1.

1 FUNDAMENTALS OF FLUID MECHANICS

Fluid mechanics is that branch of applied mechanics that is concerned with the

statics and dynamics of liquids and gases. The analysis of the behaviour of fluids is

based upon the fundamental laws of applied mechanics that relate to the conservation of

mass, energy and momentum. The subject branches out into sub-disciplines such as

aerodynamics, hydraulics, geophysical fluid dynamics and bio-fluid mechanics.

1.1.1 Fluids

A fluid may be defined broadly as a substance which deforms continuously when

subjected to shear stress . This fluid can be made to flow if it is acted upon by a source of

energy. This can be made clear by assuming the fluid being consisted of layers parallel to

each other and letting a force act upon one of the layers in a direction parallel to its plane.

This force divided by the area of the layer is called shear stress. As long as this shear

stress is applied the layer will continue to move relative to its neighboring layers.

If the neighboring layers offer no resistance to the movement of fluid, this fluid is

said to be frictionless fluid or ideal fluid. (Practically speaking, ideal fluids do not exist in

nature, but in many practical problems the resistance is either small or is not important,

therefore can be ignored.) A fluid is always a continuous medium and there cannot be

voids in it. The properties of a fluid, e.g., density, may, however, vary from place to place

in the fluid.

A fluid is a substance that may flow. That is, the particles making up the fluid

continuously change their positions relative to one another. Fluids do not offer any

lasting resistance to the displacement of one layer over another when a shear force is

applied. This means that if a fluid is at rest, then no shear forces can exist in it, which is
different from solids; solids can resist shear forces while at rest. To summarize, if a shear

force is applied to a fluid it will cause flow. Recall the example in class when a book was

placed between my hands that were previously moving parallel to one another, even in

the presence of the fluid, air. The book was somewhat distorted by the shear forces

exerted on it by my hands, but eventually adopted a deformed position that resisted the

force. A further difference between solids and fluids is that a solid has a fixed shape

whereas a fluid owes its shape at any particular time to that of the vessel containing it.

1.3 TYPES OF FLOW

There are various types of flows which are as follows

1.3.1 Rotational Flow.

A flow in which the fluid particles also rotate while flowing about their own axis is called

rotational flow.

∇×𝑉 =0

1.3.2 Irrotational flow.

It is that flow in which the fluid particles retain their original orientation.

∇×⋁≠0

1.3.3 Uniform Flow

A flo in which the velocities of the liquid particles at all sections of the pipe are equal.

1.3.4 Non-Uniform Flow.

That flow in which the velocities of the liquids at all sections of the pipe or channels are

not equal is calles non-uniform flow.

1.3.5 Laminar Flow

A flow in which all the liquid particles has a exact path and the path of individual

particles don’t interconnect each other.

1.3.6 Turbulent Flow.

A flow in which each liquid particle doesn’t have a definite trail and trail of the particles

also cross each other the velocity of the fluid is not regular at every position in turbulent

fluid.

1.3.7 Steady Flow.(Time independent flow).

A flow in the velocity of the fluid at a particular fixed point doesn’t change with time is

called steady flow.It is also called stationary flow.

1.3.8 Un-steady flow.

A flow in which the quantity of liquid depends upon time.

1.4 Newton,s law of viscosity

Newton’s law of viscosity defines the relationship between the shear stress and shear rate

of a fluid subjected to a mechanical stress.It describes that shear stress is directly

proportional to rate of deformation.

Mathematically,

𝜏 = 𝜇𝑑𝑢/𝑑𝑦

Where is the constant of proportionality.

1.5.Types of flow lines.

1.5.1.Path line.

Path line is the line traced by a given particle.path line shows the direction of the particle

in Period of time.

1.5.2 Streamline.

A streamline is one that drawn is tangential to the velocity vector at every point in the

flow at a given instant and forms a powerful tool in understanding flows. This definition

leads to the equation for streamlines.

𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑤
= =
𝑢 𝑣 𝑤

where u,v, and w are the velocity components in x, y and z directions respectively.

1.5.3 Streakline.

It concentrates on fluid particles that have gone through a fixed station or point. At some

instant of time the position of all these particles are marked and a line is drawn through

them. Such a line is called a streakline

1.6.Continuity equation.

Continuity equation is derived from law of conservation of mass stating that mass can

neither be created nor destroyed inside a control volume.

Mathematically, equation of continuity can be expressed as:

∂ρ /∂t + ∇.(ρ.V) = 0

For incompressible fluids, continuity equation becomes:

∇.V=0

1.7. Momentum equation

Momentum equation relates the sum of the forces acting on an element of fluid to its

acceleration or rate of change of momentum..

Mathematically, momentum equation can be written as:

𝜌(DV/Dt)=∇. 𝑆 + 𝜌𝑏

S is stress tensor and b represents body forces.

1.8.Energy equation

First law of thermodynamics explains the energy equation. According to it, the rate of

change of energy inside the fluid element equals the rate of work done on the element due

to body or surface force and the sum of net heat flux of fluid element.

Mathematical expression of energy equation is:

𝜌cp (DT/Dt) = K∇∎2T + L.V

where cp is the specific internal energy, K is thermal conductivity, T is the temperature,

L is surface or body force.

1.1.2 Turbulent and Laminar Flows

In a flowing fluid, each particle changes its position with a certain velocity. The

magnitudes and directions of the velocities of all particles may vary with position as well

as with time. Streamline is used to illustrate this very concept.

 Imagine a pipe of circular cross-section containing fluid such as water. For flow

to occur without slippage, then the various layers must move at different velocities. The

fluid layer adjacent to the pipe wall is virtually stationary, while the layers further out

move at increasing higher velocities until a maximum velocity is attained at the center.

A streamline is an imaginary line in a fluid, the tangent to which gives the

direction of the flow velocity at that position, as shown in Figure 4-2, where the distance

between two streamlines is an inverse measure of the magnitude of the velocity. If the

streamlines are smoothly curved and almost parallel to each other, the flow is known as

streamlined flow or laminar flow . On the other hand, if the streamlines are arranged

haphazardly, the flow is known as turbulent flow.

If the streamline pattern of a flow remains constant with time, the flow is steady .

If it does not, the flow is unsteady and in this case a streamline picture is an

instantaneous one, valid only for a particular instant of time. A greatly enlarged view of

any small region of a turbulent flow shows that the flow is a randomly unsteady laminar

flow. If the mean flow values are unchanged over a period of time, it is called a steady

turbulent flow. It was recognized earlier on that the type of flow depended upon the

velocity and viscosity of the fluid. It was not until the 1880s this relationship was

mathematically expressed in terms of the ratio of inertial and viscous forces by Professor

Osborne Reynolds through many experiments and dimension analysis,

Re

ρDVµ
 ρ is the fluid density; ν = µ/ρ, is kinematic viscosity; µ is absolute viscosity; D is

diameter of conduit; V is velocity

Reynolds number (N Re

) is a dimensionless number. If this number is less than 2000, viscous forces

prevail and the flow will be laminar. The condition of the flow is less well defined for

this number beyond 2000 for which turbulence starts to occur. It has been common

practice to regard the flow as turbulent when Reynolds number is larger than 4000.

Laminar flow - for N Re < 2,000

Turbulent flow - for N Re > 4,000 .

1.1.3 Bernoulli's Equation

Mine ventilation is normally an example of a steady flow process, in which none

of the variables of flow changes with time. Transitions and losses in energy are involved

in such process. Energy changes and their mathematical expressions are basic to the

calculation of mine air quantity and pressure are developed as follows.

According to Newton's Second Law, the force F used to accelerate a body must be

equal to the product of the mass m of the body and its acceleration a. If this law is applied

to an ideal (frictionless), incompressible (constant–density) fluid –Euler's Law of

conservation of momentum is obtained.

Assuming a fluid moving steadily through an imaginary fixed volume element

xyz, in the x–direction (across the yz–plane), as shown in Figure 4-5. If pressure p1 and

p2 act upon the two opposite faces. The resultant force on the fluid in the volume element

considered is:

F = P1yz - P2yz + Bw xyz

where: B = body or mass forces per unit mass w = constant fluid density

if x is very small distance, the acceleration along it is constant,

a = (V2 - V1)/t

where t is the time for the fluid through distance x.

a = (V2 - V1)/t

where t is the time for the fluid through distance x.

Since the mass of the fluid element is m = w xyz, with Newton's Law F = m a :

P1 yz - P2 yz + Bw xyz = w xyz (V2 - V1 ) t

or, P1 - P2 + Bw x = w x

(V2 - V1 ) t………..1

The mean velocity over the distance x is (V2 + V1)/2 = x/t

Substituting:

P1 - P2 + Bw x = w

(V22- V12) 2

This is Euler's Equation for the x-direction, also known as the momentum equation.

If the x–direction is taken as vertically upwards as shown in Figure 4-6, such that P1 &

V1 are at height Z1 and P2 & V2 at height Z2, the distance is x = Z2 – Z1.

The force B per unit mass would now be due to gravitation, and B = – g

P1 - P2 - gw (Z2 - Z1) = w (V22 - V12)/2

or P1 + w(V12/2) + gw Z1 = P2 + w (V22 /2) + gwZ2……………..2

This is Bernoulli's Equation for the ideal incompressible fluid in terms of pressure

(Conservation of Momentum). The Second Law of Thermodynamics limits the directions

in which energy can be transformed or transferred. It is well known that friction causes a
degradation of useful "pressure" energy. So, the heat will flow from a hot body to cold

body; in terms of the Second Law it is impossible for the reverse to occur.

or P1/wg + V12/2g + Z1 = P2/wg + V22 /2g + Z2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (3)

This is Bernoulli's Equation (in SI unit) for the ideal incompressible fluid in terms

of pressure head where P is in Pa (Nm-2). The pressures P1 and P2 in equations 2 and 3

are referred to as static pressures; they act in all directions regardless of the direction of

the flow. The terms V12/2 and V22/2 in Equation 4–3 are referred as velocity or

dynamic pressures. The summation of the two is referred as the total pressure of the

oncoming fluid stream, also called the facing pressure. Each pressure term is expressed

in length (m).

1.2 FLUID AND POROUS MEDIA

Fluid flows and associated heat and mass transfer through such porous media are

two-phase phenomena where one of the phases is solid and stationary. To simulate such

flows, interaction of fluid and solid phases at the scales as small as individual pores of the

material needs to be accounted for. Considering typically wide range of length scales and

complex geometries involved in porous media, analysis of each individual pore can be

very costly or even impossible. Thus the modeling efforts in this area dating back to

Darcy’s1 experimental study in 1856 have mostly aimed at empirically correlating the

pore level flow effects to the bulk fluid motion. Darcy related the pressure gradient to the

average fluid velocity. A more fundamental formulation can be developed by averaging

the governing equations over local volume elements that contain both fluid and solid

phases. Although this will reduce the complexity of the problem, the information lost by

filtering the fine scale flow structures will cause an unclosed set of governing equations.
Conventionally, the resulting closure terms are heuristically linked to the relations

proposed by Darcy and Ergun which requires empirical determination of the parameters

and k and CE. To develop non-empirical predictive capabilities for porous media

problems, we follow a first principle-based, multi-scale strategy to handle the closure

problem. Most porous media can be thought of as a matrix of repeating pore patterns.

Instead of directly simulating the fluid flow through the porous material, we model

sample pore patterns and calculate the closure terms beforehand for varying flow speeds.

Thus, we can avoid the excessive computational cost of direct simulation yet we can

produce accurate numerical predictions completely free of empiricism.

1.3 APPLICATION OF FLOW ANALYSIS

During the past few decades flow analysis in porous channels or tubes has gained

much attention due to its number of practical applications in the fields of biomedical and

mechanical engineering. Applications include the flow in dialysis of blood in artificial

kidneys (Wernert et al., 2005), blood oxygenators (Geoerke et al., 2002), and flow of

blood in the capillaries (Jafari et al., 2009). Berman (1953) discussed the steady

incompressible viscous fluid flow between two parallel porous walls and obtained the

exact solution for the Navier-Stokes equations for the first time. Layeghi and Seyf (2008)

investigated the flow in an annular microchannel with uniform suction. Kumar et al.

(2010) studied the fully developed free convective flow of a micropolar and viscous fluid

in a vertical channel. Sajid et al. (2009) obtained an analytic solution of a micropolar

fluid through a porous channel by a homotopy analysis method. Mass transfer effects for

a viscous fluid in a porous channel with moving or stationary walls in the presence of

chemical reaction was studied by Srinivas et al. (2013). Recently, Abbas et al. (2014)
analyzed the chemically reactive magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) flow of a second-grade

fluid in a semiporous channel. The effects of boundary and inertia on flow and heat

transfer through porous medium was analyzed by Vafai and Tien (1981) and pointed out

that effects of inertia become more significant with the large value of permeability and

lower fluid viscosity. Certain porous materials, such as foam, metals, and fibrous media,

usually have high porosity. Different aspects of the flow phenomena for Newtonian and

non-Newtonian fluids through a porous channel saturated with porous medium were

discussed by many authors. For details readers are referred to the articles Hayat and

Abbas (2008), Rassoulinejad-Mousavi et al. (2013), Seyf and Rassoulinejad-Mousavi

(2011), Umavathi et al. (2006), Uwanta and Hamza (2012), Ogunsola and Peter (2014),

Sheikholeslami et al. (2013), Fakour et al. (2014), Hatami et al. (2014a,b), Hosseini et al.

(2013), Nield and Kuznetsove (2010), Hasnain et al. (2015), Dehghan et al. (2015a,b,c),

and references therein. The study of thermal radiation on convective heat transfer has

become a very vital theory in processes involving high temperatures, such as nuclear

power plants, thermal energy storage, solar power technology, and designs of pertinent

equipment. Chauhan and Kumar (2011) discussed the radiation effects for the mixed

convection flow and viscous heating in a vertical channel partially filled with a porous

medium. The influence of thermal radiation and space porosity on a mixed convection

flow in a vertical porous channel was carried out by Srinivas and Muthuraj (2010).

Eegunjobi and Makinde (2013) analyzed the entropy generation in a variable-viscosity

MHD channel flow with permeable walls and convective heating. Hussain et al. (2015)

studied the heat transfer effects in a porous wavy channel with a symmetric convective

boundary condition. Entropy generation in a MHD porous channel with hydromagnetic

slip and convective boundary conditions was discussed by Ibanez (2015). The study of

flow through narrow, curved channels has received significant importance due to its wide

range of applications in biological and engineering processes. The seeping flow theory

cracks and pulmonary alveolar blood flow have low Reynolds number and so they can be

characterized as a Stokes flow. Khuri (2006) analyzed the Stokes flow in a curved

channel. In a couple of papers Ali et al. (2010a,b) discussed the different aspects of

peristaltic flow through a curved channel. The effects of porous medium on the forced

convection flow of a reciprocating curved channel were investigated by Fu et al. (2014).

The peristaltic flows at low Reynolds number and long wavelength have gained

increasing attention over the years. The interest in these flows is because of their wide

range of applications either in engineering or medical sciences. Such applications include

the urine transport from kidney to the bladder, bile from the gall bladder into the

duodenum, spermatozoa in the ductus efferentes of the male reproductive tract, ovum in

the fallopian tube, lymph in the lymphatic vessel, and soon. One of the earliest studies on

the peristaltic flows is dueto Latham. In1969,Shapiroetal discussed the peristaltic flow in

a planar channel by using long wavelength and low Reynolds number approximations.

These studies have been subsequently followed up by several researchers in the field.

Even now the analysis of peristaltic flows in a planar channel has been the subject of

several recent papers.