National University of Singapore CE 2134 Hydraulics

Civil and Environmental Engineering 2014/2015

Lecture 11 Turbines and Pumps

Overview

1. Introduction
2. Turbines
3. Pumps

1 Introduction

Turbines are used to generate electricity. They are found in hydro-electric schemes, i.e. water is
stored behind a dam built across a river, then delivered through a pipeline to turbines. Water
drives the turbines, and connected to each turbine is an electricity generator. The basic
requirement is a plentiful supply of water with a large enough head to drive the turbines. They
are found in mountainous countries like Wales, Scotland, Norway and Sweden.

Pumps are driven by electric motors to raise water over some vertical height. They are used to
drain mines, drain water from low lying areas, move water and sewage from source to treatment
work. The basic differences between turbines and pumps is that turbines use water flow with a
significant head as an input to obtain a mechanical output, while pumps are machines which use
a mechanical input (rotation of a runner powered by a motor) to lift a quantity of water to some
particular height. The differences between turbines and pumps are shown in Figure 10.1.

Figure 10.1. Differences between turbine and pump.

National University of Singapore CE 2134 Hydraulics
Civil and Environmental Engineering 2014/2015

The turbine-combination is also found in Foyers, Loch Ness. Water is pumped up from Loch
Ness to Loch Mhor, then flows back through two reversible Francis turbines, each of which is
connected to a 150MW generator. This process is shown in Figure 10.2.

Figure 10.2. Turbine-pump combination in Foyers, Loch Ness.

2 Turbines

There are three types of turbines, namely impulse, reaction and propeller turbines. An impulse
turbine uses the impact of high-velocity water jet to turn a runner. Pressure does not contribute to
the force exerted on the runner. An example is a Pelton wheel. A reaction turner uses a
combination of forces from pressure, velocity and change in the direction of flow to turn a turner.

The energy generated is found from the Bernoulli equation. Applying Bernoulli equation to the
inlet and outlet of turbines, and assuming no loss of energy and a horizontal streamline,

𝑉1 2 𝑃1 𝑉2 2
+ = + 𝑃2 /𝜌𝑔
2𝑔 𝜌𝑔 2𝑔

(𝑉1 2 − 𝑉2 2 )
𝐸= + (𝑃1 − 𝑃2 )/𝜌𝑔
2𝑔

In the case that 𝑃1 = 𝑃2 , 𝐸 depends only on velocity and is known as a pure impulse turbine. In
the case that 𝑉1 = 𝑉2 , 𝐸 depends on pressure and is known as a pure reaction turbine. The
efficiency of turbine 𝜀𝑇 is the ratio of power output to available power (power of water stream),

𝜀𝑇 = 𝑃𝑜𝑤/𝜌𝑔𝑄𝐻

where 𝑃𝑜𝑤 is output power of turbine and 𝐻 is total head available. The input power is the total
energy per second of water stream,
National University of Singapore CE 2134 Hydraulics
Civil and Environmental Engineering 2014/2015

𝑉2
𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = 𝜌𝑔𝑄𝐻 = 𝜌𝑔𝑄 (𝑧 + + 𝑃/𝜌𝑔)
2𝑔

where 𝐻 is total head available (in m).

Turbines have efficiencies as high as 93% under optimum running conditions. Synchronous
speed is the choice of rotational speed 𝑁 of turbine-generator or motor-pump. A turbine must
produce electricity at fixed frequency 𝑓𝑟𝑒. If the turbine/motor has 𝑝 number of poles, then

(60 × 𝑓𝑟𝑒)
𝑁=
𝑝

The units of rotational speed 𝑁 is 𝑟𝑝𝑚.

Impulse Turbine

An impulse turbine generates electricity as a jet of water strikes the turbine. A series of
vanes/buckets are attached to a runner (of wheel), so turning the runner. The basic principle is
the exchange of momentum between water jet and vane. The higher the jet velocity, the greater
its momentum, the greater the impact when it hits the vane and the greater the force on the vane.
Hence, the shape of the vane is crucial. Flat vanes have efficiency of 40%, while curved vanes
have efficiency of 65%.

A Pelton wheel is an impulse turbine with a curved bucket (vane) and 2, 4 or 6 jets. The
efficiency is improved to 80 - 90% and the power output is 80MW – 400 MW. A Pelton wheel
runner where the jet strikes the runner, with half of the water flowing around each side of the
buckets is shown in Figure 10.3.
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Civil and Environmental Engineering 2014/2015

Figure 10.3. A Pelton wheel runner.

A typical arrangement of a Pelton wheel has a nozzle at the end of the pipeline discharging a
high-velocity jet of water of up to about 300 mm diameter into the atmosphere. A special needle
or spear valve near the nozzle outlet controls the discharge by varying the diameter of the jet, so
ensuring the jet velocity is maintained. The jet hits the buckets on runner, causing it to rotate.
This process is shown in Figure 10.4.

Figure 10.4. Typical arrangement of a Pelton wheel.

National University of Singapore CE 2134 Hydraulics
Civil and Environmental Engineering 2014/2015

Reaction Turbine

For an inward flow reaction turbine, water enters from the horizontal pipeline, which turns
through 360° and reduces in diameter forming a spiral, known as the volute chamber. The
reducing diameter is designed to increase the velocity of the water as it flows through the outer
guide blades onto the curved vanes of the central runner, causing it to rotate. The force to drive
the runner is obtained from a combination of the velocity of water, the change in direction of
flow and pressure of water. Having passed through curved slots in the runner, the water falls
vertically down the draft tube and then flows away to the tailwater.

Figure 10.5. An inward flow reaction turbine.

Propeller Turbine

A propeller turbine has water flowing under pressure parallel to the axis of the machine. The
water first passes through a set of guide blades, then onto a runner than a relatively small number
of vanes. Water enters horizontally from the side, before turning through 90°, passing down
through the turbine, being turned through 90° again and discharged. This process is shown in
Figure 10.6.
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Civil and Environmental Engineering 2014/2015

Figure 10.6. A propeller turbine.

The possible operating ranges for the different types of turbines are shown in Table 10.1.

Table 10.1. Possible operating ranges for different types of turbines.

Turbine type Head range Range of output Required flow rate

(m) (MW) (𝒎𝟑 /𝒔)

Pelton wheel 50-1700 0.1-400 0.06-80

Inward flow reaction 20-700 0.1-1000 0.70-1000

turbine

Propeller turbine 10-140 0.3-200 4-1000

Turbine Performance

For a turbine, the most important relationship is between the head of water and output power that
can be generated with various rates of flow. Using dimensional analysis, the performance
equation is

𝑃𝑜𝑤
= 𝑓[𝑔𝐻/𝑁 2 𝐷2 ]
𝜌𝑁 3 𝐷5
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Civil and Environmental Engineering 2014/2015
𝑄
= 𝑓[𝑔𝐻/𝑁 2 𝐷2 ]
𝑁𝐷3

where 𝑃𝑜𝑤 is output power developed by turbine, 𝑁 is speed of runner rotation, 𝐷 is diameter of
runner, 𝑓 is function of, 𝐻 is total head from inlet to turbine

The specific speed 𝑁𝑠 is used to denote performance characteristics of different types of turbine.
The specific speed 𝑁𝑠 is

𝑁𝑠 = 𝑁𝑃𝑜𝑤 1/2 /𝐻 5/4

𝑁𝑠 is typically used to determine which type of turbine is best suited to a particular site or duty.
The units for 𝑁𝑠 are 𝑟𝑝𝑚 . Table 10.2 provides estimates for 𝑁𝑠 and the strength of
head/discharge for the different types of turbines.

Table 10.2. 𝑁𝑠 and strength of head/discharge for different types of turbines.

Turbine type 𝑵𝒔 Description

Pelton wheel 12-60 High head, low discharge

Inward flow reaction turbine 60-500 Moderate head, moderate

discharge

Propeller turbine 280-800 Low head, large discharge

The turbine performance curves relating to different nozzle openings or gate settings are also
obtained. The power-speed curves for Pelton wheel and Francis turbine, and the part-load
performance curves of various turbines are shown in Figure 10.7.
National University of Singapore CE 2134 Hydraulics
Civil and Environmental Engineering 2014/2015

Figure 10.7. Power-speed curves for Pelton wheel (a) and Francis turbine (b), and part-load
performance curves of various turbines (c).

3 Pumps

Centrifugal Pump

The centrifugal pump is an inward flow reaction turbine operating in reverse. The impeller is
driven by an electric motor. If the drift shaft is vertical, water enters vertically upwards at the
center of the impeller. The water becomes trapped in the passages of the impeller. The rotation of
the impeller flings the trapped water radially to the outside of the volute casing, causing an
increase in both velocity and pressure energy. The water in the volute casing is forced up the
delivery pipe. A centrifugal pump is shown in Figure 10.8. The range of head generated for a
centrifugal pump is 1 - 120 m. The range of discharge is 0 - 30 𝑚3 /𝑠, and the pump efficiency is
approximately 90%.
National University of Singapore CE 2134 Hydraulics
Civil and Environmental Engineering 2014/2015

Figure 10.8. A centrifugal pump.

Multi-stage pumps are used when the lift required is greater than about 60 m. This method
allows heads greater than 1200 m to be achieved. Identical impellers are mounted in series and
driven by the same motor. Water leaving the first impeller is fed back to the center of the next by
an ‘S’ shaped passage. The same principle is used here as in centrifugal pumps.

Axial Pump

Axial pumps are propeller turbines operating in reverse. If the drive shaft is vertical, then water
enters the pump axially, i.e. vertically upwards. The motor drives the impeller, and the blades of
the impeller propel or lift the water upwards. The rotational component of the water imparted by
the revolution of the impeller is converted into an upward axial flow, i.e. convert KE to pressure
head. These pumps are best suited to situations requiring large volumes of water to be lifted over
a relatively small head, and are ideal for applications like land drainage, irrigation and pumping
water or sewage at treatment plants. An axial pump is shown in Figure 10.9.
National University of Singapore CE 2134 Hydraulics
Civil and Environmental Engineering 2014/2015

Figure 10.9. An axial pump.

Mixed flow pumps are a cross between centrifugal and axial flow pumps. The flow is part radial
and part axial. These pumps are most suitable for pumping moderate quantities at moderate
heads, i.e 25 – 60 m. The efficiency of pump 𝜀𝑃 is the ratio of fluid power output to mechanical
power input to machine,

𝜀𝑃 = 𝜌𝑔𝑄𝐻/𝑃𝑜𝑤

where 𝐻 is the actual total head difference between inlet and outlet of machine and 𝑃𝑜𝑤 is
output power of turbine. The efficiency of large centrifugal pumps is as high as 90%, with
smaller pumps and axial pumps having efficiencies near 80%.

Pump Performance

The most important relationship for pump performance is between head generated 𝐻 and
discharge 𝑄. Other important characteristics are efficiency 𝜀𝑃 and power 𝑃𝑜𝑤. The 𝐻 − 𝑄 and
𝑃𝑜𝑤 − 𝑄 curves of centrifugal and axial pumps are shown in Figure 10.10. The centrifugal and
axial pumps have different shapes, while mixed flow pumps fall somewhere between the two.
National University of Singapore CE 2134 Hydraulics
Civil and Environmental Engineering 2014/2015

Figure 10.10. 𝐻 − 𝑄 and 𝑃𝑜𝑤 − 𝑄 curves of centrifugal and axial pumps.

Using dimensional analysis, the performance equations are

𝑃𝑜𝑤
= 𝑓[𝑔𝐻/𝑁 2 𝐷2 ]
𝜌𝑁 3 𝐷5

𝑄
= 𝑓[𝑔𝐻/𝑁 2 𝐷2 ]
𝑁𝐷3

where 𝑃𝑜𝑤 is input power to pump, 𝑁 is speed of runner rotation, 𝐷 is diameter of runner, 𝑓 is
function of, 𝐻 is useful head obtained. These equations are used to relate the performance of two
different pumps or to investigate the performance of one pump under 2 different operating
conditions

The affinity laws are used to relate the performance of two different pumps or to investigate the
performance of one pump under 2 different operating conditions. In the first case, the diameter of
runner 𝐷 is constant with variable speeds, the affinity laws are

𝑄𝐴 𝑄𝐵
=
𝑁𝐴 𝑁𝐵

𝐻𝐴 𝐻𝐵
2 =
𝑁𝐴 𝑁𝐵 2

𝑃𝑜𝑤𝐴 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝐵
3 =
𝑁𝐴 𝑁𝐵 3
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Civil and Environmental Engineering 2014/2015

In the second case, the speed of runner rotation 𝑁 is constant with variable diameters, the affinity
laws are

𝑄𝐴 𝑄𝐵
3 =
𝐷𝐴 𝐷𝐵 3

𝐻𝐴 𝐻𝐵
2 =
𝐷𝐴 𝐷𝐵 2

𝑃𝑜𝑤𝐴 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝐵
5 =
𝐷𝐴 𝐷𝐵 5

The specific speed 𝑁𝑠 is used to denote performance characteristics of different types of pumps.
The specific speed 𝑁𝑠 is

𝑁𝑆 = 𝑁𝑄1/2 /𝐻 3/4

𝑁𝑠 is used to determine the approximate range of duty for different pumps. The units for 𝑁𝑠 are
𝑟𝑝𝑚. Table 10.3 provides estimates for 𝑁𝑠 and the strength of head/discharge for the different
types of pumps.

Table 10.3. 𝑁𝑠 and the strength of head/discharge for the different types of pumps.

Pump type 𝑵𝒔 Description

Centrifugal 10-70 High head, low discharge

Mixed flow 70-170 Moderate head, moderate

discharge

Axial flow > 110 Low head, large discharge