Group 2A- alkaline earth metals; all except
amphoteric beryllium are metals
- Doesn’t occur free in nature
- Ca, Sr, Ba react readily with water to
form hydroxides, Mg only at elevated
temps
- Hydroxides of Be and Mg are insoluble
in water
- Hydroxides of Ca, Sr, Ba are basic
- Carbonates, phosphates, sulfates,
fluorides are insoluble
1. Beryllium- simple salt and berylate
- Resembles Al in behaviour
- Dissolve in caustic alkalis
- Forms protective coating on surface
in nitric acid
- Extremely toxic when ingested,
absorbed, inhaled
2. Magnesium- relatively abundant and
chemically active
- Insoluble compounds for Gastric
antacids
- Hydroxides and sulfate as cathartic
- Sulfate as anticonvulsant
- Conc. of sulfate for bath so that a
local infection may be drawn to
the epidermis and be expelled via
osmosis
- Rare toxic manifestations
- Antidote: calcium gluconate IV
- Stearate as lubricant for
compressed tablets
- Mg27- research in photosynthesis
- Human biochemistry
- Cardiovascular diseases
- Absorbs from GI tract
3. Calcium- soluble salts undergo metathesis to
yield insoluble compounds
- Cation of hydroxylapatite
- Antacids and calcium replenishers
- Carry therap. Active anions
- Avoid unnecessary intake of sodium
- Ca45- mineral metabolism
4. Strontium- very similar to calcium
5. Barium- most active in Group 2A
- Compounds are soluble in water
- Poisonous in dilute acids
- Antidote: magnesium sulphate
- Sulfates for radiopaque
 Barium hydroxide- soluble and is a strong
base; Analytical and synthetic operations
- Carbon dioxide absorber
 Radioactive isotopes for pharmacokinetic
investigations
Group 2B- volatile metals; +2 achieved by forming
covalent two electron bonds between two
mercury atoms
- Readily complex with most common
ligands
- Conc. solutions exhibit autocomplexation
1. Zinc- zinc salts of weak Bronsted bases show
acid reaction
- Wound healing; taste acuity; ophthalmic
problems
- Sulfates are emetics
- Present in all living organisms
- Essential trace element and component of
carbonic anhydrase
- Compounds are soluble in water or in
gastric fluid
- Wide range of safety between required
and toxic intake
- Antidote: Sodium Bicarbonate(baking
soda)
- Isotopes: mineral metabolism
2. Cadmium- soluble compounds are
astringent
- with drinking water causes Itai-
Itai disease
 Cadium Sulfate- topical astringent, for eye
infections
 Cadmium Sulfide- treat seborrheic
dermatitis
3. Mercury- true metal; extremely toxic
- Appreciable vapor pressure
- Antidote: Sodium Formaldehyde
Sulfoxylate NF or egg ingestion
(white of one egg for each 250
mg mercuric chloride)
- Mercury that falls into cracks is
removed best by covering with
powdered sulfur
 Metallic mercury- cathartic; parasiticide
 Mercurochrome (merbromin)
 Calomel (Mercurous chloride)
 Thimerosal- first aid antiseptics; diaper
rash; vaginal contraceptives
 Ammoniated mercury- ophthalmic
ointment
 Nitromersol- topical solution
 Hg197 and Hg203- diagnostic capacity
Group 3A- more electrovalent; weaker repulsive
forces
- Double salts or alums
1. Boron- compounds are toxic by ingestion and
absorption through broken/inflamed skin
- Fatalities occur usually in infants from
the use of dusting powders with boric
acid
- Bone metabolism
 Metaboric acid- not monomers
 Orthoboric acid- flaky; hydrogen-bonded
layered structure
 Tetraborate- borax;
 Boric acid- soluble in polyhdroxy
compounds such as glycerol
- No germicidal activity but
feebly bacteriostatic (with
borates)
- Topical anti-infective; eye wash
 Sodium borate- bacteriostatic; ingredient
for creams, eye washed, mouthwashes
 Sodium perborate- oxidizing type of local
anti-infective
 Buffers- used in collyria
2. Aluminum- most abundant of all metals; 3rd
most abundant element
- Hydroxide is amphoteric
- Compounds are gastric antacids
- Soluble Al salts are astringents and
used for various skin conditions;
antiperspirants; deodorants
- Chronic Al toxicity: effect on brain
(usually the elderly)
 Kaolin- absorbent and demulcent
 Bentonite- suspending agent
 Elemental Al- topically as protective
3. Gallium- lowest melting point of metals
 Ga 2 compounds- not paramagnetic
 Ga 3- similar to Fe 3; binds to transferrin
(iron transport protein); useful for
treating cancer-related hypercalcemia
4. Indium- divalent chloride
5. Thallium- most toxic; absorbed from the
intestine and through the skin from ointments
and creams
- Similar action to arsenic
- Death from thallium cosmetic use
- Compounds as insecticides, ant poisons
 Tl 1- strong base; isomorphous
 Tl 3- similar in behaviour to Al 3 and Au 3
Group 3B- scandium has the greatest polarizing
power
Group 4A
1. Carbon- widely distributed in nature; free
state in coke, charcoal, lampblack; carbonates
and bicarbonates are gastric antacids
 Activated charcoal- tx for emergency
poisoning prior emesis; component for
universal antidote
 Carbon monoxide- greater affinity to
haemoglobin than oxygen leading to
asphyxia then death
o Antidote: 100% O2, artificial air
(80% He, 20% O2), hyperbaric
oxygen
 Carbon dioxide- “carbonic acid gas”; by-
product of fermentation; gray metallic
cylinder; tx for CO poisoning, respiratory
stimulant
o Dry ice (Solid O2)- refrigerant; tx
for acne, angiomas, calluses
2. Silicon- 2nd most abundant in earth; forms
complex insoluble aluminosilicates
Silicic acids: 2.1 metasilicic acid H4SiO3
2.2 orthosilicic acid H4SiO4
2.3 disilicic acid H6Si2O7
Siliceous earth- non-absorbent filter aid
Amorphous silica- gas absorbent(desiccant)
Toxicity: Silicosis
o Antidote- Aluminum oxide
 Silicon Dioxide- “purified siliceous earth”,
“silica”; absorbent
 Hydrated Magnesium silicate- “talc”,
“French chalk”; softest mineral known;
filtering aid and dusting powder; impairs
wound healing
Silicates
 Bentonite- “soap clay”, “mineral soap”,
“NCHAS”; suspending agent; oil emulsifier;
plaster and ointment base
 Kaolin- “china clay”, “NHAS”; diarrhea
adsorbent; creates soothing relief on
mucous membranes
Demulcent- creates a smooth thin film over surface
 Attapuglite- “polymagma”, “Quintess”;
diarrhea absorbent
 Simethicone- “Polymeric dimethyl
siloxane”; anti-flatulent in gastric bloating
 Pumice- from volcano; dental abrasive
Glass- from vitreous silicate from fusing base
with pure silica
Leeching- container affects product
Vitreous- transparent and luster
 MnO2- hides blue-green color
 Borates- reduces coefficient of
expansion
 K- gives brown and light resistance
 Pb- increases refractive index
 3. Germanium- “eka silicon”; used in electrical
conductors
 Germanous Ge2+- unstable compounds
 Germanic Ge4+- greater stability
4. Tin- “stannum”; tin cans
 Cry of tin- when bent
Alloys:
 Pewter 80% Sn, 20% Pb
 Type 25% Sn, 50% Pb, 25% Sb
 Rose 25% Sn, 25% Pb, 50% Bi
 Gun 10% Sn, 90% Cu
 Copper 20% Sn, 80% Cu
 Stannous fluoride- “fluoristan”; only Sn
used pharmaceutically; anticariogenic 8%;
dental prophylactic
 Stannic oxide- “Cassiterite”; germicidal
effect on Staph
5. Lead- “plumbun”; “plumbun nigrum”; most
metallic of group; Nitric acid HNO3 is the best
solvent; astringent
Poisoning: Plumbism (from Pb pipes)
Antidote: EDTA, Ca versenate
 Plumbous acetate- “sugar of lead”
 Plumbic acetate- “Goulard’s extract”;
antiseptic
 Litharge- “plumbous oxide”; ore
Group 4B- transition elements;
Hafnium=Zirconium; trivalent titanium is the most
important
1. Titanium- “titan”, “sons of earth”; powerful
reducing agent
Oxides: 1.1 titanium oxide TiO
1.2 titanium dioxide TiO2
1.3 titanium trioxide Ti2O3
 Titanium dioxide- “rutile”; white capsules;
UV ray protectant
2. Zirconium- unpurified ores in Hafnium; banned
due to granuloma; hydroxides and carbonates
in lotions and creams for contact dermatitis
Zr and Hf are antiperspirants and tx for athlete’s
foot
Group 5A- regular gradation; oxides of N, P =
acidic, As, Sb = amphoteric
1. Nitrogen- “mephitic air”, “azote”; doesn’t
support any life form; black container; most
abundant gas in atmosphere
 Nitrous oxide- “laughing gas”; blue
container; general inhalatory anesthetic
SE: diffusional hypoxia; megaloblastic
anemia
 Nitrite- vasodilator; tx for cyanide
poisoning; Sodium nitrite
 Nitrate- carcinogenic meat preservative
 Nitric acid- “aqua fortis”; produces yellow
stain on animal tissues; looks like water
but can dissolve metals
2. Phosphorus- “light carrier” due to Luminous
vomitus (glow in the dark vomit), “St. Elmo’s
fire”; essential to plant/animal life
Allotropic forms:
White P- poisonous, flammable, ozone-like
odor
Red P- not poisonous nor flammable, brown to
red amorphous powder
Allotropic modifications:
Scarlet P- PBr + Hg @ 240
Violet P- white P + Na @ 200
Metallic/black P- P + Pb @ 530
 Tribasic phosphate- gastric antacids
 Monobasic alkali phosphate- urinary
acidifier
 Dibasic sodium phosphate- saline
cathartic, enema
 Phosphates- principle anions in
intercellular fluid
3. Arsenic- “lewisite metal”; very poisonous
Antidote- BAL (if absorbed), fresh iron III +
magnesium hydroxide (if ingested)
Salvarsan- “arsphenamine”, “magic bullet
compound 606”; tx syphilis; first chemo agent
 Potassium arsenite- “Fowler’s solution”
 Arsenic trioxide- “arsenolite”; tx acute
promyelocytic leukemia
SE: Electrocardiographic abnormalities
4. Antimony- “stibium”; anti-helminthic
Alloys: 4.1 Babbit 80% Sn 20% Sb
4.2 Anti-friction 75% Sn 12.5% Sb
 Stibnite- “antimony glance”; ore
 Antimony potassium tartrate- “tartar
emetic”, “brown mixture”; tx
schistosomiasis (liver fluke, helminthic
infestation in the Ph)
5. Bismuth- “beautiful meadow”; ulcer internal
protective; compounds remove salts; tx
amoebiasis with As (Glycobiarsol)
SE: dark stools and blue-black gums
Causes of ulcer: helicobacter pylori, overuse of
NSAIDS
 Colloidal bismuth subcitrate- tx peptic
ulcer
 Milk of bismuth- “bismuth cream”; internal
protective for gastric-ulcer patients;
inhibits H. pylori growth; Bi subnitrate + Bi
hydroxide
Group 5B- atomic number is inverse with acidity of
oxides; basicity of hydroxides is inverse with
oxidation state
1. Niobium- “columbium”
2. Tantalum- sheet form in surgical repair of
bones (muscle tissues attach to Tantalum as if
it was a bone)
GROUP 6A- chalcogens; oxygen is non-metallic while
polonium is metallic, the rest are metalloids
1. Oxygen- component of air (1/5); 7/8 in water;
Preparation: fractional distillation of liquid air
  Oxygen USP- therapeutic gas of hypoxia
 Ozone (O3)- allotropic; oxidizing agent
 Ozonized air- disinfectant; bleaching agent
 Hydrogen peroxide- prepared by electrolysis of
concentrated solution of sulfuric acid or
ammonium sulphate
 Hydrogen peroxide USP- 30%; powerful oxidant
not for skin
 Hydrogen peroxide Topical Solution- 3%; mild
fast acting oxidizing germicide;
 Hydrogen peroxide 6%- mild enough for hair
2. Sulfur- ointments and lotions are used in
dermatology as keratolytics; fungicidal action
o Monoclinic sulfur (β-sulfur)- equilibrium
point (96°)
o Rhombic sulfur (α-sulfur)- room temp
 Sublimed- cathartic
 Precipitated- smaller particle size, more
reactive; scabicide
 Hydrogen sulfide- react readily with finely
divided sulfur which gives rise to polysulfides
 Sulfurated potash- stored in tightly sealed
container to prevent reaction with CO2 and O2
- Prepared by heating mixture of
potassium carbonate and sublimed
sulfur
- Tx psoriasis and other chronic skin
- Parasiticidal activity
 White lotion- fresh filtered sulfurated potash
solution + zinc sulfate solution
- Astringent, protective
 Selenium sulfide- 2.5% suspension in tx
seborrheic dermatitis
- Toxic compared to cadmium sulfide
 Sulfur dioxide- prepared by burning sulfur; acid
anhydride of sulfurous acid; antioxidant and
preservative
 Sodium metabisulfite- antioxidant
 Sodium thiosulfate- tx cyanide poisoning;
valuable analytical reagent for determination of
iodine
3. Selenium- toxic in large doses; trace element;
absorbed very slowly in skin
 Selenomethionine Se 75 Injection- diagnosis of
pancreatic tumors
4. Tellurium- no medicinal applications
Group 6B- metallic in behaviour
- lower oxidation state oxides are basic, higher are
acidic
- Chromium and Molybdenum- essential trace
elements; compounds are used in analytical
pharmaceutical operations
- Cr 51- biological tracer in certain haematological
procedures
Group 7A- fluorine is the most electronegative element
appears as fluoride ion (acts as a ligand)
- Only chlorine forms compounds in all five
oxidation states
- Halogen binary compounds: unite with hydrogen
to form covalent gaseous hydrogen halides
- Iodine is the strongest reducing agent, fluorine is
the weakest
1. Fluorine- most reactive of the electronegative;
attacks all metals @ ordinary temps; combines with
all non-metals; tx osteoporosis
 Beryllium fluoride- not ionized completely
 Stannous fluoride- oxidized easily by oxygen of
air; ineffective dental prophylactic; must be
prepared fresh
 Use of Fluoridated water is directly
proportional to risk of hip fracture
2. Chlorine- water soluble
 Hydrochloric acid- neutralize, stabilize,
solubilize other substances; gastric acidifier
 Sodium Chloride- electrolyte replenisher;
component of physiological salt solution
 Potassium, calcium chloride- electrolyte
replenisher
 Ammonium chloride- expectorant; systemic
acidifying agent
 Sodium hypochlorite- “Dakin’s solution”;
germicide, viricide, deodorant; not for wounds
o Topical solution- 0.025% conc; phosphate
buffer system; tissue regeneration; antiviral,
antimicrobial
 Calcium hypochlorite- bleaching power; most
effective and inexpensive disinfectant
 Potassium chlorate- mouthwash, douches;
weak antiseptic
3. Bromine- dark, reddish brown liquid with
suffocating odor
- Highly irritating to mucous membranes,
Burn and blister the skin
- Powerful caustic and germicide
- Containers must be opened only after
cooled thoroughly
- Exposure to skin: washed with sodium
bicarbonate and treated with glycerine
- Central depressant
- Toxicity: Brominism
4. Iodine- 2nd most metallic halogen; sanitizing agent;
essential in proper thyroid functioning
Toxicity antidote: corn starch, sodium thiosulfate
 Povidone- synthetic polymer
 Povidone-iodine- reduced volatility of iodine,
decreased irritation on application
 Hydrogen iodide- expectorant
 Potassium iodide- expectorant; protect thyroid
in dental exposure
o I 125 and I 131- diagnostic and therapeutic
applications
5. Astatine- synthetic radioactive element, most
metallic
Group 7B- colored compounds
1. Manganese- most important element in group;
included in mineral supplements
 Potassium permanganate- local anti-infective;
astringent; deodorant; cleanser; 0.01-1% conc
SE: temporary darkening of skin
 Gastric lavage- alkaloid antidote in small
amounts
2. Technetium- “artificial”; first element produced
artificially
o Tc 99- used diagnostically
3. Rhenium- very rare; few technical applications;
catalyst for dehydrogenation