Unconscious mind

The unconscious mind (or the

unconscious) consists of the processes in
the mind which occur automatically and
are not available to introspection, and
include thought processes, memories,
interests, and motivations.[1]

Even though these processes exist well

under the surface of conscious awareness
they are theorized to exert an impact on
behavior. The term was coined by the
18th-century German Romantic
philosopher Friedrich Schelling and later
introduced into English by the poet and
essayist Samuel Taylor Coleridge.[2][3]

Empirical evidence suggests that

unconscious phenomena include
repressed feelings, automatic skills,
subliminal perceptions, thoughts, habits,
and automatic reactions,[1] and possibly
also complexes, hidden phobias and
desires.

The concept was popularized by the

Austrian neurologist and psychoanalyst
Sigmund Freud. In psychoanalytic theory,
unconscious processes are understood to
be directly represented in dreams, as well
as in slips of the tongue and jokes.

Thus the unconscious mind can be seen

as the source of dreams and automatic
thoughts (those that appear without any
apparent cause), the repository of
forgotten memories (that may still be
accessible to consciousness at some later
time), and the locus of implicit knowledge
(the things that we have learned so well
that we do them without thinking).

It has been argued that consciousness is

influenced by other parts of the mind.
These include unconsciousness as a
personal habit, being unaware, and
intuition. Phenomena related to semi-
consciousness include awakening, implicit
memory, subliminal messages, trances,
hypnagogia, and hypnosis. While sleep,
sleepwalking, dreaming, delirium, and
comas may signal the presence of
unconscious processes, these processes
are seen as symptoms rather than the
unconscious mind itself.

Some critics have doubted the existence

of the unconscious.[4][5][6]

Historical overview
The term "unconscious" (German:
Unbewusste) was coined by the 18th-
century German Romantic philosopher
Friedrich Schelling (in his System of
Transcendental Idealism, ch. 6, § 3 ) and
later introduced into English by the poet
and essayist Samuel Taylor Coleridge (in
his Biographia Literaria).[2][3] Some rare
earlier instances of the term
"unconsciousness" (Unbewußtseyn) can
be found in the work of the 18th-century
German physician and philosopher Ernst
Platner.[7][8]

Influences on thinking that originate from

outside of an individual's consciousness
were reflected in the ancient ideas of
temptation, divine inspiration, and the
predominant role of the gods in affecting
motives and actions. The idea of
internalised unconscious processes in the
mind was also instigated in antiquity and
has been explored across a wide variety of
cultures. Unconscious aspects of
mentality were referred to between 2500
and 600 BC in the Hindu texts known as
the Vedas, found today in Ayurvedic
medicine.[9][10][11]

Paracelsus is credited as the first to make

mention of an unconscious aspect of
cognition in his work Von den Krankheiten
(translates as "About illnesses", 1567), and
his clinical methodology created a cogent
system that is regarded by some as the
beginning of modern scientific
psychology.[12] William Shakespeare
explored the role of the unconscious[13] in
many of his plays, without naming it as
such.[14][15][16] In addition, Western
philosophers such as Arthur
Schopenhauer,[17][18] Baruch Spinoza,
Gottfried Leibniz, Johann Gottlieb Fichte,
Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, Eduard von
Hartmann, Søren Kierkegaard, and
Friedrich Nietzsche[19] used the word
unconscious.
In 1880, Edmond Colsenet supports at the
Sorbonne, a philosophy thesis on the
unconscious.[20] Elie Rabier and Alfred
Fouillee perform syntheses of the
unconscious "at a time when Freud was
not interested in the concept".[21]

Psychology
Psychologist Jacques Van Rillaer points
out that, "the unconscious was not
discovered by Freud. In 1890, when
psychoanalysis was still unheard of,
William James, in his monumental treatise
on psychology (The Principles of
Psychology), examined the way
Schopenhauer, von Hartmann, Janet, Binet
and others had used the term
'unconscious' and 'subconscious'".[22]
Historian of psychology Mark Altschule
observes that, "It is difficult—or perhaps
impossible—to find a nineteenth-century
psychologist or psychiatrist who did not
recognize unconscious cerebration as not
only real but of the highest importance."[23]

Van Rilliaer could have also mentioned

that Eduard von Hartmann published a
book dedicated to this topic, Philosophy of
the Unconscious, in 1869—long before
anybody else.
Furthermore, 19th century German
psychologists, Gustav Fechner and
Wilhelm Wundt, had begun to use the term
in their experimental psychology, in the
context of manifold, jumbled sense data
that the mind organizes at an unconscious
level before revealing it as a cogent totality
in conscious form."[24]

Freud's view
An iceberg is often (though misleadingly) used to
provide a visual representation of Freud's theory that
most of the human mind operates unconsciously.

Sigmund Freud and his followers

developed an account of the unconscious
mind. It plays an important role in
psychoanalysis.

Freud divided the mind into the conscious

mind (or the ego) and the unconscious
mind. The latter was then further divided
into the id (or instincts and drive) and the
superego (or conscience). In this theory,
the unconscious refers to the mental
processes of which individuals make
themselves unaware.[25] Freud proposed a
vertical and hierarchical architecture of
human consciousness: the conscious
mind, the preconscious, and the
unconscious mind—each lying beneath the
other. He believed that significant psychic
events take place "below the surface" in
the unconscious mind,[26] like hidden
messages from the unconscious. He
interpreted such events as having both
symbolic and actual significance.
In psychoanalytic terms, the unconscious
does not include all that is not conscious,
but rather what is actively repressed from
conscious thought or what a person is
averse to knowing consciously. Freud
viewed the unconscious as a repository for
socially unacceptable ideas, wishes or
desires, traumatic memories, and painful
emotions put out of mind by the
mechanism of psychological repression.
However, the contents did not necessarily
have to be solely negative. In the
psychoanalytic view, the unconscious is a
force that can only be recognized by its
effects—it expresses itself in the
symptom. In a sense, this view places the
conscious self as an adversary to its
unconscious, warring to keep the
unconscious hidden. Unconscious
thoughts are not directly accessible to
ordinary introspection, but are supposed to
be capable of being "tapped" and
"interpreted" by special methods and
techniques such as meditation, free
association (a method largely introduced
by Freud), dream analysis, and verbal slips
(commonly known as a Freudian slip),
examined and conducted during
psychoanalysis. Seeing as these
unconscious thoughts are normally
cryptic, psychoanalysts are considered
experts in interpreting their messages.
Freud based his concept of the
unconscious on a variety of observations.
For example, he considered "slips of the
tongue" to be related to the unconscious in
that they often appeared to show a
person's true feelings on a subject. For
example, "I decided to take a summer
curse". This example shows a slip of the
word "course" where the speaker
accidentally used the word curse which
would show that they have negative
feelings about having to do this. Freud
noticed that also his patient's dreams
expressed important feelings they were
unaware of. After these observations, he
came to the conclusion that psychological
disturbances are largely caused by
personal conflicts existing at the
unconscious level. His psychoanalytic
theory acts to explain personality,
motivation and mental disorders by
focusing on unconscious determinants of
behavior.[27]

Freud later used his notion of the

unconscious in order to explain certain
kinds of neurotic behavior.[28] The theory
of the unconscious was substantially
transformed by later psychiatrists, among
them Carl Jung and Jacques Lacan.
In his 1932/1933 conferences, Freud
"proposes to abandon the notion of the
unconscious that ambiguous judge".[29]

Jung's view

Carl Gustav Jung, a Swiss psychiatrist,

developed the concept further. He agreed
with Freud that the unconscious is a
determinant of personality, but he
proposed that the unconscious be divided
into two layers: the personal unconscious
and the collective unconscious. The
personal unconscious is a reservoir of
material that was once conscious but has
been forgotten or suppressed, much like
Freud's notion. The collective unconscious,
however, is the deepest level of the
psyche, containing the accumulation of
inherited psychic structures and
archetypal experiences. Archetypes are
not memories but images with universal
meanings that are apparent in the culture's
use of symbols. The collective
unconscious is therefore said to be
inherited and contain material of an entire
species rather than of an individual.[30]
Every person shares the collective
unconscious with the entire human
species, as Jung puts it: [the] "whole
spiritual heritage of mankind's evolution,
born anew in the brain structure of every
individual".[31]

In addition to the structure of the

unconscious, Jung differed from Freud in
that he did not believe that sexuality was
at the base of all unconscious thoughts.[32]

Controversy
The notion that the unconscious mind
exists at all has been disputed.

Franz Brentano rejected the concept of the

unconscious in his 1874 book Psychology
from an Empirical Standpoint, although his
rejection followed largely from his
definitions of consciousness and
unconsciousness.[33]

Jean-Paul Sartre offers a critique of

Freud's theory of the unconscious in Being
and Nothingness, based on the claim that
consciousness is essentially self-
conscious. Sartre also argues that Freud's
theory of repression is internally flawed.
Philosopher Thomas Baldwin argues that
Sartre's argument is based on a
misunderstanding of Freud.[4]

Erich Fromm contends that, "The term 'the

unconscious' is actually a mystification
(even though one might use it for reasons
of convenience, as I am guilty of doing in
these pages). There is no such thing as the
unconscious; there are only experiences of
which we are aware, and others of which
we are not aware, that is, of which we are
unconscious. If I hate a man because I am
afraid of him, and if I am aware of my hate
but not of my fear, we may say that my
hate is conscious and that my fear is
unconscious; still my fear does not lie in
that mysterious place: 'the'
unconscious."[34]

John Searle has offered a critique of the

Freudian unconscious. He argues that the
Freudian cases of shallow, consciously
held mental states would be best
characterized as 'repressed
consciousness,' while the idea of more
deeply unconscious mental states is more
problematic. He contends that the very
notion of a collection of "thoughts" that
exist in a privileged region of the mind
such that they are in principle never
accessible to conscious awareness, is
incoherent. This is not to imply that there
are not "nonconscious" processes that
form the basis of much of conscious life.
Rather, Searle simply claims that to posit
the existence of something that is like a
"thought" in every way except for the fact
that no one can ever be aware of it (can
never, indeed, "think" it) is an incoherent
concept. To speak of "something" as a
"thought" either implies that it is being
thought by a thinker or that it could be
thought by a thinker. Processes that are
not causally related to the phenomenon
called thinking are more appropriately
called the nonconscious processes of the
brain.[35]

Other critics of the Freudian unconscious

include David Stannard,[5] Richard
Webster,[6] Ethan Watters,[36] Richard
Ofshe,[36] and Eric Thomas Weber.[37]
David Holmes[38] examined sixty years of
research about the Freudian concept of
"repression", and concluded that there is
no positive evidence for this concept.
Given the lack of evidence for many
Freudian hypotheses, some scientific
researchers proposed the existence of
unconscious mechanisms that are very
different from the Freudian ones. They
speak of a "cognitive unconscious" (John
Kihlstrom),[39][40] an "adaptive
unconscious" (Timothy Wilson),[41] or a
"dumb unconscious" (Loftus & Klinger),[42]
which executes automatic processes but
lacks the complex mechanisms of
repression and symbolic return of the
repressed.

In modern cognitive psychology, many

researchers have sought to strip the notion
of the unconscious from its Freudian
heritage, and alternative terms such as
"implicit" or "automatic" have been used.
These traditions emphasize the degree to
which cognitive processing happens
outside the scope of cognitive awareness,
and show that things we are unaware of
can nonetheless influence other cognitive
processes as well as
behavior.[43][44][45][46][47] Active research
traditions related to the unconscious
include implicit memory (see priming,
implicit attitudes), and nonconscious
acquisition of knowledge (see Lewicki, see
also the section on cognitive perspective,
below).

Dreams
Freud

In terms of the unconscious, the purpose

of dreams, as stated by Freud, is to fulfill
repressed wishes through the process of
dreaming, since they cannot be fulfilled in
real life. For example, if someone were to
rob a store and to feel guilty about it, they
might dream about a scenario in which
their actions were justified and renders
them blameless. Freud asserted that the
wish-fulfilling aspect of the dream may be
disguised due to the difficulty in
distinguishing between manifest content
and latent content. The manifest content
consists of the plot of a dream at the
surface level.[48] The latent content refers
to the hidden or disguised meaning of the
events in the plot. The latent content of the
dream is what supports the idea of wish
fulfillment. It represents the intimate
information in the dreamer's current issues
and childhood conflict.[49][50]

Opposing theories
In response to Freud's theory on dreams,
other psychologists have come up with
theories to counter his argument. Theorist
Rosalind Cartwright proposed that dreams
provide people with the opportunity to act
out and work through everyday problems
and emotional issues in a non-real setting
with no consequences. According to her
cognitive problem solving view, a large
amount of continuity exists between our
waking thought and the thoughts that exist
in dreams. Proponents of this view believe
that dreams allow participation in creative
thinking and alternate ways to handle
situations when dealing with personal
issues because dreams are not restrained
by logic or realism.[50]

In addition to this, Allan Hobson and

colleagues came up with the activation-
synthesis hypothesis which proposes that
dreams are simply the side effects of the
neural activity in the brain that produces
beta brain waves during REM sleep that
are associated with wakefulness.
According to this hypothesis, neurons fire
periodically during sleep in the lower brain
levels and thus send random signals to the
cortex. The cortex then synthesizes a
dream in reaction to these signals in order
to try to make sense of why the brain is
sending them. However, the hypothesis
does not state that dreams are
meaningless, it just downplays the role
that emotional factors play in determining
dreams.[50]

Contemporary cognitive
psychology
Research

While, historically, the psychoanalytic

research tradition was the first to focus on
the phenomenon of unconscious mental
activity, there is an extensive body of
conclusive research and knowledge in
contemporary cognitive psychology
devoted to the mental activity that is not
mediated by conscious awareness.

Most of that (cognitive) research on

unconscious processes has been done in
the mainstream, academic tradition of the
information processing paradigm. As
opposed to the psychoanalytic tradition,
driven by the relatively speculative (in the
sense of being hard to empirically verify)
theoretical concepts such as the Oedipus
complex or Electra complex, the cognitive
tradition of research on unconscious
processes is based on relatively few
theoretical assumptions and is very
empirically oriented (i.e., it is mostly data
driven). Cognitive research has revealed
that automatically, and clearly outside of
conscious awareness, individuals register
and acquire more information than what
they can experience through their
conscious thoughts. (See Augusto, 2010,
for a recent comprehensive survey.)[51]

Unconscious processing of
information about frequency

For example, an extensive line of research

conducted by Hasher and Zacks[52] has
demonstrated that individuals register
information about the frequency of events
automatically (i.e., outside of conscious
awareness and without engaging
conscious information processing
resources). Moreover, perceivers do this
unintentionally, truly "automatically,"
regardless of the instructions they receive,
and regardless of the information
processing goals they have. The ability to
unconsciously and relatively accurately
tally the frequency of events appears to
have little or no relation to the individual's
age,[53] education, intelligence, or
personality, thus it may represent one of
the fundamental building blocks of human
orientation in the environment and
possibly the acquisition of procedural
knowledge and experience, in general.

See also
Adaptive unconscious
Consciousness
Ernst Platner
Introspection illusion
List of thought processes
Mind's eye
Minimally conscious state
Neuroscience of free will
Philosophy of mind
Preconscious
 Subconscious
Subconscious sex
Transpersonal psychology
Unconscious cognition
Unconscious communication
Books
Psyche (1846)
The Philosophy of the Unconscious
(1869)

Notes
1. Westen, Drew (1999). "The Scientific
Status of Unconscious Processes: Is Freud
Really Dead?" . Journal of the American
Psychoanalytic Association. 47 (4): 1061–
1106. doi:10.1177/000306519904700404 .
PMID 10650551 . Retrieved June 1, 2012.
2. Bynum; Browne; Porter (1981). The
Macmillan Dictionary of the History of
Science. London. p. 292.
3. Christopher John Murray, Encyclopedia
of the Romantic Era, 1760-1850 (Taylor &
Francis, 2004: ISBN 1-57958-422-5), pp.
1001–02.
4. Thomas Baldwin (1995). Ted Honderich,
ed. The Oxford Companion to Philosophy.
Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 792.
ISBN 978-0-19-866132-0.
5. See "The Problem of Logic", Chapter 3 of
Shrinking History: On Freud and the Failure
of Psychohistory, published by Oxford
University Press, 1980
6. See "Exploring the Unconscious: Self-
Analysis and Oedipus", Chapter 11 of Why
Freud Was Wrong: Sin, Science and
Psychoanalysis, published by The Orwell
Press, 2005
7. Ernst Platner, Philosophische
Aphorismen nebst einigen Anleitungen zur
philosophischen Geschichte , Vol. 1
(Leipzig: Schwickertscher Verlag, 1793
[1776]), p. 86.
8. Angus Nicholls and Martin Liebscher,
Thinking the Unconscious: Nineteenth-
Century German Thought (2010),
Cambridge University Press, 2010, p. 9.
9. Alexander, C. N. 1990. Growth of Higher
Stages of Consciousness: Maharishi's
Vedic Psychology of Human Development.
C. N. Alexander and E.J. Langer (eds.).
Higher Stages of Human Development.
Perspectives on Human Growth. New York,
Oxford: Oxford University Press
10. Meyer-Dinkgräfe, D. (1996).
Consciousness and the Actor. A
Reassessment of Western and Indian
Approaches to the Actor's Emotional
Involvement from the Perspective of Vedic
Psychology. Peter Lang. ISBN 978-0-8204-
3180-2.
11. Haney, W.S. II. "Unity in Vedic
aesthetics: the self-interac, the known, and
the process of knowing". Analecta
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12. Harms, Ernest., Origins of Modern
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13. The Design Within: Psychoanalytic
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14. Meyer-Dinkgräfe, Daniel "Hamlet's
Procrastination: A Parallel to the Bhagavad-
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Gibinska and Jerzy Limon. Gdansk:
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187-195
15. Meyer-Dinkgräfe, Daniel 'Consciousness
and the Actor: A Reassessment of Western
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18. Young, Christopher and Brook, Andrew
(1994) Schopenhauer and Freud quotation:

Ellenberger, in his classic 1970

history of dynamic psychology.
He remarks on Schopenhauer's
psychological doctrines several
times, crediting him for example
with recognizing parapraxes,
and urges that Schopenhauer
"was definitely among the
ancestors of modern dynamic
psychiatry." (1970, p. 205). He
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Foerster's interesting claim that
"no one should deal with
psychoanalysis before having
thoroughly studied
Schopenhauer." (1970, p. 542). In
general, he views Schopenhauer
as the first and most important
 of the many nineteenth-century
philosophers of the unconscious,
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19. .Friedrich Nietzsche, preface to the

second edition of "The Gay science" 1886
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les psychologues et philosophes français".
de Serge Nicolas et Laurent Fedi,
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21. "Un débat sur l'inconscient avant Freud:
la réception de Eduard von Hartmann chez
les psychologues et philosophes français".
de Serge Nicolas et Laurent Fedi,
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but they also reveal new aspects of the
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contradiction as an unconscious factor
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References
Matt Ffytche, The Foundation of the
Unconscious: Schelling, Freud and the
 Birth of the Modern Psyche , Cambridge
University Press, 2011.
Jon Mills, The Unconscious Abyss:
Hegel's Anticipation of Psychoanalysis ,
SUNY Press, 2002.
Jon Mills, Underworlds: Philosophies of
the Unconscious from Psychoanalysis to
Metaphysics. Routledge, 2014.
S. J. McGrath, The Dark Ground of Spirit:
Schelling and the Unconscious , Taylor &
Francis Group, 2012.

External links
Wikiquote has quotations related to:
Unconscious mind
 Dictionary of Philosophy of Mind,
"Implicit Memory"
Nonconscious Acquisition of
Information (a reprint from American
Psychologist, 1992)
The Rediscovery of the Unconscious
"The Unconscious: Frequently Asked
Questions" . London: Freud Museum.

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