Aristotle Force Hence:

- speed acquired by the - is a push or pull that
object is proportional to
the force applied
- The bigger the force the
faster the object moves.
- Once the force is
removed the object stops
moving Weight
Galileo
- the natural tendency of
the moving object is to
continue moving and that
no force is required to
keep it moving.
Mass
Astronaut's mass on the Moon =
tends to change the state Astronaut's mass on the Earth
of motion of a body.
- Application of a force = 80 kg
may also change the size
or shape of the body. Mass is measured in kilograms.
3. The surface gravity of Jupiter is
about 26 newtons per kilogram.
- refers to the amount of What would be the weight of a probe
force gravity exerts upon of mass 50 kg at Jupiter's surface?
an object. What most
people ordinarily call The formula is:
weight is called mass in
physics. Weight = Mass × Gravity
Hence:

Isaac Newton’s Law of Motion - refers to the amount of Weight = 50 × 26

matter in an object and is
Law of inertia measured in kilograms. = 1300 newtons
To calculate the weight = 1·3 kN
- a body at rest will of an object, you need to
remain at rest or a body know its mass. A kN (kilo-newton) is 1000 N.
in motion will continue
to move with constant Weight = Mass × Gravity
velocity unless acted
upon by an unbalanced 1. The strength of gravity on the Fundamental forces
force. Earth's surface is 10 newtons per
kilogram. 1. Fundamental forces (GREWS)
- Mass of a body is a
measure of inertia Calculate the weight of a car with a
mass of 1500 kg.  Gravitational Force
- Bigger mass and Greater  Electromagnetic
the inertia of the body = Force
The formula is:
Greater force  Weak Nuclear Force
Weight = Mass × Gravity  Strong Nuclear
Force
Law of Acceleration Hence:
2. Non-fundamental force
- Force is proportional to Weight = 1500 × 10 (electromagnetic force acting on the
acceleration atomic level)
- F=a = 15000 newtons
 Pushes
- M= f, therefore
Weight is measured in newtons.  Pull
- F = ma  Friction
2. The strength of gravity on the Moon
Density
Law of Interaction is 1.6 newtons per kilogram. If an
astronaut has a mass of 80 kg on
Earth, what is the astronaut's mass on - Mass ( amount of matter)
- There is an equal and
the Moon? per unit of volume
opposite reaction to (space the matter takes
every action
Mass is independent of location, so up)
- Action-reaction forces
the astronaut's mass on the Moon - Mass/volume
act on two different is the same as the astronaut's mass on
objects and will not the Earth. Matter
cancel out.
 - Solid (definite shape
and definite volume)
- Liquid (definite volume
but no definite shape;
incompressible)
- Gas (easily compressed;
neither definite volume
nor definite shape)
- Plasma (hot gas of
highly charged particles;
can conduct electricity)
State of Matter – determined by the
strength of the bonds between the
atoms that make up matter.
Elasticity – ability of a body to
undergo temporary change
Elements and Compounds are pure
chemical substances found in nature.
Element – a substance made of same
type of atoms.
 IRON
 COPPER
 HYDROGEN
 OXYGEN
Compound – is made of different
elements in definite proportions.
 Water h2o
 Salt (sodium chloride – Family of Elements
NaCI)
Metal – is an element that readily
forms positive ions (cations) and has
metallic bonds
- Lattice of positive ions
surrounded by a cloud of
delocalized electrons
- Lustrous, ductile,
malleable, and good
conductors of electricity
- Overlapping conduction
bands and valence bands
in their lectronic
structure
Most elements can be considered
metals. They are grouped together in
the middle to the left-hand side of the
periodic table. The metals consist of
the alkali metals, alkaline
earths, transition metals, lanthanides,
and actinides.
Properties of Metals
The metals share several common
properties, including:
 solid at room temperature
(with the exception of
mercury)
 usually shiny
 high melting point
 good conductor of heat
 good conductor of electricity
 low ionization energies
 low electronegativities
 malleable – able to be
pounded into sheets
 ductile – can be pulled into
wire
 high density (exceptions:
lithium, potassium, and
sodium)
 corrodes in air or seawater
 loses electrons in reactions
*Bonus Fact*
Under certain conditions hydrogen can
act as a metal element. These
conditions are typically found under
extreme conditions such as high
pressures or when frozen solid.
Alkali Metals
Alkaline Earth Metals
Basic Metals
Transition Metals
Non- metal – brittle, lack lustres and
are insulators
9 Element Families
Another common method of
categorization recognizes nine element
families:
1. Alkali Metals - Group 1 (IA)
- 1 valence electron
2. Alkaline Earth Metals -
Group 2 (IIA) - 2 valence
electrons
3. Transition Metals - Groups 3-
12 - d and f block metals
have 2 valence electrons
4. Boron Group or Earth Metals
- Group 13 (IIIA) - 3 valence
electrons
5. Carbon Group or Tetrels -
Group 14 (IVA) - 4 valence
electrons
6. Nitrogen Group or
Pnictogens - Group 15 (VA) -
5 valence electrons
7. Oxygen Group or Chalcogens
- Group 16 (VIA) - 6 valence
electrons
8. Halogens - Group 17 (VIIA)
- 7 valence electrons
9. Noble Gases - Group 18
(VIIIA) - 8 valence electrons
Differences in Properties
1. Atomic Number
- denoted by the letter Z
- the number of protons
present in the nucleus of
the atom of element
2. Atomic Mass
- letter A
- the element which is the
total number of protons
and neutrons in the
nucleus of an atom of the
element.
3. Isotopes
- same number of protons
in the nucleus but differ
in the number of
neutrons
- naturally occurring
elements have more than
one stable isotope
- have similar chemical
properties but different
nuclear properties.
4. Allotropes
 - atoms of an element can 10.811, but you can just round the
form bonds with each atomic mass up to 11.
other in more than one
way leading to difference To find the number of neutrons, you
in their chemical will need to subtract the atomic
properties number from the atomic mass.
Remember that the atomic number is
Litmus Paper the same as the number of protons,
which you have already identified.[5]
- is paper that has been
treated with a specific
 For our boron example, 11 (atomic
indicator – a mixture 10-
mass) – 5 (atomic number) = 6
15 natural dye obtained
neutrons
from lichens.
Kinetic energy
The atomic number is located above - is the energy an object
the element symbol, in the upper left- has because of its
hand corner of the square. The atomic motion.
number will tell you how many
protons make up a single atom of an If we want to accelerate an object,
then we must apply a force. Applying
element.[3]
a force requires us to do work. After
work has been done, energy has been
 For example, boron (B) has an atomic transferred to the object, and the
number of 5, therefore it has 5 object will be moving with a new
protons. constant speed.
Protons are particles in the nucleus of - The energy transferred
an atom that have a positive charge and it depends on the
equal to +1. Electrons are particles mass and speed
that have a negative charge equal to - achieved.
1. Therefore, an element in a neutral - can be transferred
state will have the same number of between objects and
protons and electrons. transformed into other
 For example, boron (B) has an atomic kinds of energy.
number of 5, therefore it has 5 protons - Kinetic energy depends
on the velocity of the
and 5 electrons.
object squared. This
 However, if the element includes a means that when the
negative or positive ion, then the velocity of an object
protons and electrons will not be the doubles, its kinetic
energy quadruples.
same. You will have to calculate them.
- Kinetic energy must
The ion number will appear as a small
always be either zero or
superscript after the element.
a positive value. While
velocity can have a
To find the number of neutrons, you positive or negative
will first need to find the atomic mass. value, velocity squared is
An element’s atomic mass (also always positive.
known as the atomic weight) is the
weighted average mass of atoms of an
element.[4] The atomic mass can be Gravitational potential energy
found underneath the symbol for the
- Our concern is that
element. whatever is providing the
force to secure the
 Make sure that you round the atomic weight against gravity
mass to the nearest whole number. For might fail.
example, the atomic mass of boron is
- It represents the potential
an object has to
do work as a result of
being located at a
particular position in a
gravitational field.
- If the force were to be
removed, the object
would fall back down to
the ground and the
gravitational potential
energy would be
transferred to kinetic
energy of the falling
object.
As we come closer to the planet, we
gain kinetic energy. Because energy is
conserved, we lose gravitational
potential energy to account for this.
The questions on this page test your
ability to use the formula:
Change in GPE = mass × gravity ×
change in height
You may also wish to learn the
formula in characters:
GPE = mgh
A boy has a mass of 55 kg.
He climbs 12 m up a tree.
What is his gain in GPE?
The formula is:
Change in GPE = mass × gravity ×
change in height
Entering our numbers:
Change in GPE = 55 × 10 × 12
= 6600 J
= 6·6 kJ
A kJ (kilo-joule) is 1000 J.
It's sensible to round off your
answers in this way.
2. An owl has a mass of 4 kg.
It dives to catch a mouse losing 800 J
of GPE.
How high was the bird to begin with?
The formula is:
Change in GPE = mass × gravity ×
change in height
Entering our numbers:
800 = 4 × 10 × change in height
800 / 40 = change in height
change in height = 20 m
It's often easier to insert
numbers into the formula first,
rather than rearranging.
3. An astronaut has a total mass of 110
kg. On the moon, he climbs into his
spacecraft, 5 m up a ladder.
His GPE increases by 880 J.
What is the strength of gravity on the
moon?
The formula is:
Change in GPE = mass × gravity ×
change in height
Entering our numbers:
Change in GPE = mass × gravity ×
change in height
880 = 110 × gravity × 5
8 = gravity × 5
gravity = 1.6 N/kg
Gravitational Field Strength is
measured in N/kg, but we can also
use m/s².
When we lift an object up, we tranfer
energy to it. We say that it gains
gravitational potential energy.
The work done lifting an object up
will be:
Work Done = Force × Distance
The force that moves when we lift an
object is its weight. In that case:
Work Done = Energy Transferred =
Weight × Distance
Conservation
- refers to something
which doesn't change.
(Physics)
- the variable in an
equation which
represents a conserved
quantity is constant over
time. It has the same
value both before and
after an event.
Three fundamental quantities which
are conserved:
1. Energy
- refers to the total energy of
a system. As objects move around
over time, the energy associated with
them—e.g., kinetic, gravitational
potential, heat—might change forms,
but if energy is conserved, then the
total will remain the same.
2. Momentum
3. Angular momentum.
Mechanical energy
is the sum of the potential energy and
kinetic energy in a system.
Only conservative forces like gravity
and the spring force that have
potential energy associated with them.
Nonconservative forces like friction
and drag do not. We can always get
back the energy that we put into a
system via a conservative force.
Energy transferred by nonconservative
forces however is difficult to recover.
It often ends up as heat or some other
form which is typically outside the
system—in other words, lost to the
environment.
What this means in practice is that the
special case of conservation of
mechanical energy is often more
useful for making calculations than
conservation of energy in general.
Conservation of mechanical energy
only applies when all forces are
conservative. Luckily, there are many
situations where nonconservative
forces are negligible, or at least a good
approximation can still be made when
neglecting them.
How can conservation of energy
describe how objects move?
When energy is conserved, we can set
up equations which equate the sum of
the different forms of energy in a
system. We then may be able to solve
the equations for velocity, distance, or
some other parameter on which the
energy depends. If we don't know
enough of the variables to find a
unique solution, then it may still be
useful to plot related variables to see
where solutions lie.
Thermal energy
- refers to the energy
contained within a system that is
responsible for its temperature. Heat is
the flow of thermal energy. A whole
branch of physics, thermodynamics,
deals with how heat is transferred
between different systems and how
work is done in the process (see the 1ˢᵗ
law of thermodynamics).
In the context of mechanics problems,
we are usually interested in the role
thermal energy plays in
ensuring conservation of energy.
Almost every transfer of energy that
takes place in real-world physical
systems does so with efficiency less
than 100% and results in some thermal
energy. This energy is usually in the
form of low-level thermal energy.
Here, low-level means that the
temperature associated with the
thermal energy is close to that of the
environment. It is only possible to
extract work when there is a
temperature difference, so low-level
thermal energy represents 'the end of
the road' of energy transfer. No further
useful work is possible; the energy is
now 'lost to the environment'.
Thermal energy from friction
Consider the example of a man
pushing a box across a rough floor at a
constant velocity as shown in Figure
1. Since the friction force is non-
conservative, the work done is not
stored as potential energy. All the
work done by the friction force results
in a transfer of energy into thermal
energy of the box-floor system. This
thermal energy flows as heat within
the box and floor, ultimately raising
the temperature of both of these
objects.
Potential Energy Chemical change results from a  Breaking a bottle
chemical reaction. Produces a new  Boiling water
This type of energy that is stored in a substance  Evaporating alcohol
body and has the potential to do work.  Shredding paper
There are several types: - Examples of chemical  Sublimation of dry ice into
changes are burning, carbon dioxide vapor
1. Gravitational (GPE or EP) cooking, rusting, and
The energy a body has because it is rotting How to Tell Whether It's a Physical
near something with (normally) large or Chemical Change?
gravity. Physical change is when matter
changes forms but not chemical Look for an indication that a chemical
2. Chemical (CPE of EC) identity. . A material may change change occurred. Chemical reactions
Energy a body has because of what it release or absorb heat or other energy
shapes or forms while undergoing a
is made. This is present in an electrical or may produce a gas, odor, color or
physical change, but no chemical sound. If you don't see any of these
cell, explosives, food and petrol. reactions occur and no new indications, a physical change likely
compounds are produced. occurred. Be aware a physical change
3.Elastic (EPE or EEl)
may produce a dramatic change in the
Energy stored when something is - Examples of physical appearance of a substance. This
stretched or compressed. This is changes are boiling, doesn't mean a chemical reaction
present in a pulled rubber band, or a melting, freezing, and occurred.
squashed spring. shredding.
In some cases, it may be hard to tell
4.Nuclear Often, physical changes can be whether a chemical or physical change
Energy stored in the nucleus of atoms undone, if energy is input. The only occurred. For example, when you
that can be released during fission, dissolve sugar in water, a physical
way to reverse a chemical change is
fusion or radioactive decay. change occurs. The form of the sugar
via another chemical reaction. changes, but it remains the same
We could list a huge number of types chemically (sucrose molecules).
Examples of Chemical Changes However, when you dissolve the salt
of energy, but most will be different in water the salt dissociates into its
forms of the same thing. ions (from NaCl into Na+ and Cl-) so
A new compound (product) results
from a chemical change as the atoms a chemical change occurs. In both
1. Heat cases, a white solid dissolves into a
rearrange themselves to form new
chemical bonds. clear liquid and in both cases, you can
- This energy is recover the starting material by
transferred from hot regions, to removing the water, yet the processes
 Burning wood
cool regions because of are not the same.
 Souring milk
the temperature difference between
 Mixing acid and base
them.  Digesting food
 Cooking an egg
N.B. Temperature is not a measure of
 Heating sugar to form
heat. Instead it just gives an indication caramel
of the direction of heat flow.  Baking a cake
 Rusting of iron
2. Electrical
Examples of Physical Changes
- This is really just the kinetic
energy of moving charges in
No new chemical species forms in a
an electrical circuit. physical change. Changing the state of
a pure substance between solid, liquid,
3. Electromagnetic and gas phases of matter are all
physical changes since the identity of
- Energy is carried the matter does not change.
by electromagnetic radiation, such as
light or gamma rays.  Crumpling a sheet of
aluminum foil
 Melting an ice cube
 Casting silver in a mold