By the end of Unit 3, you should

be able to:
Identify the different types of reports and
proposals.
Write a variety of informal and formal reports
using the appropriate format.
Write a variety of informational and analytical
reports using the appropriate format.
Write a variety of policy statements.
Write a variety of proposals.
Use the different key terms related to reports
and proposals
 3.1 Informal Reports
By the end of this section, you should be able to:
Identify the differences between informal and
formal reports.
List the steps involved in planning informal
reports.
Choose the most appropriate way of organising
informal reports.
Select the most appropriate writing style for
informal reports.
List the various formats for presenting informal
reports.
Write informal reports for a variety of situations.
Formal VS Informal report
Formal report
Take months or years to prepare.
Use a formal and impersonal style.
Are made up of many parts.
Are lengthier

Informal reports
Can be prepared in a day or a few weeks.
Use an informal and personal style.
Are usually made up of just a few parts.
Are usually short (1 – 5 pages).
Planning informal reports
Identifying the problem
 When you are asked to write a report, you need to
identify the problem and the purpose of the report.
 You must know why you are writing the report and what
you want the reader(s) to do after they read the report.
 It is advisable to start by stating your purpose or your
goal.
Identifying the audience
 Identify your audience. You need to know who is going
to read your report. Different people may have different
opinions on the subject and the writer of the report.
 As you decide on your purpose, you also need to bear in
mind the needs of your audience.
 Remember that the report you write must use language
that is appropriate for your readers so that they will
consider your report seriously.
 Determining the scope and the schedule
 Determine the scope of your report before you proceed
further.
 How much are you going to include in your report?
Developing a preliminary outline
 You need to decide on a preliminary outline so that information
you collect can be properly organised. Means (2001) suggests
that you arrange material for informational reports using
one of the following five ways:
1. Chronological order
2. Order of importance
3. Logical order
4. Category
5. Geography order
Collecting data
 Research is a process where you work to discover
interesting and rewarding
 information regarding the subject you are writing
on.
Research is classified into two categories:
1. Secondary research
 Books, periodicals and encyclopedias
 Internet sites
 Government Publications Trade
 Directories
 Computer database
2. Primary research
 Personal observation
 Interviews
 Questionnaires
Analysing data
Writing the report
 Organising informal reports
 The organisation of an informal report is not as
elaborate as that of a formal report.
 Direct and indirect order
 Informal reports are usually organised in one of the
following orders:
 Direct order
 Most informal reports are written in this order
where the main idea is presented first, followed by
supporting information..
 Indirect order
 This order is only used when you expect a negative
response from the reader. In this case, you present
the supporting data and reasons first, followed by
the main idea.
 For instance, it would be wise to use this approach
if you are proposing an idea which you believe
your superiors may not respond positively to.
The Report Outline using direct order:
1. Introduction
 This report will determine if the new staff incentive programme
is successful and identify measures to further improve the
programme.
2. Main ideas
 The new staff incentive programme is working well.
 Staff development programmes should be introduced.
3. Findings and supporting details
 The salary scale of all categories of workers is favourable as
compared to those in other organisations.
 Overtime incentives for all categories of workers are well
accepted.
 85% of staff interviewed are interested in educational and
development opportunities.
4. Conclusion/Closing
 The Report Outline using indirect
order:
1. Introduction
 The purpose of this report is to explain the large staff turnover in
the company and to identify solutions to the problem.
2. Findings and supporting details
 The salary scale of all except management level staff is
unfavourable as compared to those in other organisations.
 80% of all staff are unhappy over low overtime rates.
 80% of all staff are dissatisfied with promotion opportunities.
3. Main ideas
 New staff incentive programmes for lower level staff should be
introduced.
 The staff salary scale should be revised.
4. Conclusion/Closing
 Writing style
 Choice of words, length of sentences and arrangement of paragraphs
all contribute towards an effective report.
1. Use of pronouns
2. Choice of words
 Poor choice of words
1. If a customer pays in cash, he will be given a 5% rebate. (Gender-
biased)
2. A decent profit was made. (Abstract)
3. During the preceding year, the company operated at a financial loss.
(High-sounding)
 Customers who pay in cash will be given a 5% rebate.
 The company made a 30% profit.
 Last year, the company lost money.
3. Sentence structure
 Keep sentences short.
 There should be variety in the length of sentences.
 Most importantly, the sentence length must cater to the reading
level of the audience.
 No repetition or redundancy, and the sentences follow
grammatical rules
 Poor sentence structure
1. Modern, up-to-date technology will be used. (Repetition)
2. After reaching a deadlock in the negotiation an independent
arbitrator was employed. (Grammar)
 Correct sentence structure
1. Modern technology will be used.
2. An independent arbitrator was employed because the parties
had reached a deadlock in the negotiation.
4. Placement of topic sentence
 Topic sentence at the beginning of a paragraph
- The majority of economists expect the first quarter
inflation results for Malaysia to increase by 5%. Of the
120 economists interviewed, 83% see the consumer
index growing, 10% see a stagnant growth and 7% see
a fall in the index. Of this group, nearly all (90%)
believe that the government will take measures to keep
inflation in check.
 Topic sentence at the end of a paragraph
- The significant role of foreign investors should not be
overlooked. At present, foreign investments in the stock
market represent 33% of total market value. In fact,
three international investment funds have recently
agreed to invest in our market. Thus, total market value
is not likely to decline.
 Components of informal reports

The introduction
 to inform the reader what the report is about.
 depends on the purpose of the report, and its format.
 If the report is in a memo or letter format, the
introduction may just be a short title.
The body
 the findings are presented.
 can include the recommendations here.
 to be reader-friendly, give headings and subheadings.
The conclusion
Formats of informal reports

Letter reports

Memorandum reports

Manuscript reports
 3.2 Formal reports
By the end of this section, you should be able to:
 Identify the major features of formal reports.
 List the components of formal reports.
 Use the most appropriate approach to present
information in formal reports.
 Select the most appropriate style for writing formal
reports.
 Select the appropriate format for writing formal
reports.
 Write formal reports for a variety of situations.
Features of formal reports
Scope
Research
Format
Time – schedule
The audience
Collaborative effort
Components of formal reports

1. Preliminary section
Letter of transmittal or memo of
transmittal
Title page
Acknowledgements
Table of contents and table of illustrations
Executive summary
2. Body
Introduction
Findings usually presented in several
major divisions
Summary, conclusion and/or
recommendations
3. Supplements
Appendix
Bibliography
Preliminary section
 The preliminary section provides information about the body
of the report. It comprises the following:
1. A transmittal letter or memo of transmittal which you
would send together with the report to the person who
asked for it. This is usually a direct message " something like
“Attached is the report ...”
2. A title page showing the title of the report and other
information which will give identity to the report. You
should include complete identification of the writer and the
recipient of the report. You should also indicate the date the
report is prepared.
3. A table of contents showing the main headings and the
page numbers.
4. An executive summary which gives a synopsis or
summary of the report. The major points are mentioned in
an executive summary so that busy executives can view the
main points immediately without having to read every detail
in the report.
The body
 The body of the report is made up of the following parts:
1. The introduction explains the purpose of the whole report.
It prepares the reader for the report proper. The objective is
usually phrased as a question or in the infinitive form.
Example:
 You may include the scope of the report, the history and
limitations in this section of the report.
2. Findings and analysis usually presented under several
major headings form the major part of the report. This part of
the report normally mentions the methodology. The information
collected is then presented in relation to the problem.
3. Summaries, conclusions or recommendations where
recommendations are sometimes drawn from conclusions made
on the findings. Depending on the purpose of the report, the
conclusion may be merely a summary or may offer
recommendations.
Supplements
 Supplements can include one or both of the
following:
1. An appendix normally includes information
related to the report. It provides supplementary
information that supports the report. Sample
questionnaires or a glossary explaining terms may
appear in this section. Charts and graphs which
directly support the report should be in the body of
the report and not in the appendix.
2. A bibliography (sometimes called references
or works cited) acknowledges the sources of
information mentioned in the report. This is
especially necessary if the research has involved
library research.
 Writing style

Avoid personal pronouns

Avoid expressing opinions
Adopt an impersonal and
objective style
Format of formal reports
Cover
Paper
Layout
Headings
Graphics and visuals
 3.3 Writing Informational and
Analytical Reports
By the end of this section, you should be able to:
 Identify the differences between informational and
analytical reports.
 List examples of informational and analytical reports.
 Identify the major features of informational and
analytical reports.
 Select the appropriate format for writing informational
and analytical reports.
 Describe the differences between alphanumeric and
decimal outlines.
 Write informational and analytical reports for a variety
of situations.
 Informational reports
Informational reports are sometimes
categorised and given different names such
as:
Staff reports
Status or progress reports
Audit reports
Periodic reports
Field trip reports
Incident reports
1. Report format
2. Report content
• Introduction
• Summary
• Objectives
• Findings
• Analysis
• Conclusion
• Recommendation
3. Pagination
4. Drafting the report
5. Composing field trip reports
6. Composing progress reports
7. Composing inspection reports
 Analytical reports

1. Report outlines
 Means (2001) suggests that you use a
preliminary outline to help you at the
early stage. You can use one of the
following preliminary outlines to help you
analyse information you have collected.
Preliminary outline
Hypothesis
Using this method, you can identify
possible causes to a problem and pose
them as hypotheses. You proceed to
formulate a series of questions to prove or
disprove each hypothesis.
Alternatives
You can arrange your preliminary outline
this way if you have several alternative
solutions to your problem.
 When you are ready to write your report, you
can decide on one of two outlines:
1. Alphanumeric outline
I. Roman numerals (I, II, III, IV, V)
 A. Capitals (A, B, C, D, E)
 1. Numerals (1, 2, 3, 4, 5)
 a. Lowercase letters
2. Decimal outline
 The decimal outline is now popularly used
in business and scientific writing.
 Instead of Roman numerals and alphabets,
decimal outlines separate topics by decimal
numbers.
 Parts of an analytical report
 Title page
 The report title, the writers and the date of the
report are usually presented in an attractive manner
on the title page.
 Letter of transmittal
 This is the short letter that is sent together with the
report itself to the person who has requested for the
report.
 Table of contents
 The topics in the report and the pages on which they
appear are shown clearly on this page so that the
reader can more easily refer to the topics that they
wish to.
 Summary or abstract
 The purpose of the report, the research
methodology, the major findings, and the
conclusions or recommendations are summarised
here. The summary normally does not exceed one
page and is written in paragraphs. The points are not
bulleted or listed so as not to create a fragmented
effect.
 Body
 The body gives a brief introduction of the topic and
states the purpose of the report. It also explains the
scope of the project and the research methods used.
Headings and subheadings are always used in the
body of the report to help break up long paragraphs
and to show a flow in the content.
 Conclusions and recommendations
 This is where the data gathered is analysed and
recommendations made based on the findings.
There may be several conclusions and
recommendations. Unlike the summary at the
beginning of reports, conclusions and
recommendations are explained very carefully and
in much detail.
 Acknowledgements
 This section allows you to acknowledge the people
or organisations that have helped you in your study.
This section can be omitted depending on how your
study has been conducted.
 References or bibliography
 3.4 Writing Policy Statements and
Proposals

By the end of this section, you should be able to:

 Explain the purposes of policy statements and how
they are phrased.
 List the different types of proposals and their
purposes.
 Select the most appropriate format for writing the
different types of proposals.
 List the various parts of proposals.
 Write policy statements and proposals for a variety
of situations.
 Policy statements
Many organisations keep a
policy manual where guidelines
on company operations are
clearly recorded.
Company policies in the manual
are regularly updated and
employees refer to the manual
to check certain policy
statements so that they can
make decisions.
1. Purpose
 Policy statements are usually written to
standardise procedures and issues in
organisations.
 For example, there may be a policy statement on
dress code, working hours, and overtime pay.
2. Writing policy statements
 Policy statements should be written positively as
they are meant to guide the employees and not to
threaten them.
 Statements which are phrased in an autocratic
style may create a negative impact.
 Proposals

1. Purpose
 Proposals are usually written to offer a
solution to a problem.
 Proposals require persuasive writing skills
as you need to show the readers that
conditions will improve if the proposal is
accepted and implemented.
 Readers will only accept the proposal if
they are thoroughly convinced that the
benefits far outweigh the money, time and
effort which will have to be spent.
2. Types of proposals
Proposals are normally classified
into two main categories :
unsolicited and solicited proposals
A solicited proposal is requested by
someone, whereas an unsolicited
proposal is a proposal sent to
someone who did not request for it.
 Writing proposals
 Internal unsolicited proposals
 The primary purpose of such proposals is to offer a
realistic and constructive plan to help your
organisation function more efficiently.
 Internal unsolicited proposals are normally written
in the form of a memo and may include certain
elements of a report:
• Title
• Introduction
• Recommendation or Solution
• Conclusion
Benefits or justification
 Benefits or justification explains how the proposal
will benefit the reader or the organisation. If
expenditure is involved, this will need to be justified.
Be specific, thorough and objective.

Conclusion or summary
 A conclusion or summary summarises your proposal
and includes a request to carry out the proposed
action. As you are asking for your plan to be
approved, be polite.
External unsolicited proposals
 External unsolicited proposals are usually sales
proposals.
 They are normally used as a marketing tool to sell
products and/or services to your organisation and
are usually written as letters.
 Unsolicited external proposals consist of several
sections and the content you include in your
proposal depends on each specific situation
 2. Solicited proposals

There are two types of solicited proposals:

 Internal solicited proposals
 Some solicited proposals are within the organisation.
For instance, your superior notices a problem and
asks you to write a proposal in relation to that
problem.
 External solicited proposals
 External solicited proposals are written for a wide
variety of purposes.
 They can vary from a proposal on aircraft
maintenance to a proposal for web development.
 3. Parts of a proposal

 Proposals are usually made up of many parts or

sections.
 Each section will usually have a heading.
 There is no fixed rule as to what headings and
subheadings must be included in a proposal.
 There is usually a title, an introduction, a body and
a conclusion.
 What comes under each of these headings depends
on the nature of the proposal.
 4. Proposal format

 Proposals can be presented as memos, letters

or as formal manuscripts with accompanying
transmittal letters.
 A rough guideline to follow would be to write
internal proposals as memos, and external
proposals as letters or formal manuscripts.
 Leave sufficient white space and use headings
for easy reading.
 Visual and graphic aids can be added where they
serve a purpose.
5. Qualities of winning proposals
 To write a winning proposal, you must first know
your audience. A proper audience analysis may
involve research on the company you are writing
the proposal for.
 Know the audience/organisation
• What are the company goals and objectives?
• What is the company size and what are the
resources of the company?
• Has the company funded similar projects?
• Are there records of previously successful
proposals?
 Tips
• Describe the problem(s) and the proposed solution(s) clearly.
• Demonstrate your strengths and expertise. Support with
examples of completed projects in your external proposals.
• Stress benefits of your proposal to your organisation and/or to
the client.
• Be prepared to deal with scepticism towards unsolicited
proposals.
• Convince readers that your solicited proposal is superior to those
of others.
• Provide sufficient details to help the audience make an informed
decision. Be as concise as possible.
• Make sure your solution is practical and financially viable.
• Check the accuracy of your message and ensure proper
grammar and spelling.
Have a great
weekend….