forage Crops 179
(k) Most forages are long-lived perennials and many years are required to evaluate persistence
and productiveness of new strains.
(l) Many forage species are polyploids, which increases their genetic complexity.
Varieties Released
1. Cumbu napier hybrid grass : NB 21 from Ludhiana
BN 2 from West Bengal
CO 1 (PT 2787 × P. purpureum ; Merkeri)
CO 2 (PT 8369 A × P.purpureum)
CO 3 (PT 1697 × P. purpureum)
2. Cenchrus (Cenchrus glaucus) : CO 1 (Selection from Kangaysm Local ; FS 391)
3. Fodder sorghum : CO 27 (CO 11 × S.halepense) - inter specific hybrid derivative.
4. Maize : African Tall (Composite)
5. Bajra : CO 8 (732 A × Giant Bajra) (Composite)
6. Lucerne : CO 1 (Mass selection from Coimbatore local)
7. Cowpea : CO 5 (Gamma ray mutant from CO1)
8. Velimasal : CO 1 (Introduction from Thailand in 1967)
9. Lucaena : CO 1 (Hawaian Giant) selection from K.28
10. Deenanath : CO 1 (Gamma ray mutant from Pusa 3)
11. Guinea grass : CO 1 (Clonal selection from Coimbatore local)
12. Muyal masal : Stytosanthes scabra - Introduction from Australia cv. Fitzoroi.
Breeding
The two main groups of forage crops are grasses and legumes. For grasses the following
characteristics are important and should receive attention in any breeding programme.
1. Yield of digestible nutrients and their distribution.
2. Persistence - Perennially.
3. Ease of reproduction.
4. Ease of management.
5. Palatability.
1. Yield of digestible nutrients and their distribution: Yield in terms of both quantity
and quality is more important. Quantity depends upon genotype as well as environment
the quality characters include protein, fat, fibre, carbohydrate, minerals and vitamins.
This depends on nature of the species, stage of growth when it is cut for grazing.
2. Persistence : The persistence of the herbage is also influenced by the vigour and
growth habit of the species, and its tolerance to drought and temperature variations.
Persistence is lacking in grasses due to disease, pests, drought, excessive grazing.
Persistence can be increased by agronomic methods than by breeding. However this
character is also to be borne in mind while taking up breeding programmes.
3. Ease of reproduction: High foliage yield often associated with poor seed set. So a
compromise is to be arrived while taking up breeding programme.
4. Ease of management: The forage grass must have high seedling vigour so that it can
be established easily. Since grasses are grown as mixtures there cannot be separate
management practice for them. It has to grow along with other crops.
5. Palatability: It is not linked with nutritive value. But palatability decides the intake of
forage/fodder. Leafiness and succulents are more important.
Based on the Above the Objectives of Forage Crop Improvement May be

1. Ability to grow well and quickly both independently and in association with legumes.
2. Resistance to pests and diseases, drought and frost.
3. Suitable growth habit - Short types or grasses for grazing. Tall types for hay making.
4. Prolific seeding and non seeding types, ease of vegetative reproduction.
5. Elimination of undesirable characters such as HCN in sorghum and Sudan grass,
coumarin in sweet clover, steaminess in grass or dry, pithy culms, presence of awns
and leaf shedding.
Breeding Procedures
Forage crops, based on their mode of pollination can be divided into following groups.
1. Largely cross pollinated : e.g. Pennisetum, S.halapense,Cynadon, Lucerne.
2. Largely self-pollinated : e.g. Sudan grass, Vicia.
3. Largely apomictics : e.g. Panicum maximum, Paspalum dilatatum.
4. Largely dioecious: e.g. Poa arachinifera (Pasture grass).
5. Sterile: digitaria procumbens.
Breeding Methods Normally Adopted are of Three Types

1. Self pollinated crops : Controlled hybridization and selection, back crossing and selection,
mutation breeding.
2. Cross pollinated crops: Individual plant selection, Mass selection, Inbreeding and
hybridization, Recurrent selection, Synthetics, Composites.
3. Apomictics : Clonal selection and propagation. Controlled hybridization and propagation
where there is some amount of seed set.
28
Forage Grasses
Guinea grass (Panicum maximum)
Origin : Africa
Breeding objective: To get high yielding varieties with drought and cold tolerance, more protein,
high leafiness, amenable for frequent harvest.
Method
Though there is seed set in this crop, they do not mature simultaneously. So vegetative
propagation is the best method. Crosses can be made between selected parents and the best
hybrid can be clonally propagated.
Introduction
True seed Sowing and selection.
Clonal selection.
Hybridization and selection.
Mutation.
2. Napier grass: Pennisetum purpureum or Elephant grass
Place of Origin: South Africa
Clonal Napier identified this and it was named after him. It is Rhizomatous, perennial and tall
growing.
Improvement
Clonal propagation is the method. Another inter-specific cross and maintenance by vegetative
propagation.
3. Bajra Napier Hybrids

P.glaucum x P.purpureum
Diploid ↓ Tetraploid
(2n = 14) (2n = 28)
Triploid (2n = 21) Sterile
Vegetative Propagation
Napier grass is season bound flowering will be during Oct-Dec only. So crossing between
Cumbu × Napier grass is done at that time easily. Use of Cumbu as female - identification
of selfed one in shorter period possible.
Breeding Objectives
1. High yielding varieties with less oxalate content.
2. Less pubescence and serration.
3. Drought resistant
4. More leafiness and amenable for multicut.
Methods
1. Introduction
2. Selction
3. Hybridization
- Intervarietal
- Interspecific
4. Cenchrus sp.
Cenchrus ciliarus - White Cenchrus setigerus - Black .
Cenchrus glaucus - Blue buffel.

Propagation by seeds and slips
Apomictic lines are also available.
Pusa giant cenchrus : Hybrid between Cenchrus ciliaris × Pennisetum ciliare (India) (USA).
Sterile, Clonal propagation.
CO 1 Neela Kolukattai pillu: released from Department of Forage crops, TNAU.
Forage Grasses 183
5. Marvel grass
Dicanthium annulatum
D.cariconum
A small genus of perennial grasses, rarely annuals, distributed in all tropical regions. Six species
occur in India of which two are important as fodder grasses. It is considered as one of the best
grasses in India. Seed setting is poor. So rooted slips are used for propagation.
Improvement
By crossing and vegetative propagation.
6.Johnson grass - S. halapense
It is native of Africa. It was taken to USA by colonel Johnson and hence named after him. In
S. India it occurs both as 2n = 20 and 40 forms. Because of rhizomatous condition it will
spread easily
Coll × S. halapense - CO 27 fodder cholam.
B. Forage legumes
Based on pollination behaviours forage legumes can be classified as
1. Self pollinated
Arachis marginata, Clitoria ternatia, Desmanthus virgatus, Macrotylema uniflorum, Phaseolus
trilobus, Vigna trilobus.
2. Often cross pollinated
Mass selection
Single plant selection,Hybridization and selection,Mutation. e.g. Vigna. sp. Co5 (Co1 cowpea
irradiated).
3. Cross pollinated
Red clover, Lucerne. Many of the cross pollinated species are self sterile - Lucerne.
Lucerne; Medicago sativa.
Place of Origin: South West Africa
Bur clover : Medicago hispoda
Black medicago : M. lupulina
Medicago sp
The genus includes 65 species native to Europe. Some of them are weeds and some are useful
for forage.
M. sativa – Lucerne, M. lupulina,M. falcata - useful fodders.
Pollination
In alfa alfa bees are the most important insect pollinators. Pollen is dispersed by an explosive
action commonly known as tripping. When the keel petal is pressed by the weight of the bees,
the stamens and stigma are snapped upward and came out free of keel just like a spring action.
The insect is struck by the staminal column and a mass of pollen is carried by it.
Artificial pollination in Lucerne can be made without emasculation because of the self sterility
nature. The occasional self fertile lines can be identified with the use of marker genes. While
making artificial pollination care must be taken to take the operation in screen houses where
the visit of insect (honey bee) is prevented.
Selfing is done with the help of bagging the flowers.
Breeding Methods
1. Introduction
2. Mass selection
3. Hybridization and selection
4. Synthetics and composites Ranger alfa alfa of USA
5. Poly cross method: in forage crops for the development of multiplant synthetic.
This is adopted to develop a multiplant synthetic in vegetatively propagated forage crops. The
first step is collect a number of desirable plants and form a source nursery. From the nursery
twenty five to fifty superior plants are selected and grown in isolated nursery. Random cross
pollination takes place in the isolation. The seeds are harvested and grown as progeny rows.
Then the best ones are selected and clonally propagated.
These selected clones are again raised in isolation for random crossing and a synthetic is
established.
29
Tapioca (Cassava)
Manihot esculenta (2n = 36)
Family: Euphorbiaceae
Origin: Central America.
There are no wild species seen in the cultivated Manihot esculenta. The cultivated cassava can
be classified into two broad groups viz. a) Sweet cassava and b) Bitter cassava.
a) Sweet Cassava : Shorter in duration tubers maturing in 6-9 months. The cynogenic
glucoside in confined mainly to the outer skin (periderm).
b) Bitter Cassava : Longer in duration 12-18 months to mature, the cynogenic glucoside
is distributed throughout the tuber including core.The glucoside will be more in varieties
having yellow flesh.
Structure of Tuber
Outer skin (periderm) peel, Rind or cortex,Core or pithy (edible)
i. Periderm: Composed of dead cells which seals the surface of the tuber. Normally
brown in colour.
ii. Cortex: 1- 2 mm thick, usually white in colour but may be some time pinkish or brown.
The periderm and cortex are collectively known as peel.
iii. Core or Pith: It is the edible portion and consists mostly of parenchymatous cells
containing large amount of stored starch. Latex in tuber occur in the flesh of the tuber
and also on the cortex.
Root Tuber Development

The cassava tuber originates when secondary thickening occurs in a fibrous root that has
previously been entered in the soil. As such, tuber growth consists essentially of increase in
girth of a root. The increase in girth commences by the end of second month after planting and
accumulation of large amount of starch taken place. Accumulation of starch occurs first at
proximal end (towards attachment of root) and later at distal end (away from attachment).
Physiologically the cassava tuber is inactive, since no eyes or buds present, as such cassava
tuber cannot be used as a means of propagation.
Part–VI
Sugar Crops
Sugar Cane 188

Sugar Beet 191
Sweet Potato 194
30
Sugar Cane
Saccharum sp.
Six species of perennial grasses all of which originated in old world. Of these six two are
occurring in a wild state. They are S.spontaneum with a wide distribution from North East
Africa thro’ Asia to pacific. S.robustum confined to New Guinea and neighbouring islands.
The other four species are cultigens
1. S.officinarum - Noble cane of New guinea.
2. S.barberi - North Indian canes
3. S.sinensis - Chinese cane.
4. S.edule - Melenesian cane.
Systematics, origin and distribution
1. Saccharum spontaneum (2n = 40 - 128)
A perennial grass, free tillering, often with Rhizomes. S.spontancum represents a polyploid
series. Forms with the smallest chromosome numbers are found in North India which is
probably the centre of origin. Natural hybridization with S.officinarum would have produced
S.barberi and S.sinense.
S.spontaneum is widely used in breeding of modern commercial hybrids by a process of
nobilisation with S.officinarum. Spontaneum provides vigour, hardiness and resistance against
diseases.
2. Saccharum robustum : (2n = 60 - 194)
Origin: New guinea vigorous perennial. robustum would have given rise to S.officinarum
with which it is interfertile. S.robustum is highly susceptible to mosaic virus and leaf scale and
because of this its use in breeding programme is very much limited.
Sugar Cane 189
3. Saccharum officinarum (2n = 80)

Origin : South pacific.
Chewing cane, Noble cane
This cane is suited to tropical conditions and requires favourable soil and climate for its
performance. The stems are stout thick high in sucrose, low in fibre and with soft rind. The
noble canes are susceptible to most of the diseases. Some of the earlier cultivars are Bourbon,
Cheribon, noble canes.
4. S. barberi 2n = 82 - 124
S.barberi is short medium to slender in thickness, with high fibre content, medium sucrose
content and poor yielder.
5. S.sinense : (2n = 18)

Chinese Cane. Tall vigorous, slender, high fibre content. Poor juice quality.
6. S.edule : Polynesian cane (2n = 118)

Slender, weed like form. Seeds are edible. Not much used.
Nobilisation in Sugar Cane

Nobilisation is crossing the noble cane S. officinatum with S.barberi, S.spontaneum and infusing
disease and pest resistance in the noble cane. The first successful use of nobilisation was
made and variety cheribon was crossed with S.barberi variety and progenies having
resistance to sereh disease were evolved. But they were susceptible to mosaic and inferior in
sucrose content. By subsequent crossing with S.officinatrum i.e. second and third nobilisation
good varieties like POJ 2878 were evolved.
In India, nobilisation of local spontaneum was begun by Barber and Venkata raman in 1912
at SBI Coimbatore. At coimbatore crosses were initially made between local strains of S.barberi
(Which is unproductive but adapted to climates of North India) and tropical noble cane (thick
soft stem, high sucrose content but unsuited to climates of North India). Later on by crossing
these resultant hybrid with wild cane S.spontaneum canes with high sucrose content suitable
for North India were evolved. In this way a large number of tri hybrid canes were developed.
Breeding Objectives
1. Breeding varieties suitable for Jaggery making.
Co 853, Co 62175, CoC67
2. Breeding varieties for factory purposes - high Brix value and recovery %.
Co 658, Co 772, Coc 8001
3. Breeding varieties suitable for all the three seasons

Early - Dec - Jan
Mid - Feb - March
Late - April - May.
4. Breeding varieties resistant to shoot borer.
5. Breeding varieties resistance to disease shoot disease, Rust, Brown spot.
6. Breeding varieties with high ratooning ability.
7. Breeding varieties with drought resistance.
8. Breeding varieties with more number of productive tillers.
9. Varieties with shorter duration without yield less.
Sugar Cane Varieties

Early Mid Late
Factory Jaggery Factory Jaggery Factory Jaggery Special
COC 91061 COC 91061 COC 774 COC 776 Co 740 Co 8201 Co 8021
COC 90063
Latest variety COC 99061 (Co 6806 × Co 740): Suitable for mid and late season.
31
Sugar Beet
Beta vulgaris (2n = 18)
Chenopodiaceae
Place of Origin : Northern Europe
Classification : The genus Beta includes thirteen species which have been grouped under
Four sections. Viz.
1. Vulgares - B.vulgaris
2. Caollinae - B.maritima
3. Nanae - B.macrocarpa
4. Patellares- Includes both 2n = 18 and 36 form- B.nanae, 3 species all of them 2n = 18.
The cultivated Beta vulgaris includes Beet Sugar, Vegetable beet root and forage beet root. All
the members of section vulgares inter cross freely.
Bolting in Sugar Beet

Sugar beet is normally a biennial. It develops a large succulent root the first year and a seed
stalk the second year. Occasionally a plant will produce a seed stalk the first year itself which
is known as bolting. The bolters do not make a normal. root development and so the yield will
be reduced. Bolting can be induced by prolonged cool periods which is utilised for seed
production. Certain wild species are annual in habit.
For rapid generation advancement in breeding programme as well as for seed production the
process of Photothermal induction is used. This involves continuous artificial light and cool
temperature.
The procedure for photothermal induction of sugar beet is as follows

a) Pre induction period: The plants are grown in pots for two weeks in screen house.
Provide a continuous light from 150 walt electric bulb which is 30 inches height from
pot.
b) Induction treatment: Continue the provision of light but it must be from 20" ht. This
is done for ten weeks. During this ten weeks period temp. Maintained at 46 to 490F.
c) Post induction period: Transplant the seedlings in field. Continue the lighting for another
two weeks. Prevent warm temperature. By this way we can get seeds with in 6 months.
But seeds obtained will be smaller in quantity.
Floral Biology
Sugar beet is usually cross pollinated they exhibit a high degree of self incompatability which
is the main reason for cross pollination. The flowers produced singly or in dense clusters. the
flowers are small, without petals and perfect. Stamens five in number. Ovary generally one
seeded. the perianth of clusters of flowers fuse together forming a multi seeded condition. i.e.
Seed Ball.
The seed Ball when germinate produces cluster of seedlings which requires the humidity. So
mono seeded varieties are needed which is useful for the breeding objectives.
Crossing Technique
In self fertile lines selfing is done with paper covers. Emasculation in such lines is done by
pulling out anther with needle and forceps. Dusting of pollen can be done with in a week’s
time. In self sterile lines use of red color hypocotyl lines as pollinators (male parent) we can
easily identity F1s.
Breeding Objectives
1. Breeding for disease resistance: Curly top Virus, cercospora leaf spot and root rot.
2. Breeding for Non-bolting types: Which allow earlier growing F1 consequent longer
growth period.
3. Breeding for monogerm seed: Flowers are produced singly.
4. Breeding for quality :Between harvest and processing sugar beets are generally kept for
a long periods in large piles where considerable storage loss of sugar will occur. Breeding
for improved storage quality includes.
a) Selection for low respiration rate in roots.
b) Resistance of roots to storage rot.
Other quality characters are TSS, purity of juice, raffinose content, ash and nitrogen content.
Sugar Beet 193
Breeding Methods
1. Mass Selection
This is utilised in developing curly top virus resistant varieties.
2. Family Line Breeding
It is more or less similar to ear to row breeding Cross mother beets are carefully chosen for
yield, sugar content and they are tested in progeny rows. While testing for performance in
progeny rows, part of seed is kept as resistant seed. After identifying best performers in
progeny rows, the remnant seeds are utilised for further multiplication.

This is a time consuming process because of biennial nature of the crop. By following photo
thermal induction rapid generation advancement is made possible.
32
Sweet Potato
Ipomoea batatus (Hexaploid - 2n = 90)
Family: Convolvulaceae
Origin: Central America
Progenitors: The probable ancestors are Ipomoea tiliacea – closely resembling I.batatus.
Weedy species: I.trifida
Sweet potato was derived by amphidiploidy by crossing a tetraploid (2n = 60) and a diploid
(2n = 30) hybridization to produce a triploid (2n = 45), followed by subsequent doubling of
chromosome to produce hexaploid (2n = 90).
Tetroploid × Diploid
2n = 60 ↓ 2n = 30
Triploid
↓
2n = 45
↓
Doubling
↓
Hexaploid
(2n = 90)
Classification
This family includes about 45 genera and 1000 species. But only Ipomoea batatas is of economic
Sweet Potato 195
importance as food. A large number of tuber structure after cooking the cultivars can be
grouped in to three.
a) Those with firm, dry, mealy flesh after cooking.
b) Those with soft, moist, gelatinous flesh after cooking.
c) Those with very coarse tubers which are suitable only for animal feed or for industrial
use.
Part–VII
Tuber Crops
Potato 197
33
Potato
Solanum tuberosum (2n = 48)
Tetraploid
Place of Origin: South America.
Ancestry
a) Natural doubling of diploid cultivar S.stenotomum (2n = 24)
b) By a natural crossing of diploid wild species
S.sparsipilum and S.vernerii
Classification
According Hawkes (1992) in addition to solanum tuberosum some six other cultivated species
and over 230 wild species of potato are generally recognised.
Diploid (2n=24)
1. S.ajanhuiri - Frost resistant
2. S.phureja - Sort duration. 4 month no dormancy
3. S.stenotomum - Longer in duration 6 months dormancy.
Triploid (2n = 36)
4. S.chauca
5. S.juseczuki
Tetraploid (2n = 48)

Solanum tuberosum
6. Subspecies
S.t.ssp tuberosum
S.t.ssp andigena - High altitude potato
Pentaploids
7. S.curtilobium - Frost resistant.
Breeding Objectives
1. Breeding for high yield: Yield of tubers decided by number of tubers, tuber size and
distribution of tuber.
2. Breeding for varieties having better morphology of tuber: Better morphology of
tuber is determined by
a) Eye depth, b) flesh colour, c) Growth cracks, d) Hollow heart, e) Shape, f) Skin
colour,
3. Breeding for better quality: Depends on many factor
a) After cooking blackening, b) Dry matter, c) Enzyme browning, d) Glycoalkaloid
level, e) reducing sugar content, f) storage properties
4. Breeding for disease resistance: Early blight, late blight, powdery scab., verticillium
wilt, virus diseases. Resistant source : S.demissum, S.acaule ssp. andigena
5. Breeding for pest resistance: Nematode is the major pest ssp.andigena - tolerant.
S.verineii resistant to Aphids, Colorado beetle.
Breeding methods
1. Clonal Propagation
Useful in case of inter-specific crosses where low fertility is often seen in the progenies.
Further fixing of heterosis is easy. The disadvantage is keeping the stocks free from disease.
But by following invitro propagation this can be over come.
2. Controlled Pollination
In potato it is some what easy because the anthers do not dehisce before or soon after flower
opening. The pollen is not easily distributed by wind. If we raise crossing block in insect proof
screen house use of selfing and crossing covers not needed.
Only difficulty is crossing in percentage of seed set. Crossing is to be done at 220C. Pollen and
ovule sterility occur.
Potato 199
3. Population Breeding
This is followed to improve the base population.
4. True Potato Seed (TPS)

Propagation thro’ use of seed - practiced in China. By this method virus diseases can be
avoided.
5. Production of Diploids and Monohaploids

Originally diploid was produced by crossing tuberosum with diploid S.phureja and allowing
for parthenogenesis. But now by anther culture it is easily produced.
To change the skin colour it is extensively used.
Part–VIII
Breeding for Qualitative Characters
Breeding for Insect Resistance 201

Breeding for Disease Resistance 203
Breeding for Abiotic Stress Resistance 207
Breeding for Quality Characters 210
Seed Multiplication and Releases of a Variety 216
34
Breeding for Insect Resistance
Most important because many crops are affected by insects. For e.g. Cotton is attacked by
more than 160 species of insects of these a dozen are major pests. The necessity for resistance
breeding are.
i) Environmental pollution prevention
ii) Higher costs involved in spraying.
iii) Death of Beneficial Predators and Parasites.
iv) Building up of Resistance - e.g. Pyrethroid.
Mechanism of Insect Resistance : Painter (1951).
1. Non preference, 2. Anti biosis, 3. Tolerance, 4. Avoidance.
Non preference: Non acceptance or Antixenosis
Un attractive or unsuitable for colonization, Oviposition or both by an insect pest. Aphid
resistance in raspberry. It involves various morphological and biochemical features of host
plants.
Antibiosis: Adverse effects caused by the host to an insect feeding on it. It may hinder the
development, reproduction or in some cases death also. The antibiosis may be either.
i) Morphological, ii) Physiological, iii) Biochemical features of the host plant. e.g. Gossypol
content in cotton.
Tolerance: Able to tolerate the attack, withstand and give yield.
Avoidance: Insects avoid certain plants. Early maturing cotton varieties escape pink bollworm.
Sorghum early lines escape shoot fly attack.
Nature of Insect Resistance

1. Hairiness : Hairiness of leaves is associated with resistance. Jassid resistance - cotton.
cereal leaf beetle.
2. Colour of Plant: Induces non-preference for oviposition. Red cabbage - Lepidopteran. Red
colour Cotton - Boll worms.
3. Thickness of plant Tissue: Cotton - Jassid resistance. Dense thick leaves - It is more of
mechanical obstruction.
4. Presence of Silica in Plant Body: Shoot fly resistance in sorghum - Damage to mandibles.
5. Biochemical Factor: Gossypol content, DIMBOA content in leaves, (Bio chemical) - Stem
borer in maize.
6. Physiological Factors: Osmotic concentration of cell sap, cell exudaters etc. Solanum sp -
Gum exudate - Aphids are trapped in it. Genetics of Insect resistance :
1. Oligo genic Monogene 3 : 1.
Jassid resistance Cotton Wheat rust resistance Green bug resistance.
2. Poly genic More durable Wheat cereal leaf beetle resistance.
3. Cytoplasmic Plasmogenes: European corn borer in maize.
Sources of Resistance
1. Cultivated variety - TKM 6 Rice, Stem borer resistance.
2. Germplasm Collection.
3. Related Wild species - S.nitidum - shoot fly resistance – Sorghum, G.anamalum - Jassid
resistance - Cotton.
Screening Technique
a) Field condition :
i) Infector rows are planted at regular intervals.
ii) Testing in areas where ever the pest is recorded as endemic area. Ground nut leaf miner
- Aliyarnagar.
iii) Seasonal testing when insect population is most.
iv) Rearing the insect in lab and releasing them in fields or by transferring equal no. of eggs
of larvae to each plant.
b) Glass House Screening

Raised in cages and definite number of larvae are released in the cage.
35
Breeding for Disease Resistance
Disease is an abnormal condition in the plant produced by an organism.

Host: Plant affected by disease.
Pathogen: Organism that produces the disease.
Damage due to disease
i) Reduces total Biomass leading to yield loss.
ii) Stunted growth.
iii) Sterility.
Need for Disease Resistance Breeding

i) To prevent yield loss.
ii) High cost reduction.
iii) Prevention of environmental pollution.
Kinds of Disease Reaction

i) Susceptible reaction: Disease reaction is profuse, if unchecked it may lead to total yield
loss.
ii) Immune reaction: Host does not show the symptoms of a disease.
iii) Resistance reaction: Infection and establishment takes place but growth of the pathogen
in the host is restricted.
iv) Tolerance: Host is attacked by the pathogen in the same manner as the susceptible
variety but there may not be yield loss.
Vertical and Horizontal Resistance

These terms were introduced by Van der plank.
Vertical Resistance
It is also known as race specific, pathotype specific or specific resistance.
Vertical resistance is generally determined by major genes and is characterised by pathotypic
specificity. Pathotype specificity denotes that the host carrying a gene for vertical resistance is
attacked only by that pathotype which is virulent towards the resistant gene, to all other
pathotypes the host will be resistant.
Only two types of disease reaction can be seen i.e. immune or susceptible reaction. When
virulent pathotype becomes frequent. There may be epidemics.
Vertical resistance is not long lasting.
Horizontal Resistance
It is race non specific, pathotype non specific or general resistance.
Horizontal resistance is governed by polygenes, that is many genes with small effects and it is
pathotype non-specific.
Horizontal resistance does not prevent the development of symptoms but it slows down the
rate of spread to the disease in the population.
HR is more stable compared to VR.
Mechanism of Disease Resistance

a) Mechanical : Certain mechanical or anatomical features of host may prevent infection.
e.g. Closed flowering habit of wheat and barley prevents infection by spores of ovary
infecting fungi.
b) Hypersensitivity : Immediately after infection several host cells surrounding the point
of infection die. This leads to death of pathogen also. Phytoalexins present in plant body
is responsible for hypersensitivity reaction.
c) Antibiosis : Presence of some toxic substance. This is more correct for insect resistance.
e.g. Gossypol content in cotton.
d) Nutritional factors : The reduction in growth and spore formation may be due to
nutritional factors of the host.
Genetics of Disease Resistance

a) Oligogenic Resistance: Resistance is governed by one or few major genes and resistance
is generally dominant. The action of major genes may be altered by modifiers.
Gene for gene relationship

Flor (1956) proposed this based on his work in linseed rust. According to this for every
resistance gene present in the host, the pathogen has a gene for virulence. Susceptible reaction
will result when the pathogen is able to match all the resistant genes with virulence gene.
R1 R2 R3 R4
Susceptible
V1 V2 V3 V4
Resistance
R1 R2 R3 R4
V2 V4
b) Polygenic inheritance: The genes show both additive and non - additive effects and
there is large environmental effects.
c) Cytoplasmic inheritance : T.cytoplasm - Maize; Tift 23A cytoplasm - Cumbu.
Susceptible to disease. C and M cytoplasm of maize resistant to Helminthosporium.
L 111A and 732 A cytoplasm resistant to downy mildew in Bajra.
Methods of Disease Resistance Breeding

1. Plant introduction : Resistant varieties from other can be directly introduced for
cultivation. e.g. IR 20 rice resistant to blast.
2. Selection: This may be from local land races or from introduced cultivars. e.g. Co 4
Gobi Anaikomban resistance to blast. NCAC 17090 ground nut resistant against leaf
spot.
3. Hybridisation and Selection:
a) Intervarietal - Co37 Rice resistant to blast
b) Inter specific - Powdery mildew resistance in Sesamum
c) Inter generic - Atylosia for root rot in red gram.
Depending on gene action the selection procedure may vary. If the resistance is governed by
polygenes, then pedigree method of selection is to be followed.
If the resistance is governed by major genes linked with other undesirable characters we have
to go for back cross method of breeding. Here again for dominant gene the back cross method
is different from recessive gene governed traits.
Co2. Ground nut tolerant to late leaf spot disease.
2. Polyploidy Breeding
Nicotiana crosses for resistance against leaf spot..
3. Tissue Culture Method

Resistance reaction can be screened easily in test tubes and resistant lines can be mass multiplied.
e.g. Banana, Cardomum.
Screening Techniques for Disease Resistance

Depending on mode of spread of disease the screening technique may differ. The screening
can be done both at screen or glass house level and field level. The different screening techniques
are as follows.
Soil Borne Diseases

Wilt, root rot are produced by soil borne fungi. In this case sick plot technique is followed.
Susceptible varieties can be grown and infected plants can be ploughed insitu to maintain
optimum condition for infection.
Air Borne Diseases

e.g. Rust, Smut, mildews, blights.
For ground nut rust, infestor rows can be sown 15 days earlier as border rows and the disease
will infest the susceptible infestor rows. After 15 days the varieties tested to be are to be sown.
Spraying the spore suspension from affected leaves will also increase the load.
Seed Borne Disease

Smut, bunt etc. Artificial inoculation can be done by soaking the seeds in solution of pathogen
under vaccum condition.
Insect transmitted Diseases

e.g. Virus Diseases, Red gram sterility mosaic virus. Sap transmitted. Here the stapling technique
is used. Leaves from affected plants can be stapled to the entries to be tested. The insect
feeding in susceptible leaf will transmit virus to test entries.
36
Breeding for Abiotic Stress
Resistance
(Drought, Cold, Salinity and alkalinity)
1. Temperature Stress
a. Cold resistance/Tolerance: This is applicable in case of rice grown in Gudalur taluk of
Nilgiris and Cumbum valley. Numerous methods have been developed for the evaluation
of cold hardiness. This included artificial low temperature and freeze tests. However,
none them is useful for single plant selection. This is a handicap for the breeder. Testing
the segregating lines under field condition is the most suitable one. But this will be time
consuming and often favorable conditions may not be a available.
b. High Temperature : Due to high temperature seed set may be affected. In case of male
sterile lines, the sterility may be broken down. In this case also testing single plants for
high temperature resistance is time consuming and skill is required. Tests like heat test
with leaf discs and desiccation tolerance test are followed.
2.Water Stress
a. Low water i.e., Drought resistance : This is more important for all the dry land crops.
75% of area is cultivated under rainfed conditions and drought tolerance is more
important.
Drought resistance in crop plants can be divided in to three categories.
i. Drought escape - ability of a plant to complete its life cycle before serious soil and
plant water deficit occurs.
ii. Drought tolerance with high tissue water potential.

iii. Drought tolerance with low tissue water potential.
Drought resistance in crop plants are more due to physiological conditions of plant like
stomatal aperture and photosynthetic rates, root characteristics. Various techniques have
been developed to test drought resistance. One e.g. is accumulation of proline in leaves.
Because of the high skill needed in evaluating the single plants the process is tedious.
b. Excess water: This is the case in places like tail end areas of Cauvery delta. here the
paddy varieties must have long stem - i.e., deep water paddy. The screening procedure
is done both under field conditions and laboratory conditions .
3. Chemical Stress
Salinity and alkalinity : Screening for salinity and alkalinity can be done more successfully by in
vitro techniques. Raising the seedling in test tube containing different concentration of salt is
done in case of rice. This is followed in case of pesticide and herbicide tolerance also.
4. Wind Tolerance
Wind with high velocity may cause evaporation of soil moisture and tip drying in many crops.
But this stress is not a serious problem in Tamil nadu.
5. Difficulties in Abiotic Stress Breeding

i. Screening techniques require high skill and they are time consuming.
ii. Creation of artifical conditions is expensive.
iii. Under field screening, nature may or may not provide optimum condition for screening.
iv. In many cases in vitro techniques are to be followed which is expensive.
v. Abiotic stress breeding depends mostly on physiological traits which are often not stable.
B. Breeding for Drought resistance variety

High yield x High cuticular wax content (Poor cuticular Transpiration).
F1 (F1 tested under moisture stress condition).
F2
1. Progeny rows screened in moisture stress nursery in two locations.

2. Selection based on cuticular wax and no agronomic characters are considered.
F3 Selected single plants - Screened under normal conditions for yield and then
associated characters.
Breeding for Abiotic Stress Resistance 209
F4 Selected single plants - Screened under stress situation.

F5 Normal condition - yield.
F7/F8
1. Homogeneity with relative resistance to drought and with considerable yield.
2. Converge genes for yield and drought resistance.
C. Breeding for Drought Resistance

1. Breeder search for a source for Drought resistance.
2. Yield should be a secondary character economic Parts.
3. Partitioning of Photosynthates Vegetative Parts
Total Dry matter should be taken as a criterion for selection.
Drought Resistance
Drought avoidance Drought tolerance
1. Xeromorphic traits 2. Root Growth 3. Stomal control, 4. Cuticular resistance(water
permeability of leaf cuticle)
4. Stomatal No (transpiration low, low stomatal frequency and high photosynthetic rate)
5. Cell turgor (Inhibit plant growth) (root water absorption stomatal water loss)
D. Screening for Salt Tolerance – Rice varieties of different types: IR 20 & IR 50

(susceptible)
Salt Tolerance Level: Co 43 & Manoharsali (Moderately tolerant) Dasal & Pokkali(highly
tolerant)
1. Salinized Soil Method

Crosses were made between suceptible and moderately tolerant; suceptable x highly tolerant;
and moderately x highly tolerant types. The parents along with F1 progenies and subsequent
segregating progenies have to be screened for their tolerance.
Plastic tubs (45 × 30 × 45 cm) with 10kg of soil was taken one with normal soil and others
salinized wit 6 liters of 0.3 % NaCl solution, so that the electrical conductivity was raised to
4.9 M m/cm uniformly in all the tubs. Then the plant materials (labeled 20 day old seedlings) to
be tested are planted in the tub with a spacing of 15 x 10 cm so that each tub caries 6 seedlings.
Normal cultural practices were followed and irrigated daily to maintain a water level of 1 cm
above the soil level. Once a week the soil between the plants was carefully racked to facilitate
mixing and aeration. The plants were grown to maturity and data were recorded for yield
characters. The cultivar which recorded a grain yield on par with culture in control is selected
as tolerant.
37
Breeding for Quality Characters
Rice
Several aspects of rice kernel are taken into consideration for determining quality. These
include appearance of endosperm, length and shape of kernel, milling quality, cooking quality,
aroma, protein content, etc. Generally, a transparent type of endosperm is preferred to opaque
(chalky, white belly, white chore) ones. The opaque character is due to loose packing of
starch grains and affects the appearance and milling quality. Opaqueness disappears after
cooking and does not affect palatability. The heritability of this character is low and agronomic
practices and pre-harvest handling influence this character. The waxy type of endosperm also
gives a chalky appearance but is not common in Indian cultivars (except in traditional and few
released cultivars of north-east India). Waxy endosperm is governed by a single pair of recessive
genes.
Preference for grain length and shape (length/breadth) varies from country to country, region
and even within the economic classes of a region. In India, rice varieties are classified into five
categories (long bold, long slender, medium slender, short bold, short slender) based on length
/ breadth ratio of the kernel.
In India, Pakistan and West Asia, long slender grains fetch a premium price in the market.
Grain length and shape are quantitatively inherited characters, are independent of each other
and can be combined desired except probably the long and bold characters. These characters
can, however, be fixed in early generations in a breeding programme and little segregation
takes place in later generations (Jennings et al., 1979)
The total rice recovery varies from 70.4 to 79.2 per cent and head rice recovery 23.8 to 74.5
per cent. Both the characters are influenced by environmental factors and are independent of
each other. The latter is, however, of great concern to millers and, at the same time, more
influenced by environmental factors.
Cooking quality
The amylose content and gelatinisation temperature of starch determine the cooking quality of
rice. The gelatinisation temperature indicates the temperature at which the starch grains swell
irreversibly when boiled in water. The proportion of amylose and amylopectin - two kinds of
starch grains present in rice endosperm - is associated with stickiness of cooked rice, glutinous
(Waxy) rice has up to 2 percent amylose. When cooked, water absorption and volume expansion
of glutinous rice is low and the grains remain sticky. In India, glutinous types are used only in
north-east India in preparation of cakes, sweets, etc. The starchy types can be grouped into
low amylose (20 per cent) types. The varieties with high amylose types cook dry and fluffy
but become hard on cooling. The Indian varieties have generally high amylose types. The high
and low amylose types are governed by a single gene pair through modified by environmental
factors. The gelatinisation temperature varies from 56 to 79 oC. Rice with high gelatinisation
temperature requires more water and time to cook than those with low gelatinisation temperature.
The gelatinisation temperature thus reflects the hardness of the starch granules. The Indian
Varieties are generally intermediate in gelatinisation temperature and amylose content. Dominance
gene effect was highly significant for grain length and amylose content.
Wheat
The quality criteria of wheat is milling quality, baking quality for bread making, biscut making
which again depends upon loaf volume, doughing, expansion of dough, loaf volume, degree of
kernel hardness, colour etc. The quality is mainly dependtant on the protein content of the
flour: The simultaneous improvement in grain yield and grain protein content through breeding
is considered difficult because of negative association between these traits (Jennes et al 1991).
This suggested that selecting the genotype with both high yield and high protein content fro
breeding purposes. It as been proposed tat wild relatives are a useful source of genetic variation
for increasing grain protein percentage. (T.turgidum var. dicoccoides). Cox et al 1990 reported
that direct introgression of genes from diploid Aegilops squarrosa into bread wheat conferred
an improvement in protein percentage. Similarly high grain protein percentage of a tetraploid
(wild) emmer wheat (T.dicoccoides) has been transferred into bread wheat (Grammer et al.
1984).
Pearl Millet
High heritability and significant correlation have been observed in selected genotype for protein,
calcium, phosphate and total minerals of the grain. The genetic analysis reveled that high
heritable differences exist for total lipids, free fatty acids, total carbohydrates and total soluble
sugars. The protein content and the total lipids were negatively correlated to carbohydrates but
positively influenced by sugar content and longer duration. The additive gene effects were
higher than non additive effects for the quality traits of protein, lipids and free fatty acids.
Maize
Flint varieties are preferred compared to dent. The biological value of protein in normal maize
is limited for monogastric animals and human because of its unfavorable amino acids
composition. Dudley (1997) reported that theoretical limit to selection occurred between grain
yield and protein content in the grains of IHP strains. These IHP lines are used in breeding
programmes to improve protein lines always accompanied for high oil content. The first major
break through was the discovery of the effects of Opaque - 2 and Floury - 2 mutants on lysine
and tryptophan content in maize endosperm protein. Backcross programme helped very much
to transfer these characters to cultivated maize. Special hybrids are also produced for Hi-
starch content for specific industrial purpose. These characters are controlled by major genes
with high heritability.
Small Millets
The grain quality parameters namely, colour, grain hardiness and water absorption in small
millets.
Pulses
In pulses breeding for quality improvement mainly based on improvement of protein content
and quality of protein and then reducing the concentration of toxio antinutritional factors.
Improving the content of amino acids such as albumin, glutamin, metheonine and high vitamins
like thiamine, Riboflavin and Niacin along with minerals such as Ca, Mg and Fe. Reducing of
protein and amylase inhibitors oligo saccharides, polyphenols, phytolectine, cynogenic glucocide,
mycotoxins.
The heritability estimates are very low for these characters indicated polygenic in nature.
Therefore, the success in the improvement is very limited.
Soybean
The higher nutritive value of soybean is largely dependant on acid component of protein and
content of antinutritional factors. Sebern and Lambert (1984) suggested the early generation
selection for protein followed by selection for yield in later generation will be successful if non
additive effects are important selection for protein content should be in later generation. All
types of breeding methods such as pedigree - mass selection for low oil, recurrent selection
are being adopted Wehrmann et al (1987). The studies revealed that the protein content controlled
by two major genes.
Sunflower
Sunflower seed has a hard weedy pericarp, the kernel constituting of the whole seed. The oil
content of the seed ranges from 22 to 36 percent, the kernel contains 45-55 percent. The
component of fatty acid of the oil are saturated acids 10% (Myristic, 0.38 Palmitic 4.27 and
steric 5.46%) Oleic acid 35% and Linoleic acid 57% Regarding the fatty acid profile the oil
contains lesser amount of saturated fatty acids, appreciably hig amounts of essential fatty
acids, linoleic. In addition that the oil contains vitamins A, D and E, sterols, squalene and other
aliphatic hydrocarbons, terpene and methyl ketones. The Phosphatids (0.1 - 0.2%) present in
the oil are lecithin (38.5%) and cephaline (61.5%). They occur in combination with protein
and carbohydrates. Antinutrients such as haemoglutinin activity ranged from 50.6 to 132.8 units/
mg of protein. The phenol content ranged from 2.6 to 3.8 per cent. The ration of linoleic to oleic
acid content is affected by environment variation in oil content and quality depends on the shape
and size of sunflower head. The oil from dehulled seeds could be stored for longer period.
Oleic acid content showed significant correlation with linolic acid and linolenic acid and has
positive correlation. Oil content is negatively correlated with seed yield per plant. Negative
correlation between oil and protein content (Mendal and Single, 1993). It is suggested that the
increase in oil level could probably be achieved through selection for thin hull, more seed
weight, and high oil percentage in the kernel.
High heritability value for oil content indicated that significant improvement could be made in
increasing oil content through individual plant selection in early generation.
The improvement in oil yield and its desirable constitutions would be possible by restarting
simple recurrent selection (Miller et al, 1977). Pustovoit suggested the important stage in
sunflower improvement as head to row remnant seed method.
Safflower
Carthamus tinctorius : The oil content and quality of oil can be influenced by environment
(Patel and Jaisani, 1962). Generally the kernel contributed some 98 per cent of the oil content.
The percentage of oil in hulls decreased with increase in seed weight, whereas the oil in the
kernels increased. There was negative correlation between oil content and seed weight (El
seed, 1996).
The safflower oil has got high amount of unsaturated essential fatty acids. There is considerable
difference in the characteristics of oil of the various species of carthamus. The correlation
between spineless and oil content has been observed (Weins, 1971). The oil composition also
varies in having a linoleic acid content averaging 48 per cent and an oleic acid 43 percent and
these characters are governed by gene. OL/ol. In breeding programmes oil content and oil
yield per se must always be considered.
Rape and Mustered Oil

In rape seed and mustard oil, the presence of erucic acid is an important characteristic feature.
Genotypes in B.juncea. where the erucic acid content is 60 to 65% of the total fatty acids are
available and considered as industrially important. The poly unsaturated fatty acids namely
linaleic and linolenic acids are also present in significant amount (20 to 25%) and confer
liquidity on the oil. Among saturated fatty acids, palmetic acid and steric acid are present in
very low quantities totaling about 5%. They are found to be involved in increasing the thrombic
tendency in blood platelets. The main path way of the fatty acid biosynthesis (Johnson, 19977)
is as follows.
Palmetic Acid Steric Acid

Oleic acid Eicosenoic acid - Erucic acid.
The undesirable acid viz., erucic acid and linolenic acid are the end produced and reduction /
elimination of these fatty acid is possible if the genetic block is achieved in the steps controlling
the synthesis of erucic acid from oleic acid; linolenic acid from linoleic acid. The oleic acid has
negative correlation with linoleic and linolenic acid on the one hand and erucic acid and eicosenic
acid on the other (Ahiya et al 1978). Because of the interdependence in the progenetic substrate,
the zero-erucic acid is reflected in increase oleic acid, linoleic acid and linolenic acid contents.
Genetic studies in rape seed has been found to be controlled by multiple alleles. Anand and
Downey (1981) identified five genes in B.napus. They found to act in additive manner resulting
in erucic acid leves of >1,10,15,30 and 35% respectively. Later occurrence of a single gene
controlling high erucic acid content was reported by Chen et al (1988).
Use of double haploid lines have been attempted for Brassica improvement (Lichter et al
1988). Repeated back crossing of double low segregants to superior variety is also advocated.
Triple low types can be produced by hybridizing double low types with yellow seeded donors.
Directional selection for high linolenic acid is found very effective (Laakso et al 1986) Reciprocal
recurrent selection is also suggested for simultaneous improvement of the traits. (Ahuja and
Banga, 1992.)
Castor
The castor seeds differ from other oil containing seeds in respect of specific content. Such as
toxic protein, ricin and the alkaloid ricinine. In castor oil there is greater quantity of trigly-
cerides of ricinolic acid. The unsaturated fatty acid in castor oil (Olieic and linoleic) are
synthesised in the seeds in much greater quantities. The oil and hull content is in polygenic
inheritance.
Cotton
Since fabric quality is mostly governed by that of yarn from which it is woven and the quality
of the yarn inturn depends upon the properties of fibre from which it is spun. The quality of
cotton is judged on the physical properties of the fibre.
Fibre length and its distribution is an important character of the fibre. The staple length of
cotton is highly associated with the strength fineness of the yarn and with its appearance. The
mean length of fibre of world cotton varied form 12 to 63m.m. The fibre fineness ie weight
per unit length of fibre is generally taken as a measure of fineness, it is closely related to the
fibre maturitey i.e. depends upon perimeters and wall tickness of hthefibre. The fibre strength
is very great, the range being 2.5 to 3.0 grams weight per unit length. The tensile strength of
fibres varies form 50,000 to 1,25,0001b / squae inch. The long fine cottons tend to have
greater tensile strength than the short anc coarse cotton. The bundle strength of fibre depends
upon its area of cross section, test length, type of test instrument, the rate of loading etc. also
depends upon relative humidity of the atmosphere.
Fibre maturity indicates the degree of thickenning of the cell wall relation to its diameter. The
deposition of cellulose inside the fibre is not uniform in all fibres. Generally in medium and long
staple cottons,have high fibre maturity gives a better spinning performance.
The genetic variability is higher in G.hirsutum for fibre length, uniformity ratio and G.barbadense
for fibre fineness heritability values upto 80 percent is observed in span length, bundle strength
and elongation in percent in the G.hirsutum. High heritability combined with high genetic advance
will be more useful than heritability alone in predicting and performance of the progenies of the
selected lines (Johanson et al 1955). A combination of high heritability and high genetic advance
observed for the fibre length and bundle strength indicated the importance of additive gene
action (Parse 1957) would respond well for further improvement through pedigree breeding
and simple selection procedures. The study of heterosis, hybrids reveals that low positive
relative heterosis for 2.5% span length, uniformity ratio, and elongation percent and heterosis
for fibre fineness and 2.5% span length. The intra hirsustum hybrids showed relative and
standard heterosis for uniformity ration and low positive heterobeltiosis for maturity Co-efficient.
Forage Crops
In forage crops apart from nutritive value of green fodders, physical quality parameters like
stem thickness, length of leaf and width, softness of stem and leaves etc. are important from
the point of view of palatability to cattle. The breeding strategies adopted to improve the fodder
cereals depends on the crops.
Temperature: Indirect methods of estimating amylose content and gelatinisation temperature
are available for the benefit of those in research stations where facilities for regular analysis are
not available.
The elongation of kernels on cooking is a special feature of ‘Basmati’ rices and needs experimental
measurements for breeding such types.
Protein Content: The protein content of rice varieties ranges from 6 to 18 per cent. The
application of nitrogenous fertilisers, irrigation, etc. influences this character. Variation is noticed
even among the kernels of the same panicle. The inheritance of this character seems to be
complex and difficult to study because of several factors influencing this trait. The amino acid
balance of rice is, however, quite good. The lysine content of rice protein is 3.8 to 4.0 per cent.
The distribution of protein in rice grains differs among genotypes (Siddiq 1985). Deep diffused
network of protein is retained much better after polishing and hence is a desirable breeding
objective.
Aroma: Presence of fragrance in rice kernels is liked in India and hence scented types fetch a
premium price irrespective of size and shape of kernels. Scented types are available in almost
all States in India. The inheritance of this character has not been fully understood. Efforts have
been made to breed scented types with partial success.
38
Seed Multiplication and
Released of a Variety
A. Multiplication of Seeds in a Variety

1. Nucleus Seed
The seed maintained by the particular breeder who evolved a particular variety. The nucleus
seed will be 100% genetically pure confirming to the varietal character of a particular variety.
The nucleus seed is utilised for raising the Breeder seed.
2. Breeder Seed
The breeder seed will be multiplied from the nucleus seed in the Research Stations by plant
breeders. The Breeder seed will be utilised for raising the foundation seed by the State Dept. of
Agriculture. Every year the Director of Agricultural will place the indent of Breeder seed to the
University. Based on the request, the university will take up breeder seed production in the
Research stations. The Breeder seed plot will be monitored by the monitoring team to verify
the varietal characters and genetic purity of that particular crop. The monitoring team members
will be a Plant Breeder, Dy. Directior of Agri. (Seed certification) and a nominee from National
Seeds Corporation.The monitoring team will visit the seed production plot twice in a crop
growth period ie. at the time of flowering and at the time of harvest.
3. Foundation Seed
From Breeder seed, the foundation seed will be raised in state seed farms. This foundation
seed production plot is to be certified by the seed certification dept. The foundation seed is
utilised for raising certified seed production.
Seed Multiplication and Released of a Variety 217
4. Certified Seed Production

Done either by the Agricultural Department or by individual farmers after paying a nominal fee.
The seed production plot will be certified by the seed certification agency and after that the
seed will be sold to farmers.
B. Steps Involved in Release of a Variety

After identification of the best cultures from the segregating generation or any other source it
has to undergo the following trials.
1. Row Yield Trial (RYT)

For every 10th row there will be a check entry and the trial will be non replicated.
2. Replicated Row Yield Trails (RRYT)

From the row yield trial, the best cultures will be tested in RRYT along with appropriate check.
The best entries from RRYT will be carried forward to preliminary yield trial.
3. Preliminary Yield Trial (PYT)

Replicated trial conducted with appropriate checks. PYT will be conducted normally for two
seasons. While conducting, PYT, the best entries will be nominated to All India trials also.
Screening for biotic and abiotic stresses will be done during PYT stage. The best entry will be
carried to comparative yield trial. The entries entered into All India trial will be given project
number. For eg. sorghum entry will be given SPV (Sorghum Project Variety). Rice - IET
(Initial Evaluation Trial), etc.
4. Comparative Yield Trial (CYT)

CYT is replicated one conducted with more than one check. The trial will be repeated for 3
seasons. The entry proved to be superior in all the 3 seasons will be proposed for multilocation
trial. (MLT).
5. Multilocation Trial (MLT)

The entries for MLT will be decided at Crop scientists meet held once in a year. Each station
will propose its own entry. Based on discussion of merits and demerits of each culture, the
entries will be nominated. The MLT will be conducted at Research Stations of TNAU spread
over the State. The best entries will be proposed for Adaptive Research Trial (ART).
6. Adaptive Research Trial (ART)

ART will be conducted at farmers field by the Agricultural Department Staff. The entries for
ART will be decided during Scientific Workers Conference (SWC) which will be held once in
a year at TNAU. Both scientists of TNAU and Agri. Dept. Staff will participate. At SWC, the
entries will be fixed and each Joint Director of Agriculture will fix number of trials for his
division. The entries performing well in ART will be proposed for release as a variety. Each
culture has to be tested atleast in a minimum of 50 centres spread all over the state. If a culture
is non season bound, it will be tested in all the three seasons. If it is not so, one or two seasons
result is enough.
7. Variety Release Proposal

The scientist incharge of the culture will propose the culture for release as a variety. There is
a proforma for variety release. This proforma will contain all the information about the culture
viz., Parentage, parents morphology, cultures morphology, key characters of the culture for
identification, agronomic practices, pest and disease resistance, quality characters and yield
trial results.
The variety release proposal will be discussed by Director of Research and Scientists. After
approval the proposal will be presented before Variety Release Committee.
8. Variety Release Committee

It will be headed by Commissioner and Secretary, Agrl. Dept. members will be Director of
Agriculture Joint Directors of Agriculture and TNAU scientists. Besides these, two leading
farmers of the state will also be the members. After discussion, based on merit the VRC will
approve it for release. Then the culture will be released for general cultivation.
9. Notification of the Variety

For certified seed production, the variety is to be notified by the central variety release committee,
Delhi. After release of the variety for notification purpose the information will be furnished in
the prescribed proforma. At that time details about All India trial will also be furnished. After
notification only, a variety can be multiplied under certified seed production.
VARIETAL RUNDOWN AND RENOVATION

1) Causes for varietal run down or Genetic deterioration in released varieties. Normally the
farmers are advised to renew the cultivars once in three years. The main reason is that a
variety may undergo genetic deterioration by a number of ways. They are :
i. Presence of Crossable Genera or Species in the Near by Field or Bunds

e.g. (i) In the rice field there may be other graminaceous grasses which can hybridise with
rice./ Presence of red rice in varieties is due to this. (ii) Presence of Johnson grass (Sorghum
halepense) as weed in sorghum (S.bicolor) field will lead to varietal contamination due to
natural crossing.
ii. Lack of Isolation Distance in the Seed Production Plots

Each crop variety requires proper isolation distance for maintenance of varietal purity.
For e.g. Sorghum: 400m
Red gram : 200m
Seed Multiplication and Released of a Variety 219
Sunflower : 600m
Lack of isolation distance lead to natural crossing and genetic deterioration.
iii. Genetic Drift due to Sampling Error
The genetic equilibrium in a variety will be disturbed due to improper selection. This is high in
case of small populations. This can be prevented by adopting proper selection procedure and
following phenotypic disassortative mating.
iv. Natural Mutation
Though the frequency of natural mutation is very low, it is also one of the causes of varietal
rundown. Micro mutations which cannot be detected easily will lead to genetic deterioration in
crop plants.
v. Admixture Due to Farm Machinery
Improper cleaning of farm tools and machinery like threshers will also lead to varietal admixtures,
natural crossing and rundown.
vi. Threshing Floor Admixtures
Threshing floor must be free from cracks and crevices so that while threshing and drying
there is no chance for left over seed in threshing floor. Otherwise some seeds may be caught
up in cracks and get admixed with other varieties.
vii. Store room Admixtures
The gunny bags and other container used for seed storage must be properly cleaned; otherwise
it will also lead to admixture.
viii. Physiological Stresses
Extreme drought conditions will prevent panicle exertion in full e.g. sorghum. Growing rice in
colder months may lead to physiological awning.
ix. Not Following Proper Crop Rotation Practices
The left over seeds may germinate and contaminate the subsequent crop varieties. e.g. groundnut
after groundnut.
2) Steps to Prevent Genetic Deterioration

i. Nucleus Seed Production and Maintenance
Cent per cent purity is to be maintained in nucleus seed production plot. Different methods are
advocated for different crops in maintenance of nucleus seeds. For eg. in cotton mass pedigree
method is followed for maintenance of nucleus seed. In this method 1000 to 2000 single plants
are raised in replicated progeny row trial. Each and every single plant is examined for pollen
colour and petal colour to maintain genetic purity. If off types are seen, then the whole line in
all the replication will be rejected. Selfing is done to prevent contamination Harvest is done on
single plant basis and progenies are selected on single norm.
ii. By Providing Proper Isolation Distance for Seed Multiplication Plots

For e.g. for sorghum nucleus seed production plot 800 metre isolation distance is maintained.
The single plants are raised and allowed for sibmating.
iii. Removal of all Grasses from Field as Well as Bunds

This is to be followed especially in case of rice.
iv. By Following Proper Crop Rotation

v. By proper cleaning of farm equipments, tools, threshing floor, gunny bags and store room
vi. By following Proper Selection Procedures in Seed Production Plots

For e.g. in groundnut seed production plot, the plot mean for yield will be worked out. Then
SE and CD will be worked out. The single plant yield which are around = 2 SE is to be selected
for further maintenance.
vii. By Following the Proper Varietal Maintenance Technique

e.g. In sunflower, varietal renovation technique as advocated by Pustovoit will have to be
followed.
3) Varietal Renovation in Sunflower

Russian scientist Pustovoit has given the method of varietal renovation. It is called as Pustovoit
method of renovation. Sunflower varieties all called as population. Due to heterozygous nature,
the variety to be renovated is raised under isolation of 600m. Rouging should be done. About
10,000-12,000 plants are selected based on head size, seed size, seed yield and oil content. The
mean and standard deviation is calculated for each character. The average was taken. In all the
characters value for an individual must exceed the value of mean +2 SD. Then that individual
is selected.
Then the selected plants are studied for disease resistance and progeny row testing. Progeny
row testing is replicated twice. In each time the plants are selected and the characters are
recorded and Standard Deviation (SD) and mean are worked those individuals whose character
value exceeding mean + 2 SD are selected. While using for progeny row testing only half of
the seeds are reserved. After selecting the plants the remnant, seeds of the selected plants are
used for raising super elite seeds at 600m isolation. Rouging should be done before and after
flowering. Super elite seeds are used for raising the elite seeds or Stage I foundation seed.
These seeds are used for raising Stage II foundation seed. These seeds are used for raising
certified seeds and then for commercial cultivation. This seed renovation method maintain
yield and oil content and also sometimes upgrade them.
Part–IX
Salient Points of Hybrid Seed Production of
Field Crops
Salient Points of Hybrid Seed Production of field crops 222

Hybrid Seed Production in Sun flower 248
39
Salient Points of Hybrid Seed
Production of Field Crops
Hybrid seed production in paddy
Botanical Name: Oryza sativa

Chromosome number [2n] : 24
Family: Poaceae
Inflorescence: Panicle
Pollination: Self-Pollination
Panicle Emergence: 4 –5 days after boot leaf emergence
Flower Opening Pattern: Tip of primary & secondary branches and proceeds downward.
Duration of Flowering: 6-8 days
Time of Anthesis: 7.00 –10.00 A.M
Speciality with flowering: Flower remain open for 10 minutes and afterwards it closes.
Anther dehiscence: Either before or after flower opening [independent of spikelet opening]
Temperature favorable for flowering: 24 -280C
Favourable Relative humidity for flowering: 70-80%
Difference between day and night temperature : 8-100c
Stigma receptivity: 3 days
Salient Points of Hybrid Seed Production of Field Crops 223
Pollen viability: 10 minutes.

Selfing technique: Bagging.
Crossing technique: Emasculation.
Methods
(i) Hand Emasculation.
(ii) Clipping (cutting off 1/3rd portion of the spikelet).
(iii) Wet cloth method (cover with wet cloth for opening of anther).
(iv) ot water emasculation (Immerse pollen grain in hot water at 420C 2-3 minutes.
(v) Vacuum method (vacuum emasculation) .
(vi) Rhind’s methods of emasculation (Flask method).
Origin of High Yielding Variety: Dwarf gene of the mutant variety [Dee-Gee-Woo-
Gen](DGWG) discovered at Taiwan in 1960.
First report on Heterosis: Jones of USA 1926,Ramaiah of India 1933.
Hybrid rice initiation: During 1964 by Yuan Long Ping of China (Father of hybrid rice).
Gene responsible for male sterility: wild abortive or WA.
Breeding technique for commercial: Cytoplasmic geneic male sterility system hybrid seed
production.
Stages of seed production for: Breeder seed – foundation seed certified seed certification.
Seed Multiplication work at different Stages.
Breeder Seed stage : A (AxB), B, R lines are raised separately under isolation.
Foundation Seed stage : A (AxB) and R lines raised separately under isolation.
Certified seed stage : A and R line are crossed under isolation to get hybrid.
Systems of Hybrid Seed Production

(i) Three line method or CGMS system (popular)
(ii) Two line method or environmental genetic male sterility (EGMS) system that involve
PGMS (photosensitive genetic male sterility) and TGMS (Thermosensitive male sterility
system was developed in China and low temperature hilly areas.
Popular Hybrids
CORH1: (IR 62829A x IR 10198- 66–2R), CORH2 : IR 58025A x C 20R, ADTRH1 : IR
58025A x IR 66R
Genes involved in EGMS :

One or two pairs of recessive nuclear genes (cytoplasm involved)
Advantages of EGMS System

(i) Maintainer lines are not involved.
(ii) Choice of parents are more.
(iii) No negative effect on sterile cytoplasm.
Genes for fertility restoration in CGMS system: Rf1 and Rf2.
COMMERCIAL HYBRID SEED PRODUCTION TECHNIQUE

Land Requirement
(i) Select fertile soil.
(ii) No Rice variety to be raised for past 2 reason.
(iii) Should have protected irrigation and drainage system with sufficient sunshine.
(iv) Should not be any serious disease or any insect problem.
Isolation
(i) Space Isolation : Foundation seed stage : 200 m Certified seed stage : 100 m.
(ii) Time Isolation : 20 days either earlier or later for other varieties compared with MS
line.
(iii) Barrier Isolation : 30m of wood lot / tall crops,plastic sheets of 2m height.
Season: April, May, December, January.
Seeds
Seed Selection: Purchase from authenticated source with tag and Bill.
For Foundation stage - (A & B lines), for Certified stage - (A & R lines)
Seed Rate: Female : 20 kg/ha, Male : 10 kg/ha
Seed Treatment
Dormancy Breaking: Soak in 0.5% KNO3 for 16 h.
Biofertilizers : Pellet with Azospirillum @300 kg-1 of seed
Pest Protection: Slurry treatment with Bavistin/Thiram @2g kg -1 of seed.
Main Field Transplanting

Spacing: Between A line - (15 × 15cm) Between A and R line - (20 × 15cm); Between R line -
(30 × 15cm)
Nursery Management: Keep irrigation channels separately for the parental lines
For Dec-Jan sowing take up staggered sowing for male twice or thrice with the interval of 10-
15 days (3,10,15 daysfor effective seed setting)
Keep the nursery area free of weeds.
Apply DAP @ 2 kg/cent as basal to get vigorous seedlings.
For April-May sowing sow the male 5 and 10 days after female line. Even split application of
fertilizer N is favourable for production of vigorous seedlings.
Age of transplanting: A line : 25 days; R line : 14,18,20 days
Intercultivation
Weeding : Pre-emergence herbicide Butachlor @ 1 lt/ac, hand weeding is done before panicle
initiation
Irrigation: Field should have 5cm of standing water.
(i) Application of 2% DAP spray to late parent.
(ii) Rope pulling – moving of rope from male to female line in wind direction.
(iii) Rod driving – moving rod from male to female row in wind direction.
(iv) Leaf clipping (more than 2/3 of flag leaves are removed).
GA3 application @ 75g/ha.
GA 3 Spray
(i) Application of GA3 can adjust physical and biochemical metabolism of rice plant and
helps in hybrid seed production by stimulating the elongation of young cells.
(ii) In most of the CMS lines, about 20-30% of the spikelets of a panicle are inside the flag
leaf sheath (exertion is only 70%).
(iii) A3 effects exertion of panicle completely out of flag leaf sheath.
(iv) The dose of 75 g/ha using knopsock sprayer and 40 g/ha with ultra low volume sprayer
is recommended.
( v) The application of GA3 is recommended in 3 splits from panicle initiation days as follows
1st Spray: At 10% of the panicle initiation.
2nd Spray: Next day of first spray.

3rd Spray: Next day of second spray.
Spraying should be done at 8 to 10 am and 4 to 6 pm.
Advantages of GA3 application

(i) Enhances panicle and stigma exertion
(ii) Speed up growth of late tillers and increase effective tillers
(iii) Flag leaf angle is increased
(iv) Reduces untilled grains
(v) Enhances seed setting and seed yield.
Rouging
Plants to be removed A line B line R line

Diseased plants All All All
Parental lines R line & B line A line & B line R line & A line
Early flowering plant All All All
Rogues/off types : Based on variation in phenotypic characters
Physiological Maturation
Duration: 27-30 days after flowering
Symptom: Straw yellowing of grain
Harvest: When 80% of the population, the seed become straw yellow in colour the crop is
ready for harvest.(Harvestable maturation)
(i) The male parent is harvested first
(ii) Care should be taken to avoid admixture of male and female line.
(iii) Female line should be threshed separately in a well closed threshing floor.
(iv) Seeds dried under sun/shade to 12% moisture content.
Storage
(i) Use cloth bag or gunny bag for short term storage.
(ii) Use 700 gauge polyethylene bag for long term storage.
(iii) Cool places improve storability.
(iv) Stack bags upto 8 bag height for protection of seed quality avoiding crushing of lower
bags.
Seed Standards
Standards
CS FS
Physical purity (%) 98 98

Other crop Seed 10 20
Other designated variety 0.05 0.20
Genetic purity (%) 98 98
Germination (%) 80 80
Moisture (%) 13 13
Inert matter (%) 2 2
Seed Yield
Hybrid yield (F1) : 800-1200 kg ha-1.
Hybrid Seed Production in Sorghum

Botanical Name: Sorghum bicolor
Chromosome (2n): 20
Family: Poaceae
Inflorescence: Compact / loose panicle
Type of Pollination: Often cross pollination.
Flowering of Panicle: 2-4 days after panicle emergence
Flowering Pattern: From tip proceeds downwards
Duration of Flowering: 7 days (within panicle)
Pollen Viability: 10-20 minutes
Pollen Colour: Lemon yellow, older pollen turn orange.
Stigma Receptivity: Initiates 2 days before flower opening and remains for several days.
Flower Anthesis time: 2.00 AM to 8.00 AM.
Selfing Technique: Bagging
Crossing Technique: Emasculation
Breeding technique for Commercial
Cytoplasmic Genetic Male Sterility Production (CGMS)
Popular hybrids of their parents : CSH5 : 2077A × CS3541
COH2 : 2219A × IS3541, COH3 : 2077A × CO21, COH4 : 296A × TNS30, CSH 14: AKMS 14A
× AKR 150
CSH 16 : 27 A × C 43, CSH 17 : AKMS 14A × RS 673

Stages of Seed Multiplication: Breeder seed – foundation seed –certified seed.
Seeds Produced in Different Stages
Nucleus Seed Stage: Maintenance of basic source by seed to row progenies.
Breeder Stage: A (A×B), B and R line are multiplied
Foundation Stage: A (A×B) and R line are multiplied
Breeder and Foundation Seed Stage : Multiplication of male sterile line or maintenance of A
and B line
Certified Seed Stage: A × R – F1 hybrid produced.
Certified Seed Stage: Production of hybrid seed.
Foundation seed production: A and B line are raised in 4:2 ratio with 4 rows of B line as
border row and allowed for cross pollination.
The seeds from A line will be collected as A line seeds (multiplied).
Certified Seed Production: Hybrid seed production.
Commercial in Hybrid Seed Production Techniques

Land Requirement
(i) Should be fertile with good drainage
(ii) Previous crop should not be sorghum.
(iii) Avoid problem soils.
Season
(i) Best season —November - December
(ii) Flowering coincide with rain will result in washout of pollen.
(iii) Temperature for seed setting 37°C.
Isolation Distance
FS CS
Normal 300 200

On presence of Johnson grass 400 400
On presence of forage sorghum 400 200
Seeds and Sowing

Seed
(i) Must be from authenticated source.
(ii) Use suitable class of seed (Foundation seed for certified seed production).
Seed rate: A line : 8 kg ha-1; R line : 4 kg ha-1 .
Pre-sowing Treatment
(i) Seed hardening with 2% Potassium dihydrogen phosphate for 16 hrs with seed to solution
ratio of 1:0:6 and drying back to original moisture content.
(ii) Seed pelleting with pungam leaf powder @ 300g/kg of seed
(iii) Seed treatment with 5% carbofuran 3G to protect seed from shootfly infection
Sowing
Type of Sowing: Either by direct sowing or transplanting
Type of Nursery: Raised bed
Advantages of Transplanting
(i) Main field duration reduced by 10 days.
(ii) Shoot fly attack at initial stage can be minimized.
(iii) Seedling with chlorotic, downy mildew and attack may be eliminated.
(iv) Population can be maintained.
(v) Seed rate reduced by 1/5th .
Sowing Depth: 2 cm.
Field Preparation: Ridges and furrows.
Spacing: A line : 45 × 30cm; R line : 45 × solid row spacing.
Main field
Field Preparation: Ridges and furrows.
Planting ratio: Foundation seed stage : 4:2 (A:B)
Certified Seed Stage: 5:2 (A:R).
Border Rows: 4 rows of male (either B or R line) to supply adequate pollen.
Live Markers
(i) Live plants used for identification of male line live markers are used.
(ii) It should have distinguishable morphological characters.

(iii) Live markers can be sunflower, daincha etc.
Manures and Fertilizers

Compost : 12.5 t/ha; NPK : 100:50:50 kg ha-1; Basal : 50:50:5 kg ha-1
Top Dressing
25kg N after last ploughing, 25kg N after boot leaf stage (45 days).
Micronutrient Mixture: 12.5 kg/ha.
Foliar Spray: Spray 2% DAP thrice at 10 days interval after 1st flowering to enhance seed set.
For Problem Soil : In calcareous soil spray 0.5% FeSO4 thrice during crop growth (30, 40 &
50 days after sowing) to male plant to improve pollen viability and to enhance seed set.
Synchronization Techniques to Increase Seed Set

(i) Give hardening seed treatment to late parent and pelleting to early parent.
(ii) Take up staggered sowing depending on hybrid and location.
In south Indian condition (Nov – Dec) take up the sowing of parental lines as follows:
CSH 5: Sow MS2077A (@&), 10–15 day earlier then CS3541(B&)
K-Tall: Sow MS2219A (@&), 3-5 days later than IS 3541(B&).
3. CSH 6: Sow the parents simultaneously.
4. CSH 9: Sow MS 296A 7–10 days earlier then CS3541.
(i) Application of 1% urea spray to lagging parent or primordial initiation stage (35-40 days).
(ii) Withhold irrigation to the late parent to make early flowering.
(iii) Spray malic hydrazide 500ppm or CCC 300 ppm to the advancing parent at 45th day.
Roguing: Do it in both parents.
In female line remove off types, wild types, pollen shedders, rogues, partials, volunteer plants,
diseased plants, R line, mosaic plants, late/Early flowering plant.
In male line remove Rogues, A line, Diseased plants, Late/early flowering plants, Wild types
Weed Management
(i) Spray atrazine 50WP @ 500 g ha-1 on 3rd day after sowing as pre emergence herbicide.
(ii) Use sprayers fitted with flat nozzle using 900 litre of water per hectare
(iii) The field should be weed free upto 45 days.
(iv) Hand weeding done of 30–35 days
Irrigation
1st irrigation: Immediately after sowing.
Life irrigation: 3rd day after sowing.
Subsequent irrigation: Once in a week.
Critical Stages
(i)Primordial initiation stage, (ii) Vegetative stage, (iii) Milky stage
Pest and Disease

Shoot fly
Nursery: Spray endosulfan 35 EC 18 ml/lt20 sq.mm or Demeton 25 EC 12 ml.
Direct Sown: Endosulfan 35 EC 500 ml (250 lt of spray fluid ha-1).
Stem Borer: Endosulfan 4G 15 kg ha-1 or Endosulfan 35 EC 750 ml ha-1.
Mites: Spray 3.75 kg of wettable sulphur.
Designated Disease : Kernel smut, head smut.
Sugary Disease of Sorghum

It is specific to hybrid
(i) Occur due to low seed set.
(ii) Spray rogor 0.03% (or)endosulfan 0.07%.
Pre- harvest Sanitation Spray: Endosulfan 0.07%, Bavistin @ 10 g/10 lt. to avoid black
mould and earhead bug.
Harvesting
Physiological Maturation (PM)
Duration : 40–45 days after 50% flowering.
Seed Moisture at PM : Around 30%.
Visual Symptom : Formation of dunken layer on seeds.
Seed Moisture Content at
Harvestable Maturity: Around 20-25%.
Harvesting Technique: Harvest male first and then female.
Effect Delay Harvest: Mould attack, amenable for field damage , yield and quality reduced
Threshing seed moisture content : 15–18%

Technique: (i) Beating with pliable bamboo sticks; (ii) Use mechanical threshers to avoid
mechanical damage
Drying: Dry under sun to reduce the moisture content to 8%.
Processing : Use OSAW cleaner cum grader using 9/64" round perforated metal sieve as main
screen.
Seed Treatment : Thiram @ 2 g kg-1 of seed halogen mixture @ 3 g kg-1 of seed
Seed Storage : Storability : 2-3 years
Storage Insect : Sitophilus oryzae
Moisture Previous Container : Cloth bag (for short term storage)
Moisture vapour proof storage – 700 gauge polybag (long term storage)
Seed yield : 3000 kg ha-1
Seed Standards
Physical purity (%) 98 98
Inert matter (%) 2 2
Other crop seed 5 kg-1 10 kg-1
Weed seed 10 kg-1 20 kg-1
Other distinguishable variety 10 kg-1 20 kg-1
Ergot disease by number 0.020% 0.040%
Moisture content
Moisture pervious container 12 12
Moisture vapour proof container 8 8
Midstorage Correction: Hydration dehydration with Disodium hydrogen phosphate (3.6 mg

/ lt g water) for six hours.
Hybrid Seed Production in Pearl Millet

Botanical Name: Pennisetum glaucum
Chromosome number (2n): 14
Family : Poaceae
Inflorescence: panicle
Special feature for cross pollination: Protogynous
Pollination: Cross pollination
Spike Emergence : 10 weeks after sowing
Style production : 2-3 days after sowing

Flowering pattern : Top to Bottom
Completion of flowering : 24-48hrs (within panicle)
Stigma receptivity : 12-24 hrs
Anther emergence :
Emerge after the styles are dry. Emergence of anthers takes place in 2 distinct ways. The 1st
way involves bisexual florets (upper floret) and 2nd way usually 2-3 days after first way from
staminate flowers (lower floret). Starts from middle of the spike and proceed upwards &
downwards
Anthesis: Throughout the day
(i) Peak between 8.00 PM – 2.00 AM
Temperature for Seed Setting: 37°C
Selfing: (i) Bagging (Two earheads of some plant increase seed set). (ii) Single earhead yield
will be less.
Crossing technique: Controlled crossing by bagging desired plants as male and female.
Breeding Technique for hybrid seed production: Cytoplasmic genetic male sterility system
(CGMS).
Seed production : The first report on CGMS line was made by Burton and his co workers at
Tifton Georgia USA. The line is Tift 23A.
Commercial Hybrid Seed Production

Land Requirement: (i) Select fertile land; (ii) Avoid problematic soil; (iii) Previous crop
should not be the same crop variety/after variety.
Isolation: Foundation seed : 1000 m, certified seed : 200 m.
Season: Irrigated : March – April, June - July.
January – February
Rainfed: October – November
Seeds
(i) Must be from an authenticated source (SAU, NSC Department of Agriculture).
(ii) Use proper stage for production (eg. Foundation seed for certified seed).
Pre sowing seed Treatment

(i) Treat with metalaxyl @6 g kg-1 seed against downy mildew.
(ii) Treat with Azospirillum 600g kg-1 seed for fixation of atmospheric nitrogen.
(iii) Soak the seed in 10% NaCl solution to remove sclerotial bodies and ergot diseased seeds
(iv) Harden seeds with 2 % KH2PO4 for rainfed sowing.
Seed rate: A line : 6 kg ha-1; B line : 2 kg ha -1
Main field preparation: Ridges and furrows
Sowing
Seedling/hill: 1 seedling/hill
Planting ratio: Foundation Seed : 4 : 2; Certified Seed : 6 : 2
Border rows: Foundation Seed : 8 (B line)
Certified Seed : 4 (R line)
Depth : 2-3 cm
Spacing : A line : 45 × 20 cm; B line : 45 × solid row.
Nursery : Seedling can also be raised in raised bed nursery and can transplanted to the main
field at 20–25 days of aging.
Manures & Fertilizers

Nursery : 750 kg/7.5 cents for transplanting in one ha.
Mainfield
(i) Compost : 12.t ton/ha
(iii) NPK: 100:50:50 kg ha-1
Basal : 50:50:50 kg ha-1
Top : 50:0:0 kg ha-1 (At tillering phase)
Foliar spray : DAP 1% at peak flowering to enhance flowering and seed set.
Steps for synchronization of flowering :
(i) Withholding irrigation
(ii) Application DAP 1%
(iii) Staggered sowing
(iv) Jerking
Jerking
It is done 20–25 days after transplanting or 30-40 days after direct sowing. The early formed
earheads of the first tillers are pulled out or removed which will result in uniform flowering of
all the tillers.
Specialty with Bajra in Synchronization

(i)The synchronization problem is less in bajra due to tillering habit; (ii)Supply of continuous
pollen; (iii) Lesser pollen weight; (iv) Flight capacity of pollen; (v) Pollen viability & stigma
receptivity are longer.
Irrigation
(i) Immediately after sowing; (ii) Life irrigation on 3rd day; (iii) Once in 8-10 days
Critical Stages
(i) Primoidal initiation stage , (ii) Flowering stage (iii) Seed filling stage (iv) Milky stage
Roguing: Done in both lines
A line : seek for offtypes pollen shedder and partials
R line : Seek for early flowering plants, rouges and diseased plants.
Character of offtypes : Variation in leaf colour, leaf waviness, grain colour earhead, shape,size,
etc.
No. of Field Inspection : Three
(i)Seedling stage; (ii) Tillering stage; (iii) Grain formation stage.
Field Standards
Maximum Permitted (%)
Standards FS CS
Offtypes 0.05 0.10

Downy mildew diseased plants 0.05 0.10
Earheads affected by ergot 0.02 0.04
Plant Protection
Aphids, Jassids: Monocrotophos, Rogor 2.5 ml/lt
Ergot Disease: Carbendazim @500 g/ac Mancozeb 1kg/ac (1st at 5-10% flowering and the
2nd at 50% flowering)
Downy Mildew: Spray of Metalaxyl @ 500 g ha-1 (or) Ridomil WP @2 kg ha-1 (or) Mancozeb
1 kg ha-1
Harvesting
Physiological maturation: 30–35 days after 50 flowering.
Visual symptoms
(i) Seed colour changes from green to straw yellow in colour.
(ii) Formation of dunken layer at the point of attachment to the panicle.
Moisture content: 30–35%
Harvesting Technique
(i) Due to tillering habit, harvest the panicle / earhead in 2 picking (to avoid delayed harvest)
(ii) Select 5–7 tillers for seed purpose.
Threshing
(i) Dry in yard for 2-3 days
(ii) Moisture content should be 15-18%.
(iii) Stick beating (manual) or mechanical thresher (LCT Thresher).
Processing
(i) Grade with 4/64" round perforated metal sieve as middle screen.
(ii) Use OSAW cleaner cum grader.
Seed treatment: Thiram/Bavistin @3g kg-1 seed
Seed storage : (i) Cloth bag for short term storage (12 months); (ii) 700 gauge polyethylene
bag – long term storage (> 24 months).
Mid storage correction: HDH with Na2PO4 10-4m for 4h.
Seed Standards
Permitted (%)
Standards FS CS
Physical purity (Maximum) 98 98

Inert matter (Maximum) 2 2
Other crop seed (Maximum) 10/kg 10/kg
Weed seed (Maximum) 10/kg 10/kg
Ergot effected seeds (Maximum) by number 0.020 % 0.040%
Germination 75 75
Moisture content Moisture pervious Moisture impervious
12 5
Seed yield : 3200 - 3250 kg / ha
Hybrid Seed Production in Maize

Botanical name : Zea mays
Chromosome number [2n] : 20
Family: Poaceae
Inflorescence: Panicle cob, as the crop is monoceious in nature.
Type of flowers: Monoceious.
Female: Cob
Male: Tassel
Location: Female flowers : Axillary in the middle portion of plants.
Male flowers: Terminal
Pollination : Cross pollination
Flowering Pattern : Top to bottom (Tassel): Bottom to top (Cob)
Anthesis : Pollen shedding begins 1 to 3 days before the silk emerge from the cob.
Fertilization : Within 12 to 18 hrs after silk emergence. The entire silk is receptive. Silk will be
pinkish and sticky at the beginning (receptive) after fertilization it will be chocolate / brown
colour.
No. of Pollen in Tassel : 2,50,00,000
Pollen Viability : 12-18h
Male Flower Anthesis : 6.00 am to 8.00 a.m
Duration of Flowering : 2-14 days
Selfing Techniques
Crossing Technique : Manual emasculation by detassling
Detasseling : Removal of male inflorescence from the monoecious crop
Time for Detasseling : The time taken for shedding of pollen from the tassel in 1-2 days after
emergence. Hence the tassel should be removed before the shedding of pollen.
Method
(i) Hold the stem below the boot leaf in left hand and the base of the basal in right hand and
pull it oat in a single pull.
(ii) No part should be left on the plant as it causes contamination.
(iii) It should be uniform process done daily in the morning in a particular direction.
(iv) Donot break the top leaves as the field may be reduced due to the earning of source
material to accumulate in sink [seed ] as removal of 1 leaf course 1.5% loss 2 leaves
5.9% loss and 3 leaves 14% loss in yield.
(v) Detassel only after the entire tassel has come out and immature detasseling may lead to
reduced yield and contamination.
(vi) Mark the male rows with marker to avoid mistake in detasseling.
(vii) Look out for shedders [shedding tassel] in female rows as the may cause contamination.
(viii) After pulling out the tassel drop it there itself and bursy in soil. Otherwise late emerging
pollen from detasseled tassel may cause contamination.
(ix) Do not carry the tassel through the field as any fall of pollen may lead to contamination.
(x) Do not practice, improper, immature and incomplete detasseling.
Improper Detasseling: A portion of the tassel is remaining in the plant while detasseling.
Immature Detasseling: Carrying out detasseling work when the tassel is within the leaves.
Incomplete Detasseling: The tassel is remaining in lower or unseen or unaccounted in within
the whole of leaves.
There should not be any shedding tassel.
Shedding tassel : Either full or part of tassel remain in female line after detasseling and shedding
pollen which may contaminate the genetic purity of the crop.
System of Hybrid Seed Production
Datasseling ( Manual creation of male sterility).
Types of Hybrids
Single Cross Hybrid Production
It is a cross between 2 genotypes A × B. A genotype will be detasseled and crossed with B
genotypes.
Double Cross Hybrid Production

(i) It is a cross between 2 hybrids (A × B) × (C × D) (A × B) single cross hybrid will be
produced by detasseling A and by crossing with B (C × D) hybrid will be produced by
detasseling C and crossing with D.
(ii) Then (A × B) will be detasselled and crossed with (C × D) hybrid.
Popular hybrids : Ganga 2 : (CM 109 × CM 110) × (CM 202 × CM 111)
Ganga 101 : (CM 103 × CM 104) × (CM 201 × CM 206)
COH3 : ( UMI 101 × UMI 130 ) × (UMI 90 × UMI 285 )

Deccan hybrid (CM 104 × CM 105) × (CM 202 × CM 201)
Three way cross Hybrid Production
(i) It is a cross between a hybrid and a variety or inbred. (A × B) × C (Inbred / genotypes).
(ii) (A × B) single cross hybrid will be produced by detasseling A and crossing with C.
(iii) (A × B) progeny is detasseled and crossing with C.
Popular hybrids : Ganga 5 (CM 202 × CM 111) × CM 500
Ganga 4 (CM 402 x CM 300) × CM 602
H1 starch (CM 400 × CM 300) × CM 601
Ganga safed of (CM 400 × CM 300) × CM 600
Top Cross: It is first generation resulting from the crossing of on approved inbred line and a
certified open pollinated variety.
(i) (A × variety).
(ii) A will be detasseled and allowed for crossing in the variety.
Double Top Crosses : The first generation resulting from the controlled crossing of a certified
single cross and a certified open pollinated variety.
(i) (A × B) × variety
(ii) (A × B) will be detasseled and crossed with a variety
Sequential development
Hybrid Seed Production Technique

Land selection: Field should be free from volunteer plants.
(i) Well drainage system, (ii) Well fertile land
Field Standards for Isolation

For Inbred lines (Foundation Seed)
a) Some kernel colour : 400 m.
b) Different kernel colour : 600 m.
c) Some in bred not conforming to varietal purity : 400 m.
For (foundation single crosses and hybrid of certified class)
Foundation stage Certified stage
Same kernal color 400 200

Different kernal colour 600 300
Field of single cross not confirming to varietal purity 400 200
Single cross with same male parent confirming to varietal purity 5 5
Single cross with other male parent not confirming to varietal purity 400 200
(i) Differential blooming dates are permitted for modifying isolation distance provided 5.0%
or more of the plants in the seed parent do not have receptive silk when more than
0.20% of the plants in the adjacent field within the prescribed isolation distance are
having shedding pollen.
(ii) In hybrid seed production (certified seed stage) alone the isolation distance (less than
200 meter) can be modified by increasing the border rows of male parent, if the kernal
colour and texture of the contaminant are the same as that of the seed parent.
(iii) The number of border rows to be planted all around the seed field to modify isolation
distance less than 200 m shell also be determined by the size of the field and its distance
from the contaminant as shown below.
Area in ha. Isolation distance (m) Border rows
< 4 ha 200 1
< 4 ha 150 5
< 4 ha 100 9
< 4 ha 50 13
10-12 ha 180 1
10-12 ha 130 5
10-12 ha 80 9
10-12 ha 30 13
> 16 ha 165 1
> 16 ha 115 5
> 16 ha 65 9
> 16 ha 15 13
Seed Production Stages and Production of Parental Lines/Hybrids
Stage of seed Single cross Double cross Three way cross Double top cross Top cross
Breeder seed A, B A, B, C, D A, B, C A, B, variety A, variety
Foundation seed A, B (AxB) (CxD (AxB), C (AxB) variety A, variety
Certified seed AxB (AxB) x (CxD) (AxB) x C (AxB) x variety A x variety
Seed Production in Maize Hybrids

Land Preparation : Ridges and furrows
Season: Second week of June
(i) Mid July, (ii) Jan. Feb.(iii) Sep. Oct
Source of Seed: Authenticated defined class of seed
Seed Rate: Female : 7 kg ha-1; Male : 3 kg ha-1
Spacing : Female : 60 × 20 to 75 × 30 depending on the area.
Male : 45 × 30 cm
Depth of Sowing : 5-6 cm
Planting ratio: Single cross : 4 : 2; Hybrids : 6 : 2
Border rows : (i) Can be modified based isolation requirement, (ii) Minimum of 4 is best , (iii)
Permanent structure can be used as border rows
Fertilizer
NPK kg/ha : 200 : 100 : 100
Basal: 100 : 100 : 50
1st Top : 50 : 0 : 0 (20th days -vegetative phase);2nd Top : 50 : 0 : 50 (Boot leaf stage at 45
days)
Foliar: DAP 2% at 50% flowering
In Zn Deficient Soil: ZnSO4 @ 25 kg ha-1
Planting Ratio: Single cross : 4:2; Hybrids : 6:2
Irrigation
First: On the date of sowing; Life: 3rd day; Regular: Once in 7-8 days
Critical stages : Boot leaf, tassel formation, flowering cob formation, silk emergence, milky
and dough stage.
Weed Control
Pre-emergence herbicide: Atrazine @ 1 kg in 1000 lt/ha.
Hand weeding: 25 to 30 days after sowing.
Caution: Do not enter into the field after boot leaf stage.
Field Standards
Specific Factors Certified stage
Off types shedding pollen when 5 % or more of seed

parentin receptive silk 0 .50 %
Seed parent shedding pollen when 5 % of the seed parent is
having receptive silk 1.0 %
Total of pollen shedding tassel including tassel that had shed pollen for all 2 .0 %
3 inspections conducted during flowering on different dates
Off types in seed parent at final inspection 0 .5 %
Common Factors
Off types : Foundation stage Inbreds 0.1%
Certified stage Single : 0.1%
Hybrid : 0.1%
OPV : 1.0% Hybrid : 0.5%
Inbred : Nil
Inseparable other crop : Nil (both stage)
Objectionable weed : Nil (both stage)
Designated diseases : Nil (both stage)
Number of inspection : Four
(Seed certification officers inspection) : One : Before flowering
: Three : During flowering
Plant Protection
Stem borer : Carbofuran / roger spray, Pink borer : Endosulfan, Aphids : Roger / monocrotophos
Downy mildew: Metelaxyl, spray, Leaf rust / smnt : Bavistin / dithane spray
Root rot: Bavistin drench.
Seed Maturation
(i)14-20 DAA milky stages (starch in fluid stage), (ii) 35 DAA : Soft dough stage, (iii) 45 DAA:
Glazad dough stage, (iv) 55 DAA: Ripe dough stage .
Symptom of Physiological Maturation

(i) The funicular degeneration, (ii) Formation of dunken layer, (iii) Moisture content of seed
35%. (iv) Cob sheath turn straw yellow colour.
Harvest: Harvest when the moisture content falls to 20–25 %.
Harvest male first and remove from the field and then harvest female.
Seed Yield: 2.5–3.6 t/ha,
Post-Harvest Operations
Cob Sorting : Remove sheath and check for kernel colour, shank colour, diseased cobs, kernel
arrangement etc.
Xenia: Effect of kernel colour due to foreign pollen on the some generation.
Matezenia: Effect of kernel colour due to foreign pollen in next generation.
Shelling: Moisture content 15% .
Mechanical (cob sheller).
Manual (rubbing with stones).
Improper Shelling leads to: 48% damage to kenel

Growth of storage fungae leads to (i): Pericarp damage
Pericarp damage (ii) Crack on pericarp
Identified by FeCl3 or Tz test

Processing: OSAW cleaner cum grader : 18/64 round perforated metal sieve.
Seed Standard Seed certification stage
Standards Foundation Certified (hybrid)
Pure seed (Maximum) 98 98

Inertmatter (Maximum) 2 2
Other crop seed (Minimum) 5 /Kg 10 /Kg
ODV (Minimum) 5 /Kg 10 /Kg
Weed seed (Minimum) None None
Germination (Minimum) 80 90
Rouging: (i) Check for shedding tassel, (ii) Check for receptive silk (iii) Check for off types
(iv) Check for Rogues (v) Check for Diseased plants
Hybrid Seed Production in Pigeon Pea/Arhar

Botanical Name: Cajanus cajan
Family: Fabaceae
Chromosome Number (2n) : 22
Inflorescence : Terminal racemes
Flowers : Papilionaceous, gamosepalous, polypetolous standard petal 1,wing petal 2,keel petal
2,Stamens (9 + 1) diadelphous didynomous, monocorpellery and superior ovary.
Anthesis : 8.00 am to 11.00 am
Time for Pollination : 7.00 am to 10.00 am

Duration of Flowering : 7-15 hours
Type of Pollination : Often cross pollination
Extend of Cross Pollination : 3-70%
Selfing technique (varietal production): Flowers are bagged with brown paper cover prior to
the day of opening
Crossing technique : Emasculation
The unopened selected buds of 7 mm long are emasculated on the previous day of pollination
with the help of forceps and covered with a paper bag. There should not be any anthers left.
The flowers from the male line are collected in the next day. Removing the standard and wing
petals, the keel petals are pressed gently so that the pluff of anthers extrude out and they are
pressed on the stigma of the emasculated flowers. The pollinated flowers are then bagged.
Pollination is done between 7.00 am to 10.00 am Technique for hybrid seed production :
Genetic Male Sterility
Popular Hybrids : COH1 : MST21 X ICPL87109 in 1994, COH2 : MSCO5 X ICPL 83027 in
1997
Stages of Seed Production : Breeder seed – foundation seed – certified seed
Production particular with stage of Seed
Breeder seed - Multiplication of female and male line in isolation
Foundation seed - Multiplication of female and male line in isolation
Certified seed - Production of F1 hybrid
Control of Male Sterility - Monogenic recessive gene are maintained in heterozygous form
following the principle of test cross
No. of Male Sterility System Reported : Two
MS1 – Translucent white anthers
MS2 - Dark brown, arrow head shaped anthers
MST21 : Developed at ICRISAT
MSCO5 : Developed at TNAU ,Coimbatore

Land Requirement
(i)Fertile land with an irrigation source, (ii) Previous crop should not be pigeon pea, (iii)
Isolation distance is 200 m on all side from any other variety / hybrid of pigeon pea.
Fertilizer
(i) Farmyard manure @ 20 cert loads ha-1.
(ii) N P K @ 25:50:25 kg ha-1
(iii) DAP 25 kg as basal and 2% DAP spray at flowering and another after 15 days.
Seeds and Sowing

(i) The female and male parents are sown simultaneously.
(ii) In CORH1, the pollen parent (ICPL 87109) should be sown one week after the sowing
of female parent (MST 21).
(iii) Planting ratio : 4:2 (Female to Male).
If Insect Activities is More 6:2

(i) Border rows : Two (around the plots).
For hybrid seed production a ratio of 4:2 or 6:2 or 4:1 of male sterile pollen parent is to be
adopted depending on honey bee activity. If bee activity is normal a ratio of 4:1 can be adopted.
If honey activity is very less a ratio of 4:1 can be adopted. If honey activity is very less a ratio
of 4: 2 may be adopted. If honey activity is moderate adopt a ratio of 6: 2.
Spacing : 60 × 20 cm.
Sowing Depth: 2-3 cm.
Seed Rate: Female parent : 40 kg ha-1
Male Parent: 5 kg ha-1
Presowing seed treatment : Rhizobium @ 3 pocket/ha or ZnSO4 soaking in 1/3rd volume (100
ppm).
Season of Sowing : First fortnight of June
First fortnight of December.
Supplementary Pollination: To increase the activity of insects, the whole plot should be
bordered with sunflower to increase bee activity to effect cross pollination. Bee hives may be
placed @ 5.8 ha-1 for effective cross pollination.
Irrigation: (i) First irrigation after sowing, (ii) Life irrigation on 3rd day, (iii) Subsequent
irrigation depending on need once in 7–10 days, (iv) Mulching helps in moisture conservation
Rouging
In male sterile line or female parent
(i) Remove the off type plant.
(ii) Remove the male fertile line by examining the color of the anthers at the time of first
flower formation, i .e. one day before flower opening.
(iii) Roguing should be completed in 7-10 days time.
(iv) Remove the late flowering plants.
In Male Fertile Line or Male Line

(i) Rogue out off types.
(ii) Remove the immature pods set in the plants from time to time to induce continuous
flowering and to ensure pollen availability for longer time.
Field Standard
Maximum permitted (%) Standards
FS CS
Isolation distance - 100 m

Off types - 0.10
Pollen shedder - 0.10
Other weed plants - -
Designated weeds - -
Weeding : Ensure weed free condition

Apply pre-emergence herbicide Basilin 1.5 litre /ha on 3rd day after sowing.
Harvesting
Physiological maturation 27–30 days
Symptom - Brown pods, tan colour of seed
Collect the pods from the female parent which will be the hybrid seed.
Plant Protection
Insects
(i) Common problem blister beetle.
(ii) Try to minimise insecticidal spray as it may kill the honey bees and other insects responsible
for pollination and seed set.
(iii) Spray NPV at 500 lit/ha with 20% teepol against pod fly.
(iv) Spray endosulfan 4% or carbaryl 5% @ 25 kg or monocrotophos @ 625 ml/ha against
pod borer.
(v) Spray neem oil 5% spray during flowering and pod set stage followed by Tricophos
0.05 % spraying.
Diseases
Sterility mosaic virus
(i) Affected plant at young stage are removed.
(ii) Spray monocrotophos @ 500 ml/ha as the symptoms are visible and continue with
another spray after 15 days.
Wilt and Root Rot

Around the roots of all plants either affected or not, apply carbendenzamin @ 0.5 g dissolved
in 1 litre of water.
Grading
(i) Seed moisture content to be reduced to 16-14%.
(ii) Use 10/64" round perforated sieve irrespective of parental and hybrid seeds.
(iii) Reduce the final moisture content between 8-10% for prolonged storage.
Seed Treatment
(i) Treat seeds with Thiram/Bavistin @ 2g/kg-1 of seed along with carbaryl @ 200 mg
kg-1 of seed.
(ii) Treat the seed with halogen mixture @ 3g kg-1 of seed as ecofriendly treatment.
(iii) Treat the seed with Turmeric rhizome power/chilli powder/neem leaf power @ 100 g
kg-1 of seed for dual purpose seed storage.
Storage
(i) Use cloth bag for short term storage.
(ii) Use sealed container or 700 gauge polythene bag for long term storage.
Seed Standards
Characters Maximum (permitted)
FS CS
Physical purity 98 % 98 %
Germination % 75 % 75 %
Moisture 9% 9%
Other crop seed _ –
Other distinguishable variety – 10 %
Cost of Seed
Male parental line : Rs.50.00/kg
Female : Rs.300.00/kg; Hybrid : Rs.120.00/kg
Benefit ratio : 1:33.
40
Hybrid Seed Production in Sunflower
Botanical Name : Helianthus annus

Chromosome number (2n) : 34
Family: Asteraceae
Inflorescence: Head or capitulum
Type of Florets: Ray and disc
Disc Florets: Bisexual in disc florets
No of disc florets in Head: 4000 – 10,000
Head size: 4–50 cm
Flower opening: From periphery to center @ 2-4 circles in each day
Nature of Flower: Protoandry
Date of Blooming –1 head : 5-10 days
Pollen Viability: 12 hrs
Anther Dehiscence: 6.30 - 11.00 depending on sunlight
Time of Anthesis : 5- 8.00 A.M., Stigma emergence : 9.00 A.M., Stigma receptivity : 2-3 days
System of self incompatibility : Protoandrous flowers
Insects for Cross Pollination : Bees : Apis mellifera, Apis dorseta
Type of Pollination : often cross pollinated
Extend of Cross Pollination : 17-62%
Hybrid Seed Production in Sunflower 249
Selfing : By bagging
Crossing Technique : Emasculation of removing united anther lob by forceps.
Chemical for male Sterility
(Gematicide) : GA3 100 ppm
Varietal Renovation Technique : Pustovate model
Commercial Hybrid Seed Production Technique: Cytoplasmic genetic mole sterility
Popular hybrids : BSH1: (CMS 234A × RHA 273), KBSH1 (CMS 234A × RHA 274): TCSH1
Land Selection
(i) Select fertile & well drained soil.
(ii) Avoid wilt/Charcoal rot infected field.
(iii) The previous crop should not be sunflower past 2 seasons.
Sunflower can tolerate high PH upto 8.5.
Isolation
(i) Isolate field from same variety or other varieties not confirming to certification stand all
around the plot.
(ii) The distance of foundation stage : 400m.
(iii) The distance of certified seed stage : 200m.
Land Preparation: Deep ploughing
Season : April – August, December – January. There should not be rain at the time of flowering.
Spacing : 45 × 30 cm (Female), 45 × 30 cm or 45 cm line sowing (Male)
Fertilizer : N PK – 60 : 45 : 45 Kg ha-1., FYM : 12.5 t/ha
Micronutrient deficiency : Mn deficiency : Basal 25 kg /ha (or) 0.5% MnSO4 spray of 30,
40, 50 DAS : Zn deficiency : ZnSo4 Basal 25kg/ha (or) 0.5% ZnSO4 spray at 30 , 40 & 50
DAS.
Seeds and Sowing

(i) Get seed form authenticated source, (ii) Get appropriate seed based on class of seed
production (eg) Foundation seed - A & B line seeds, Certified seed - A and R line seeds.
(ii) If dormant soak in 0.5% KNO3 solution for 16 hrs.
(ii) Treat with Thiram @ 2g Kg-1 of seed.
Seed rate : A : 6 kg / ac : R : 4 kg / ac
Sowing depth : 2-3 cm : Row ratio : 3 :1

Border row: 4
Herbicides: Apply fluchloralin 2.0 l ha-1 before sowing or as pre-emergence spray, : 3 days
after sowing along with irrigation.
Irrigation : At the time of sowing, Life irrigation (3rd day), : Once in 8 – 10 days.
Critical Stages
(i) Bud development
(ii) Seed development
(iii) Seed maturation
Rouging
(i) Based on stem hairyness, (ii) leaf blade, leaf colour, (iii) Bract colour, find the off type and
remove. (iv) Based on head shape, (v) Convex ,concave flower (disc floret colour, ray floret
colour ) off type are to be removed.(vi) Keep the florets upside down on around to avoid cross
pollination by insects. (vii) Remove downy mildew effected plants
(i) Use muslin cloth and rub on male 1st and then on female heads ( morning hours 8.00 -
11.00 am)
(ii) Keep bee hives @ 5-7 / ha
Special Problem
(i) Bird damage / parrot damage (Occur on milky stage seeds eaten away by birds).
(ii) Bird scaring: 6.00 – 10 pm, 3.00 – 7.00 pm.
Coloured Ribbon are Blown

Physiological maturation
Thalamus turns greenish yellow in colour.
Harvesting
(i) Remove male first, then female.
(ii) Moisture content : 15%.
Do not heap the heads

Threshing
Dry and beat with sticks, Sunflower thresher (risky).
Grading: Sieve grading with - 8/64 , 10/64" depending on parent hybrids

Specific gravity grading is best.
Storage: Thiram treatment @ 2 g kg-1 of seed, Seed moisture content : 8%. Cloth bag for short
term storage, Polyethylene bag (700 gauge ) at which 5-6 % seed moisture for long term
storage
Hybrid Seed Production in Castor
Botanical Name: Ricinus communis
Family: Euphorbiaceae
Chromosome Number : 2n = 20
Inflorescence: Candle or spike
Type of Flower : Monoecious
Male: Bottom (40-50%)
Female: Top (50-60%)
Nature of Flower : Slightly potently
Flower Opening : Male opens first, Female one or two days later
Flowers open early the morning 4.30-5.00 am 10-12 days for complete anthesis)
Anthesis : 4-8 am
Pollen Grains Viable : 66 hrs.
Stigma Receptivity : 1-2 days
Type of Pollination : Highly cross pollinated
Selfing : By bagging.
Crossing Technique
(i) Emasculation by removing of male flowers.
(ii) Use of 100% pistilate line (Female) (No new for emasculation).

Use of 100% pistillate line. (Depending upon environment i.e. Temp. sensitive).
Commercial Hybrid Seed Production Technique

Land Requirement
Select fairly deep, fertile and well drained soil.Avoid alkalinity/salinity soils. (Problematic soil).
Previous Crop Should not be Castor

Isolation Distance Recommended (m)
Statutory isolation limits (m) Male Parents Nucleus shredder
1500 -
1000 300
Foundation 600 150
Certified Female Parents Nucleus shredder
2000 -
1500 300
Foundation 1000 150
Certified Seed of Common Hybrid

Land Preparation
Deep planting, 2 to 3 harrowing.
Breeder seed - foundation seed - certified seed.
Area/regions
Western and Northern state Southern state

Season
Male Parent
July first Fortnight (FN) June 2nd FN
Female
July first FN Jan first FN and May last week
to June first week.
Certified (Hybrid) August season FN Sep second FN
Spacing
Initial (cm) 90 × 30
Final spacing to be adjusted at the time of second ranging (cm) 90 × 60
Seed rate (kg/ha)
10-12
Sowing
4 to 5 cm deep
Row ratios : 4:2 or 3:1 (depending upon hybrid)
Nutrient Management: Fertilizer :
N P K kg/ha 80 : 60 : 0
Basal : 40 : 60 : 0
After 45 to 60 days : 20 : 0 : 0
After first picking : 20 : 0 : 0
Herbicides: Plot should be weed free during first 45 days of crop growth.
: Spray Fluchloralin or Trifluralin @ 1 kg active ingredient / ha. 3-5 days prior to seeling.
Irrigation: Depending upon the soil and the crop season.
Kharif 4-6, Rabi 6-8, Summer 15-20; At an interval of 9-10 days.
Plant Protection
Caster semilooper : Monocrotophos (0.05%) or quinolphos (0.05%) or dimethoate (0.05%) or
endosulfan (0.05%) 10-15 days.
Tobacco caterpillar : Chlorphyriphos (0.05%).
Caster hairy cater pillar : Phosphomidon or quinolphos (0.05%) MCC or twice at 10 days
interval.
Sex Expression
Occurrence of staminate flower mostly related to seasonal variation and associated with the
genotype and mean day temperature.
Generally female tendency is highest in rabi and early summer.
Plants tends to be mostly make when planted.
In late summer and kharif.
Temp below 32°C
Mostly Female
Above 32°C:Plant produces more male flowers. Besides temp. age of plant and level of nutrition
and influence sex expression.
Female tendency is in general highest in young plant with high level of nutrition. White reverse
in the case with old and poorly nourished plants.
Roguing
Minimum 3 field inspection requires.
Crop Growth Stage

Basis for identification
At least 10 days prior to flowering in primary raceme.

Stem colour, internode type, leaf shape and bloom.
i) Flower initiation in primary raceme :Nodes upto primary raceme, internode type, sex
expression, branching and spike characters.
ii) Flower initiation in secondary order raceme: In female parent spike and capsules character
in primary raceme and reversion to monoceious in secondary order raceme.
iii) Flower initiation in Ternary order raceme : In female parent Reversion to monoecism in
tertiary and quaternary order racemes.
Physiological Maturation
When capsules turn green to pate yellow – brown colour or 1 or 2 capsules dried.
Harvesting
First harvest female line (hybrid) capsules harvested sequenced order racemes. Generally to
picking required starting from 90 to 120 days at an interval of 25-30 days.
Threshing
After harvesting capsules dried in sun for 3–7 days. Seeds may be separated from capsules
either manually or mechanically. Keep picking seed lots separately.
Grading
Sieve grading with 18/64". Depending upon genotypes or hybrid.
Storage
Seed moisture content 8.00 cloth bag or polyethylene bag
Grow out Test
The limits for rejection numbers are
Reject number in 400 plants Fs -24, CS 64
Genetic Purity (%)
Foundation 95.0
Certified 85.0
Seed standards Factor Foundation Certified
Pure seed (minimum) 98.0 98.0
Inert matter (maximum) 2.0 2.0
Other crop seeds (maximum) None None
Weed seeds (maximum) None None
Other distinguishable varieties (maximum number per kg)
5 10
Moisture 8.0 8.0
For vapour proof containers 5.0 5.0
Hybrid Seed Production in Cotton

Botanical Name : Gossypium spp.
Chromosome Number (2n) : 26
Diploid Cotton: G. arboreum , G. herbaceum
Tetraploid cotton (2n) : 52 G.hirsutum (American cotton), G. barbadense (Egyptian cotton, sea
island cotton)
Family : Malvaceae
Inflorescence : Raceme (axillary)
Flower : Solitary bisexual with monodelphous ovary
Anthesis : Asiatic cotton : 8-10 AM.
American Cotton : Earlier specialty with flowering : Temperature affects the flower opening.
After
flowering cream yellow colour of corolla turns pink within a day of later turns to red.
Time of Stigma Receptivity : 8-10 AM
Pollen Viability (duration) : 24 hours
Stigma Receptivity (duration) : 7 hours
Selfing : Selfing the flower bud by using thread, paper clips, wet clay or mud.
Crossing Technique : By removal of monodelphous staminal column and dusting with pollen.
Hybrid Seed Production Technique : Manual method / Emasculation and dusting.
Popular Hybrids
Varalakshmi : Lakshmi x SB 289
(G.hirsutum) × (G. barbadense)
CBS 156 : Acala glandless × SB 1085 – 6, Jayalakshmi / DCH 32 : DS 26 × SB 425
TCHB 213 : TCH 1218 × TCB 209
Other Breeding Systems for Hybrid Seed Production

Genetic male sterility (eq. Suguna), Cytoplasmic genetic male sterility, Emasculation
Commercial Hybrid Seed Production Technique

Land Selection : Free of volunteer plants of cotton variety deep, well drained and fertile soil.
Land Preparation : Fine tilth with giving ploughing followed by 2-3 harrowing.
Isolation : FS : 50 m, CS : 30 m
Between parental lines : 5 m
Seed Rate : Delinted : Female : 1.5 kg/ha
Male : 0.50 kg/ha
Fuzzy : Female : 2.00 kg/ha
Male : 0.75 kg/ha
Spacing : Female : : 4’ x 2’, Male : 3’ × 2’
Manures & Fertilizers : FYM : 25 tonnes/ha
NPK : 18 : 40 : 40 kg/ha, I dose at sowing & II dose at 30 DAS at : 16 : 40 : 40
II dose at 30 DAS at square formation : 32 : 0 : 0
III dose at 60 DAS at flowering : 32 : 0 : 0
Sowing: Female & male parents are sown separately side by side in the ratio 4:1 or 5:1.
(Adopting block system).
Pre-sowing seed Treatment : Thiram or Capton @2 .5 g/kg of seed.
Irrigation Stages: No. of irrigation - 9.
At the time of germination : (i) Immediately after sowing (ii) Life irrigation on 5th day of
sowing.
Vegetation Phase : (i) On 20th or 21st day of saving, (ii) On 35th or 36th day of sowing
Flowering Stage : (i) 48th day of sowing (ii) 60th day of sowing (iii) 72nd day of sowing
(iv) 84th day of sowing (v) 96th day of sowing.
Roguing: From flowering initiation and continued till flowering is completed.
Characters for rouging : Leaf colour, shape, leaf hairiness, flower colour, petal eyespot, boll
shape.
Field Standards Maximum (permitted)%
Standards FS CS
Isolation distance 50 30
Off types 0.10 0.50
Other weed plants - -
Designated diseases - -
Picking : 30 to 40 percent boll bursting.Generally 3 to 4 pickings are required.

Seed Yield : kapas yield 15-20 q/ha
Cotton Seed Yield 7-10 q/ha

Seed Processing : Flow chart for efficient processing of cotton seed
Raw cotton —Pre cleaning—Ginning—Fuzzy seed—Delinted seed—Cleaning
Upgrading with Specific Gravity Separator
Heavy Middle light red selected for seed
Delinting Methods
Acid deliniting : Used concentrated H2SO4 (93 to 98%) @100 ml/kg of fuzzy seed for 3-4
minutes.
Dry gas Delinting : Dry HCl gas is injected in a revising drum containing fuzzy seed. The
drum is heated. Temp. reaches 49°C. Ammonia gas is used for neutralize the acid traces.
Seed Storage: Seed is dried upto 8-9% moisture and stored in well dried cloth bag.
Seed standards Maximum (permitted)
Standards FS CS
Physical purity (Maximum) 98 98
Germination % (Minimum) 65 65
Moisture (Minimum) 10 10
Other crop seeds (Minimum) 5 10
Other distinguishable variety (Minimum) – –
Appendix–1
Specific Terminologies with Hybrid

Seed Production
Hybrid seed production technology involves unique techniques. Hence involve new terminologies
to indicate unique techniques. Some of them are as follows.
Seed: A mature ovule consisting of an embryonic plant together with a store of food, all
surrounded by a protective coat.
Pure Live Seed (PLS): The percentage of pure seeds in a seed lot that have the ability to
germinate. The percentage of PLS is determined by multiplying per cent germination by per
cent pure seed dividing by 100.
F1 Hybrid: Denotes the first generation offspring from the mating of two parents.
Hybrid vigour: The increase in vigour of hybrids over their parental inbred types; also known
as heterosis.
Nick: In hybrid seed production, the condition existing when two inbred plants flower and are
ready for sexual crossing at the same time.
Inbreds: A plant with successive self fertilization of parents throughout several generations.
Genotype : A hereditary make up of the plant or variety which determines its inheritance
Genetic Drift: A gradual or sometimes abrupt change in the germplasm balance of a cross
pollinated variety causing a chagne in its characteristics usually applied to grass or legumes
when seed is reduced to adoption. The shift may be caused by selective differences in mortality
of flower type under different environment.
A line: The female male sterile line used in CGMS system of hybrid seed production.
B line: Isogenic male fertile line of A line used for maintenance of A line in CGMS system
(Maintainer line).
Specific Terminologies With Hybrid Seed Production 259
R line (Restorer line) : It is a male line which restore the fertility of A line in CGMS system.
Border Row: Planning of male parent around the plot for adequate supply of pollen and also
prevent the contamination of other pollen.
Marker Plant: The plant that is sown along with the male line to indicate male line.
Synchronisation: It is adjustment of growth of male and female lines in such a way both
attain flowering in one at the same time for effective seed setting.
Jerking: It is the shake given to the early parent or removal of flowering part of early parent.
Staggered Sowing: It is the time adjustment adopted between the female and male line at the
time of sowing for synchronised flowering.
Emasculation: Removal of the male organ in the bisexual flower to create sterility in the
female parent.
Dusting: Application of pollen of the male parent on stigma of the female parent.
Electric Bee: Electrically operated instrument used for supplying of pollen to female parent.
Supplementary Pollination: Techniques that are adapted to provide adequate pollen for
crossing between male and female parent.
Pollen Shedder: The presence of B line in A line is called pollen shedder.
Partials : Plant that are shedding pollen with a part of either earhead or panicle.
Shedding Tassel: It is the remaining part or newly emerged tassel shedding pollen after
detasseling.
Metazenia: The effect of foreign pollen on the female parental line is called Zenia. The expression
of Zenia in same year with colour modification is called metazenia.
Selfed Bolls: Balls that are produced without emasculation and dusting.
Abnormal Seedlings : Seedlings which do not show the capacity for continued development
into normal plant and die prematurely even when grown in good quality soil and under favourable
conditions of water supply, temperature and light.
Dormancy: An internal condition of the chemistry or stage of development of a viable seed
which prevents its germination when the conditions normally considered to be suitable for
germination are provided; also applied to buds.
Genetic purity : Trueness to type; variety purity; plants / seeds conforming to characteristics
of the variety as described by the breeder.
Germination: The resumption of growth by the embryo and development of a seedling from
the seed, and the ability to develop into a normal plant under favourable conditions in the soil.
Hard Seed: Seeds that have a seed coat impervious to water or oxygen required for germination.
Sometimes overcome by scratching or scarifying the seed coat or removal by brief immersion
in sulphuric acid and thorough washing, generally leguminosae and Malvaceae are hard seeded.
Normal Seedling: The seedling which shows the capacity for continued development into
normal plant when grown in good quality soil and under favourable conditions of water,
temperature and light.
Off Type: Plant or seed deviating significantly from the characteristics of a variety as described
by the breeder in any observed respect.
Other Crop Seed: Seeds of plant which have grown as crops, other than the main crop.
Other Seeds: These include seed and seed-like structures of any plant species other than that
of pure seed.
Planting Ratio: The recommended ratio in which the male and female parental lines are planted
to make a crossing in hybrid seed production.
Pure Seed: The seeds of the species stated by the sender, or found to predominate in the
purity test. It includes all botanical varieties and cultivars of that species even if immature,
undersized, shrivelled, diseases or germination, provided they can be definitely identified as of
that species.
Rogue: An off-type plant; undesirable plant.
Vigour: It is the sum total of all seed attributes which favour rapid and uniform stand
establishment in the field.
Appendix–II
Tools Employed in Hybrid Seed

Production
A hybrid is the first generation progeny of a cross between two genetically different identical
inbredlines. The individual lines are known as inbreds.
Requisites of Hybrid Seed Production
1. Breeders Responsibilities
(a) Develop inbred lines; (b) Identification of specific parental lines; (c) Develop system for
pollen control
2. Major Problems for Breeders & Producers

(a) Maintenance of parental lines; (b) Separation of male and female reproductive organs
(c) Pollen exchange
3. Genetically it makes no difference, which parental line is used as the male or

female; but seed produces must consider the following characteristics of parental
lines
Female Parent Male Parent

High seed yield Good pollen production
Good seed characteristics Long shedding period
Male sterility Plant height
Lodging resistant Fertility restoration
Basic Procedures for Hybrid Seed Production

1. Development and identification for parental lines.
2. Multiplication of parental lines.

3. Production of single crosses (maize, Figure 1).
(a) Planting ratios (b) Planting date (s) – “nick” Production of double cross hybrids (maize
only).
Among them the separation of male and female reproductive organ plays a major role in F1
hybrid seed production. The tools employed to produce hybrid seed may be broadly divided
into two. It may be through genetic modification or through manual management.
Tools Based on Modification of Genetic Structure

1. Genetic Male Sterility System
It is determined by a single gene Ms the homogenous recessive genes msms results in male
sterility. Stability often influenced by environmental condition and are modified by modified
gene. Hybrids developed based on GMS is available in redgram and cotton.
2. Cytoplasmic Male Sterility System

The sterility is determined by the cytoplasm of the female parent which is derived almost
entirely from the female gamete and this in more stable under the wider environmental condition
than genetic sterility system. Cytoplasmic male sterility is most useful when fruit or seed is not
desired i.e. flowers, onion, potato. Non fruiting plants bloom over a longer period of time and
the flowers remain fresh longer.
3. Cytoplasmic Genetic Male Sterility

In this system both cytoplasm and nuclear gene are involved in creation of sterility. Here plants
are available in 3 different form. The offspring from the male sterile plants are not necessarily
sterile although the cytoplasm is sterile. This is due to the presence of genetically controlled
restorer factor (Rf). Then this female line is crossed with male (with dominant gene) to get
hybrid.
Crops with CGMS Hybrids

Rice, Sorghum, Cumbu, Sunflower.
II. Manual Modification

Hybrid seeds are also produced manually by modifying the plant structure by removal of male
organ from female plant before anthesis. This system is possible only when the male and
female parts of a single flower or plants are separate. The avaiable techniques are :
Specific Terminologies With Hybrid Seed Production 263
1. Emasculation
This is being adopted in bisexual perfect flowers where the androecium is removal with case.
By removing the anther column / or male part from female line, the sterility of female line is
created and is dusted with the pollen of desired male parent.
2. Detasseling in Maize
This is possible as maize is monoceious and removal of male organ (tassel) is possible before
flowering. Here the male sterility is created by manual removal of the tassel and crossed with
desired male parent.
Suggested Further Reading

Agarwal, R.L. 1993. Seed Technology - Oxford and IBH Publishing Co., New Delhi.
Agarwal, P.K.1994. Principles of Seed Technology, ICAR Publication, New Delhi.
Desai, B.B., P.M. Kotecha, and D.K. Salunkha. 1988. Seeds Hand Book. Marcel and Dekker
Inc., New York.
Neema, N.P. 1989. Principles of Seed Certification and Testing - Allied Publishers Pvt. Ltd.,
New Delhi.
Tunwar, N.S. and S.V. Singh. 1988. Indian Minimum Seed Certification Standards Published
by Central Seed Certification Board, New Delhi.
Poelman Milton John and Dhirendranath Borthakur. 1972. Breeding Asian Filed Crops with
Special Reference to Crops of India.
Index
Stages of Inspection 139

A Seed Standard 140
Cenchrus sps
Apomixis 16 Corchorus capsularis
Corchorus olitorious
B
Cotton 154-172
Bacterial Leaf Blight 32 Acid Delinting of Cotton Seeds 171
Barnyard Millet Anthesis and Pollination 154
Black Gram 101,107 DOAK’s method of Hybrid seed Production 156
Disease Management 96 Emasculation and Dusting 159
Floral Biology 92 Floral Biology 154
Ideal Plant Type 92 Emasculation and Crossing 155
Inter Specific 93 Ginning and Certification 170
Method of Seed Production 94 Hybridization and Selection 155
Pre Harvest Sanitation Spray 97 Hybrid cotton Seed Production 160
Seed and Sowing 95 Kappa’s Sorting 170
Seed Standards 98 Male Sterility Method 161
Breeding Forage Crops 178 Mass Pedigree Selection Technique of Harland
Breeding for Insect Resistance 136,201 Method of Seed Production 159
Breeding for Abiotic Stress 207 Nutritional Disorders 166
Breeding for Quality of Characters 210 Pests and Diseases Management 168
Special Breeding Techniques in Cotton 157
C Steps Necessary for Efficiency in Seed Production
164
Caryopsis 4 Use of Male Sterile line 156
Castor 135
Bloom 138 Cowpea 105-110
Floral Bilogy 136 Foral Biology 105
R. communis 135 Grading 110
R. macro carpus 135 Ideal Plant Type 107
R. micro carpus 135 Method of Seed Production 107
Harvesting 139 Plant Protection 108
Pest Management 139 Pre Harvest Sanitary Pray 109
Red Castor Varieties 135 Seed Standards 110
Index 265
Threshing 121 A.hagen beckii 115

A. cardinassi 115
A.chacoense 115
D A. Villosulicarpa 115
Deep Water Paddy A.monticola 115
A.marginata 115
A.hypogaea 115
F A.pusilla 115
Finger Millet 64-66 A. repens 115
African Ragi 65 Fastigiata 116
Indian Ragi 65 Hybridization and Selection 117
Hybridization and Selection 66 method of Seed Production 119
Eleusine indica 65 Pod Processing 123
Eleusine oligostachya 65 Pod Sorting 1123
E.tristachya 65 Presowing Seed Treatment 120
E. poranansis 65 Presowing Seed Hardening 120
E. jaegeri 65 Seeds and Sowing 120
E. flacifolia 65 Seed Standards 124
Eleusine coracana 65 Stripping 126
E. Africana 65 Guinea Grass 201
E. longipoides 65
E. verticillata 65 H
E. cagopoides 65
Foxtail Millet 83 Horse Gram 101
Floral Biology 83 Hybrid Maize 44
Anthesis and Pollination 83 Hybrid Cotton 160
Hybrid Rice 17
Hybrid Sorghum
G
Grassy Stunt J
Green Gram 99-100
Breeding for Quality 99 Jute 173-175
Ideal PlantType 100 Breeding for Quality Fibre 174
Groundnut 114-124 Breeding for Pest and Disease Resistant V arieties174
Ambinervosae 115
Arachis 1115 K
Caulorhizae 115
Decordicator 123 Kodo Millet 78
Deficiency symptoms 121
Disease Management 122 L
Erectoides 115
Extra nervosae 115 Lab Lab 112
Rhizomatasae 115
Triseminate 115 M
Arachis villosa 115
A.tuberosa 115 Monophylatic 3
A.glabarata 115 Maize 40-49
A.batizoccoi 115 Cob 41
A.paragurensis 115 Cobsorting 48
Detasselling 46 Polyphylatic 3,4

Dehusking 48 Potato 211-213
Ear to Row Selection 42 Breeding Methods 212
Heterosis Breeding 43 Proso Millet 87-88
Isolation Distance 45
Maize Floral Biology 40 R
Metazenia Effect
Modified Ear to Row Method 42 Red Gram 82-91
Pest and Disease Management 48 Floral Biology 82
Presowing Seed Treatment45 Hybrid Seed Production 85
Processing 49 Preharvest Sanitation Spray 90
Seed Production 43 Production and maintenance of Male Sterile
Shelling 49 line 87
Steps in Hybrid Seed Production 44 Putative Parent 82
Tassel 40 Steps in Hybrid Seed Production 85
Mesta 176 Seed Standards 91
Mustard and rapeseed 131 Rice 2-34
B.nigra 131 Application of Gibberellin 19
B.oleracea 131 Aroma and Cooking Quality 9
B.campestris 131 Cytoplasmic Male Sterility 14
B.tourne frotii 131 Environmentally induced Genetic Male Sterility
Hybridization and Selection 133 14
Gametocides 27
N Grading of Seeds 32
Heterosis Breeding 12
Napier Grass 201 Hybid Rice 13
Nobilisation 150 Hybrid Rice Seed Production 16
Niger 167 Lemma 4
Male Sterility 14
P Milling out turn 9
Molecular Marker Analysis 16
Pearl millet 72-82 Inter Racial 11
Breeding for Drought Tolerance 75 inter Specific Cross 11
Breeding for Disease Resistance 75 Oryza alata 4
Floral Biology 73,74 Oryza australiensis 4
Heterosis Breeding 76 Oryza barthii 4
Jerking 80 Oryza brachantha 5
Diseases 81 Oryza eichingeri 4
Pennisetum perottettii 73 Oryza glumaepatula 4
P. molllissimum 73 Oryza grandiglumis 4
P. violaceum 73 Oryza granulata 5
P. versicolor 73 Oryza longiglumis 5
P. adonense 73 Oryza longistaminata 4
P. gymnothrix 73 Oryza latifolia 4
Presowing Seed Treatment 79 Oryza meridionalis 4
Nursery Preparation 79 Oryza minuta 4
Seed Production 77-82 Oryza meyeriana 5
Seed Standard 82 Oryza nivara 4
Synchronization and Flowering 80 Oryza officinalis 5
Wild species Utilized in Breeding 74 Oryza punctata 4
Index 267
Oryza perensis 4 S.vulgare 50

Oryza ridleyi 5 S.versicolor 50
Oryza rufipogon 4 Methods of perfect Synchronization and Nicking
Oryza sativa 4 59
Oryza glabberima 4 Midstorage Streatment 63
One line Method of Rice Breeding 15 Presowing Seed Treatment 58
PGMS 14 Processing 62
Palea 3 Seed Production 56
Pandamarilactione 9 Sugary Disease of Sorghum 61
Pedigree Method 11 Staggered Sowing 59
Pest and Disease Management 30 Kaffir 51
Presowing Seed Hardening Treatment 23 Syrup Varieties 53
Synchronization of Flowering 18 Sugar Varieties 53
Seed Multiplication Ratio 4 Soybean 102-104
Seed Production in Paddy 21 Floral Biology 102
TGMS 14 Breeding for short duration High Yielding Varieties
Two line method of Rice Breeding 14 102
Three line Method 14 Breeding for Quality 103
Wide Hybridization 16 Sugarbeet 191-193
Rice Gall Midge 8 Bolting in Sugarbeet 191
Floral Biology 192
S Sugarcane 188-190
Breeding Objectives 189
Safflower 150-151 S.officinarum 188
Sorghum 50-63 S.barberi 188
Breeding Drought Resistant Varieties 53 S.sinensis 188
Breeding non-lodging Sorghum 53 S.edule 188
Breeding for Sweet Sorghum 53 S.spontaneum 188
Breeding Varieties with Nutritional Quality 54 Sunflower 141-149
Caudatum 51 Breeding for Disease Resistance 142
Durra 51 Cultivars of Sunflower 142
Guinea 51 Floral Biology 141
Hybridization and Selction 54 Hybridization and Selection 143
Floral Biology 52 Mid Storage Correction 149
S.almum 50 Nipping 148
S.aethiopicum 50 Putative Parent 141
S.dochna 55 Seeds and Sowing 146
S. halepense 50,51 Seeds Standards 148
S.introns 50 Supplementary Pollination 147
S.miliaceum 50 Varietal Renovation Method 149,145
S.nitidum 50,51 Weed Management 147
S.plumosum 50 Sweet potato 194
S.purpureosericeum 50
S.propinquum 50 T
S.radolphianum 50
S.subglabaesence 50 Til 125-130
S.sudanense 50,51 Disease Management 129
S.stapfii 50.51 Floral Bilogy 125
S.verticillifolium, 50 Sesamum indicum 125
S .virgatum 50 S.alatum 125
S. malabaricum 125 Dipliod Wheat 36

S. laciniatum 125 Multiline 39
S. prostratum 125 Aegilops speltoides 37
Hybrization and Selection 127 T.boeticum (T.aegilopoides) 37
Method of Seed Production 127 T.monococum 37
Midstorage Correction 130 T.dicoccoides 37
Nutritional Disorders 128 T.dicoccum 37
Particulars of til Strain 130 T.durum 37
Pest and Diseases 129 T.persicum 36
Pest Management 129 T.turgidum 36
Seeds and Sowing 128 T.polonicum 36
Seed Coat Colour Variation in Varieties 129 T.timopheevi 39
Tapioca 185 T.aestivum 39
Root Tuber Development 186 T.compactum 36
T.sphaerococcum 36
V T.spelta 37
T.macha 36
Vertical Resistance 204 Hexaploid Wheat 37
Tetraploid Wheat 36
W
Wheat 35-39

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PRINCIPLES AND PLANT

BREEDING METHODS OF FIELD

NEW DELHI PUBLISHERS

First Edition 2011

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced,

New Delhi Publishers

Syllabus for ARS Main Examination

1. The China Centre

i. Primary Centre of Origin

ii. Secondary Centre of Origin

2.The Hindustan Centre

i. Primary Centre of Origin

ii. Secondary Centre of Origin

i. Primary Centre of Origin

ii. Secondary Centre of Origin

4.The Asia Minor Centre

i. Primary Centre of Origin

ii. Secondary Centre of Origin

5.The Mediterranean Centre

Primary Centre of Origin

6.The Abyssinian Centre

i. Primary centre of Origin

ii. Secondary Centre of Origin

7.Central American Centre

Primary Centre of Origin

8.The South American Centre

Primary Centre of Origin

Objectiion to Vavilov ‘s Theory

Law of Homologous Series

Foreword – I ................................................................................................................ iii

18 Til ............................................................................................................................... 125

Part–IV: FIBRE CROPS

Part –V: FORAGE GRASS

Part–VI: SUGAR CROPS

Part–VII: TUBER CROPS

Part–VIII: BREEDING FOR QUALITATIVE CHARACTERS

Part– IX: SALIENT POINTS OF HYBRID SEED PRODUCTION OF FIELD CROP

The three races in cultivated Asian rice are

Origin of Cultivated Rice

i.Polyphyletic: Common ancestor

indica japonica javanica

Species in the Genus Oryza

Botanical name Chromosome No. Genome Origin

Botanical name Chromosome No. Genome Origin

Related species of rice and their contributing characters in rice improvement

Species Genome Useful traits

O.alata CCDD High biomass production

Some of the wild Species Utilised in Breeding Programme are

1. High Yield Potential

(vi) Non/Low Photo Sensitivity

2. Adaptability and Stability of Yield

4. Resistant to Lodging and Shattering

5. Resistance to Cold Temperature

6. Resistant to Salinity and Alkalinity

9. Improved Grain Quality

b) Aroma and Cooking Quality

Total Rice: includes all rice recovered after milling.

10. Breeding for Alternate Source of Dwarfing Gene

11. Breeding Varieties Suited for Direct Sown Conditions

12. Varieties Suited for Dry Land Conditions

13. Deep Water Paddy

14. Varieties Suited for Export

15. To Breed Varieties to Control Wild Rice