Critical Studyand ýdition

of
Manhaj Al-ýawdb fli Qubý Istikt5b Ahl Al-KitRb

Of

NUr al-D-in'Arl Ibn Abu-al-Fat4

Known as Ibn al-Durayhim

By
Ahmad MuhammadAhmad Al-Shamoubi
M. A. AI-Azhar University,Cairo, Egypt

PART ONE

A TBESIS SUBMITTED IN FULFILMENT OF TBE

REQUIREMENTSFOR THE DEGREEOF DOCTOR OF
PHELOSOPHY
In the Departmentof
Theology and Religious Studies

University of Wales
LamPeter

2000
Declaration

This work has not previously been acceptedin substancefor any degreeandis not
being concurrentlysubmittedin candidaturefor any degree.

Signed (candidate)
.............

Date I. S.. 1
.........

Statement1

This thesis is the result of my own investigations, exceptwhereotherwise

stated.Other sourcesare acknowledgedby footnotesgiving explicit references.
A bibliographyis appended.

Signed (candidate)
............. ...........
Date 2, o., =. -I

Statement2

I hereby give consent for my thesis, if accepted, to be available for

photocopying and for inter-library loan, and for the title and summaryto be

madeavailableto outsideorganizations.

Signed P: (candidate)
......... .... ............

Date I..W 1'....

1.4 Q-0o.
...... ... ... .1

I
DEDICATION

To my respectedmother
for her guidance,supportand constantprayers

and to my late father who passedaway while I was young,

May Allah grantboth of them al-Janna(paradise).

ii
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

AR praisesbe to ARah the Almighty who in his grace granted me this precious
opportunity to embark upon this research,a task which could not have been

accomplishedwithout His help. My first and foremostthanksare for Him.

From the academic staff of the University of Wales Lampeter (UWL), I would like to
first thank my supervisor Dr. Mawil Izzi Dien for his generoussupport and sincere

assistance throughout the research period. His invaluable advice and excellent
suggestions helped me a lot, not only to complete my researchbut also to guide me in
the right direction during my 'new' life in this foreign country. Many thanks also due
to Dr. Dawoud Al-Alami for his constant help and generousassistanceduring all the

stages of this study. Special thanks also go to Prof. D. P. Davies for his kind and help.
Also I would like to thank Prof. N. Robinson for his assistancewhen he was needed.

Of the non-academicstaff of UWL, I would like to firstly thank,Ms. JayneChaplin,

the secretaryof the Centrefor Islamic StudiesandMrs. MarleneAlbert, the secretary
of the Departmentof Theology,for their help that they offeredto me. I thank alsoall
the staff of the AcademicComputerServiceat UWL for all the facilities availablefor
my use. Thanks also goes to all the staff of the UWL library for their co-operation
throughout my study,especiallyMs. Kathy Miles from the inter-library loan section,
for getting me all my outsidematerials.I would alsolike to takethis opportunityto
thank all my friends in the Department
of Theology andreligious Studies.I spentmy
collegelife in Walesamongthem,andby their prayersto God I wassupported.

I would also like to thank the Ministry of Educationin Egypt for grantingme this
to for
opportunity studyabroadand giving me all the I
support neededto completemy
research.A Special thanks alsogoes to the EgyptianEmbassy in London and all the

staff in the Egyptian Educationaland Cultural Bureaufor their very helpful attitude
towards me andall the Egyptianstudentsin the UK. They really providedme with all
that was necessaryto complete my researchby supportingme and settlingall the
problems I facedhere.

III
In Egypt, I thankmy University,AI-Azhar University in Cairo, andall the staff in the
Faculty of Theology for their kind help. Specialthanksto the academicstaff in the
Departmentof the Islamic Invitation (al-Da'wa al-lsldmiyya).I am alsoindebtedto
Prof. MuhammadAbu Laila, the head of the Departmentof Islamic Studiesin the
English language,who supportedmy decisionto studyabroad,andgaveme his useful
adviccandgencrousassistancc.

Last but not least,I thankmy brothersMuhammadandAbd al-Sal5mwho helpedme

a lot by sending me all the materialI from
needed Egypt. Special
thanksto my wife
Afaf for her support, patience and endurance, andto my children Alaa andWafaa
who are my sourcesof inspiration.My thanksarealsodue to my family and friendsin
Egypt who alwaysrememberme in their prayers.

IV
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Acknowledgments III

Table of contents v

Preface Vill

Abstract Ix

Introduction 1

Chapter One: A Study of the Book 3

Section 1: Authorship 4
Section2: Compilationof the Book 10

- Reasonfor Compilation 10

- Ibn al-Durayhim'sMethod of Compiling his Book 10

- The Controversyon the Validity of the Covenant 14

of 'Umar
Section3: The Value of Manhqja1-$awJ'b 19

Section4: The Method of Investigation,copiesusedand

Technicalmarksand symbols 23

Chapter Two: The Author and his Environment 29

Section 1: Ibn al-Durayhim'sLife, EducationandWritten Work 30

His Life 30

His Education 32

His Written Works 34

Section 2: The Author's Political Environment 36

Section 3: The Author's Social Envirorunent

43
Section 4: Ibe Author's Cultural Environment
46

V
ChapterThree:Dhimmi'sin the Time of the Author 49

Section 1: Definition of Dhimmis 50

- BecomingDhin2misby Being relatedto Dhin=Meople 52

Children 52
-
- Wives 53

Section2: Dhimmis during Marnluk State 54

The Crusade Wars 57

-
The Mongol Attack 58
-

- The Aggressive behaviour by DhIn2mis

of the Marnluk State 59

- Employing Dhhnmis in the important Jobs

Over Muslims 60

Section 3: The Position of Dbimmis in Islam 62

The Rights and Duties of Dhin2mls in Islam 65

-
The Rights Mimmis 65
a) of

(1) Freedom of Religion 65

Establishment of Biya' and Churches 68
-
(2) Protecting Mimmis from Hann 71

(3) Protecting the Life and Property of Dhimmis 76

Protecting their Life 76
-
Protecting their Property 79
-

(4) Caring for Dhhnmis in caseof Poverty,

Senility and Disability 81

b) The Duties of Mimmis 84

(1) The Financial Duties 84

vi
 (a) Al-Jizya (poll-tax) 84

(b) Al-Kbaaj (land tax) 87

(c) A]-'UshiZr (trade tax) 88

(2) The Social Dudes and the Awareness of

Muslim Culture 89

- The Employment
of Dhin2mis 92
a) Military Jobs 93
b) Non-Military Jobs 95

The Dress Dhimmls 101

- of

- GreetingDhimmis with the Sal9m 103

Chapter Four: The Authorities Mentioned in the Manuscript 107

Appendix 1: The Glossary of Words mentioned in the Manuscript 154

Appendix 2: The Glossary of Placesmentioned in the Manuscript 175

Conclusion 182

Bibliography 185

vii
 PREFACE

Method of Transliteration

The following systemhas beenfollowed in translatingthe Arabic wordsandnames

usedin the text.

0t
j Z
f
b S q
t sh k
th I

rj m

r4 n
t kh T h
d W
dh gh Y
r

LongVowels: d ShortVowels: a
u

Note:

Arabic Muslim names have generally been transliterated except for those
-The
untransliteratednames which have already been used in English literature, suchas
Allah, Islam and Quran.

hamza was ignoredwhen it is maftU4or mak0urin the beginningof words such

-The
as, Aýmad, Aqdr and Amwdl; also 1§154and Ilbds.

definite article "ar, is generally written, even thoughwhen it is usedprior to sun

-The
letters and after vowels e.g. Ab-u al-Dardd' ( not Ab-UD-Darda' or Ab-UI-Dardd').
However, (wa is
al-) written as (wal-) (1i is
and al-) written as (lil-).

viii
 Abstract

From the beginningof Islam up to the presentdatethe relationshipbetweenMuslims

and the Peopleof the Book (Jewsand Christians)living in the Muslim Statehastaken
different forms. Most of the time the relationshiphasbeenoneof toleranceandthus
in according with the teachings of Islam. However the relationship has been
sometimes a difficult one with intolerance and persecution
resultingin often from
humanignoranceor a lack of compassion.

This study shedslight on many aspectsof this relationship during an important period

of Islamic history in Egypt in the 8'hcentury A. H. / 10 century A. D. These insights

were gained from studying and editing the book "Manhaj al-ýawdb f 11Qubb IstiktAb
Ahl al-Kit5b", (The correct method to rectify the ugly practice of appointing the
People of the Book in writing professions). The author of this book was Ibn al-
Durayhim, who lived between 712 A. H. / 1312 A. D. and 762 A. H. / 1361 A. D.

This study is divided into two parts.The first part consistsof a studyof the book, its
author and the Dhimmis (the People of the Book) of that period, examining the
position of Islam towards them. It contains an introduction, four chapters and two

appendices. The introduction focuses on a description of the manuscript and the.

circumstances of its compilation. The first chapter discusses the book in more detail,

examining its attribution to Ibn al-Durayhim, its compilation, its value, the method of
investigation and the copies used in its edition. In the secondchapter there is a study

of the author and his political, social and cultural environment. The third chapter
deals with dhi=is (the People of the Book who live in the Muslim State) in the time

of - the the background information on dhimmis during the

author and provides
Mamluk State and the position of dWmmis in Islam. The fourth chapter comprises a

study of the biographies of people mentioned in the manuscript. There are two

appendices at the end of this part of the thesis: the first is a glossary of ambiguous

words used in the manuscript and the second is a verification of the places mentioned
in the manuscriptand study.Finally the bibliographyconcludesthe thesis.

Ix
The secondpart of the thesis consistsof the Arabic edition of the book, which
consistsof eight chaptersplus indicesof the used,
references including the Quranic
verses and Aýddlth (the traditions of the Prophet (PBUH).

x
 INTRODUCTION

The text that this thesisattemptsto examineandcritically analyseis a text, which was
writtcrr by- a- famous- and-important- Muslinr scholar, Ibn- al-Durayhim,on a rather
unique and interesting It
subject. discussesthe employmentof the peopleof the book
in clerical positionsin the Muslim State.It appearsthat the environmentin which the
author composed his book, played an important role in formulatingthe contentsof
this manuscript.It was written in the period after the Mongol defeatby the Muslims
in the battle of Ayn JaNt (658 A. H. /1260A. D.). Without doubt at that time the
Mongols representedone of the most powerful threatsto the entire Islamic world,
which was also being threatenedby the Crusadersand their frequentcampaigns
againstthe Muslim lands.

Ibn al-Durayhim, perceived that the employmentof non-Muslims in prestigious

clerical positions was resulting in societalproblems,particularly for Muslims in the
State. In his book he attemptedto deal with this problem which neededto be

approachedvery carefully. On the one hand Ibn al-Durayhimneededto speakout

against the employment of dVn2mis in these positions, which necessitatedsome
criticism of the authorities,but on the otherhandsomeauthoritieshad overcomethe
Mongols and stoodup againstthe Crusaders,thuswinning the respectandgratitudeof
the Muslim people.

This research attempts to analyze the relationship betweenthe author and his
in he
environment order to understandwhy wrote his book in this way. This research
has alsoprovidedan edition of the Arabic text, asit hasneverbeen,in academicway,
editedbefore.

The text is comprised of eight chapters(abwab). The first chapterdealswith the

advice, its substanceand necessity. This showsus that the authorwrote the book to
advise Muslims in the
general,andprobably rulersin particular,how to deal with this
problem in the Muslim State.In the secondchapterthe authorattemptedto establish
the authenticity of his by
subjectmatter refcrring to Quranicversesconnectedto the
relationship of Muslims with non-Muslims. In the third chapter Ibn al-Durayhim.
referred to the Vadith of the prophet,the Companions (F45-bq) and the Followers
(T,ý-bj,Wn),in order to explain and supporthis point of view. In the fourth chapterIbn

1
al-Durayhim focussedon the conceptof 'ahdor covenantdiscussingthe Islamic legal
point of view on this in
matter somedetail. In chapterfive the authordiscussedthe
necessarycharacteristicsof peoplewho in
areemployed importantclerical positions
in the Muslim State. An important issue in Islamic law is discussedin chaptersix.
This is the issue of orderinggoodandprohibiting evil. On the surfacesthis chapter
seemsto be out of place,but on carefulreading a relationshipwith this chapterand
the rest of the book, particularlyin the sectionwhich discussesthe positionof Islam
regarding the employmentof non-Muslims.In chapterseventhe authordiscussesthe
concept of injustice, and how this is treatedin Islam accordingto the Quranandthe
Sunna. Chapter eight concludesthe book with someanecdotesand sermonsfurther
supporthis viewpoint.

The main work of my researchwasto edit this book andproducea modelArabic text
of it. The other main task was to examine the political, social and cultural
environmentin which the book waswritten. It was alsoimportantto assertthat Ibn al-
Durayhim's stance on this issue does not reflect the normal Islamic stance.He

representsa stancewhich wasaffectedby the conditionsof the era in which he lived.

The researchalsoprovidedindicesfor the book, including the Quranicversesandthe
Traditional quotations.It also providedglossariesfor the mostdifficult wordsandthe
namesof individuals andthe namesof placesmentionedin the text.

2
 CHAPTER ONE

A Study of the Book

Section1: Authorship

Section2: Compilationof the Book

Section3: The Value of Manhaj al-& wj-b

Section 4: The Method of Investigation, Copies used

and Technical Marks and Symbols
Authorship
There have been some difficulties in attributing"Manhajal-ýawdbff Qub4Istiktab
Ahl al-KitAb' to Ibn al-Durayhim. Some biographieswhich speakof him' do not

mention 'Manhaj al-ýawdb' asoneof his booksandalso someof the manuscriptsof

"Manhajal-ýaw5b%which I found,do not carry the nameof an author.

However in his book, *AI-A'15m", al-ZirikIT stated that oneof Ibn al-Durayhim's
works was "Manhaj al-ýawdb fif Qub4Istikt5b Ahl al-Kit5b", andthat he hadfound
two manuscriptsof this book which carriedIbn al-Durayhim'sname,one in Cairo
and the other in 2
Damascus. After a long period of investigationI also found two

copies of this manuscriptattributedto Ibn al-Durayhim,both in Cairo. Thus it seems

that we can attributethe manuscriptto him, especiallyasboth copiescarry his name
in the handwritingof their copiers.

On the other hand there are another threecopies,two in Cairo andonein London,

which do not carry an author'sname.The interpretationof this could be that Ibn al-
Durayhim, or the copiersat his time, wereafraid of writing his nameon the copiesof
the manuscript, because he may have been oppressed by the authorities had they
known he was the author of this book, especially as the book includes some sharp

criticism of the sultanandcmirs, suchas:

2-L-j ý f-lij r lj. U ja-ýt

ejj+, AMI YL-.! F, 4
.0(.
ljl^ij ýl i.!, % 1,45aj ZrjuU- Ij :ý6,4JI JI
c rA2 4. 4

Aj
,

Lýp
ýfy- r6 yu<j,

11 JL*-Zjl
J6; S-l xUal jju-11
OIJI J11 4 ýjp
J! Ljýýl Lý.,
_;

I Suchas:Al-Shawk5n7t, M. A., AI-Badr al-TAli'bi-M45sin Man Ba'd al-Qamal-Sdbi, voL 1,p.

477; Al-Baghd5d-l,Ismall B5shd,Hadiyyatal-'Aririn, Asmd' al-Mu'aflTin wa'Xthdr al-Mqannifin,
vol. I, p. 723.
2 AI-Zirikli, Al-A'Idm, vol. V, p. 6.
3Manhajaj-ýawdb,p. 114.

4
 42
j LsLo 10

Iý
4!. LJ TV C-jtj
...

El
O-rn
.0( .6.

Without doubt such criticism would not be welcomedby any oppressiveauthority,

particularly one like the Mamluks who were famousfor their There
ruthlessness. are
several examplesshowing the attitude of the Mamluk Sultanstowardsthe scholars
and others who criticized the dhimmi& In 717 A. H. /1317 A. D., the authorities
deposedthe chief of judges (qjV1a1-quVYO,
Shamsal-D-inal-kiafffll al-kianaff,who
was accused of degradingdhimmisandcondemningtheir appointmentsin important

positions over Muslimsý Also in 797 A. H. / 1359 A. D., the sultan BarqUq ordered

the MjAkIjudge, who was the vice-chief of judges, to be publicly beaten becauseof a

by
complaint made a Christian. 7 Moreover in 714 A. H. / 1314 A. D., Shaykh N-ural-

Din 'Arl b. 'Abd al-Wdrith al-Bakff criticized the Mamluk sultan, al-Ni4ir
Mutammad, about the high rank achieved by dVmmis in the Muslim society and

almost lost his life. However the majority of emirs interceded for him at the sultan so

he was exiled out of Egypt after.8

Thus it is quite possible that Ibn al-Durayhim could have lost his life had the

authorities known that he was the author of the book. The two copies that carry his

name may have been copied after his death, or transcribed from copies handwritten

after his death, because they do not carry the dates of the handwriting. Thus the

scholars and copiers could have hidden their knowledge of the author until after his

death, only then writing his name on the manuscripts. This gives a possible reason for

4 Ibid. pp. 120L

5 Ibid, pp. 192,194.
6 Aj-Maqr-W,Al-Sul-ukli Ma'rifat Duwal al-MulUk,vol. H, p. 524.
7 Qdsim,Ahl al-Dhimmafi- Mig al-'U§Ural-Wusid,p. 81.
gOp. Cit, vol. II, pp. 495 L

5
the existenceof manuscriptsthat carry his name and others that do not carry it,
becauseof the two kinds therearedefinitely manuscriptscopiedafter the deathof Ibn
al-Durayhim.

However,aswe shall seelater, therewereotherbookscompiledduring that periodby

contemporary scholars, which carried their authors' names without fear of the
authorities, such as: "Al-Kalim5t al-Muhimmaf1iMub5sharatAhl al-Dhimma, by al-
Asnaw-I(d. 772 A. H. /1370-1A. D.) and*AI-Madhammaf1iIsti'm5l AM al-Dhimma"

by Ibn al-Naqqdsh(d. 773 A. H. /1371-2A. D.)9.Onereasonfor this might be that

these books did not include the same degree of criticism as"Manhajal-ýawdb%
However on the other hand thesebookscould havebeencompiledduring different
times, whentherewaslessfear of criticizing the authorities.This idea is supportedby

the fact that the frequent sultans of that periodlo were often fully occupiedwith

establishingtheir short-lived regimes,which were frequentlythreatenedby political

uprisings.This political instability, with frequentchangesof sultansand statepolitics,
makes it likely that at times it wasrelatively safeto claim ownershipof a somewhat
critical book.

Further evidence that Ibn al-Durayhimwas the authorof "Manhajal-ýawdb, comes

from the fact that in the introductionto his book he saysthat this book wasthe first

ever to be written aboutthis subject(employingdhimnziP in the Muslim State).That

this is so is supportedby the datesof deathof Ibn al-Durayhim(d. 762 A. H.) andof
the authorsof the otherbookswhich discussthis subject.

There is also significantinternal evidencein the book which supportthe idea that the
book was written during Ibn al-Durayhim's lifetime and in his environment.One
piece of this evidence is that in "Manhaj al-ýawdb' thereis mentionof al-Malik al-
Mu?affar, Sayf al-D-in Qultq, (d. 658 A. H. /1260 A. D.), with the sentence

9 Seethe details those (3): 7he Value of 'Manhaj al-ýaw5b*of this study.
of manuscripts on section
107be periodafter the deathof the sultanal-N5§irM4ammad in 740 A. H. / 1340A. D.
until the end
of Ba4af-L Mamluk period in 784 A. H. / 1382 A. D. See the detailsin section(2): 'Ibe Author's
political Enviromnent"in chaptertwo of this study.

6
"rahimahu Allah", (may Allah give him mercy). 12 This means that "Manhaj al-

ýaw5b' must have been compiled after 658 A. H. /1260 A. D., the date of al-Malik al-
Kdmil's death. Also in *Manhaj al-ýawdb% there are also many terms that were

particularly used during the Mamluk rule, such as: ji'mikiyya, (salary)13,g- ýyj.j,r
,'bý

(d=SS)14, dFWj-nal. UV5 nUWjý6, laylasih" " Moreover it can be observed in

, etc.

Ibn al-Durayhim's discussion about emirs, that emirs held a high position and had a

strong influence in the country during 19

that time. Historical evidence shows that this

was the case during the Mmluk rule and was especially the case during the period

after the death of al-NdOr Mutammad in 740 A. H. / 1340 A. D., until the end of the
B4aff Mamluk period in 784 A. H. / 1382A. D. During this periodemirs held an

20
extreme power. Also one part of "Manhaj al-ýawdb" speaksof Ibn at-Durayhim

beseechingGod to help the King, who was still young,to be awareof the problems

the Muslims were suffering.21 This signifies that the periodof compilationof this

manuscriptwitnessedthe rule of oneof the Mamluk sultanswho wasappointedwhile

11The *&ý,?, dhhnmf u&VaI-dhL72mW be in section

meanings of the terms: and will explained
(1): Definition of Dhimmis, in chapter three of this study.
12Manhaj
al-ýawib, p. 165.
13Ibid,
p. 169.
14Ibid,
p. 130.
15Ibid, 145. The term "id-D. Twin the office that deals in the money of the sultan
p. id-KhJe' meant
it,
and all matters related to such as the incoming and the outgoing of money. See: Al-Qalqashand7i,
ýubý al-A'shii fi ýind'at al-Insh5, vol. III, p. 456.
16Ibid, 168. Al-Nu?? dr, (sing. W4&), is term was used during the Mamluk period to
p. a which
mean the executives and heads of Daw5w1n, who assist the vizier in his job. See ýubb al-A'shd fi
ýina'at al-Inshk vol. V, pp. 465 f.
17Ibid, 129. See in Appendix One: Glossary of words mentioned in the
p. what this word means
manuscript.
is See the terms in the Mamluk period at 'Xsh7ur,S. A., AI-'AIr at-
glossary of used references of
MamAIWI fif Mi§r wal-Sh5m, pp. 395 ff.
19See Manhaj al-ýawab, pp. 13,156,169.

20The for that was the young agesof the sultans who ruled after al-Ndýir Muhammad.
main reason
See: Al-'A§r fif Mi§r wal-Sh5m, p. i29; See also more details in section (2): "rhe
al-Mam5lWI
Author's Political Environment"in chapter two of this study.
21manhaj al-ýaw5b, p. 172.

7
he was still young. This alone may be consideredassignificantevidencethat this
manuscript was probablycompiled during the periodof oneof the sonsor grandsons
of al-Ndýir Muýammad(between740 A. H. /1340 A. D. and784 A. H. /1382 A. D.),
22
when sultansruled at youngagcs.

From all of the abovewe canconcludethat thereis muchevidenceto suggestthat Ibn

al-Durayhim is the author of 'Manhaj al-ýawdb%andthat it wasprobablycompiled
between740 A. H. /1340 A. D., when al-NdýirMubammaddied, and762 A. H. /1361
A. D., whenIbn al-Durayhimdied.

However I have found that one of the copiesof the manuscriptcarriesthe nameof
anotherauthor,Muýammadal-BakrTial-ýiddliq7lal-Khalwat7ial-Ijanaf11,
andthat it was
handwritten in 984 A. H. This is probably a mistake;many suchmistakescanbe
found in the realm of manuscripts.After investigationI found that the nearestone
could go with that personis Mu4ammadb. Mu4ammadAbTU al-Ijasanb. Mu4ammad
b. 'Abd al-R4m5n al-BaMfal-ýiddllq7i,Ab-Ual-Makdrim, Shamsal-D-in.He wasbom

in 930 A. H. /1524 A. D. and died in 994 A. H. /1586 A. D.23 Yet this man is

probably not the real authorof the manuscript,becausehe lived at a time different to
that which all evidence seemsto suggestthat the manuscnptwascompiled.Also
none of the scholarshave mentioned that this person ever wrote a book entitled
"Manhaj al-ýawdb%Furthermorethere is some doubt that this man is the man

mentioned in because
the manuscript, this man was Sh5fi'! but the one mentionedin
the manuscriptwasIýanafl. Thereis also no mentionthat this manwas Khalwat7jlike
the one mentioned in the manuscript.Hencehe seemsto be an unknownscholarto
whom the copier wrongly attributedthe manuscript.

On the other hand there is a book which carriesthe nameof "Manhajal-ýawdb ff

Qub4 Istiktab Ahl al-Kit5bo, which was published by Ddr al-Gharbal-IsIdniT,in
Beirut, in 1402 A. H. /1982 A. D., and edited by Dd*-ud 'Art al-Fd4il, who is a

professor at al-Shaff'a Faculty in Fez, ITYs". (in Morocco). He informs us that an

unknown Moroccanauthorcompiledthis book in the eleventhcenturyof Hijra. In his

22See:the Author's Political Enviromnent,in chaptertwo of this study.

23Al-zirikl7l, Al-AIl5m, vol. VH, pp. 60 f.

8
introduction to the book he saidthat he hadfound only onecopy of this manuscript,

which he got from a book dealerin Morocco.In his opinion, the reasonfor compiling
the book was the persecutionof Muslims by Jews in the Arabic West during the
eleventhcenturyof H#ra.

However al-Fd4il has no evidence that the author was Moroccan except that he
obtained the copy of the manuscript in Morocco. Also his only evidencefor the
reason he gave for compiling the book wasthat he haddiscoveredthat Jewswere
dominant in the western Arabic countriesat that time, holding seriouspositionsand
persecutingMuslims.

This claim shouldprobablybe rejected.It contradictsthe authorof the book himself,

who said the reason for compiling the book was the persecution of Muslims by

Christians24 in Egypt.25 It also conflicts with the conclusions we have reached from

the internal evidence in the book, about the environment in which the book was

written. Furthermore one of the manuscript copies26 in my possession was

handwritten in 947 A. H., hence definitely before the eleventh century of H #ra.27In

my opinion the reason for al-Fd4il's erroneousclaim is that he relied on only one
copy of the manuscript,thinking that therewereno others.

24Manhaj
al-ýaw5b,pp. 4,156.
25The
evidencewhich infers that the manuscriptis mainly aboutthe Christiansin the Egyptian
environmentare numerous. See, for example,Manhajal-ýawdb,pp. 115,141.
26Seethe manuscriptcopiesin Section(4): "ffie Methodof InvestigationandCopiesUsed" in this

chapterof this study.

27The centuryof AUim is the dateof compiling the book which hasbeengiven by al-F54il.
eleventh .

9
Reason for Compilation

The compilation of "Manhaj al-ýawdb" is linked to the position of dbimmisl

(Christiansspecifically),and their relationshipwith Muslims in Egypt during the time

of the author. In his introduction, Ibn al-Durayhim mentioned that his reasonfor
compiling his book was that he found Muslims werebeing persecutedby dWmmis,
2
due to dhimmisholding importantpositionssuchaskuttj'b (clerks)in the DaWj-W1n.

They had beenappointedto thisjob in greatnumbersby the sultansand the emirs of

Mamluks3. He said that some of the dhimmisinsultedMuslims, took their money
illegally, and violated their sacred beliefs.When Ibn al-Durayhimsawthat noneof
the authorities, or eventhe scholars,haddoneanythingto opposethis, he decidedto
compile his book, hoping that it may help to put thingsright.4

Moreover Ibn al-Durayhim emphasizedthat no other scholarshadever compiledan

independentbook on the topic of the employment &immis in the Muslim State5;
of

I Christians Jews
and who live in the Muslim Statearecalleddhimmis.Seethe detailsin section(1):
"Definition of Dhhnn2W,in chapterthreeof this study.
2 Kftib,
pl.. kunib, is a term meanswriter, scribeor secretary,which is from the word kit5b (book),
andfrom both waslater formedthe verb kataba(He wrote). Accordingto the Encyclopaediaof Islam,
this term wasusedin the Arab-Islamicworld for everypersonwhoserole or functionconsistedof
writing or drafting official lettersor administrativedocuments.In the Middle Agesthis term denoted
neithera scribein the literary senseof the word nor a copyist,but it could be appliedto private
secretariesaswell asto the employeesof the administrationservice.It candenotemerelya 'took-
keeper"aswell asthe chief clerk or a Secretaryof State,directly responsibleto the sovereignor to his
vizier. The useof kitib is thereforeessentiallyallied to the institutionof the di'mij7,which mainly
derivesfrom the administrativetraditionsof the SasanidandByzantineempires.On the purposeof this
researchwe will usethe word clerk to indicatethe translationof the word k5tib andclericaljob to the
the translationof this job (al-kihffiq) asusedby the authorof "Manhaj al-ýaw5b).SeeEncyclopaedia
of Islam, vol. IV, p. 754.
3Manhaj
al-ýawdb,pp. 4L
Ibid, pp. 4 ff.
5 The Muslim State,in this study,meansthe Stateof the IslamicCaliphatethat appliesIslam in its

rule. Nowadays there is no existence of such Hence

state. the Muslim State here refersto the ideal
meaning of it, which the jurists, "al-aqaU" " mean whenthey mentionit in their booksof Islamic
Law.

10
they had only mentionedthis subjectbriefly in someof their books6,so this wasalso

a motive for him to compile his book.

Ibn al-Durayhim's Method of Compiling his Book

As has been mentioned above, this book was a reaction to the high position of
dhimmis, which enabledthemto insult the Muslim public in Egypt during that period
of the Mamluk State.
ThereforeIbn al-Durayhim'sbook wasaimedat the authorities
of the MamIuksandat the generalpublic of that time, explainingto them the serious
problems that dWmmis were causing by their employing in important jobs, and
reminding themof the positionof dhinunisin the light of the Quranandthe Sunnaof
the ProphetMu4ammad(PBUH).

The title of the book, "Manhaj al-ýawdb fT Qubý IstiWib AM al-Kit5b", suggests

prohibiting the employment of AM al-Kit5b (the peopleof the book)7in the writing

profession in the Muslim country. That is becausethe letters in the

beginningof the word (yU<: give the meaningof asking to

someone write or work
--I)
in clerical job. Hence the translation of the Arabic title of the book could be (The

correct method to rectify the ugly practice of appointing the People of the Book in

writing professions).

However the author here means not only clerical jobs but any professionwhich
resulted in Ahl al-Kitiib controlling Muslims. This idea to
seems be in
very clear the
book. However the authoremphasizedthe writing professionin governmentoffices,
becausethose who were qualified to do it werevery few. In spiteof this he insisted
that it is unwiseto employ Ahl al-KitAb in this professionevenif therewasa needto
use them. There could also have been for
otherreasons this emphasis,suchasthe

6 Ibid, p. 9. This point will be detailedin the next sectionof this study:"The Valueof Manhajal-
ýaw5b".
7 ChristiansandJewsaredesignatedAhl al-Kitdb (peopleof the book), andthoseof themwho live in
the Muslim StatearenameddiimnVs-Seesection(1): "Definition of Dhimmis", in chapterthreeof
this study.

11
importanceof this professionandthe fact that thereweremany dhimmisemployedin
it.

In his book, Ibn al-Durayhim.wrote aboutall the issuessurroundingthe employment

of AM al-JVj(tgbwho lived in the Islamic State.To attainhis aim, Ibn al-Durayhirn
divided his book into eight chapters,asfollows:

Chapter One: On the meaningof the advicein Islam, its substanceandnecessity.

Chapter Two: On what the Quran states about the prohibition on befriending,

supportingandemployingthe protectedpeople.

Chapter Three: On what the Tradition of the Prophet(PBUH),his Companions

and the Followers state about the prohibition on upholding and treasuring these
peopleandgreetingthem with the sal5mand suchlike.

Chapter Four: On the descriptionof the covenantthat washeld with the dbimmis,

mentioningsomeof the rulesrelatedto themand suchlike.

Chapter Five: On the characterof people qualified to work in clericaljobs for

Muslims.

Chapter Six: On enjoining what is goodandforbidding what is evil.

Chapter Seven: On injustice andthe badfate of peoplewho commit it.

Chapter Eight: On scrinonsandparableswhich renouncethoseunlawful deedsand

arouseinterestin the hereafter.

In the introduction of his book Ibn al-Durayhimtells us that he choseto follow an

easy way of both selecting his subjectsof studyand showinghis infonnation and
ideas, in order that it could be easily understood by all typesof readers! We can

clearly see that this methodhasbeenfollowed throughoutthe book, which seemsto

8Manhajal-ýawdb,p. 9.

12
have been written not for a certaincategoryof peoplebut for all people,in order to
influence public opinion against appointing dbimmis in important jobs over Muslims.

It is clear that he used the first chapterto discussaboutthe advicein Islam andits
substance,concentratingon the importanceof this advicefor the king andhis emirs,
becauseadviceto themis adviceto all Muslims. This matterseemsto be a main issue
for Ibn al-Durayhim;wheneverhe finds himself moving awayfrom it, he comesback
to it quickly, in order to remind the sultanandthe emirsof the negativeeffectsof
employing dhimmis and the necessityof changing this situation. Sometimeshe
follows a lenient method, praying for the sultanand the emirs andaddressingtheir
interest in correcting this situation9,but quite often he follows a toughmethod,

warning and frightening them about the result of neglectingthis issuelo.

This could

support our opinion that the copiers that omitted his namefrom the copiesthat were
written during his life, in order to protecthim.

In chapter four, which was dedicated to describing the covenant that was held with
dWmmis and some of the rules related to dhimmis, Ibn al-Durayhim paid especial

attention to the so-called covenant of 'Umar b. al-Khaltdb. He discussedthis in detail

and made it the basis of how to treat dUmmis. On careful examination of this
covenant, we find that although it is popular, the Isnid (chain of authorities) on which
that covenant was based is suspicious. Also the context of the covenant is not in
dWmmis."
accordancewith the general attitude of 'Umar towards

When we come to chapterfive, which describesthe characterof peoplequalified to

work for Muslims in the clerical professions,
we find that here Ibn al-Durayhimdeals

with the main point for which he has compiled his book. In this chapterIbn al-
Durayhim.talks about the importanceof jobs in Islam, specifically thejob of writing
in the dwJw.Fn,(the governmentoffices), andthe importanceof filling thesepositions

with Muslims instead of Christians,

whose appointments in jobs over Muslims should
be prohibited.

9 See,for example,pp. 20,172.

10See,for example,pp. 120f., 161L
11Seethe endof this sectionfor further discussionaboutthis point.

13
This view of Ibn al-Durayhim accords with Islamic law, particularly when we take
into account that period of time, during which the sultans and the emirs of the
Marnluks appointing many dWmmis in important jobs over Muslims. This led to the

of
overuse power by dhimmis, which led to many casesof persecution of Muslims.

On this point, we find that the majority of scholarsstipulatethreeconditionswhich

mustbe fulfilled in order to appointnon-Muslimsin any kind of job:

1. Confidencein them.

2. Needof them.

3. They may not becomeso powerful that the Statecan not control them.12

Finally Ibn al-Durayhim, following the prevailing methodology of his time,

elaboratedon quoting the Quranand other forms of the Tradition to supporthis view.
This is apparentthroughouthis book but morevisible in the last threechapters,which
are chapterssix, seven andeight. No doubt this methodologyincreases
the valueof
his work andmakesit morebeneficialfor the Muslim readersof his time.

The Controversy about the Validity of the Covenant of

'Umar
This covenant seemsto have a created a controversy amongst scholars. Until recently
the conventional view states that 'Umar was involved in a covenant which seemsto

put restrictions on dhin2mis. However some recent researchershave questioned this

statement, maintaining that 'Umar was not involved in in
such a covenant spite die
fact that it is called the covenant of 'Umar. Initially this view came from Dr. ýub4li

al-*04, the editor of "Aýkdm Ahl al-D4imma". He maintains that Ibn al-Qayyim's

statement that this covenant is ascribed to, 'Umar is incorrect due to the weaknessof
Ibn al-Qayyim's claim with regard to the chain of authorities which he accepts for the

covenant of 'Umar. He particularly refers to Ibn al-Qayyim"s statement in his book

'Akdra Ahl al-Dhimm; iý'where he maintains the following:

12Seethe detailsof this point in 'Employment Dhimmisin the IslamicLaw" in

of chapterthreeof
this study.

14
 "The fameof this covenantgives it an authenticitythat we can acceptwithout
the needfor the chainof authorityon which it wasbased.9913

According to al-ýdlib, the abovequotationappearsto be a form of deviationfrom the

critical methodology of Isnj*d (chain of authorities). This is becausewhen Ibn al-
Qayyim basesthe value of this covenant on the fact that it is "famous", he is
is
accepting only what popular. And undoubtedly what the public acceptis often
unreliable. Thus Ibn al-Qayyim, according to is
al-ýdlib, blatantlynot applyingthe
both its
the contextof the text and Isnid 14
methodologyof testing

Moreover when we consider the account of the covenant that Ibn al-Durayhim
narrated in his book, we observeat the beginningof the covenantthat he recordsthat
'Abd al-R41ndn b. Ghanmnarratedthe following:

"We, who are from the Christiansof the city of )15,wrote to 'Umar b. al-

Khatt5bthat..We ourselvesstipulatedthat you 16

......

This passageraisesmany questions:Was 'Abd al-R4mdn b. Ghunmspeakingasone

of the Christians who wrote to 'Umar? Or was he in fact narrating what those
Christian writers said? Also is it usualfor the conqueredpeopleto decidethe terms
and conditions on which they will be admittedto alliancewith the victors?Isn't this
usually the right of the victors? Moreover what was the name of the city whose
people held that covenant? It seemsrather unusual that the nameof the city is not
recorded. Moreover the text of the covenant in this present form did not appear
throughoutthe first two centuriesof Hijra. 17

13Ahk5m Ahl
al-Dhimma,vol. H, p. 663.
14lbid, the Introduction,p. 42.
15The
nameof the city hereis not mentioned.
16Manhajal-ýawdb,p. 123.This narrationof Ibn al-Durayhimis mostly identicalto the
narrationof
Ibn al-Qayyim,seeAbUrn Ahl al-Dhimma,vol. H, pp. 657 ff.
"See
alsothe accountsof the covenantin Manhajal-ýawdb,pp. 123ff-, Ibn al-Qayyim,AbUrn Ahl
al-Dhimma,vol. 11,pp. 657 ff., TafsTirIbn Kath1r,vol. H, p. 361. And seethe discussionof that
covenant in: Tritton, A. S., The Caliphsandtheir non-MuslimSubjects,pp. 8 ff.; Dr. ýubbTal-ýdlib,
in his Introductionto "AbUrn Ahl al-Dhimma!'pp. 42 ff.; FahnillHuwayd7i, Muw5lin7un15
DhimmiyyUn,pp. 203 ff.; andQ5sirn,Q. A., Ahl al-Dhimmafi Misr al_'UýUral-Wusid,pp. 27 f.

15
Another reasonfor doubtingthe attributionof this covenantto 'Umar b. al-Khaltdb is
the fact that he was known to be generousin his attitudetowardsdhirnmis.This is
probablybestrepresentedby the following examples:

On his way back from Syria, 'Umar passed by some of the protected people
(dhimmis) who were standing in the sun where their hands were covered with oil. He

asked, What is the matter with these people? He was told that they were liable for
fiA:yaý they had not paid it, and would be punished in this way until they did. Their

excuse was that they were too poor to pay. He then ordered, "Let them go and do not
harm them, I heard the Prophet (PBUH) saying, "Do not torment people, for those

who do that will be punished by God on the day of resurrection."' and he ordered them
to be 18
released.

It is also narrated that he passeda housewherean old blind manwasbegging.He

touched him on the arm, and said, "To which of the people of the book do you
belong?" The man said that he wasa Jew,andbeggedfor moneyto provide for his
daily needs andfood andto pay aljizya. 'Umar took him by the hand,led him to his
own house, gave him something from it, and then sent him to the keeperof the
treasury with this Caliph order: "Seeto this man andhis like, for we havenot done
right if we devour their youth and neglecttheir old age.And he quotedthis verse,
"Alms are for the poor andthe needy"19The poor are the Muslims; this man is oneof

the needyof the peopleof the book." He alsofreedhim from the obligation to pay al-
ji4x a.20
,

Moreover we can seehis generoustreatmentof dbimmisin his own covenantwith the

peopleof 'Ily5, which statesthe following:

"He, 'Umar, gavesthem securityfor their lives, property,churches,andcrosses,their

sick and healthy, and the rest of their religion. Their churchesshall not be usedas
dwellings nor destroyed,nor their churches,nor their estates,nor their crosses,nor
their property be diminished in any way. They shall not be persecutedfor religion's

isAbu-Y-usuf,A]-Khardj, p. 258.
19 Qur'5n, (ix: 60).
20 Ab-uY-usuf,Op. Cit, pp. 259 f.

16
sake. No Jew shaRdweRwith themthere.Whosoeverwishesto go to the Greeksand
take his property with him shall leave his churches and crosses.There shall be no
,, 21
paymentof tribute till the harvestis gathered in.

The same can be said about the covenants that wereheld by the emirs of Muslim
armies during his caliphate,andwhich wereratified by 'Umar himself. The covenant
of Khdlid b. al-WalId to the people of Damascus,for example, said the following:

"This is what Kh5lId b. al-Warld gives to the inhabitantsof Damascus.He gives them
for
security their persons,property,churches,and the walls of their city. Noneof their
housesshall be destroyedor confiscated.On thesetermsthey havealliancewith God,
and the protection of his Prophet, the caliphs and the believers.Nothing but good
if ".
shall befall them they pay tribute.. 22

Lastly when 'Umar wason his deathbed,he did not forget the dWmmisduring those
hard moments.It is narratedthat he said,

charge the Caliph after me to be kind to the d6immiswho areunderthe

protection of Allah and His Messenger,to keep their covenant, to protect them, and
burden them above their strength".23
not to

These examples of 'Umar's generousways of treating diVmmi supports the view of

those who doubt that the aforementioned covenant can be attributed to him and

supports the opinion which says that there was no relationship between 'Umar and
this covenant. Hence all the items in this covenant lose their legitimate support
because of loosing its relationship to 'Umar. This tend to let the genuine position of
Islam towards dhimmis appears. This position has been determined in the frame of

this verse of Quran:

21
Ibid, p. 10.
22Tritton, 'Ibe Caliphsandtheir non-MuslimSubjects, 9.
p.
23*abliý
al-Bukh5ff, Vol. IV, p. 182.The Book of al-jih5d wal-siyar,Chapter:One shouldfight for
dhimn2isandthey shouldnot be enslaved,naffatedby 'Amr b. Maim-Un.

17
"Allah forbids you not, with regard to thosewho fight you not for (your) faith nor
drive you out of your homes,to be generousto them anddeal with themjustly. Allah

surelyloves thosewho are just". 24

Returning to "Manhaj al-ýawdb" we find that Ibn al-Durayhim generally adopted all
the views that were strict and rigorous towards the dhimmls. This approach can be
clearly observed in the issues he discussedregarding dhimmis, such as the dress of
dhimmis and greeting them with the mUm. 25 This is because,as we have said earlier,

the book "Manhaj al-ýawdb" was a reaction to a certain historical order, in which
dhimmis occupied very high positions, enabling them to insult and persecuteMuslims

and to mock at their religion.

Moreover, during that period, the memory of the attacksof the Crusadersand the
Mongols against Muslims, and also of the co-operationbetweendbimmisandthose
26
attackers,was still vivid. Hence it is expectedthat Ibn al-Durayhim,andother

scholarswho wrote about dbimmisduring that period27'would supporta strict view

towards them in order to bring balanceinto a situationwhich wasinclined to favour
the dhimmis.

Yet it is not acceptable for this strict view to represent the general Islamic view in

normal conditions, where Muslims are not exposed to any abuse from dbimmis.
Therefore in order to understand the climate of the book I have included in this study

a section which speaks about the position of dhimmis in Islam, showing that they
normally hold a respected position as inhabitants sharing the citizenship of the
Muslims. 28
country with

24
Qaran,(LX: 8).
25Manhaj
al-ýawdb,pp. 110ff.; alsop. 129.Seedetailsof the positionof Islamtowardsit, in chapter
threeof this study.
26See
moredetailsaboutthis point in Section(2): 'Dhimmis during the Mamluk state, in chapter
threeof this study.
27Someof thosescholarswho wrote aboutdVnýs during that
period wereIbn al-Qayyim(d. 751
A.H./ 1350A. D.) in his book: "Abkdm Ahl al-Dhimma!', Ibn aI-Naqq5sh,Ab-U'Um5ma,Muhammad
b. 'Alli b. 'Abd al-W5bid (d. 773 A. HJ 1372A. D.) in his book. "Al-Madhammafif Isti1rn51Al. al-
Dhimma!', andAl-AsnawT,Jamidal-D-inAb-UMuhammad'Abd al-RWIm (d. 772 A. H./ 1371A.D.) in
his book: "Al-Kalim5t at-Muhimmafl- MubAshar;t AM al-Dhimms'.
28SeeSection(3): "Ibe Positionof Dhimmisin Islarre'in
chapterthreeof this study.

18
The Value of Manhaj al-ýawdb

As we havementionedpreviously,in his introductionto "Manhaj al-ýawdb", Ibn al-

Durayhim statedthat no other scholarshad ever compileda book devotedto the topic
of employing dhimmis in the Muslim country.Scholarsbeforehim had touchedon
this issue,but not asthe main subjectof their '
books. Someof theseotherbooksare:

1. Books related to the Quran and its interpretation, such as:

o AI-Jaýýdý, Ab-u Bakr A4Mad b. 'Alli (d. 370 A. H. / 980-1 A. D.), AWm al-Quran.
He touched on the issue of employment of dhimmis when he spoke about using
for jobs. 2
non-Muslims

9 Ibn 'Atiyya, AbUMu4ammad'Abd al-Ijaqq b. Gh5lib (d. 546 A. H. A 151A. D.),

Al-M4arrar al-WajTz it- Taffir al-Alti-b al-'AzFz, in his interpretation of the
QuranicverseNo. 118of Suratýl 'Imrdn(III: 118)3.

2. Books related to the Sunna and its explanations. such as:

Al-NawawT, AbU Zakari yy 5, Muh YlI al-Din Yahyd b. Sharaf (d. 676 A. H. / 1277
A. D. ), y4jý Musbýn bl-Shathýa]-Nawawl, when he wrote about disapproving

seeking help from an unbeliever on a military campaign in Kit5b al-JihZidwal-

Siyar.4

o Ibn Qayyim al-Jawziyya, Shams al-Din Mu4ammad b. Ab-uBakr (d. 751 A. H.

/1350 A. D.), Zj'dal-Ma'j-dit-HadyKbayral-'Ibj-d, whenhe dealtwith employing
5
non-Muslims.

1Manhajal-ýawW p. 9.
2 Vol. H, p. 447.
3 Vol. 1,p. 496.
4 Al-NawawT, ýýIb Muslim bi-Sharb al-Nawaw-1,
vol. XH, pp. 403 f.
5 Vol. H, 127.
P.

19
3. Books related to Islamic law. such as:

Al-Imdm Mdlik b. Anas al-AýbabT(d. 179 A. H. / 795-6 A. D. ), A]-Mudawwana

a]-Kubi;!T, in his discussion about using non-Muslims in fighting enemies in the

book of AhM6

Ibn Quddma, Ab-u Mutammad 'Abd Allah b. AtMad, al-MaqdisTi

(d. 620 A. H.
1223A. D.), A] -M ugbnT,in his approachto the book of al-JMid .7

4. Books related to Hisba such as:

Ibn al-'Ukhuwwa,Muýammadb. Muýammadb. A4madal-Qurash-i(d. 729 A. H. /

1329 A. D.), Ma'j', Um al-Qurba ff Ah.kTm af-tfisbaýin his discussionabout
dhimmisfrom being in
employed the Islamic 8
country.
preventing

5. Other books such as:

Ibn Qayyim al- Jawziyya, Shamsal-Din Mu4ammadb. Ab-uBakr (d. 751 A. H. /

1350 A. D.), AWm AN al-Dhimma,in his discussionabutemployingJewsand
Christians9.

As stated earlier in this chapter,Ibn al-Durayhiminformedus that thesebooksonly

containedscatteredchapterson the subjectandno otherbook hadbeenwritten on this
particular topic. Through extensive researchI came to the conclusion that Ibn al-
Durayhim was correct in his statementsinceI could find no similar book compiled
about the same subject. However, following the publicationof Ibn al-Durayhim's
book a few other books appeared which dealt with the same subject of the

employment of dhimmis asclerks in the Islamic state.It is interestingto note that the
next two books compiled on that subjectwerewritten someten yearsafter "Manhaj
al-ýawdb", and so might be seenas an extensionto his book's concept.Onecannot
help but wonder why these books started to appear. The conclusionthat we have

6 Vol. 1,p. 400.

7 Vol. VIII,
p. 414.
9 See:pp. 39 ff.
9 Vol. 1,pp. 208 ff.

20
 is
reached that there wasprobablya socialandpolitical needthat pressedfor sucha
compilation. These two books are:

1. "Al-Kalim5t al-Muhimma fi- Mubdsharat Ahl al-Dhimma" by al-AsnawT,Jam5l

al-D-In Ab-u Muýammad 'Abd al-Rablm (d. 772 A. H. / 1370-1 A. D.), edited by
Mosh6 Perlman in Brookline (in USA) in 1969.

2. "Al-Madhamma ff Isti'm5l Ahl al-Dhimma" by Ibn al-Naqqdsh, Ab-u 'Umdma

Mu4ammad b. 'Arl b. 'Abd al-W54id al-Dakdri al-Miýfli (d. 773 A. H. / 1371-2A.

in
a manuscript Ddr al-Kutub (in Cairo), No. (3952Tdr-ikh

However it can be said that the precedenceof the compilation of "the Manhaj" gives
it a special significance. This book can be considered to be an important historical
document because it explains the state of the relationship between Muslims and
dhimmis in Egypt during the Mamluk era. This document witnessesthat dbimmis

were being well treated by the sultans and the emirs during this period of the history

of Egypt, and that they were appointed over Muslims in some of the most important
jobs of the country. Hence ibVmmis became very powerful in the society, to the

extent that they representeda social threat to the Muslims who formed the majority in

tile 10
State.

Moreover, although the method,by which "Manhaj al-ýawdb" proposedto deal with
the relationship betweenMuslims and dhimmis,is very muchrelatedto that specific
period, there is nothing to prevent us from benefiting from it if we face the same
conditions and circumstancestoday. And thoughthe return of thoseconditionsand
circumstances seems very improbable,
becausethe relationshipto dhimmis nowadays
has taken another curve, in the light of the factsof this modemage,this doesnot
mean that this book has lost all of its importance,
because
the experienceitself still
remainswith us.

This book "Manhaj al-ýawdb" is alsoconsideredto be an examplein the relationship

between scholars and rulers during that period, becauseof the method Ibn al-
Durayhirn chose to deal with the king andthe emirs in order to correctthat wrong

21
order". Scholars nowadays can study this method, which could benefit us in

contcmporaryIslamic politics.

Also "the Manhaj" includesa wealthof Islamic knowledgein tafs.Th,fl-qh,history etc.,

and elaborateson quotations of the Quran, the Sunna and the Traditions of the
Companionsandthe Followers.It alsomentionsmany storiesof the righteous.Hence
the book benefitsboth thosewho areinterestedin Islamic studiesandthoseinterested
in historical studies.

10Tbe book of "Nlanhajal-ýawdb"hasgiventhe detailsof this in manyplacesin the book, seefor

instance:pp. 4 f.; 114ff.; 156and 169.
11Seethe detailsin Section(2): 'Vompilation of the Boole' in this chapter.

22
Method of Investigation, Copies Used and Technical
Marks and Symbols

Locating copiesof the manuscriptandcollecting themwasthe first stepof this work.

After a careful inspection of referencesand bibliographies in public libraries and
manuscript centres and after consulting specialists,it was found that the book
"Manhaj al-ýaw5b f-I Qub4 Istikt5b Ahl al-Kit5b" by Ibn al-Durayhim had not
previously beenedited.Requests for information were sentto severaluniversitiesand
academic institutionsand of
several thesereplied, statingthat the had
manuscript not
been edited.Guidanceand successwere soughtfrom Almighty God andthe taskwas
embarkedupon.

At first only one manuscript was found in Leiden (in the Netherlands)andwork
began with this. About threemonthslater anotherfive manuscriptswerediscovered
in Cairo (in Egypt), andafter they hadbeencollectedan initial comparisonbetween
the collectedcopiesbegan.During a subsequentstageof the study,a book wasfound
carrying the nameof 'Minhdj al-ýawdb fi- Qup4Istikt5b Ahl al-Kit5b', publishedby
Ddr al-Gharbal-Isl5m7i(in Beirut) in 1402A.H. /1982 A. D., andeditedby DdwUdA171
al-Fd4il, who works as a at
professor the Faculty of Islamic law in
(al-Sharl-'a) Fds (in
Morocco).After studyingthis book it wasfound that:

*The author of the book was unknown and the editor referred to him saying:
"(compiled) by an unknown Moroccan authorin the eleventhcenturyof Hijra".
This resultedin the editor being exposedto sharpcriticism!

The editor restricted himself to only onecopy of the manuscriptandhe relied on

this, thinking that therewereno other copies.

This copy of the manuscript has been utilized as one of the sevencopiesof the
manuscriptused in my edition.

I Seedetailsof the criticism which wasdirectedto him in Section(1): "Authorship", in the beginning

of this chapter.

23
Adding to what hasbeenmentionedbeforeI havefollowed the following methodin
my edition:

1. The text was rewritten with consideration given to making it as clear as

possibleand incorrectspellingswerecorrected.

2. Vowelization was inserted wherever necessaryand the grammar mistakes were

corrected.

3. The difficult and unclear words mentioned in the text wereinterpretedby

referring to the sourcesof the dictionaries.

4. Whenever possiblethe quotationschecked.Thesequotationsare mentionedin

the text alongsidetheir original sources.

5. The Quranicverseswereextractedfrom the manuscriptandtheir numbersand

suraswererecorded.

6. The sourcesof the Prophetictraditionsquotedin the text weretraced,using the

most reliable booksof Had-Ith,

not only the six booksof ljadllthýbut alsothe other

books such as the book of al-Muwatta' of Mdlik b. AnasandAl-Mustadrak 'ald

al-ýa4llýayn of al-ti5kim al-Naysdb7uf-i.

7. Indication was made of aH the Quranic verses,Ijad-ithandotherreferences

used in the edition at the end of the Arabic text.

8. Indices were provided of all the people,places,termsandreferencesusedin

the study.

2 The six booksof Ijadith meanthe two ý411ýsof al-Bukh5ri andMuslim,

andfour booksof Sunan
for Ab-uD5wUd,al-Tirmidh7i,al-NasWT,Ibn M5ja.

24
Copies of the manuscript used in the study:

1. British Library

MS no. or. 9264

Date: unknown
Length: 77 folios
Lines per page: 17
Author: not mentioned
Copyist: unknown
Revisers: readandrevisedby Muýammad'Aff al-Mahdaw-1,Mu4ammad
4mad al-Ijusayn7t,Ab-uBakr b. Mu4ammadb. 'Abd al-Ra471m
b. al-
SanlCuff,Mubammad4mad Muýammadýubayý, andothers.
Description: written in naskhhandwriting,with commentariesand
explanationsin the marginsby the revisers.The first pageanda few other
pagesin the middle havebeenlost.

2. Al-Hay'a al-Misriyya al-'Xmma Lil-Kitab

MS no. 271 (Akhldq Taym7ur)

Microfilm no. 26146
Date: unknown
Length: 60 folios
Lines per page: 21
Author: not mentioned
Copyist: unknown
Reviser: it was read and revised by 'All Sirdj al-D-in b. 'Abd al-Rabmdn
Aýmad AbMad b. Mubammad al-Dir'! al-Anýdfif.
Description: written in naskh handwriting, with corrections and a few notes
in the margins by the reviser. The fly-leaf bears its owner's name,
Mubammad b. 'Ari Sirdj al-D-in al-Dir'T b. 'Abd al-Rabmdn AbMad Abmad
b. Mubammad al-AqdCl. The last few pagesof the manuscript have been
lost.

25
3. AI-Hav'a al-Misrivva al-'Xmma Lil-Kitiib

MS no. 1628(Fiqh Shdfl'-i)

Microfilm no. 43627
Date: unknown
Length: 80 folios
Lines per page: 19
Author: N-ural-D-In'AII b. Ab-Ual-Fatb,known as Ibn al-Durayhimal-
Shdfi'!.
Copyist: unknown
Description: Written in naskhhandwriting,with correctionsanda few
notesin the margins.The fly-leaf bearsits owner's nameMubammad
Ma'Udb. al-Sayyid 'Abd al-Ra4m5nb. al-SayyidMubammadMuwqit. The
last few pagesof the manuscripthavebeenlost.

4. Al-Hay'a al-Misriyya al-'Xmma Lil-Kitab

MS no. 105(AkhldqTaym"u-r)
Microfilm no. 26604
Date: 29 Dh7ual-ljija 984 A. H.
Length: 96 folios
Lines per page: 15
Author: Mubammad al-BaVII al-ýidd-IqTlal-Ehalwat7ial-kjanaff (Sic.).
Copyist: Y4yd b. Y-unusb. Abmad al-Mdlik. -i.
Description: completed copy, written in naskh handwriting. There are no

corrections or notes in its margins. The fly-leaf bears the stamp of

" waqfAbmad b. Ism5'11b. Mubammad Taym7urbi-M4sP.

5. AI-Hay'a al-Misriyya al-'Xmma Lil-Kit5b

MS no. 134(Tapwwuf Qawala)

Microfilm no. 40463
Date: I Rama4dn 947A.H.
Length:50

26
 Lines per page: 15
Author: not mentioned
Copyist: unknown
Description: a completecopy, written in naskbhandwriting,with a few
correctionsin the The
margins. fly-leaf bearsthe stampof "min
Mumtah Ut aI-VYWMuý.tafadýidq7lghafaraAllahu IaH'.

W
6. Al-Hay'a al-Misriyya al-'Amma Lil-Kitdb

MS no. 2367 Tqawwuf

Microfilm no. 37724
Date: unknown
Length: 53 folios
Lines per page: 15
Author: N-ural-D-In 'Ari b. Ab7ual-Fat4, known as Ibn al-Durayhim al-
Shdfi'!.
Copyist: unknown
Description: a complete copy, written in naskb handwriting. The fly-leaf
bears the name of the one who revised it, Al-Sayyid Mu4ammad Zakf.

A manuscriptfound with a book dealerin Morocco,which doesnot bearthe name

of an author, according to the indication of DawUd Arl al-Fd4il, who put it in a book

publishedby Ddr al-Gharb (see

al-Isldm7l. abovefor detailsof this)

The book "Manhaj al-ýawdb" was copied according to manuscriptno. 1, which is

considered as the mastercopy, (al-nuskbaal-umm), because
this is thoughtto be the
one in
nearest form to the author'scopy for the following reasons:

a) It is the most accurateandpropermanuscriptandcontainsvery few grammatical

mistakes.

b) It was read and revised by many scholars, who wrote their commentariesand
in
explanations the margins.

It
c) waswritten in clear naskbhandwriting.

27
Although aboutthreepageshavebeenlost from this manuscript,we choseit to be the

basis of the edition, and completed the lost pagesfrom manuscript no.2 (" f" :Z,4.J-1),

which is consideredto be the secondmostaccurateandproperone after manuscript

no. 1.

The other manuscripts were compared with manuscript no. 1, and were indicated as
f0flows:

Manuscript no. 2=

Manuscript no. 3=

Manuscript no. 4=

Manuscript no. 5=
"A"
Manuscript no. 6=

Manuscript no. 7= "r"

Technical marks and symbols used in the Arabic

Edition
2. The symbols [ý] and [YI in the Arabic edition indicate to side A and side B of

the Arabic folio of the manuscript no. 1 (d-nuskha al-'umrn).

2. All inserted parts of the editing were placed between [ ].

3. The Quranic verses were written in a different naskhfont, to distinguishthem

from the otherwriting.

28
 CHAPTER TWO

The Author and his Environment

Section 1: Ibn alDurayhimýsLife, Educationand

Written work

Section 2: The Author's Political Environment

Section 3: The Author's Social Enviromnent

Section 4: The Author's Cultural Environment

Ibn al-Durayhim's Life, Education and Written Works

Not very much has been written about Ibn al-Durayhim and we seem to have few
details about his life. However what hasreachedus abouthim is enoughto draw a
general picture, throwing some light on the important aspectsof his personality.

His Life
Ibn al-Durayhim's name is 'Art b. Mu4ammadb. 'Abd al-'Az-iz b. Fut-U4b. Ibr5hTm
b. Ab-u Bakr b. al-Qdsimb. Sa'Tdb. Mu4ammadb. Hish5rnb. 'Umar al-Tha'lab-i,al-
ShWl, al-Maw§iri, Tdi al-D-In.He wascommonlyknown asIbn al-Durayhim,which
was the nicknameof his ancestorSaId, who wasthe nephewof ShaykhBahd' al-D-in
l
al-Ijusayn al-Mawýirl.

in (d-M
He was born in the monthof Sha'bdn712 A. H. /1312 A. D. Mosul amSib2,

where he grew up. While he was young his father died, leaving a huge fortune.
Becausehe was youngotherpeopletook over his inheritedwealth,but they gavehim
it
some of when he reached the age of discretion. After this he travelled to Damascus,

then to Cairo, investing his in he became 3

money trade until wealthy.

In 732 A. H. /1332 A. D. or 733 A. H. /1333 A. D. he travelled to Cairo as a merchant

for the first time. Later he returned to Cairo again, where he worked in (al-Dilwin al-
4
Khjsýý with the emirs of the Mamluk state.The last Mamluk sultanhe workedwith

I Ibn Ijajar, Al-Darar al-Mmina f-IA'yin al-Mi'a

al-Th5mina,vol. IH, p. 106;Al-ShawUn-i,A A.,
Al-Badr al-Tdli'bi-M45sin Man Ba'd al-Qamal-S5bi', vol. I, p. 477; Al-Baghd5d-1,1. B., Hadiyyat
al-'kiffn, Asm5' al-Mu'alliffin wa 'Xth5r al-Mqannifin, vol. 1,p. 723; AI-Zirikl7i,al-A'15m,vol. V,
p. 6; Katýi5la,U. R., Mujain al-Mu'allifin, Tar5jim Mqanniff al-Kutub al-'Arabiyya, vol. VII, p.
210.
2 Al-Muw§il, in Europeansourcesusually
renderedasMosul, a city of northernMesopotamiaor Iraq,
on the westbankof the Tigris andoppositethe ancientNineveh.In early Islamictimesit wasthe
capital of Diydr Rab-i'a,forming the easternpart of the provinceof al-Jaz7ira.At the presenttime it is
the third largestcity of the Republicof Iraq. Encyclopaediaof Islam,vol. VI, p. 899.
3 Ibn 1jajar,Al-Durar al-K5mina,vol. III, 107.
p.
4 Oneof the meaningsto which the word "D-1w5n! ' signifiesis a council,court,or a tribunal. During
the Mamluk period,the expressionof "al-D-1w5nal-Kh5§"meantsomethinglike a council or an office
interestedin moneyof the sultanandthe mattersrelatedto it, suchasthe incomingandthe outgoingof

30
was the sultan al-Kiimil Sayf al-D-In Sha'bdn (746 A. H. /1345 A. D. - 747 A. H.
/1346 A. D.). In 748 A. H. /1347A. D. The sultanal-Mu?affar Sayf al-D-inljdjl (747
A. H. /1346A. D. - 748 A. H. /1347 A. D.) exiled him to al-Sh5m.During that period
he often went to Cairo to try to recoversomeof his moneybut he wasunsuccessfulin
5
thiS. In 749 A. H. /1348 A. D. he was exiled again,this time from Damascusto

Aleppo (Valab)6, but later he returnedto Damascus.The fact that Ibn al-Durayhim

was sent into exile twice is not very clear. Was he sentinto exile because of his

general position with the ruling government? Or washe sent into exile because of
voicing his views aboutthe appointmentof non- Muslim clerks? Thesequestionsare
not answered in the available that
references we have.

After coming back to Damascus,Ibn al-Duraybimwent to Egypt to coned someof

the money owed to him by the DTmThal-Ah5sýfrom beforehis first periodof exile.
Upon collecting this he went back to Damascus,wherehe wasappointedasa teacher
in al-JimP al-AmawT,(the Amawl Mosque)and asan employeein both D-lw5nsof
7.
al-Jdmi' andal-Asrd

Following this he travelled again to Egypt in 760 A. H. / 1359 A. D., and there he was

apparently involved again with some political activities that causedthe anger of the
sultan al-NdOr NdOr al-gin al-kiasan (748 A. H. /1347 A. D. - 752 A. H. /1351 A. D.

also 755 A. H. /1354 A. D. 762 A. H. /1361 A. D. ). This sultan eventually sent him
-
by force into eOe again, this time to Abyssinia (aAffabasha)8,far away from the

money. See:Al-Qalqashand7t,ýubb al-A'shd ft ý ind'at al-Inslid, vol. III, p. 456. Lane,E. W., Arabic-
EnglishLexicon,vol. 1,p. 939.
5 Op. Cit,
vol. III, p. 107.
6 ]Ualab,in Turkish Halep,in Italian, EnglishandGermanAleppo;city in Syria,the mostimportant

after Damascus. It is situated in the north westof Syria, 70 miles eastof the 25
Mediterranean, miles
from the Turkishborder,75 miles north-northeast of 1jarnah,andon the banksof a smallriver, the
Quwayq,which descendsfrom the last foothills of the Taurus.1jalabwasan ancientcity on the main
caravanrouteacross Syria to Baghdad. It wasconquered by the Mongols in 658 A. HJ1260A. D. See:
Encyclopaediaof Islam,vol. 111,p. 85; The ColumbiaLippincott Gazetteerof the world, p. 40.
7 D11w5n al-Asr5 is the office that wasinterestedin captivesandtheir matters.
8 Abyssinia (al-ijabasha) is a name said to be of south Arabian origin, applied in Arabic usage to the

land and peoples of Ethiopia, and at times to the adjoining areas in the Hom of Africa. Although it has
remained a predominantly Cbristian country, Ethiopia has an important Muslim population, and has
moreover had relations with the world of Islam since the days of the Prophet M4ammad (PBUM.
Modern Ethiopia has a long frontier with Somalia near the Horn of Africa. Sudan ties to the west,
Eritrea to the north, Djibouti to the north-east and Kenya to the south. The capital city is Addis Ababa.
See: Encyclopaedia of Islam, vol. III, pp. 2 f.; 71beEuropa World Year Book 1994, vol. 1, p. 1083.

31
Arabic land. On his way to Abyssinia,Ibn al-Durayhim'sdestinycaughtup with him
in the town of Q-q9, and he died in ýafar in 762 A. H. /1361A. D.10Howeveral-

Shawk5nTdisagreedwith this dateof his death,andcontradictingthe other scholars,

it
gave as 766 A. H. /1365 A. D. 11

His Education
Ibn al-Durayhim,asthe referenceshavementioned,receiveda variededucationfrom
various scholarsin different kinds of sciencesof Islam andthe Arabic language.
While he was young, he readthe Holy QuranandIcarnt the waysof reciting it from
Ab-u Bakr b. al-'Alam al-Mawýiff. Ibn al-Durayhimalso studiedfiqh, particularly the
Shdfl'l school of law, with Zayn al-Din 'All b. shaykh al-'Uwayna, who wasa

scholarof Shdfi'l fiqh, theologyand Arabic 12

sciences .

Ibn al-Durayhim's teacher,Zayn al-Din 'All b. shaykh al-'Uwayna, wasbom in

Mosul (a]-Munýsihin 681 A. H. /1282 A. D. and died in
there 755 A. H. /1354 A. D.13

Thus it is very probablethat ShaykhZayn al-D-IntaughtIbn al-Durayhimduring his

early age,while he was still living in Mosul andbeforehe had travelledto Damascus
and to Cairo. At this stageIbn al-Durayhimwasyoungerthan20 or 21 years,because
according to Ibn ljajar, the first time he travelledto Cairo wasin 732 A. H./ 332 A.
D. or 733 A. H./1333 A. D. 14

As well as this Ibn al-Durayhimwas taughtthe book of Al-ljdw-1by ShaykhSharaf

al-D-In 'Abd Allah b. Y-UnuS15

.
Al-Ij5wI is an importantbook in the Shdfi'l schoolof

9 Q-u§is town Qind

a of provincein UpperEgypt, on the eastbankof the Nile River, on the railroad,
and 16 miles north-northeastof Luxor, an importantcommercialcenterin the middle Ages.The
ColumbiaLippincott Gazetteerof the world, p. 1546.
10Ibn IjaJar,Al-Durar al-Kdmina,vol. III, p. 107;Hadiyyat
al-'XrifIn, vol. 1,p. 723; Brockelmann,
K., Tdrikh al-Adabal-'Arab-1,Part7,12/ 44; AI-A'Um, vol. V, p. 6, Mujarn al-Mu'affirin, vol. VII, p.
210.
11AI-ShawBnTi,Al-Badr al-Tdli'bi-Maýdsin Man Ba'd
al-Qarnal-Sdbi', vol. 1,p. 477
12Al-Durar al-Kdmina,vol. 111,P. 107;Al-Badr
al-PIP, vol. 1,P. 477.
13Al-A'15m, vol. IV, p. 280.
14Al-Durar
al-Kdmina, vol. III, p. 107.
15Ibid.

32
law. Its full name is "Al-ljdw-i al-ýaghlirfi al-FurU"', andit waswritten by Shaykh
Najm al-D-In'Abd al-Ghaffia-rb. 'Abd al-Kaffm al-QazwTinT al-Sh5fi'T(died in 665 A.
H.) 16.Ibn al-Durayhimalso studiedthe book of al-Bukh5fl-"Al-Jdmi' al-ýa4liý" with
17
the reading of Mur al-Din al-Hamadh5n7l

With regard to the Arabic sciences,Ibn al-Durayhirn studied and memorized

"Alfiyyat Ibn Mutf ' and"Alflyyat Ibn Mdlik". Both areconsideredto be important
books in Arabic grammar. The first is "Al-Durra al-Alflyya" andwascompiledby
Shaykh Zayn al-D-In Yahyd b. 'Abd al-Mu't-I al-Nahw-I(died in 628 A. H.), and the
full name of the second is "Al-Alfiyya ff al-N4W) andwascompiledby JamdIal-
D-In Ab-u'Abd Allah Mutammad b. 'Abd Allah al-T5'I al-JiydnT,who wasknown as
Ibn Mdlik al-N4W! (died in 672 A. H.)I8.

Another important book in Arabic grammarstudiedby Ibn al-Durayhimwas"Tash7il

al-Fawd'id wa Takm-11 al-Maqdýid",which wascompiledby Ibn Mdlik al-N4wT, the
author of "Al-Alfiyya f-I al-N4w". This outstanding book collected all the
information about Arabic Grammar, so scholarswere very interestedin it and
it 19
compiledexplanationsto .

Moreover Ibn al-Durayhimmet oneof the greatestscholarsof his time, Ab-UIjayydn,

a scholarof Arabic Tafs-ir
sciences, and Ijad-ith.The biographical
referencesmention
that Ab-u klayydn was born in al-Andalusin 654 A. H. / 1256A. D. andtravelledto
Mdlqa then to Cairo were he lived until he died in A. 20
745 A. H. /1344 D Henceit
.
seems very likely that Ibn al-Durayhirn met him in Cairo between 732 or 733 A. H.,

when Ibn al-Durayhim first came to Egypt and 754 A. H., when Ab-ukfayydndied.
Ab-U kfayydnwas the authorof manybooks,someof which were"AI-Baýr al-MuýTf'
on the interpretation of the Quran,"Tu4fat al-Ar-ib" on the Quransciences,"Manhaj

16U5jTKhallfa, Kashf al-Zuri-un'an As5nillal-Kutub

wal-FunUn,vol. 1,p. 625.
17Op. Cit, vol. III, p. 107.
Is Kashf al-7,uriu-n,vol. 1,p. 151,alsop. 155.
19Ibid., vol. 1,p. 405.
20Al-A'15m, vol. VH, p. 152.

33
al-Sdlik ff al-Kal5m 'ald Alfiyyat Ibn MEW on Arabic grammarand "Al-Lamha al-
Badriyyafi-'llm al-'Arabiyya" on the Arabic language2l.

From the aboveit seemsto be clear that Ibn al-Durayhimdid not confinehimself only
to the religious sideof knowledgebut also studiedthe linguistic side.This is obvious
through the different books he read andthe different kinds of scholarsto whomhe
listened. Furthermorehis desirefor learningwasnot restrictedto his early ageonly,
when he was living in al-MutKsil, but it alsoextendedto the next stagesof his life.
Hence it could be said that his relationship to knowledge,listening,learningand
compiling it, continued throughout his life. His business did not weaken that
relationship, particularly when we take into considerationthe large numbers of books
he compiled during his short life, which was only 50 years, according to most
scholars.

His Written Work

Ibn al-Durayhim is known for his numerousbookson varioussciences.He compiled
books on Had-ith, TafsTirandthe sciencesof the Quran,Arabic language,arithmetic,
physiognomy, riddles, puzzles and others. He also composed poetry, which was
considered by some to be in the middle range of excellence. An example of his poetry
is:

-J--J
L..o
ýki4.
Sip
0j
yy, 00. j 10 je 6..
it, - -4
Ibn al-Durayhirn produced many books. As weR as "Manhaj al-ýawdb f-I Qub4
Istiktiib Ahl al-Kit5b", his booksinclude:

1. Al-'Athdr al-Rd'i'a fiAsrdr al-Wdqia.

2. Kanz al-Durarfif Ijudif Awd'il al-Suwar.

3. Al-Nasamdtal-Fdyi4alimd fPAy5t al-Fdti4a

21
ibid.
22Al-Durar al-Kdmina,vol. IH, p. 108.

34
4. Ghdyatal-Maghnamfi al-Ism al-A'? am.

5. Naf' al-Jadwdfif al-Jam' baynAýddlth al-'Adwd.

'11ä4al-Mubhamfi ljall al-Mut4am.

7. Sullamal-Ijirdsa ft-'llm al-Firdsa.

8. Iqnd' al-Hudhdhdqfif Anwd' al-Awfa-q.

9. Bast al-Fawd'id fi Ijis5b al-Qaw5'id.

10. AI-Ineäf bi al-Dalil fi Aweäf al-Nil.

11. Tand'! al-Mund?ir f-i al-Mard'! wal-Mand?ir.

12. Risdlat al-Tarii4l bayn al-Amlir wal-Q5411.

13. 'Iqd? al-Mujib flmd fif al-Shataranjmin al-Man5fi'b.

14. Ghdyatal-I'jdz f 11al-45jT wal-Alghdz.

15. Muftdý al-Kun-uzfli Vall al-Rum-uz.

16. Al-TqfIf wa Ijullat al-Ta'dif.

17.Sirr al-W fif 'llm al-Ijarf.

18. Tamylizal-W fli Sirr al-Ijarf.

19. Ishrdf al-Nafs 'ald Ija4ardt al-khams.

20. Muftiih al-Kun-uZfli '145hal-Marm7uz23.

23See:Al-Darar al-Kdmina,vol. III, P. 108;Al-Badr al-T51i',vol. 1,p. 477; Kashf al-Zun-un,Vo. L

pp. 103,209,485, alsoVol. II, pp. 987,997,1770; Hadiyyat al-'Xrif-in, vol. 1,p. 723; Brockelmann,
T5r-ikhal-Adabat-'Arab-i,Paxt7,12/ 44; Al-A'l5m, vol. V. p. 6; Mujam al-Mu'allif-in, vol. VH, p.
210.

35
The Author's Political Enviromnent

From the abovereferenceswe can seethat Ibn al-Durayhim,Aff b. Muýammadlived

in the A. H. eighth/A. D. fourteenthcentury.He wasborn in 712 A. H. /1312A. D.
and died in 762 A. H. /1361 A. D. This period witnessedthe rule of the Mamluks in
Egypt and al-SUm, whereIbn al-Durayhimlived. The Arabic word 'maml7uk'canbe
object". The verbalroot (m. 1.k)
translatedas "slave". It canalso mean"a possessed
'
has the sense of 'to possess'. Historically the term 'maml-uks'throughout the

medieval periods was extended to refer to thosewho ruled Egypt and Syria during
(648-922A. H. /1250-1517A. D.). Seefig. (1).

Historical referencesmention that the Mamluks appearedin the Islamic world long
before their rule. In the time of the Ayyubids Sultanatethe rulers used to buy
Marnluks and teach them how to fight to support their rulers. In particular the
Ayy'u-bidking, al-ý04 Najrn al-D-in AyyUb (637-47 A. H. /1240-9A. D.), widely
increasedhis purchaseof themwith the aim of having themfight in his army. On 14
Sha'bdn 647 A. H. /22 November1249A. D. king al-ýU4 Ayy'u-bdied. At this time
his MamIuk army was fighting the Crusadersandtheir Frenchking, Louis IX, who
had attackedEgypt throughDamietta(Dumy5j). The deadsultan'swife, Shajaratal-
Durr, concealed the newsof his deathand,by issuingordersin his name,held things
together until the arrival of his son,'FurdnSh5h,from Mesopotamiain Dh7ual-Qi'da
647 A. H. / February 1250 A. D. In Mu4arram 648 A. H. / April 1250A. D., the
2,
Crusading army wasdefeatedandmadecaptive.The Ba4aff Manil7uks commanded

by Baybars, playeda crucial role in this victory andacquittedthemselveswell. After

being in powerfor abouttwo months,T-urdnSh5hwasmurderedby a groupof 134aff
Mamrukson Monday 28 Mu4arram648 A. H. /2 May 1250A.D. In his place,the

1See al-Mi§b5bal-Mun7ir,vol. H, p. 796.

al-FayyUm7i,
2 Ibis namereferredto the Maml7uks
who the AyyUbidsboughtfrom Turkish MamlUks,specificaRy
the king al-*dliý AyyUb,who boughtmany andput themin a castleon al-Raw4aIslandin al-Manyal,
in the Nile river, which wasalsocalledthe seaor the Nile sea(b* al-nH). 71berise of the Babar-1
Maml-uksto political dominancewasassistedby their outstandingpart in the resistanceto the Crusade,
andprobably also by the deathof the last non-Maml7uk commander, Fakhr al-D-inAybak. From them
came the Sull5ns who ruled Egypt and Syria during what wascalledthe Babaff Maml7uks periodor the
first MamlUksperiod(648-784A. H. /1250-1382A. D.). See,',7ksh7ur, S. A., APAýr al-MamdlWtft
M4r wal-Sh5m,pp. 10 ff.; Encyclopaediaof Islam, vol. VL p. 321; Ashtor,E., A SocialandEconomic
History of the NearEastin the Middle Ages,p. 291.

36
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Ashtor, E., A Social and EconomicHistory of the Near Eastin the Middle
Ages,p. 28 1.

In.
krig. 1)

37
Maml7uks proclaimed Shajarat al-Durr as Sultan, who is considered to be the first
Maml5ks. 3
sultan of the

The sources attest a unanimous conviction that the Maml7uksof Egypt and al-Sh5m
had been the decisive factor in saving Islam from both the Frankishý "Crusaders, 5 and

the Mongol "Tat5e 4 threats since the battles of al-Maný-Ura(647-8 A. H. /1249-50 A.

)
D. and 'Ayn (658
J51-ut A. H. /1260 A. D). 7 After the Mongol conquestsof Baghdad

in 656 A. H. /1258 A. D. and of Damascuson 17 Rabl' 1658 A. H. /2 March 1260 A.

D., dark days came for Muslims. The caliphate was dead and Baghdad and Damascus,
the greatest Muslim cities in Iraq and al-Shdm, had fallen to the Mongols, who

practiced the most horrible violence and persecution against Muslims. Of the old
heartland of Islam, only Egypt and Arabia remained inviolate, and the way seemed

open for Mongols, firmly established in Damascus, to continue their irresistible

advance.

In the beginning Mongols sent messengersto Egypt to demand the submission of the
8
sultan to the Khan . Qutuz refused the demand and defiantly put the messengersto

death.At that time Qutuzbroughttogetherall the Mam5fik chiefs andconsultedthem

on the matter, whereby all of them agreedto resistthe Mongols.When Qutuzhad
completed his preparations,he moved with his army towardsal-Shdmto meetthe

See,The CambridgeHistory of Islam,vol. 1,pp. 208 ff.; Irwin, R., 7be Middle Eastin the Middle
Ages,pp. 20 ff.; Al-'A§r al-Mam51W1 f-IMiýr wal-Sh5m,pp. 8 ff.
4 The term "Frankish",(also"Fraffl&), wasoriginally usedfor the inhabitants the empireof
of
Charlemagne, andlater extendedto Europeansin general.During the seventhcentury,the advanceof
ChristendomagainstIslam broughtFranksandMuslims in closeandregularcontact.Betweenthe
sixteenthand nineteenth the
centuries, word "Frankish" did not includethe Orthodox,but waslimited
to CatholicsandProtestants.SeeDonzel,E. Van, Islamic DeskReference,p. 104.
-5The term "Crusades"originally appliedto military andreligiousexpeditionsorganizedin Western
Europeandintendedto takebackfrom, anddefendagainstIslam,the Holy Placesof Palestineand
nearbySyria.They followed the call of PopeUrbanH at the councilof Clermontin 1095A. D. See
Encyclopaediaof Islam, vol. H, pp. 63 L; The ConciseEncyclopaediaof Islam,p. 90.
6 Tatdr arethe peoplewho camefrom Mongol
origin andspeakthe Mongol language.They conquered
Baghdadin 656 A. H. /1258A. D. andDamascuson 17 Rab-lI 658 A. HJ2 March 1260A. D., but
they weredefeatedby al-Mu?affar Quju?andhis army,which wasled by Blibarsal-Bindiqd5rT1, on
Friday 25 Rarna4dn658 A. H. /3 September1260A. D. while they hadbeenon their way to conquer
Egypt. SeeThe ConciseEncyclopaediaof Islam,pp. 272 f.; The CambridgeHistory of Islam,vol. I,
pp. 212 L; Islamic Desk Reference, pp. 443 f.
7 Encyclopaediaof Islam, vol. VI, p. 314.

38
Mongol army.The two armiesclashedat a placecalled 'Ayn Brut, a village between
Bays5n and Ndbulus. In this famous battle, the Mamluks won a decisivevictory.
Luring the enemy into a trap, they destroyedthe Mongol army, captured its
commanderand put him to death. The day wasFriday, 25 Rama4dn658 A. H. /3
September1260A. D.9

The consequencesof this battle were very significant and one of the important
historianreferences"The CambridgeHistory of Islam"10said,

"This was the first time that a Mongol an-nysuffereddefeatin pitchedbattle, that the
unconquerablehad been conquered.Egypt was saved from the Mongols andthe
captured cities of Syria at onceroseagainsttheir Mongol garrisons,andwelcomed
the victoriousMamluks".

Not surprisingly, later generations have seen the battle of 'Ayn J517ut
as one of the
decisive moments of history - the victory that savedEgypt, Islam, andperhapsmore
from final dcstructionby the Mongols.

From the above it becomes clear that Ibn al-Durayhim lived during the rule of the
Mamluks of Egypt and al-ShZim, and that in the beginning of their existence the

mamluks performed a significant military achievement through the battles of al-

Maný-Uraagainst the Crusadersin 647-8 A. H. /1249-50 A. D. and 'Ayn Jalut against
the Mongols in 658 A. R/1260 A. D. Those two battles helped them to obtain the

approval of the massesand then settled their rule.

During his life (712 A. H. /1312 A. D. to 762 A. H. /1361 A. D. ) Ibn al-Durayhim

witnessedthe rule of al-Ndýir Mu4ammadb. QalawUnfor the third time (709 A. H.

/1309 A. D. - 740 A. H. /1340 A. D. )", and also the rule of eight of al-Ndýir's

s The term "Khan7'historically indicatesthe supremeruler of the Turkish, Tatar,andMongol tribes.

SeeThe ConciseOxford Dictionary of CurrentEnglish,p. 648.
9 Seethe detailsof this battle at: Al-MaqrTz7i,
Al-Sul7ukli-Ma'rifat Duwal al-Muruk,vol. I, pp. 515 ff.;
Al-'A§r al-Mam5lW1f-1Miýr wal-Sh5m,pp. 37L; The CambridgeHistory of Islam, vol. I, pp. 214 L;
Thorau,Peter,The Lion of Egypt, SultanBaybarsI andthe NearEastin the ThirteenCentury,pp. 75
ff.
10Vol. I, p. 213.
11Al-Ndýir Moammad b. QalawUnruled the Mamluk statefor threeperiods:the first
periodwas(693
A. HJ1293 - 694 A. H. /1294A. D.), the secondwas(698 A. H./1298- 708 A. HJ1308A. D.) andthe

39
 12
children, who were Sultansruling for shortperiodsduring this time. See(the table
of Mamluk sultans who ruled from the time of al-N5§ir Mutammad until the end of
B4aflf MamIuVs statc).

By the time of his accession to the thronefor the third time, in 709 A. H., al-Ndýir
Muýammad was 24 years old and he had leamt a greatdeal from the yearshe had
spent on the throne in
and exile away from it. In his third reign he continuedhis rule
for about 31 years,which is consideredthe longestperiod that a Mamluk sultanever

stayed in power. During his reign there were manyminor warswith the Christian
kingdom of Cilician Armenia.At Meccathe ruling Shafifs wereappointedby Egypt,
by
and supported troops,not without conflicts, andin 717 A. H. /1317 A. D. al-Ndýir
Muýammad's authority was also recognized at Medina. The sultanhimself thrice
made the pilgrimageto Meccawith the usualextravagantdisplayof charity. Yemen,
independentunder the Ras7ulidkings, had from time to time sentpresentsto Cairo,
which the sultanswereanxiousto recognizeastribute. In 1325A. D. an expeditionof
5000 Egyptian troopswere sentto Yemenfrom Ban! Ras7ul at the requestof Sayf al-
Din, to help him to overcomehis cousin,'Abd Allah b. al-ManýUur.
Hencesouthern
Arabia wasunderthe authorityof al-Nd§irMutammad.13

For over 40 yearsafter the deathof al-Ndýir Muýammad,the Sultanatewasruled by

eight of his sons;then two grandsonsandtwo great-grandsons
followed one another.
Some weremerechildren; someheld the title of sultanfor a few months;one son,al-
Ndýir Ndýir al-D-Inal-Vasanb. al-Nd§ir,waskept on the thronefor four years(748 A.

third was( 709 A. FL11309A. D. - 740 A. It 11340A. D.). See:Al-Suy-ul-t,Vusn al-Muý54araf-L

Akhb5r Mig wal-Qdhira,vol. H, pp. 115ff.; Encyclopaediaof Islam,vol. VI, p. 328; Al-Ag al-
Marndl-Irtff M4r wal-Sh5m,pp. 109,117,125 and392.
12ThoseSultanswere:Al-Maný-UrSayf al-D-inAb-u'Bakr b.
al-N5§ir(740 A. H. /1340A. D. - 741A.
IL /1341 A. D.), 'Ald' al-D-InKujuk b. al-Na-ýir(740 A. H. /1341A. D. - continuedfor five months
andten days.), Al-Ndlir Shih5bal-D-inAýmadb. al-N5§ir(743 A. H. /1342A. D. - continuedfor very
short period.), Al-*dlib 'Im5d al-D-inIsm5`11 b. at-Na§ir(743 A. It /1342 A. D. - 746 A. H. /1345 A.
D.), Al-K5mil Sayf al-Din Sha'bdnI b. al-Nd§ir(746 A. H. /1345A. D. - 747 A. H. /1346A. D.), Al-
Mu?affar Sayf al-Din Hdjl I b. al-Nd§ir(747 A. H. /1346A. D. - 748 A. H. /1347 A. D.), Al-N5§ir
N5§ir al-DIn al-Ijasanb. al-N5§ir"the first period" (748 A. H. /1347 A. D. - 752 A. H. /1351 A. D.),
Al-ýMib ýal5b al-Din ý54 b. al-Ndsir (752 A. H. /1351A. D. - 755 A. H. /1354A. D.), Al-Nd§ir
N5§ir al-D-inal-Ijasanb. al-Nd§ir"týe secondperiod" (755 A. H. /1354 A. D. - 762 A. H. /1361 A.
D.). See:Al-SuyUj71, Husnal-Mubd4araft-Akhb5r Mijr wal-Q5hira,vol. 11,pp. 119ff.; Encyclopaedia
of Islam, vol. VI, p. 328.
13See:The Middle Eastin the Middle Ages,p. 120;Lane-Poole.,S. History of Egypt,p. 308
,A

40
 Table of Mamluk sultanswho ruled from the time of al-Ndsir Muhammad
until the end of BahafiMamiuk's Statein 792 A. H. /1390 A. D* *

Mamluk rulers A. H. A. D. Time

AI-Ndýir Muhammad (first time) 693 - 694 1293 - 1294 1 year

Al-'Adil Zin al-D-In Kutbugha 694-696 1294-1296 2 years

AI-Manýiir Ijusdm al-Din L5jTh 696-698 1296-1298 2 years

Al-Nd§ir Mubammad (second time) 698-708 1298-1308 10 years

Al-Mu? affar Baybars al-Rishank-ir 708-709 1308-1309 1 year

Al-Nd§ir Mubammad (third time) 709-741 1309-1341 32 years

AI-Maný-ur AbU Bakr b. al-Nd§ir 741-742 1341-1341 Lessthanone

year
Al-Ashraf 'Alddd-in Kajak b. al-Ndýir 742-742 1341-1342 Lessthanone
year
Al-Nd§ir 4mad b. al-NdOr 742-743 1342-1342 Lessthanone
year
r
b. al-Nd§ir
! a! Isind"111
Al-ýdlib 743-746 1342-1345 3 years

Al- Kdmil Sha'bdn b. al-NdOr 746-747 1345-1346 Iess thanone

year
Al-Mu? affar k1djTb. al-Ndýir 747-748 1346-1347 Lessthanone
year
AI-Ndýir al-Hasan (first time) 748-752 1347-1351 4 years

Al-ýZiliý ýdliý b. al-Nd§ir 752-755 1351-1354 3 years

AI-Ndýir al-Ijasan. (second time) 755-762 1354-1361 7 years

AI-Maný-ur Mubammad b. ljdjl 762-764 1361-1363 2 years

Al-Ashraf ShaVin b. Ijusayn 764-778 1363-1376 14 years

AI-Mam-ur 'Ari b. al-Ashraf Sha'bdn 778-783 1376-1381 5 years

Al-ýdlib ljdjl b. al-Ashraf Sha'bdn 783-784 1381-1382 1 year

Barq-uq(from BurjT Mamluks) 784-791 1382-1389 7 years

Al-ýdlib ]VdjYb. al-Ashraf Sha'bdn 791-792 1389 - 1390 Lessthanone

year

* See:Encyclopedia of Islam,vol. VI, pp. 328L, Shakir,Al-Tarikh al-Islami,Al-Ahd al-Mamluki,

vol. VII, pp. 35 L, Al-Asr al-Mamaliki fi Isfisr wal-Sham,
p. 392.

41
H. /1347 A. D. - 752 A. H. /1351 A. D. ), and was restored for six years more (755A.
H. /1354 A. D. - 762 A. H. /1361 A. D.). 1

The young age of the sultans was a notable fact during this period, which lasted until
the end of the B4aff Mamluk State in 1382 A. D. AI-Maný-UrSayf al-D-In Ab-uBakr
b. al-Ndýir became a sultan in (741 A. H. /1341 A. D. while he was twenty years old;

the sultan al-Ashraf 'Ald al-D-In Kajak b. al-Ndlir was only five years old; al-
Mu? affar Sayf al-Din Vdjl b. al-Ndýir was only eleven; al-Nd§ir Ndýir al-D-In Ijasan
b. al-Ndýir was eleven years old when he becamea sultan for the first time (in 1347
A. D.) and was eighteen when he became a sultan for the secondtime (in 1354 A. D.);

al-Manýu-r ýaldb al-D-in Mubammad was fourteen; al-Ashraf N5ýir al-DTn ýha'bdn

was ten, al-Man$Ur 'Ald al-D-In 'Aff was six; and al-ýdlib ýaldh al-D-In V5j! was
2
eleven.

The natural consequenceof the youngagesof thesesultanswasthat the influenceof

the cmirs increasedconsiderably,so that they becameso powerful that they controlled
3
all the mattersof the state.

1See:APAg a]-MamlWi fil Mig wal-Sh5m,p. 392;Sh5kir,M., AI-Tdrilh al-lsl5mT,Al-'Ahd

al-
Maml-uk-i,voL VII, pp. 35 f.
2AI-SuyUj-i,Vusn al-Mub54arafif Akhbdr Mig wal-Qahira,vol. H, pp. 119ff.; Al-'A§r al-MamdlWifli
Mig wal-Sh5rn,pp. 129ff. Also p. 135.
3 'Ashur, Al-'A§r al-MamdlWlft Mig wal-Sh5m,pp. 129,135;Sh5kir,AI-Mlikh
al-Isl5ml, Al-'Ahd
al-MamlWl, voL VII, pp. 38 f.

42
The author's social environment

Mstorical referencesinfer that the society during the Mamluk reign consistedof
several classes andthat the differencesbetweentheseclasseswerevery marked.The
Encyclopaediaof Islam held that the Mamluk class in the sultanatewas a very
exclusive one. In order to become a member of it, onehadto fulfill very definite
requirements.One had to be fair-skinned,to be (in mostcases)an inhabitantof the
area stretching to the north andto the north-eastof the landsof Islam,to be brought
into the Mamluk sultanateas a child or a youngboy (preferablyat the ageof puberty)
and to be bought, broughtup andmanumittedby a patronwho wasa memberof the
military aristocracy (preferably a Mamluk as well, and mostpreferablythe sultan
himself).

What greatly helped in makingthe Mamluks suchan easilydistinguishable,distinct

and exclusive caste was a practice which started long before the creation of the
Mamluk sultanate,namely, that all of them,with but a few exceptions,boreTurkish
names,irrespectiveof their origin. Anotherimportantaspectof the exclusiveness of
that classwas that its membersmainly marriedslave-girlsfrom their own countriesof
origin, or daughters of Mamluks. MarriagesbetweenMamluk emirs andlocal girls
(mainly the daughtersof high-ranking officials, great merchantsor distinguished
Wamj-) were quite rare.The Mamlukswere alsodistinguishedby their dress,which

was consideredto be much more respectablethan that of any other class. The
language,which the Mamluks usedpredominantlyamongthemselves,wasTurkish.
Their knowledge of Arabic seemsto havemainly beenvery superficial,althougha
more systematicstudyof this questionmay changethat impressionto a certainextent.
Their Islamic awarenesshowever, was very strong, and was expressedin the

numerousreligious institutions,which they built. '

Another class in the societyat that time wasthe classof al-Wami', which included
jurists, linguists andauthors.Thesepeoplewerehighly respectedby the ruling class,

who regardedat themasa group which stronglyinfluencedpublic opinion. Also the

1Encyclopaediaof Islam, vol. VI, p. 319.This is

alsowhat wasarguedby manyhistorians,seefor
instance:'Xsh7ur,S. A., Al-Muitama' al-Mi§ff fl 'A§r Saldl7tnal-Mam51-11c,
pp. 15 ff.; alsofor the same
author,Al-, A§r al-Man-dlWl ff M4r wal-Sh5m,pp. 318 ff.;

43
Mamluks seem to havefelt that they were strangersin the land and so neededa prop
to support their rule and to help them to satisfythe public. This they found in the
lulam.ifl.

APularni" werenot alwayshighly regardedby the ruling classesduring the Mamluk

period. They were sometimesexposedto disgrace and humiliation. For example,
during the years 781 and 791 A. H. the 'ulamd' were not allowedto ride horsesbut
only mules.This wasconsideredas a kind of ignominy to the 'ulamd' who were loved
by 2
andrespected all the people.

As well as the above two classes,there were also merchants, artisans and common

people who were sellers, servants, drivers and poor people. Al-MaqCiz-i divided the

societyduring the Mamluk periodinto sevencategories:

1- The statepeople.

2- The merchants who were rich and lived in luxury.

3- The sellers who were from the middle class traders and market owners.

4- The peasantswho lived in the villages.

5- The poor people, who were most of the scholars, students and soldiers.

6- The professionals, artisans and labourers.

7- The needy who lived on what they were given by other people.3

No doubt it is beyondthe scopeof this studyto providea full surveyof all the classes
of the society.Howeverwe can maintainherethat the two main distinguishedclasses
in the author's society were the ruling classandthe 'ulamd'. Ultimately therewas

some kind of oppressionof the 'ulam5' by the ruling class;howeverthis did not
reflect in our author's This
manuscript. credit
gives methodological to the authorin
that while he was writing he kept to the main target of his book, which was
highlighting the appointmentof AM al-Kit5b in clericaljobs, so he did not utilize his
book to achieveotherobjectiveswhetherpolitical or otherwise.Thus we can observe

2 At-Mujtama'al-Miýffl fl"Aýr SaldlTinal-Maniffilk, pp. 35 ff.; Al-'Ag al-Mamdl-ilCi

fl Mi§r wal-
Sh5m,p. 321.

44
that the author was silent with regard to criticizing the Mamluksabout their other
unjustpractices,suchas their humiliation of the 'ulamds4
.

However there could have been other reasonswhich stopped Ibn al-Durayhim
criticizing the behaviour of the Mamluks in these other areas. Very littlecanbe
deducedfrom the author'smanuscript;howeverit could be that the Mamluks at that
time appearedto be the protectors of Islam, becauseof their supportof religious
in the Mamluk 5 Moreover their the
greatvictory against Mongols (in
affairs state.
'Ayn JdlUt 658 A. H. /1260 A. D. ) was considered to be an important achievement

which was their favour in the sight of Muslims. Perhapsfor these reasonsscholars
like Ibn al-Durayhim werecontentto avoid criticizing themaboutotherissues,such
asemployingnon-Muslims in clericaljobs.

3AI-Maqrlz7l,
ighdthatal-'Ununabi Kashf al-Ghumma,pp. 70 ff.
4 Seepage43.
5 Al-Mujtama, al-Migi f-t'A§r ýaldtlinal-MamMic,p. 35, seealso:The authorCultureEnvironment.

45
The author's cultural enviromnent

In 737 A. H. / 1236 A. D. the traveller al-Balaw-1 al-Maghribi -6 visited Egypt and

greatly admired the cultural activities in the provinces there, saying that Egypt was
7
the source of all knowledge. The huge number of schools and cultural institutions

that were established all over the country during the Mamluk period confirm this

view. Some of these schools were:

e AI-Zdhiriyya School, which was built by al-Zdhir Baybars, who laid its
foundations in 660 A. H. /1261 A. D.

AI-Maný-Uriyya School, which was establishedby al-Maný-urQalawUn in 683 A. H.

/1284 A. D.

Al-Nd§iriyya School, which was built by the sultan al-Ndýir Mu4ammad in 703
A. H. /1303 A. D. 8

Moreover there were many otherschoolsestablishedby the sultansandthe emirsof

the Mamluks,not only in Egypt but alsoin al-Shim and aAffiji-2

There were severalreasonswhich helpedthe establishmentof this cultural resurgence

in the Maniluk time. They can be summarized as foRows:

a) Scientific activities were encouragedby the Mamluks, who wanted to appear to

the public as the propagators of the cultural resurgencein order to securetheir rule

and keep the good will of the people. Furthermore some of the sultans of the
Mamluks liked the sciences,for example al-Zdhir Baybars, who was interested in

6A from al-Andalus, called becausehe came from the wesLHis namewasKhalid

scholar al-Maghrib-i
b. 'Isd b. Ahmadb. Ibrib7imB. Abu-Kh5lid al-BalaW-1Ablu-al-Baqd'.He wasborn in QurJubaand
,
worked as a judge. Al-Balaw-iis the authorof "Tdj al-Mafriq fil Tabliyat 'Ulam5' al-Mshriq". He wrote
that hadcontinuedfrom 737 until 740 A. H. See:AI-ZirikI-1,khayr al-
it after his journey to al-1JJj5?
DIM,Al-A'Idm, vol. H, p. 297; Ka!ffila, U. R., Mujam al-Mu'alliffin, vol. IV, p. 97.
7 APAýr al-Maina-M ff Mi§r wal-Sh5m,p. 338.
8Al-SuyUj7i, Ijusn al-MubdýLuafif Akhbdr Mig wal-Q5hira,vol. H, pp. 228 ff.
9 Al-Mujtama' al-Miýrl fi 'Aýr Saldl-inal-Mam5lA, pp. 159f.

46
 historylo, and the sultan QuqUuhal-GMUCI,
who was keento hold scientific and
in "
religious gatherings al-Qal'a two or more timeseachweek.

12
The considerableincreaseOf aW qj-f in the Mamluk period supportedthe

cultural activities and helped the schools to execute their missions. Al-MaqrTIz-1

mentioned that the waqf-land endowed on the schools and the Mosques in the time
of al-NdOr MOammad b. QalawUn,reached 130.000 feddans. Moreover the waqf

was not only land but also included a lot of houses, markets and other
institutions. 13

C) The immigrationof many scholarsto the Mamlukcountryalsopromotedcultural

activities. This immigration startedshortlybeforethe establishmentof the Mamluk

state itself. When the Mongols (al-Tatil) capturedBaghdad in 656 A. H. /1258 A.
D., killing most of its inhabitantstogether with many scholars,anddestroying
many of the ancient books (kutub al-Tuij7th),mostof the scholarswho survived
fled to Egypt and the other stateslocatedbetweenBaghdadandCairo, carrying

with them their knowledge and books. They were encouraged to do this by the
things that they hadheardaboutthe Mamluk supportof the sciencesand scholars.
This paved the way for Cairo to replace Baghdad asa centrefor scientific and
in Islamic 14
religious activities the world.

From the above it can be concluded that there was a hugeresurgencein cultural
activities during the Mamluk period and that this beganwhenthe Mongolscaptured
Baghdad in 656 A. H. / 1258A. D., Damascusin 658 A. H. /1260 A. D. andthe other
provinces in al-Sh5m, destroying all the cultural achievements in these In
places.
Egypt alone,amongall the countriesof Islam, the courseof cultural developmentwas

to Ab-Ual-Ma45sin,Ibn Taghfl Bard74At-NqjUrnal-7,ýhira ff MulUk Miýr wal-Qahira,vol. VIL P. 182.

1APAýr at-Mam5lWlft M4r wal-Sharn,p. 339.
12Awqdf (sing.Waqf) is properlyan Arabic maýdarme-aning: to prevent,restrain.In Muslim legal
terminologyit meansthe legal processby which onecreatessuchan endowmentand in popularspeech
it becametransferredto the endowmentitself, which is properlycalledmawqi-dorm4bFm Gibb, H. A.
R., andKramers,J. H., ShorterEncyclopaediaof Islam,p. 624.
13Al-Mujtama' al-Miýfl, p. 164.
14Ibid, p. 157.

47
not interrupted by the Mongol invasion.This causedmany scholarsto flee to Egypt,

where they assistedwith the cultural activities that were being supported by the
Mamluk sultansandemirs.

48
 CHAPTER THREE

Dhimmis in the time of the Author

Section1: Definition of Dhinm2is

Section 2: Dhimmis During Mamluk State

Section 3: The Position of Dhimmis in Islam

Definition of Dhimmis

Dhimma in Arabic signifies security or safety; security of life and property;

protection or safeguard;a promise or an assuranceof security,safety,protectionor
safeguard; indemnityor quarter'. In Islamic terminology,the term dhimmais usedto
designatethe type of renewedcontractthroughwhich the Muslim communityaccords
hospitality and protection to peopleof the book (AhIal-EUb, JewsandChristians)

and to Magians,on condition that they the

acknowledge dominationof Islam2.

accordingto all Muslim jurists, are two kinds of people:

The beneficiariesof dWn2ma,

LAM al-kit5b, the peopleof book, whom the Holy Quranhasexplicitly indicatedin
SUrat al-Tawba,"Fight thosewho believenot in Allah nor the last day, nor hold as
forbiddenwhat hath beenforbiddenby Allah and His Messenger,nor acknowledge
the religion of truth, from amongthe peopleof book, until they pay thefizya with
feel 3
themselvessubdued',.
willing and
submission,

2.The Magians,aboutwhom the Prophetsaid,"Treat them in the sameway that you

follow with the people of the book74,andHe took thefizya from the Magiansof

Hqjaý.

Both types of people are called dhimn2is,and are collectively referred to as ahl a]-
dhin2ma or simply dbimma. According to some Muslim scholars, such as Awzd'! and
M511kb. Anas, the contract of dhin2macan also be awarded to all non-Muslims. Their

evidence supporting this ruling is that the Prophet (PBUH) took fizya from the

1 Lane,E. W., Arabic-EnglishLexicon,vol. I, p. 976; AlTayyUrfflf,A., Al-Miýbdb al-Mun-1r,

vol. 1,p.
286; HansWehr, A Dictionaryof ModemWritten Arabic, p. 312.
2 SeeEncyclopediaof Islam ii, vol. 11,p. 227.
3Qurlin, IX: 29.
4 AI-AýbWi, M5]ik b. Anas,Al-Muwalla', vol. 1,pp. 380 ff., The book of charity,chapter:Jizya(tax)

of the peopleof the book andMagians.

Reported by 'Abd al-R4m5n ibn 'Awf.
5 ý4-Lý al-Bukh5ff,vol. IV, p. 62,Thebookof JizyaandMuw5da'a,TheChapterof al-Jizyawal-
Muw5da'aMa'a AM at-Dhimma; SunanAb-uD5wUd,vol. 11,p. 864,thebookof at-Khariijwal-Im7ara
wal-Fai',thechapterof 1xvyingJizyaonMagians,and(Hajar)is a placenearal-Babram.

50
Magians after the conquest of Mecca, which is interpreted to mean that it is

permissibleto awardthe contractof dhimmato all kinds of non-Muslims6.

It is also relevant to point out that the contract of dhimma, in its permanent form, was

only introduced after the conquestof Mecca in 8 A. H. / 629-30A. D. Before this

date, there were only temporarytreatiesbetweenthe Prophetandthe non-believers,
did include that the non-believerswould be in the dhimmaof 7
Muslims.
which not
This fact is supportedby the Verse of fiz va, which introduced the contract of
.
dbimma, and which wasrevealedin the ninth yearof Hijrp, henceafter the conquest

of Mcccag.

With this contract non-Muslimscan settlein Muslim landsandhavethe right to live

there forever, enjoying the protection and the safety of Islam. Thus this contract
seems to have the as
same specifications citizenship, which is grantedto certain
people by various governments nowadays. Muslim scholarshave stipulatedthat the
contractof dhin2ma
consistsof the following obligatory conditions:

l. They may not mentionIslam in derogatoryterms.

2.They may not cite the book of God,the Qur'dn, incorrectly or quoteit falsely.

3. They may not denounce the Prophet or show contempt tow s im.

4.They are not allowed to marry Muslim women,nor to commit adulterywith

them.

5.They may not force Muslims to reject their faith nor threatentheir soulsor
property.

6.They must not assistthe enemiesof Islam.

6 Al-AýNýili, Mdlik b. Anas,Al-Mudawwanaal-Kubrii, vol. 1,p. 241; Ibn 'Aliyya, Al-Moaffar al-
Moammad b. 'All, Fatti al-Qadlir,vol.
Wajiz fli TafsTiral-KitAb al-'Aillz, vol. III, p. 22; Al-Shawk5n7i,
II, p. 351.
7 AI-K5s5nT,BaddT al-ýan5T, vol. VII, p. 111;Ibn al-Qayyim,A#5m AM al-Dhimma,vol. 1,pp. 6
L
8SeeAl-Jq§5ý, Aýkdm al-Qur'An,vol. 1,p. 142;Ibn Kath-ir,Tafs-iral-Qur'dn al-'A?-im,vol. III, p.
383

51
If dhimmiscommit any of theseoffenses,the contractof dhimmais cancelled.These
conditions are intended to protectthe Muslim community,asit is acceptable,in the
opinion of the political authorities, to defend the Muslim community against any
danger9.

Becoming Dhimmis by Being Related to Dbimmis People

In Islamic law, scholarsmentionsomecasesin which non-Muslimsbecomedbimmis,

enjoying the protection of Islam but without a contract of because
dWn2ma, of their

relationshipto others.Someof thesecasesare:

(1) Children

The children of dbimmis are treated the sameastheir parents,without the needto
create new independentcontracts for them. This is the opinion of the majority of
40 11, 12
Ijanafi
,
Ijanbarl and M5lik-I scholars,andone of the two opinionsof Sh5fi'I
13
scholars .

No doubt the fact that they arechildren is takeninto accounthereasthis also in line
with the general principles of Islamic law, which states that responsibility is

consideredto be according to individual ability. The Quransaid, "On no soul doth

Allah place a burden greater than it can bear.It getsevery goodthat it earns,andit
ill it 14
that earns".
suffersevery

9 SeeNielsen,J. S., Religion andCitizenshipin Europeandthe Arab world, p. 32.

10SeeAl-Sarkhas-1,
Sharbal-Siyaral-Kablir,vol. IV, pp. 119f.
" SeeIbn Quddma,al-Mughn7i,Vol. VIII, p. 508.
12Ibn Jizz71, al-Fiqhiyya,p. 161.
al-Qaw5n-1n
13Al-Sh-ir5zT,al-Muhadhdhabb,
vol. H, p. 268.
14Quran(11:286).

52
(2) Wives
H.anaff scholarsare of the opinion that if a husbandbecomesa memberof Ddr al-
Isl5m'5 by becoming a Muslim or dhimn2i,his wife becomesdhimml, becauseshe

follows her husband16 But non-Ijanaff scholarsdo not mentionanythingrelatedto

.
this point, exceptfor the ljanbari scholars,who seemto considerthat a wife doesnot
follow her husband in 17
dVMMa. It seemsto be clear that a womanbecominga

dhimmi by-marriageis very like a womanadoptingthe nationality of her husband,as

is the case in some countries nowadays.Similarly, children becoming dhimmis
becauseof their parentsseemsto be like the citizenshipwhich children are grantedin
similar casesby many governmentsnowadays.

15D5r
al-Isl5m "Abode of Isldrif, is a country where the ordinancesof Isldm areestablishedand
which is underthe rule of a Muslim sovereign.Its inhabitantsareMuslims andalsonon-Muslimswho
have submittedto Muslim control andwho areguaranteedtheir lives andpropertyby the Muslim state.
It may be contrasted with D5r al-Ijarb "Abode of war", which is a term usedtraditionally to indicate
thoseterritorieswherethe faith of Isl5rn doesnot reign, i.e. whereMuslim law is not in force,or which
are not covered by agreementsand regulations about payment of poll-tax "Jizy;Y'. See Shorter
Encyclopaediaof Islam, pp. 68 f; Islamic DeskReference,p. 79 *,A PopularDictionaryof Islam,p.
67.
16Al-Sarkhas7l,Sharbal-Siyaral-Kabir, vol. IV, p. 95.
17SeeIbn Quddma,al-Mughn-1, vol. VUL p. 402.

53
Dhimmis during the Mamluk State

Historians say that dhimmis were a huge but important minority in the Egyptian

society; their number was estimatedat abouttwenty thousandin Cairo aloneduring

the Mamluk period. Half of themwere from the Coptsand the otherhalf were from
the Jews'. Both Copts andJewshad their own religious leaderswho organizedtheir

religious and social affairs as well as being intermediaries

betweentheir sectsand the
authorities.

Treligiousleaders,wasthat
Oneof the eventswhich emphasizesthe role of the dbin2m.
during the year 721 A. H. /1321 A. D., Kaffm al-D-inal-Kab-ir,the controller of the
household(n,!ýir al-Lb5sý),said to the sultanal-Nd§irMu4ammadb. Qalaw-un,"The
Christians have a patriarch, who they depend on and who knows an abouttherif'.
That patriarch was John IX, Yu-pannj'al-M-sl', (721 A. H. /1321 A. D. - 778 A. H.
/1377 A. D.). Then the sultan sent for Pope JohnIX to confer with him aboutthe
Christians' responsibility for the fire that had destroyedmany partsof Cairo and
2
Fust5t. Another example is that in the year 846 A.H./1442 A. D., the sultansentfor

the leadersof dbimmis to discuss 3

mattersrelatedto their sects.

The teachings of Islam have commanded all Muslims to deal generously with
dhin=is- 4 Hence dbimmis, as history records, were treated kindly after the Islamic

conquest of Egypt, when they found themselves in a better position than they had

been under the Byzantine rule, becauseduring the Byzantine empire the Christians in

Egypt suffered persecution for their faith in the nature of JesusChriSt.5

1 'Ash-ur,S. A., AI-Mujtarnaal-Mijill fi-A§r ýaldtllnal-Mam5lik, p. 47.

2 Al-Maqf-lz7l,Al-SulUkli-Ma'rifat Duwal al-Mul-uk,vol. IH, p. 42; Qdsim,A. Q., Ahl al-Dhimmafl-
Mig al-lUpur al-WusJ5,pp. 67 f.
3 Al-Sakh5w-i,Shamsal-D-In,AI-Tibr al-Masb-uk fl Dhayl al-Sul-uk,p. 36.
4 Seethe next section:"Me Positionof Dhimmis in Islarre'.
5 See:Arnold, lbomas W., AI-Da'wa 115al-Isl5m,pp. 91,123; Al-Dahab-1,
I. G., Mu'dmalt Ghayral-
Muslim7infl- al-Mujtama' al-Isl5ei, 143;Aýrnad,Naflm5n. A., Mulmalt Ghayral-Muslimlinfl al-
Dawla al-Isldmiyya,p. 83.

54
This policy of tolerance towards dhimmis continued throughout the times following

the Islamic conquest of Egypt (20 A. H. / 640 A. D )6. In the time of the Mamluk
.
State, dbimmis were generally being treated kindly. This can be observed through

studying the various documents of that time. One of these documents said that one of
the Mamluk sultans endowed 43 olive trees for the servantsof a church, 31 olive trees
for the servantsof T-urSaynd', and a garden for the nuns staying in the monastery of
from 7
the money of the treasury. There were also many decreesissued
al-Sh-ubk, all
by the sultans and emirs throughout the Mamluk period for dhimmis to be protected

and cared for. For instance we can read sentenceslike: ".. they should be cared for and
their dhimma should be kept all the time ..... ....we are caring for the interests of our

subjects of the different religions, faiths and doctrines.." and ".. some of our high
for benefit 8
customs are to give precepts the of dhimmis according to the Sunna..".

Historical documentsalso show that the leadersof the Stategavetitles of respectto

the leadersof the dhimmissects.Someof the titles given to Christianpatriarchswere:
al-PaVh d-sjýniya (the high presence), ahraTs (the leader), al-mubq#al (the
respected),kanz al-Iff'Ma al-ýaljibiyya(the treasureof the cross' sect)etc. Also some
of the titles given to Jewishleaderswere: 7
al-jal., (the ahra.
respected), Ts(the leader),

a]-muqarrab (the close), al-pak.Fm (the wise), tij al-P&ma (the crown of
9 Theseclearly showthe attitude the Statetowardsdhimmis.
etc.
wisdom),.. of

The State had several reasonsfor observing the Islamic rule about treating dhimmis

well. They wanted to maintain good relationships with foreign powers and they
wanted to maintain a peaceful state without the fear of mob violence from the

minority. Also some dhimmis were quite influential in the royal court. Historical
documents record many events which show how the State implemented the Islamic
10
dhin2mis. For in the 714 A. H. /1314 A. D.,
rule towards example year one of the

inhabitants of al-Ijusayniyya (in Cairo) rode a horsewith a swordin his handand

"kshUr,AI-Mujtama'al-Miýff fi 'Ag ýaldjlin al-MamffiBc,p. 49.

7 lbid, pp. 55 L
9 Seethosedocumentsat: Qdsim,Ahl al-DhimmafiMi§r al-'U§Ural-Wustd, 64 f.
pp.
9 lbid, p. 65.
10lbid, p. 79.

55
tried to hit any Christian or Jewhe sawin the street,injuring someof them,where
he to "
death. Also in 717 A. H. /1317 A. D., the chief
upon was seized and put
Shams
qdd-1, al-DTnal-Ijafiff al-IjanafTi, was deposedbecause he castigatedChristians

who were appointed as writers, and if he sawone of them riding a horsehe brought

them down and humiliated 12

them. And alsoin the eventsof the year755 A. H. /1354

A. D. it was decreedthat it was not allowed for anyoneto be aggressivetowards

dhi,nMiS.13

Ibn al-'Ukhuwwa (d. 729 A. H. /1329 A. D.), in his book: (MaIlim al-Qurba),
describedthe position of dhimmis in his time saying, "their houseshavebecome
higher than the housesand the Mosques of Muslims; they havebeencalledby the
same agnomina and titles for Ab-u
ascaliphs, exampleal-RashTd, al-Ijasan. and Ab7u

al-Fa4l; they ride horses the

and alike the sameas Muslims and wear the bestclothes
that Muslims wear, and they have not beendeprivedof the compassionof the sultans

of the Mamluks, but what they have reachedof high positionwas by the supportof
14
the sultane'.

Similarly in the events of the year 700 A. H. /1300 A. D., al-MaqfIzI (in al-Sul-uk)
described the conditions that dhimmis enjoyed, saying that they had become very

affluent, riding excellent horses, wearing the best clothes and being appointed to the

most important jobs. During that time it happened that the vizier of al-Maghdb (the

Egypt while he was on his way to Mecca to perform al-pql#. When he

west), visited
was sitting in a]-Qal'a, (in Cairo), he saw great pomp being displayed by a Christian.

This Christian rode on horseback, with footmen in front and attendantsbehind, and

poor Muslims crowded round and kissed his feet, and he did not pay any attention to
15
them, but scolded them and ordered his servantsto drive them away.

However the elevated position enjoyed by dbimmis andthe generosityof attitude

towards them did not continuethroughoutthe periodof the Mamluk State;therewere

" At-Maqrlz7l,Al-Sul7ukli-Ma'rifat Duwal al-Mul7uk,vol. II, p. 498.

12 lbid, vol. H, p. 524.
13Ahl al-Dhimmafif Mig al-'UýUur
al-WqJ5, p. 81.
14Ibn al-'Ukhuwwa,Ma'51imal-Qurba,p. 42.

56
periods during which dhimmiswere subjectto wavesof persecutionby Muslims. For
example, in 700 A. H. /1301 A. D., there were some restrictions imposed upon
dbimmis about their appearanceand behaviour etc., in the mars7urnissued by al-Ndýir

MOammad'6. Also during 721 A. H. /1321 A. D., al-MaqCiz-imentioned that many

churcheswere destroyedby 17
a mob .

Yet when we come to study these events and other similar ones in the light of the
Islam dhimmis, 18
tolerant nature of towards we find that there are various factors

which probablycontributedto theseperiodsof persecution.Someof thesefactorsare

examinedbelow.

1. The CrusadeWars
The terrors and brutalitiesinflicted by Crusaderswho apparentlyfought in the name
of Christianity, left the whole Islamic world feeling bitter andsometimescaused
emotional reactions against dhimmis in the Islamic countries,Egypt amongstthem.
During the Mamluk Statethe Muslims still rememberedwhat hadhappenedwhen the
19Moreoverhistorianssaythat in 616 A. H.
Crusaderswereon their way to Jerusalem.

/1219 A. D., when the CrusadersconqueredDamietta,20they killed so manypeople

that the numberof peoplekilled could not be counted.They alsochangedDamietta's

mosque into a church, and sent their soldiersto the villages to kill andcapturethe
Muslims they found, spreadingterror everywhere.21

15Al-MaqCiii, Al-Sul-ukli-Ma'rifat Duwal al-Mul7uk, H,

vol. pp. 337 f.
16Al-Qalqashand-1, Shih5bal-D-1n,*ubh al-A'shd f-1ýinWat al-Inshd,vol. XIII, pp. 378 ff., Al-Sul-uk,
vol. II, p. 338.
17Al-Sul-Uk,vol. III, pp. 38 L
is See the details of the position of Islam towards &Vmmis in the
next section:"Tbe Positionof
Dhimmisin Islane.
19Seedetailsof this point at: Lobon, Gustaf,1ja4drat
al-'Arab, pp. 325 ff.; Shalabli,Aýmad,Al-
1jurUbal-ýafibiyya Ibdd Ijalaq5t al-ýird' Bayn al-Sharqwal-Gharb,pp. 31 L; Asad,Mubammad,Al-
Isl5m 'a15Muftaraqal-Turuq,pp. 55 f.
20Damiettais a city lying in the north of Egypt, on the
anglebetweenal-RUmSeaandthe River Nile.
See:Al-Bijdd-i, A. M., Mard§idal-%W, vol. H, p.536; Al-Hamaw-1, Y., Mujam al-Buldan,vol. 11,p.
537.
21Al-Maqaill, AI-Sul-Uk,vol. 1,pp. 319 f.; Al-Suyu-1-1,Vusn al-Muh#ua fl- Akhbdr Mi§r wal-Qdhira,
vol. 11,p. 47.

57
Similarly in 750 A. H. /1349 A. D., the CrusadersattackedAlexandriaanddestroyed
the city and its establishments.There were also many brutal actionscommitted,
without considerationof age or race,andthe roadswerecrowdedwith slaughtered
people. This savage behaviour was not only directedat Muslims but also at eastern
Christians and the Jewsof Alexandria.Yet AI-Nuwayff al-Sakandafl-
andal-MaqFIzT
mentioned that the Christiansof Alexandriawalked in front of the Crusaders
to direct
22
them to the housesof Muslims. Hencethe CrusadeWarshelpedto excite feelingsof
hatredandmutualdistrustbetweenMuslims and dbimmis.

2. The Mongol Attack

The attack of the Mongols on the Muslim country andtheir notoriousbrutalities23

also had its effect on the relationshipbetweenMuslims and dhin2mis.

Moreover the
Mongol attack was welcomed by the Christians, who consideredit asa part of the
Crusadecampaigns.Hulaguwasthe leaderof the Mongol armiesandhis motherand

sister were Nestorian Christians. Therefore Hulagu attempted to appear as the

protector of Christians,thus gaining the approvalof the Christiansinside the Islamic

the foreign Christianforces Armenia and Angkya. 24
country, and supportof such as

As a result,the Christiansof the conqueredcities of the Islamic countrybecamevery

provocative towards the Muslims, who had lost everything and had becomevery
weak. Tritton described this, saying,

"When the Mongols conquered Damascus,in 658 A. H., Hulagu protected the

Christians. They drank wine in public in Rama4dn,poured it on the clothes of

Muslims, and on the doors of mosques.When they carriedthe crossin procession
they made the standup, and
shopkeepers ill treatedthosewho refusedto do so.They

22Aj_NiWayrIal-Sakandaill,Al-Ilm5m FI-m5JaratBihi al-Aýkdm al-Maq4iyyafl Wdqi'at al-

Iskandariyya,(a manuscriptNo. 907 in Ma'had al-Makht7uldt al-'Arabiyya); Q5sim,Ahl al-Dhimmaft-
Mi§r al-'Uýu-ral-Wusid,PP.92 f.
23Seethe detailsof massacres andbrutalitiesof the Mongolsin Baghdad,Aleppo andDamascusin:
Al-Maqj-jej, al-SulUk,vol. 1,pp. 449,511; Ibn Kath1r,Al-Biddya wal-Nih5ya,vol. XIII, pp. 226 ff
Also Vol. XIII, pp. 247 f.
241,7kshur,
al-'Asr al-Mama-IWI f-IMi§r wal-Sh5m,p. 34; HuwaydII,Muw5jin7unId Dhimmiyy-un,PP.
35 f.

58
 in
preachedsermons praise of their faith, exclaiming, 'The faith of the Messiah
triumphs to-day.' If the Muslims complainedthey werebeaten.The governorloaded
the priestswith honours.
',25

No doubtthis behaviouraffectedthe relationshipbetweenMuslims and dhimmis,and

added a new depth to the chasm that had appearedbetween them.

3. Aggressive Behaviour by Dhimmis of the Mamluk State

As well asthe aggressionswhich werecommittedby the Christiansin Damascusafter
its conquestat the hand of the Mongolsin 658 A. H. /1260A. D., therewereother
aggressive and provocative actions practicedby dhimmisduring the Mamluk State,
which alertedfeelingsof wrath againstthem.During the years663 A. H. /1264 A. D.,
721 A. H. /1321 A. D. and751 A. H. /1350A. D., Christianslit fires in manyquarters
destroyed 26
of Cairo and al-Fust5t, which great numbers of housesand shops.
Furthermore in 740 A. H. /1340 A. D., al-Maqfiz-imentionedthat therehadbeentwo
fires in Damascuscausedby someChristians.27Thesefires, due to wind andprimitive
fire-extinguishing methods, spread to a lot of Muslim properties. As a result of this

some restrictions were imposed on dhimmis

There are also records of provocative actions by individual dbimmis, for example in
754 A. H. 11353 A. D., one of the Christians of al-j-ur came to Cairo and declared

publicly his defamation of Islam, saying that he wishedto gain salvationby being
28
killed as a martyr. Also in 781 A. H. /1379A. D., a groupof Christianswho had

convertedto Islam, cameto Cairo and statedopenly that they apostatized,announcing

that they wishedto be killed in 29
order to gain salvation. Theseevents,which wereof

a religious nature,andthe other aforementionedevents,all affectedthe way dhimmis

25Tritton, The Caliphsandtheir non-MuslimSubjects,pp. 57 L Seealso:Al-MaqrTIzT,

Al-SulUk,vol.
512.
26Al-Maqf-iz-i,Al-Sul-uk,vol. 11,p. 25, also:
vol. III, pp. 40 ff.
27Ibid, vol. III, pp. 282 f
28Qdsim, AM
al-Dhimma fi Mig al-'UýU-ral-Wustd, p. 193.
29Ibid.

59
were treated, at least on the part of the public, who saw Islam being defamed and
degradedby thosewho representeda minority in the country.

4. Employing Dhimmis in Important Jobs over Muslims

Ibis provoked the people and excited their feelingsagainstthem.Historically the

dhimmis in Egypt had held jobs in administrativedepartmentsever sincethe early
Muslim governmentshad substitutedthemfor the Byzantineemployees.Hencesome
of them, especially Christians, became experts in the matters of financial
30 In his book "A History of Egypt in the Middle Ages" Lane-Poole
administration.

stated that the Mamluk sultan,al-Ndýir Mu4ammad,employedChristians,i.e. Copts,

in the sameway that all Egyptiangovernmentsemployedthem.The reasonsfor this,
in his opinion, weretheir qualificationsin business,andalso they did not representa
dangerto the throneof the Mamluk sultans.31

No doubt it distressedMuslims to seethe influenceandwealth gainedby dhimmis

due to their employmentin the departmentsof the government.Muslims also sawthe
way the dhimmis used their influence againstMuslims, andhow dhimmisparaded
their wealth in front of Muslims, many of whom werefeeling the pain of poverty and
were sufferingunderthe pressureof the taxesthat wereimposedby the goverm-nent.

This distress was also felt by Muslim scholars, who were moved to announce their

condemnation and disapproval of the situation. Thus it was natural to find the
scholars expressing their objection against using dhimmis in government jobs. They

expressed their opinions in their books, which seem to have been one of the important

mediums of influencing public opinion. Hence there were many books on these issues

compiled during that period by contemporary scholars such as:

1. Ibn al-Durayhim, (d. 762 A. H./1361 A. D.), "Manhaj al-ýawdb fl Qub4

Istiktiib Ahl al-Kitiib".

30Ahl fi
al-Dhimma Miýr al-'U§-ural-Wusp, p. 84.
31Lane-Poole,Stanley,A History of Egypt in the Middle Ages, 311 f.
pp.

60
 2. Al-Asnawi-, (d. 772 A.H./1370-1 A.D.), "Al-Kalim5t al-Muhimma f-i
MubdsharatAhl al-Dhimm:V.

3. Ibn al-Naqqdsh,(d. 773 A.H./1371-2A.D.), "Al-Madhammafif Isti'm5l Ahl al-

Dhimma".

Also other scholars wrote chapters in their books about their objection to employing
dhin2mis in government jobs over Muslims, for example Ibn al-Qayyim (d. 751
A. H./1350 A. D.) in his book "Aýkdm Ahl al-Dhimma". Moreover the books of
"Ijisba", which were compiled during this period, also objected to using dbimmis in

these jobs, for example Ibn al-'Ukhuwwa, (d. 729 A. H. /1329 A. D. ) in his book
fif
"Ma'Sim. al-Qurba Aýkdrn al-kiisba". 32

Earlier in this chapterwe statedthat the numberof non-Muslimswasin Cairo about

20.000, which represented a high percentagewithin the society in Cairo. This
probably explains why the Muslims felt uncomfortable about non-Muslims being

given such a high ranking position in the society.But the fact was that the governors
at that time needed to administrate the state properly and it seems that the non-
Muslim inhabitantswere,asearlier indicated,more skilled in clerical work, which led
the rulers to select themfor theseposts.This wasin spiteof the fact that therewere
still unhealedwounds in the Muslim societycaused by the Crusaders, and the fact

that certain Christian had causedproblems by being accusedof aggressionagainst

Muslim properties. All of this contributedto the attitudeof the peoplein generaland
the 'ulamd', which led to the compilationof bookssuchas(Manhajal-*awdb).

32Seethe detailsof thesebooksandtheir authorsin: Section(3): "The Value of Manhaj al-ýaw5b" in

ChapterOneof this study.

61
The Position of dhimmis in Islam

The Quran bears witness to the high status of human bcings in the hierarchyof
creation. This point is made in numerous verses of the Quran, e.g. "We have
honoured the sons of Adam; provided them with transporton land and sea;given
them for sustenancethings good and pure and conferred on them specialfavours
above a great part of our creation". "We have indeedcreatedman in the bestof
2. "When I have fashionedhim "a man" andbreathedinto him of my spirit,
moulds',
fall down prostratingyourselvesto him'93
.

The Quran further characterizeshumans as the carriers of great truse, and the
5 Also all human beings have come from the sameorigin,
recipients of great power.

"0 people, fear your Lord who createdyou from a singlesoul "Adam", andfrom it
He created his mate "Eve", and from both He scatteredabroad many men and
6 Also the Prophet(PBUH) said,".. Bewareyour Lord is one andyour father
women',
is one". 7

In the Sunna, "A funeral processionpassedbeforethe Prophet(PBUH) andhe stood

up. He was told that he "the dead man" was a Jew. Upon this the Prophet (PBUH)

"Was he human being did he have 8

remarked, not a or not a SOUI?,,

Tbus the statusof humanbeingsis uniquein the sight of Islam andtheir high position
makes them masters in the earthand the because
heavens, ARah breathed into them

1Quran,(XVII: 70).
2Quran,(XCV:4).
3Quran,(XV: 29),Seealso,(11:30;VII: 11).
4Quran(XXXIII: 72).
5Quran(XIV: 32-33;XLV: 12-13).
6 Quran,(IV: 1).
7 MusnadAýmad,vol. V, p. 411, "Musnadal-An§de'.
8 vol. H, p. 224, The Book of funerals,
"d-janJ772!
', Chapter:
Standingfor the
al-Bukh5ff,
funeralprocessionof a Jew,narratedby Mir b. 'Abd Allah; ýýIý Muslim, vol. II, p. 455, The Book
of "al-janj'&',
funerals, Standing
Chapter: up on sayinga bier.

62
of His spirit, so the angelsfell down prostratingto them.This distinguished position
of the human being is becauseof his humanity, not becauseof his religion or colour.

The relationship of Muslims to dbimmisis basicallybuilt on this framework,andits

most importantcharacteristicsareliving peacefullytogether,respectingthe dignity of
human beings, into whom Allah breathedof His spirit, andtreatingdbimmiskindly
with no hostility.

There are many referenceswhich show these characteristicsbeing practiced.The

Prophet had neighboursfrom AM al-Kit5b whom he treatedkindly andexchanged
gifts with, to such an extent that a Jewishwomanput poison into the shoulderof a
sheepand gave it to him as a gift, because
he had become usedto acceptinggifts
from people, regardlessof their religions,andhe treatedall of them kindly.9 Also, in

the 10'h of the Hijra, a Christianembassycame from Najfj-n (near Yemen, about 150

miles north of ýan'd) to the Prophet,

andhe allowed them to go into the mosque to
10
performtheir own prayers.

The Caliphs emulated the Prophet in treating dhinm2is generously. The Prophet said,
"If anyone wrongs a man to whom a treaty has been granted, or diminishes his rights,

or burdens him, his

above strength,or takes from him anythingwithout his I
consent,
am an advocate him
against on the day of judgment)".

Also the first Caliph, Ab-u Bakr said, "Do not kill any of the protected people, for if

you do God will require the protection of them from you and will cast you on your

faces in heir, 12 When the troops started for Syria, Ab7u-Bakr is said to have given
.
these commands, "When you enter that country, kill neither old man, nor little child,

nor woman. Do not pull down a pillar saint from his place. Do not injure the monks,
for they have set themselves apart to worship God. Do not cut down a tree nor uproot

a plant. Do not rip up any ox, cow or sheep.If a province or people receive you, make

9 Mutammadb. Is45q,al-SIraal-Nabawiyya,publishedwith al-Raw4al-'Unuf, vol. IV, p. 44.

10Ibid, vol. HI, p. I
11SunanAbu D5wUd,Vol. H, p. 862, Kitdb al-khar5jwal-fai' wal-Im5ra,Chapter:On levying tithes

on non-Muslim protected peoplewho bring to

merchandise the Muslim country. narratedby ýafwdn
ibn SalTm.
12Tritton, A. S., The Caliphsandtheir Non-Muslim Subjects,p.137.

63
an agreementwith them and keep your promise. Let them be governedby their laws

and
and establishedcustoms, take tribute from them as is agreedbetweenyou. Leave

themto their religion andtheir land"13.

Another example of how to treat dhimmiswasnarratedby Juwayriyab. Quddmaal-

"We saidto 'Umar Ibn al-Khatt5b,"0 chief of the believers!Advise us." He
TanCirn7i,
said, "I advise you to fulfill Allah's convention,(made with dhimmis), as it is the

convention of your Prophet (PBUH) and the source of livelihood of your

....14It is also narratedthat 'Umar ibn al-Khatt5b,in his dying chargeto his
dependents

successor,said,

"I charge the Caliph after me to be kind to the dbimmiswho areunderthe protection
of Allah and His Messenger, to keep their covenant, to protect them, and not to
15
burdenthem abovetheir strength"

All of these texts indicate that the Prophet and his Caliphsweregenerousto the
people of the book, who were living in the Muslim country. Howeverwe should
light the the dhimmls in the Muslim 16
by
throw more upon position of country

explaining their rights and duties.

lbid, p. 137.
14*ablib al-Bukh5fi, vol. IV, p. 256, The Book of al-jizya, Cbapter:The adviceto takecareof non-
Muslims who havea covenantof Allah's Messenger.
15 ý4Ai al-Bukhdfi, Vol. IV, P. 182.The Book of al-jilidd wal-siyar,Chapter:Oneshouldfight for
dhimmisandthey shouldnot be enslaved,narratedby 'Amr b. Maim7un.
16The Muslim country,in this study,meansthe countryof the IslamicCaliphatethat appliesIslam in
its rule andthat all Muslims areattachedto. Nowadaysthereis no existanceof this country.HenceI
mean the moral meaning of it, which thejurists, "d-FuqabJ7"' meanwhenthey mentionit in their
booksof IslamicLaw.

64
The Rights and Duties of Dhimmis in Islam

Most Muslim jurists agreethat dbimmismusthavethe samerights andobligationsas

Muslims. AI-K5s5nTmentioned a 1jadlith that hasthe abovemeaning.The Prophet
said, "If they accept the contractof d)Vmma,
let them know that they have the same
Muslims have and havethe sameobligationsasMuslims have".17Also 'All
rights as
b. Ab-UTdlib said, "They, dhimmisýhaveacceptedthe contractof dhimmafor their

property to be the same as mine and for their blood to be the sameas "18
mine. The

by in
Al-Sarkhas-1 his book "Shar4 19
samewas said al-Siyaral-Kabile'.

Thus the general basis of the rights anddutiesof dhimmisin the Islamic societyis
that they havethe samerights anddutiesasMuslims. The only exceptionsto this are
the rights and duties related to the difference of religion. In other wordsthereare
duties for dhimmis which are not for Muslims, suchasfi-ýya,which correspondsto

zaUt on Muslims. There are alsorights for dhimmis,which are not for Muslims, for

example Muslims are not allowed to drink alcohol, but have

dWnzmis the right to
drink it away from Muslims. These differences are easily accepted, becausethe
different religionsrequiresomedifferent rights andduties.

a) The Rights of Dbimmis

Hereare someof the importantrights that dhimmisenjoy in the Islamic country:

(1) Freedom of Religion

one of the mostimportantrights of dhimmis,is to be given the right of choice so that

they may practice their religion in total freedom.This freedom is guaranteed by the
Holy Quran:

17A]-Kdsdnl, BaddT al-ýand'i', vol. VII, p. 100.

19Ibid, vol. VH, p. 111;Sunanal-Ddrqatd, vol. III, p. 94, Kit5b al-bud-udwal-diy5L
19AI-Sarkhas-1,Shamsal-A'imma, Sharbal-Siyaral-Kablir,vol. III, p. 250.

65
"Let there be no compulsion in religion, truth standsout clear from error, 20,"Had

your Lord willed, everybody on earth would have believed. Will you then compel
peopleto becomebelievers?,'21

Moreover compulsion is incompatible with religion, becausereligion dependsupon

faith and will, and these would be meaninglessif induced by force. This is the way
the Prophet (PBUH) followed and it was never narratedthat he killed, punishedor
imprisoned any of the people of book or anyoneelsebecausehe did not follow Islam.
In his covenantto the Christians of NqjhTn,the Prophetsaid,

".. No church of theirs will be demolishedand no clergyman of theirs will be turned

be interruption of their religion.. " 22
out. There will no

The Caliphs and the leaders of the Muslim armies followed this example of the

prophet when they made their covenantswith the people of conqueredcountries. In

the covenantof 'Umar b. al-Khatt5b to the people of Jerusalem, "'Ily5" or al-Qud?',
it says:

"He, 'Umar, gave them security for their lives, property, churches,and crosses,their

sick and healthy, and the rest of their religion. Their churchesshall not be usedas
dwellings nor destroyed, nor they (churches),nor their estates,nor their crosses,nor

their property be diminished in any way". 23

Also in the covenantof 'Amr b. al-'ýý to the people of Egypt (M4s[), it says:"This is
the text of the covenantthat 'Amr b. al-'Aý has grantedthe people of Miýr concerning
immunity for themselves, their religion, their possessions,churches,crucifixes, as

well as their land and their waterways. Nothing of thesewill be interfered with or
decreased 24
. .....

20QLiran,(11:256).
21Quran, (X: 99).
22SunanAb-uDdwUd, vol. H, p. 863, Kit5b al-khardj wal-fai'
wal-iMdTa,Chapter: On levying jizya
(Poll-Tax), narratedby Ibn 'Abbds.
23 Ibid, 10.
p.
24 Ibn JarIr
al-Tabarl, The History of al-Tabar-1,Tdflkh al-Rusul wal-MulUk, vol. XIII, p. 170.

66
Also in the covenant of Kh5lid b. al-Wal7id to the People of 'ZnR 25, it says:

".. Muslims should not destroyany Bay'a nor a church,and they, (dhimmis)havethe
right to use their bells "na wj'q.Tg'at any time in the night or day exceptfor the times
of the Muslim prayers. They also have the right to show their crosses at their
26
celebratione'.

In his book Tritton describeshow Muslim Caliphs were kind to dbimmis and let them
freely practice their religious rituals and celebrate their religious festivals. He says

that Hish5m, (Ibn 'Abd al-Malik, the 'Umayyad Caliph), was kindly disposed to
Christians; in his reign the patriarch Michael entered Alexandria in procession with
27 Also in the time HdrUn
candles, crosses, and gospels. of al-RashTid,(the Abbasid

Caliph), it was customary to carTy the cross in procession, for the Christians had
do day, 28
insisted on their right to so on one presumably Easter.

Throughout Islamic history there are no records of Muslims forcing any of the
dhimmis to leave their religion or preventing them from practicing their religious

rituals. There is some Christian evidence to support this. "Ishoyahbh, who was
patriarch from A. D. 647 to 657, writes, "The Arabs, to whom God gave dominion

over the world, behave well to us, as you know. They are not hostile to Christianity,
but praise our religion, honour our priests and saints, and help the churches and
29
monasteries".

However it should be pointed out that although dhimmis have always been allowed to

practice their religious rituals, they are not allowed to practice them openly in
Muslim provinces, becausethese are placeswherethe Islamic rites arepracticed. 30

But they areallowed to frcely practicetheir religion, in whicheverwaysthey wish, in

25 I"kn5tis severalvillagesat Euphratesin Iraq. SeeKit-abat-Khar5j, Thef

ootnote p. 294.
26Ab-uYUsuf,Al-Khar5j, p. 294.
27Tritton, The Caliphsandtheir Non-Muslim Subjects,p. 106.
29Abu Y-usuf.Op. Cit, p. 281.
29Tritton, Op. Citýp. 139.
30Al-Usdiff, BadA'Pal-ýanWi', vol. VII, p. 113.

67
 31
their own provincesandvillages. This is what Sh5fi'I emphasizeswhenhe saysthat
the govermnent must not interfere with any practice of dhimmis, even if it is contrary
to Muslim law, so long as it does not intrude on public notice. So, in a town where no
Muslims live, Christians may build churches and no one may interfere with their food
festivals.32
or their

Finally it would be interesting to address the question: Have the Christians or the

people of the book ever suffered under the Muslim rule? To answer such a question
objectively we must say they may be have, becausein any society there is bound to
be some oppression and injustice, whether due to individual inclination or historical

events. Thus a Christian minority in the Muslim country would probably have

suffered to some extent simply becausehuman beings, whatever their race or religion,
sometimes practice injustice and oppression. However it does seemthat the rule of
Islam minimizes these tendencies, so that minorities living in Muslim country have

suffered far less oppression than they have in other places around the world.

The Establishment of Biya' and Churches

Muslim jurists "al-fuqaff"' have elaboratedon this point, dividing the Muslim

provincesinto threecategories
as follows:

I. The provinces, that have been establishedby Muslims, such as al-Kffa, al-Baýra

and Baghdad. Dhimmis are not allowed to establish churches in these provinces.
However Zaydiyya said, "Dbimmis may establish churches in these provinces if

the Caliph of Muslims, seeing some benefit in it, permits them to.

2.The provinces or countries that Muslims haveconqueredby force. Dbimmis are

not allowed to establishchurchesin these unless,
provinces, accordingto Ibn al-
Odsim,the Mdlikl scholar,they have permissionfrom the Caliph.
41L

31Ibn Qud5ma,Shamsal-D-in,Al-Sharbal-Kab-ir,vol. x, p. 621.

32Tritton, The Caliph andtheir non-MuslimSubjects,p. 100.

68
3.The provinces or countries, that havebeenconqueredby reconciliationbetween
Muslims and the people of these provincesor countries.Muslim scholarshave
said that if this is
reconciliation on the basisthat the land is for the dhimmisand
the tribute on the land is for the Muslim country, then they are allowed to
establish churches.But if the is
reconciliation on the basisthat the land is for the
Muslim country and the dhimmis givefizya, then their churcheswill be treated
according to their covenant. So if their covenantincludes their right to establish
churches,then they have the right to, otherwise they have not. However the
Mdlik-I scholars said that in provinces or countries that were conqueredby
reconciliation, the people are allowed to establish churches,whether it is
33
stipulatedin their covenantor not.

Ijanaff scholarshave differed in their opinions about dhimmi villages andtowns

where no Muslims live.

Al-Kdsdn7i,the author of "BaddT al-ýand'i`, said, "Dhimmis should not be

from Churchesin 34
theseplaces".
prevented establishing

Al-SarkhasI1 said, "They should not be prevented in the villages and places where
inhabitants dhimmis. ?5
the majority of the are

On the same point Sh5fi'I scholars said, "Dhin2mis are unrestrictedlyallowed to

36
establishchurchesin their villageS.,,

in
The more acceptableopinion my view, concerning building churchesand biya' in

the Islamic country, is the opinion of Zaydiyya andIbn al-Q5sirnfrom the Mdli]Ci'
school, which is based on allowing the dhimmisto build andestablishchurchesand
other buildings of worship in Islamic in
provincesandplaces,and also provincesand
places that were conqueredby force, if the ruler of Muslims gives them permission.

33Ibn Qudima, Al-Mughn7l,voL VIII, pp. 526 ff.; Al-Nawaw-t,Al-Majrcu'Sharh al-Muhadhdhab,

vol. XXI, pp. 223 L; Ibn Qayyim al-Jawziyya, Aýkdm Ahl al-Dhimma, vol. II, pp. 669 ff.; Al-Nimr,
N. M., Ahl al-Dhimmawal-Wildy5t al-'A=a FIFal-Fiqh al-Isldm-i,pp. 129ff.
34Al-Kdsdn7i,BaddT al-ýand'i', vol. VII, p. 114.
35Al-Sarkhas7l,Sharbal-Siyaral-Kablir,vol. M, p. 253.
36Al-RamiT,Nih5yat al-Mubtiij 115Sharbal-Minh5j, vol. VII, p. 239.

69
This opinion is in line with the positionof Islam, which gives dbimmisthe right to
practice the rituals of their religion in absolute freedom. It is not acceptable if
freedom of worship for dhimmisis guaranteedby Islam but the freedomto establish
churches and biya' is not in
guaranteed the sameway. So this in
opinion, my view, is
logical andalsoin accordancewith the flexible attitudeof Islam towardsdhimmis.

Actually, in practice it has always been very rare to find dhimmisbcing prevented
from building new churches and bip. Historians have mentioned many new

churches being throughout

established the history of Islam, in
even cities foundedby
in
Muslims suchas al-Fust5tand]Liulwan Egypt. 37

37Arnold, Tbomas W., AI-Da'wa Ild al-lsl5m, pp. 84 ff ; AI-MimmT, Ijasan, Ahl
al-Dhimma f1fal-
Ijaddra al-lsldmiyya, p. 129; Q5sirn, A. Q., Ahl al-Dhimma ft Mig al-'U§7ural-Wusl5, p. 81;
mahncud, S. S., Ahl al-Dhimma ff Misr fil al-'A§r at-F51infifal-Awwal, pp. 222 ff.

70
 (2) Protecting Dhimmis from Harm

The Qurancontainsmanyverseswhich warn Muslims againstdoing wrong to people

or harmingthemgenerally.God said,

* "And Allah loves do

not thosethat wrong"?g

"Think not that Allah does not heed the deeds of those who do wrong. He but

gives them respite against a day when the eyes will fixedly stare in horror. They

will be running forward with necks outstretched, their headsuplifted, their gaze
hearts 'gaping' 39
returning not towards them, and their a void".
".. for Allah loves not transgressors940

Moreover in the Quds-iIjad-Ith, Allah said, "0 My servants,I have forbidden

oppressionfor Myself and have made it forbiddenamongstyou, so do not oppress
'
one another"! Similarly therearemany Ijadith which deal with the sameissue.The
Prophet (PBUH.) said,"Oppressionwill be a darknesson the Day of Resurrection7
9!2

Thesetextsfrom the Holy Quriin andthe Ijad-ithof the Prophet(PBUH) forbid wrong
andharmingpeople.

As well as generally forbidding doing wrong to people, Islam holds that d)Vn2mis

must be protected from harm, and considers this to be one of the important rights of
dhimmis in the Muslim society. This is supported by the previously mentioned
1jadlith, "If anyone wrongs a man to whom a treaty has been granted, or diminishes

39Quran,(111:140).
39Quran,(XIV: 42-3).
40Quran,(11:190).On
this subjecttherealsomanyotherQuranicverses,see(VI: 21;VI: 58;XXH:
14).
41Wql Muslim,
vOl-IV. p. 1365,Kitabal-birrwal-§ildtwal-adab,Chapter:It is forbiddento commit
Oppression, by
narrated Ab7uDhaff;seealsoForty13adlith Quds7l,
pp. 82ff.
42ýaA
al-Bukh5f,VOLiii, p. 376,TheBookof oppression, Chapter:Oppression will bea darkness
on theDayof Resurrection, narratedby Ibn 'Umar.Onthissubjecttherearealsomanyother1jadith,
oneof whichis thattheProphet(pBUli) sentMu'ddhto Yemenandsaid.(Beafraidfromthecurseof
theOppressed as thereis no screenbetween his invocationandAllah.) ýWib al.-Bukhdfl,vol. III, pp.
376L, TheBookOfOppression, Chapter: Oneshouldsaveoneselffromthecurseof theoppressed,
narratedby Ibn 'Abb5s.

71
his rights, or burdenshim abovehis strength,or takesfrom him anythingwithout his

consent,I am an advocateagainsthim on the day of judgment'9.43

In another Ijadlith, the Prophet(PBUH) said,"Whosoeverhurtsa dhimmF I become

his opponent, and whosoever I am his opponent I defeat him on the Day of
44
Judgment". And also, "Whosoever hurts a cWmmThc will have hurt me, and

hurts
whosoever he
me will havehurt AllaW'! 5

These Prophetic Ijad-ithare not only directedat physicalharm,but alsoat moral and
immaterial harm. Thus dhinimis andtheir feelingsmustbe respectedin the Muslim

society. One of the meanings of 'Izj", (wrong or hurt), in the Holy Quriin is hurt
feelings.On oneoccasionAllah directedMuslims to respectthe Prophetand not to go
into his housewithout his permission,saying,".. such 'behaviour' annoysthe Prophet
(hurtshis feelings)he is shy to dismiss ".
you.. 46

Tberefore the rightly guided Caliphsandthe Muslim leadersafter thembelievedin

protecting dhimmis from harm or annoyance,and they investigatedany complaints

coming from them. Historians mentioned that 'Umar b. al-Khajt5bcaredaboutthe
dhimmis and used to askdelegationsaboutthem.Al-Tabafi, in his history, narrated
that 'Umar b. al-Khatt5b said to the delegation of al-BJýra, "Have the Muslims
perhaps done harm to the peopleliving undertheir protection?'No,' they answered,
'We only know that we actedin goodfaith andwith deccncy`ý7 Also, ashasbeen

stated before, in his dying chargeto his successor,he said,I chargethe Caliph after
me to be kind to the dhimmis who are under the protection of Allah and His

43SunanAbu DdwUd,vol. II, p. 862,KitZibal-khar5iwal-fai' wal-imdra,Clapter: On levying tithes

on non-Muslim protected people who bring merchandise to the Muslim country.narratedby ýafwdn b.
Sarlm.
44APAirunT, 1.M., Kashf al-Khafa-wa Muz-11 al-llbýs 'Ammd 'Ushtuhiramin al-45d-ith 'A15
Alsinat at-Nds,vol. H, p. 303, andhe ascribedit to al-Khal-lb,narratedby Ibn Mas'Ud;Al-Suyull, Al-
J5mi' al-ýaghTrmin Ijad-Ithal-Bash7ir al-Nadh7ir,vol. 11,473,andhe referredthat the sanadof the
IjadTthis good.
45Al-, Ajrun7imentionedit in his book, Kashf al-Khara,andascribedit to al-Tabar5rCi,
narratedby
Anasb. M5liL
46Quran,(XXXHI: 53).
47T5rAh al-Tabarl,vol. XIH, p. 141.

72
Messenger,to keep their covenant, to protect them,andnot to burdenthemabove
48
their strength".

Moreover when Muslims conqueredcountries,they wereeagerto behavewell to the

people of these countries, who wereviewed ashaving comeunderthe protectionof
Allah andHis Messenger(PBUH). 'Amr b. al-'.ýK§,the conquerorof Egypt, treatedthe
Copts there kindly, stopped any persecution,and did not burdenthemabovetheir

strength, so they liked him andhappily acceptedhis rule49.In fact Muslims werevery

caring towards the Copts of Egypt, becauseof the 1jad-ithof the Prophet(PBUH),
"When you conquerEgypt, chargethat the Coptsaretreatedwell, becausethey have

andkinship".50On the basisof theseconfirmationsof the Prophet(PBUH),

protection
all Muslim jurists, in all the different schoolsof Law, havedeclaredthat Muslims
must protect dWmmis and they must not wrong or annoythem,becausethey have
becomecitizensin the abodeof Islam (dir al-IsHm), andhavethe protectionof Allah
51
andHis Messenger(PBUH).

Furthermore some scholars have said that to wrong dhimmis is worse than to wrong
Muslims. 52 This is basedon the fact that a d6in2m.Tin the abode of Muslims is weak,

and wrong done by the strong to the weak is worse than wrong done to a person of
equal strength. Iberefore Muslim scholarshave said that oneof the dutiesof the
Mt ig3 is to preyentMuslims from insulting dhimmisor usingaggressionagainst
up as
them, and to punish anyone involved in 54
that. Muslim scholarsusedto advisethe

rulers to be kind to dhimmis and carefor them. Ab-uY-Usuf

said in his addressto the

49 ý41ýi al-Bukh5ff, vol. IV, p. 182,The book of al-jih5d andal-siyar,Chapter:Oneshouldfight for

dVnýs andthey shouldnot be enslaved,narratedby 'Amr b. Mairrfu-n.
49kJasan,1J.I., TdrAh al-Isl5m al-Siy5s]-,vol. I, p. 312.
50Al-Balddhff, FutUu4al-Buld5n,p. 307.
51AI-Qardfl,Al-FurUq,p. 14; Ibn 'Xbid7in,HdshiyatRaddal-Miýt5r 'ald
al-Duff al-MukhtdrShar4
Tanw-iral-Abýdr,vol. IV, pp. 170L; Al-Uanbari,M. Y., Kashsh5fal-Qind"an Matn al-Iqnd', vol. III,
p. 139.
52Ibn '7,bid-in,H.5shiyatRaddal-Mi4tk, vol. IV, p. 171.
53Al-M4tasib is a manappointedby a Muslim ruler, to
enjoin what is right, andto forbid what is
wrong in the Muslim society.SeeD. Al-Khudrawi, A Dictionaryof IslamicTerms,p. 94.
54Al. M5ward11, Al-Ahka-mal-Sulldniyyawal-WiMydt al-D-Iniyya,p. 247; Kashshdfal-Qind', vol. III,
p. 126.

73
Caliph Hdr1in al-Rash7id,"It is right that you shouldorder the protectedpeopleto be
treated with kindness, that no injury should be donethem,that they shouldnot be
burdenedabove their strength, and that noneof their goodsshouldbe takenexcept
55
accordingto law'.,

Islam also statesthat all people should be treated alike by the law, and that the scales

of justice must be administered for all of them without differences between Muslims
and dhimmis. In this respect Allah (SWT) said, "0 you who believe! Stand out firmly
for justice, as witnesses to Allah, even if it is against yourselves, or your parents, or

your kin, and whether it be (against) rich or poor. For Allah can protect both. Follow
not the lusts (of your hearts), lest you swerve, and if you distort Ousticc) or decline to
do justice, Allah is that do".56
verily well-acquaintedwith all you

The Quranalso said,"ARah doescommandyou to renderback your truststo thoseto

whom they are due; and when you judge betweenpeoplethat you judge with justice.
Verily how excellent is the teachingwhich He gives you. For Allah is He who hears
57
things". This that Islam is interested in justice to
and seesall means applying

people, whether they areMuslims or dhimmis,becauseIslam hasgot only one scale

of justice to be appliedto all peoplewhatevertheir religion.

Also, if Muslims are exposed to aggressionfrom non-Muslims outside the Muslim

country, (such as the Crusadesin the twelfth and thirteenth centuries), this should not
be a reason for Muslims to depart from the generous treatment that Islam has

established for Dhimmis inside the Muslim country. Thus the wrong or aggression,

which non-Muslims might inflict on Muslims, should not prevent Muslims from

ensuring justice and applying it to dhimmis who live in the Muslim society and have

not transgressedagainst Muslims.

Therefore the Holy Quriin emphasizes,"No soul shall bearthe burdenof another
58Also Allah said, "0 you who believe! Stand out fmnly for Allah,
soul". as witnesses

55Abu-Y-usuf,A]-Khar5j, p. 257.
56Quran,(IV: 135).
57Quran,(IV: 58).
58Quran,(XVII: 15).

74
to fair dealing, and let not the hatred of othersto makeyou swerveto wrong and
depart from justice. Be just, that is next to piety, andfear Allah. For Allah is well-
do".59
acquaintedwith all that you

However, the relationshipbetweenMuslims and dhimmiswasnot alwaysso amiable.

Sometimesdhimmis were harmed by Muslims or Muslim rulers.Howeverin these
cases it was clear that theseMuslims actedagainstthe principlesof Islam, andtheir
unlawful actions became condemned by the scholars who adheredto Islam. Thus
JohnJoseph,in his book "Muslim-ChristianRelatione', said,

"In the twelfth century, a metropolitan of Nisibis (Eliyya, A. D. 1008-49)

favored the Muslims above people of other religion and persuasions"whether they

treat us well or not." The reason he gave was that the Muslims it
regarded as a
"matter of religion and duty to protect us, to honor us, and to treat us well. " Even

when the Muslims have "oppressed us and done us wrong, " they find out when they
"have turned to their law" that "it dose not approve of harming and oppressing us."
The metropolitan concluded that the occasional harsh treatment at the hand of the
Muslims coupled with "'their confession that in treating us thus they are acting

contrary to their law", is better for us than the good treatment of others who confess
that it is contrary to their law to treat us well. "60

59
Quran,(V: 8).
JohnJoseph,Muslim-ChristianRelationsandInter-ChristianRivalriesin the Middle East,p. 14.

75
(3) Protecting the Life and Properties of Dbimmis

All Muslim scholarshave emphasizedthat the lives andpropertyof dhimmisareto

be protected,andthis is consideredto be oneof the rights of &Vmmisin Islam.

Protecting the Life of Dbimmis

life has for just 61

Quransaid,"Do not take which Allah madesacredexcept cause".

The Prophet (PBUH) stated, "Whosoever kills a dhimmTwill not smell the scentof
its journey forty 62
paradise,and scentspreadsa of years".

Abu- Bakr al-ýiddliq, the first Caliph, said,"Do not kill any of the protectedpeople,
for if you do God will requirethe protectionof themfrom you andwill castyou on
in hell". 63
your faces

The above quotations clearly show that human life is strictly protected in Islam, and
killing people is prohibited, whatever their religion. However there are different

opinions about the be

penalty which must paid by a Muslim who kills a dhimmT The

majority of jurists (fuqabj') have said that a Muslim must not be executed for the

murder of a dhimmi. But Mdlik b. Anas and al-Layth said that if a Muslim kills a
dhimm.F in ghAa, he must be killed. However Ab-UljanTfa and his friends, al-Nakh'i,

al-Sha'b-1 and Ibn Ab-ulay1d, basing their stanceon the above quotations, state that a
Muslim should always be executed for the murder of a dhin=-ý4 and this is the

in
more acceptableopinion my view. I basemy opinion on the following evidence:

1. The versesof the Holy Qurdn,for example:

61Quran,(XVII: 33),seealso(VI: 151).

62ýýIib al-BukhdrLvol. IV, p. 259, The Book of jizya, Chapter:The sin of onewho kills an innocent

person having a treaty with the Muslims; alsovol. IX, p. 37, The Book of al-diy5t, (blood money),
Cbapter:The sin of a personwho killed an innocentdhL-nmT
63Tritton, P. 137.
64Baddi' al-ýan5i', vol. VII, p. 237; Al-Mughn-1,vol. VII, pp. 652 f.; Ibn Rushd,Biddyat al-Mujtahid

wa Nih5yat al-Muqta§id,vol. If, p. 299. Al-gh7ilameans making lie

somebody down and him
slaughter
paricularlyto takehis money. See: Biddyat al-Mujtahid,vol. 11,
p. 299.

76
 believe! Retaliationfor the is for
slain prescribed you".65
-"0 you who

"And We prescribedto them thereinthat a life for a life 9966

- .

is killed unjustly, We have given his heir the power (to demand
-"Whoever
67
satisfaction)".

This final verse says,"Whoeveris killed unjustly" anddoesnot distinguishbetween

types of peoplewho arekilled. Thus the aboveversesimply that a Muslim shouldbe
executedfor the murderof any whether
person, the victim is Muslim or dhimmT

2. The Sunna of the Prophet (PBUH), for example:

On the day of the conquest of Mecca, the Prophet "..

addressed, And if somebody
-
is killed, his closest relative hasthe right to chooseoneof two things,i.e., either
blood moneyor retaliation by having the killer killed" 68
.

The Prophet (PBUH) also said, ".. If anyoneis killed deliberately,retaliationis

due"69,"The blood of a Muslim may not be legally spilt otherthan in oneof three
(instances): the married person who commits adultery; a life for a life; and one
forsakes his 70
who religion and abandonsthe community".

These Prophetic Aýddlith imply that a Muslim should be executed for the murder of

any person.

3. The Ijad7ith which most of fuqahj-'used to support their opinion:

65
Quran,(11:178).
66
Quran,(V: 45).
67
Quran,(XVH: 33).
68ý411ýal-Bukh5ff, Vol. IX, p. 12,The Book of diy5t, "blood money",Chapter:The relativeof the
killed personhasthe right to chooseoneof two compensations (i. e. to havethe killer killed, or to
accept blood money. ); *-a4lý Muslim, Vol. II, p. 684, Kitiib al-Uaj (the book of Pilgrimage), Chapter:
The sacredterritory of Meccaandits inviolability andthe prohibition to do huntingin it andits
suburbs,and felling down of its trees andcutting its grass.
69SunanAb-u-D5wUd,Vol. III, P. 1274,The Book of diy5t, Chapter:On a personwho is killed among
his peopleandhis slayer.
70 ýýIib al-Bukh5rTI, Vol.IX, pp. 10 L, The Book of al-diy5t, (blood money),Chapter:The statement
of Allah, CWe ordained therein for them!' that a life for a life, an eye for an eye..).

77
".. Beware, a believer must not be killed for an infidel, nor mustone who hasbeen
be killed while his covenant holdS,,71This is the main evidencethat
given a covenant
the majority of fuqahF use, but it does not actually supportthembecauseof the
following:

The term 'infidel' (Mftý), in this Ijad-ith, signifies a fighting infidel, one who is

an inhabitant of dir al-Parb (the territory of This

War)72. is because,in the Arabic

text of the Ijadlith, the term "dh.T 'ahd', (one who has a covenant), is coupled to
the word, "mumid', (believer), not to the word "Hil-F, (an infidel). Thus the

meaning of the Vadlith might be, "Beware, neither a believer nor one who has

beengiven a covenantmustbe killed for an infidel".

The term "one who hasa covenant"(Aff 'aha),in the Ijadith, signifiespeople
who had temporary assurancesof protection, not Dhimmis. This is because
the
permanentcontract of d&mma was only introducedafter the conquest
of Mecca
in 8 A. H. / 629-30 A. D., so the covenantsbeforethis datewereonly specific
73
temporary treaties. Thus, at that time74,therewereno dhimn2h;on which this
75
Ijad-Ithapplied.

* All Muslim scholarshave agreed that a Muslim's handmustbe cut off if he

steals from a dhimm.T Thus, extrapolating from this, it seemsappropriate that a
Muslim is executed for the murder of a dhimm.T,becausethe protection of life is
important than the protection of property. 76
more

71SunanAbUDdwUd,vol. III, pp. 1270L, The Book of al-diy5t, Chapter:Shoulda Muslim be killed
for an infidel?
72Seein the difinition of dlr al-ýarbthe footnote,p. 52.
73Seethis point andits evidencein "Ibe Definition of AM al-Dhimma),at the beginningof this
Chapter.
74The time of conquestof Mecca,asthe IjadIdi indicated.
73Al-ja§ý5ý,Ahk5m al-Qur5n,vol. 1,p. 142;Seealsomoreevidence,which supportsthe Ijanafi'

opinion, and a discussion

of the evidenceof the oppositeopinion in the samebook vol. 1,pp. 140 ff.
76Ibid, vol. L p. 144.

78
 * The intention of Islam is to protectall life, evenanimals.In the Ijad-ith,the
Prophet (PBUM told of a womanwho was sentto hell for tying up a cat without
food until it died of starvation.77

The above points all seen to support the opinion that a dWmmlslife is valuedas
highly as a Muslims, so the penalty for murder should be constant,whoeverthe
victim is.

As well as commandingMuslims not to harm dhimmis, Islam commandsthat

dWmmis must be protectedagainstany foreign attack.Islam considersthis to be one
of the most important rights of dhimmis.Al-Qar-df-ihasreportedthat in Ibn Ijazm's
book, Mar5tib al-Ijmd', it saysthat if fighterscomefrom the abodeof war, ( diral-
Parb), to attackthe dhimmis,we mustfight themuntil deathto savethosewho are in
the protection of Allah (SWT) and His Messenger(PBUH). There is consensus
betweenall Muslim scholarson this point.78

Also if the Muslim country cannot provide protection to dhin2mis, it must return the

fizya that they have paid, because they pay it to be protected. This actually happened
during the Caliphate of 'Umar b. al-Khajt5b, when a]-Rffm prepared a huge army to
defeat the Muslim army. Ab-U 'Ubayda. b. al-J=54, the chief of the Muslim forces,

commanded the rulers of conquered cities in al-shimto return thcfizyato the people

there. 79

Protecting the Property of DhImmis

The propertyof dbimmisis protectedby the Islamic Law. It is not allowed to be taken
by force or by stealing.The Quransaid,

77*aM Muslim, vol. H, p. 430, Kit5b al-§al5t,Chapter:Mention the torment

of of gravein Eclipse
Prayer,narratedby Nbir b. 'Abd Allah.
79Al-Qar5fi, Al-FurUq,FarqNo, 119,vol. 111,p. 14.
79AbU-Yu-suf,al-Khar5i,p. 282.

79
 "And do not eat up your propertyamongyourselvesfor vanities,nor useit as
bait for thejudges,with intent that you may eat up wrongly andknowingly a little of
80
"other" people'sproperty".

Therefore all Muslim scholarshave unanimously agreed that no moneyshouldbe

taken from d6imrnisýexcept that which they give of their own free 81
wifl.

Moreover Islamic law hasprescribedthe punishmentof the lossof a handfor anyone

who stealsfrom dhimniiý whetherthe thief is a Muslim or not. On this point, thereis
1 82
between
consensus all Muslim schoiars.--

soQuran,(11:188).
" This consensus
is told by Ab-u'Ubayd,al-Qdsimb. Saldrn,in his book, KiUib al-Amw5l, p. 219.
92Ibn Rushd,Biddyat al-Muitahidwa Nihdyat al-Muqtqid, vol. II, p. 299.

80
(4) Caring for Dhimmis in the caseof Poverty, Senility and
Disability

Dbin2mis live in the Muslim society and Islam insists that the Muslim country is

responsiblefor them as a group of its hence

subjects, they mustbe carcd for by the
country. The Prophet (PBUH), said:

"All of you are guardians andresponsiblefor your wardsandthe thingsunderyour

care. The Im5m (i.e. ruler) is the guardian of his is
subjects and responsiblefor
9 83 In Ab-u'Ubayd"sbook "al-Amwdl", Sa'ld b. al-Musayyib,says,
therif .

"The Prophet(PBUH) hasgiven charity to the peopleof a Jewishfamily. It is

to thenf'. 84
continuously given

Therefore Islam guaranteesthat in the caseof poverty, senility or disability, dbimmis

are to be supported from the treasury of the Muslim country.There are numerous
examplesof the practical applicationof this, such as the following:

o During the caliphate of Ab7u Bakr al.-ýiddliq, Kh5lid b. al-WalTidwrote in the

contractof d6immato the Christianpeopleof in Iraq:

".. I have made it so that whoeveris old andtoo weak to work, or becomes
disabled or poor, that the peopleof his religion give him charity, he is exemptfrom
paying fiAya, and is to be supportedwith his family from the treasuryas long ashe
in the Muslim ',
country. 85
stays

Ab-UY-Usuf,in his book "aI-Kbatjj',

saidthat 'Umar b. al-Khatt5bpasseda
house where an old blind man was begging. He touchedhim on the arm from
behind, and said, "To which of the peopleof the book do you belong?" He said
that he was a Jew, andbeggedfor moneyto provide for his daily needsand food
and to pay al-fizya- 'Umar took him by the hand,led him to his own house,gave

81 ýabiibal-Bukhdr-1,
vol. II, p. 8, Kit5b al-Jumu'a,Chapter:To offer the Jumu'aprayerin villagesand
towns.Narratedby 'Abd Allah b. 'Umar.
94AbuuTbayd, Al-Amw5L p. 613.
85Ab-uYu-suf,Kit5b al-Khar5j,p. 290.

81
 him something from it, and then senthim to the keeperof the treasurywith this

message,"See to this man andhis like, for we havenot doneright if we devour

their youth and neglect their old age.(Alms arefor the poor andthe needy )86
..
The poor are the Muslims; this man is one of the needyof the peopleof the
book." He also freedhim from the obligation to pay ajjiZYa.87It is also narrated

that, on his way to al-SUm, 'Umar b. al-Khatt5b passedby some Christian people

who had leprosy. Then he ordered them to be supported and given charity. 88

9 During the caliphate of 'Umar b. al-Khatt5baccordingto Mus.t.afa-al-Sibd'T,

the same system of social support was applied to dbimmis, as was applied to
Muslims. 89

There were also those among the Muslim chiefs,who orderedtheir rulersof
the states to care of dhimmisandto look for thosewho were needyso that they
could be supported.'Umar b. 'Abd al-'Azlý, the well-known 'Umayyadcaliph,
wrote to his ruler of al-Baýra ('Adiyy b. Art5t), to commandhim:
.v

"Look for the one from the dhimmiswho hasbecomeold andweak and not
able to earn his sustenance, and give him from the Muslim treasury regular support
help him". 90
which can

In the Quran:"And they give food, despitetheir love of it, to the destitute,the orphan
91
andthe captive".

In the PropheticIjad7ith:"The companionsof the Prophet(PBUH) askedhim: Is there

any reward for us for these beasts?He replied: 'For every cool liver there is a
92
reWamqv).

96
Quran,(IX: 60).
11"AbiulY-usuf,Op. Cit, pp. 259 f.

88 Al-Balddhf-t,FutUoal-Bulddn,p. 177.
99Mugafa-al-Sib5'1,Ishtrdkiyyatal-IsMm,pp. 318 L
90Ab-uTbayd, Al-Amw5l, pp. 45 f.
91Quran,(LXXVI: 8).

82
Based on texts such as the above,the Muslim jurists haveallowedMuslims to give
3
charity (pdaqq) to dWmmis? Moreover Ab-u H.an-ifa and Muh.ammad allowed
Muslims to give to dhimmis from al-Kaffalhft (Religious expiations)94and al-Nudhffr

(vows). 95 Also Muslims bequests, (waýiyya) dbimmis. 96

are allowed to make to

Thus Islam guarantees special care for dhimmis in the case of poverty, senility and
disability, by supporting them from the Muslim treasury and allowing Muslims to

give to them from charity, kaffaligt and nudhUr,and to make wafjyj-to them. This
could be thought to be an extraordinary attitude of Islam towards dhimmis, especially
when we take into consideration that the Muslim country is based on a religion in

which the Aimmis do not believe.

92 SunanAb-uDdwUd,vol. II, p. 708, Kit5b al-Jihdd,Chapter:Commandment

of propercareof the
animalsand beast.narrated by Ab-U Hurayra.
93Al-Z4ayri, Al-Fiqh al-Isl5rn1iwa Adillatuh, vol. H, p. 920.
94Al-Kaffa-r5t,(religiousexpiation),is a plural of Kaffalrawhich meanscertainpunishmentuponthe

peoplewho committed sins.Some kinds of Kaffalra are:Fasting,feeding the poor and freeing a slave.
Al-Khudrawi, A Dictionaryof IslamicTerms,p. 366.
95AI-Z4ayri, Al-Fiqh al-Ishind wa Adillatuh, vol. III, p. 494. Al-NudhUr,(vows),is a plural of
Nadhrwhich signifiesa conditionalpromise,aswhenone says,"sucha thing shall be obligatoryon me
if God restoreto healthmy sick [sonor other]. SeeArabic-EnglishLexicon, vol. H, p. 2781;
Encyclopaediaof Islam,vol. VIL p. 846.
96AI-Mughn-i, vol. VI, p. 103;Al-MajmU' Shart al-Muhadhdhab, vol. XVI, p. 318. Al-Wa§iyya,
(bequest),meansan endowmentof propertyor anythingelseafter death,e.g. whenonepersonshould
sayto another,"Give this article of mine, after my death,to a particularpersore'.Al-Khudrawi, A
Dictionaryof IslamicTerms,p. 434.

83
b) The Duties of Dbimmis

In the Muslim society, Islam gives dhimmisall the rights that guaranteea goodand
secure life, as is shown above. Hence it is expectedthat thereareduties dhimmis
in for
shouldperfonn return thoserights. The following showssomeof theseduties:

(1) The Financial duties

Islam imposeson some financial duties on dhimmis, thesearepoll-tax (alji2ýyq),
land-tax(al-kbatij) andtradetaxes(abushUd.

(a) Al-jizya (poll-tax)

Muslim scholarshave defined al-fi4,ya as a fixed amountof moneywhich a dhimmr
' basis
to
contracts pay to the Muslim country. The of aIjizya is the Quranand the

Sunnahof the ProphetMu4ammad(PBUH).

o In theQuran,

"Fight those who believe not in Allah nor the Last Day, nor hold that
forbidden which has been forbiddenby Allah andHis Messenger,nor acknowledge
the religion of truth, from among the people of book until they pay the fi2ýyaout of
2
handand submissively".

it should be pointedout herethat "aI-,Fqgbj-?,which is mentionedin this verse,does

not mean humiliating or humbling &immis, becausethis would be contradictorywith
honoringhumanbeings,aboutwhich ABA said,

1Al-JamaLSulayni5n,ljdshiyat at-Jamal'ald Sharýal-Manhaj,voL V, p. 211.

2 Quran,(IX: 29).

84
 "We have honoured the sonsof Adam; providedthemwith transporton land

and sea; given them for sustenancethings good and pure; andconferredon them
specialfavoursabovea greatpart of our creation".3

Therefore Ibn al-Qayyim discounted the opinion that interpreted as

humiliation, saying that it was never reported that the Prophet (PBUH) or his

companions did anything to dhimmis while they were paying fi-ýYa that, could be

interpreted as humiliatingý Hence the majority of scholars have held that "a1-,Fqghff?'

in that verse means the submission of dhimmis to the rules of Islam, which are
Muslim 5
appliedto everyonethe country.

* In the Sunna,

The Prophet said about the Magians,"Follow the sametradition with them that you
follow with the peopleof the book"6, andHe tookfizya from the Magiansof Haja,-'.

There was some difference of opinion among the founders of the main law schools
(madbAib), concerningthe amountdue forfizya. Ab-Ukjanffa saidthat the amountof
fizya should be divided into threebands:48 dirbamsfor the rich, 24 &rhamsfor the
middle rangeand 12 &rhams for the poor. Ahmadb. klanbalagreed with Ab-UIjanIfa,
but Mdlik argued that the amount of fizya shouldbe left to the ruler. Al-Shdfi'! 's
opinion was to leave the maximum amount to the ruler's discretion, while the
to be not be lessthan one dinjr. 8 Probably the most acceptable
minimum paid should

ruling is that the amount of fiAya should be left to the discretionof the ruler, who

3Quran,(XVH:70).
4 Ibn al-Qayyim,AWm AM al-Dhimma,vol. I, pp. 23 L
5 Al-Shdfi'!, Al-'Urmn, vol. IV, P. 176; Abu-Zahra,Mubarnmad,Kh5tamal-Nabiyyln, vol. III, p.
930; Al-ýMdL 'Abd al-Muta'51,Al-Siyisa al-IsIdmiyyafif 'Ahd al-Nubuwwa,p. 190.
6Al-Im5m Malik ibn Anas,Al-Muwajtaý.vol. 1,pp. 380 ff., 7Ibebook of charity,chapter:Jizya(tax)
the peopleof the book and Magians.Reported by 'Abd al-Rabmanibn 'Awf.
of
7 ýabllý al-Bukh5fl, vol. IV, p. 62, The book of JizyaandMuw5da'a,The Chapterof al-Jizyawal-
MuwAda'a Ma'a Ahl al-Dhimma;SunanAbu-D5wUd,vol. II, p. 864,the book of al-Khar5jwal-Imdra
the chapterof Levying Jizyaon Magians, and (Hqjar) is a placenearal-B*ain.
wal-Fai',
&SeeA]-Sarkhas7i, A]-Mabs7ul,vol. X, p. 78; A- Mughn-1,vol. VIII, pp. 501 ff.; A]-'Umm, vol. IV, p.
179;Al- MajiCu'Sharb al-Muhadhdhab, vol. XXI, pp. 199ff ; Kashsh5fal-Qin51,vol. III, p. 121.

85
should consider both the interestsof Muslims andthe ability of the dhimmisto pay,
bearing in mind that &immis should not be burdened above their strength.

Muslim scholars also say that fi-ý,:va should be paid once a year, and that women,
boys, servants,lunatics, the poor in receiptof alms,the indigentblind, the aged,and
live in cells are all exemptfrom it. 9
men who

It should be stressedhere that fizya is not a penalty on dhimmisfor being non-

Muslims, but rathera paymentfor the protectionprovidedby the Muslim country. If
it wasa penaltyit would contradictthe Quranicverse,"Let therebe no compulsionin
from 107heactionsof the companionsof the
religion: truth standsout clear erroe.
Prophet (PBUH) andcovenantsheld betweenthe chiefsof the Muslim armiesandthe
&immis at the time of the companions,showthat Azya is noneother thanpayment
for protection by the Muslim country. That Jizya is not collected if the Muslim
countrycannotprovide this protectionmakesthis point very clear.

As has also been saidearlier,Muslims shouldbe kind when they collect Azya from
dhin2mis.The following final quotationsgive a few moreexamplesshowingthis in
the life of the Prophet PBUH) and the early caliphs.

The Prophet (PBUH) appointed 'Abd Allah b. Arqam to collectfizya, and after he
had goneawaythe Prophetcalled him and said,

"If anyonewrongsa man to whom a treatyhasbeengranted,or diminisheshis

right, or burdens him above his strength, or takes from him anythingwithout his
I him on the day judgmenf'. 11
consent, am an advocateagainst of

Also when the collector of fizya brought it to 'Umar b. al-Khatl5b,who found it a

large amount,he saidto the collector,

9 SeeBkUyat al-Mujtahid,vol. 1,p. 295; Al-]Khardj,p. 26; AI-MughnT,vol. VIII, pp. 507 ff ; Al-
sarkhas-1,Al- Mabs7ul,vol. X, p. 79; Kashshdfal-Qind', vol. III, p. 120;Al-Majmu-1Sharbal-
Muhadhdhab,vol. XXI, pp. 211 ff.; Al-K5f1-fif Figh a]-ImdmAýmadb. tianbal, vol. IV, pp. 351 f.
10Quran,(11:256). Seemoredetailsaboutthe methodof Islam in this respectin "Freedomof
Religion" in this chapter.
11SunanAbu Ddw-ud,Vol. H, p. 862, Kit5b al-khardjwal-fai' wal-Im5ra,Chapter:On levying tithes

on non-muslim protected people who bring merchandise to the Muslim country. narratedby ýafwdn
ibn Sallim.

86
 "I am afraid you haveoppressedthe people"dhimmig'?" He answered,"No.
By Allah! We have not taken but the little which they agreed to give". 'Umar said,
"With no hitting nor compulsion?" He answered,"No". Then 'Umar said,"Praisebe
let
to Allah, who hasnot this happen throughme nor during my time". 12

Also the Muslim countryoften usedto delay collectingfizya until harvesttime so that
dbimmiswereableto pay without being burdened. 13

Hish5m b. 'Urwa narrated that "On his way back from Syria, 'Umar b. al-Khatt5b

passed some men who had been forced to stand in the sun with oil poured over their
hands. He asked, What is the matter with these (people)? He was answered that they

were liable for ijzya, had not paid it, and were being punished until they should. Their

excuse was that they were too poor to pay. He said, let them go and do not annoy
them, I heard the Prophet (PBUH) saying, "Do not torment people, for those who do

that God punish them on the day of resurrection." and he ordered them to be
14
released".

Nowadays &Vmrnis do not pay fizya but they join the armies in the majority of
Muslim countries.This also agreesIslam, which exemptsdhimmisfrom payingfizya
if they join the Muslim army, becausefizya is paid by dbimmisfor the protection
provided by the Muslim country, as hasbeenshowedearlier.

(b) Al-Khariij (land tax)

This is a tax imposedon landsthat areconqueredby force, or by conciliation between
15
Muslims andthe ownersof theselands. The basisof al-khardj is the act of 'Umar b.

12Ab7u'Ubayd,KitZibal-Amw5L p. 61.
13lbid, p. 61.
14Ablu-Y-usuf,Al-Khar5j, p. 258.
15SeeAl-M5wird7i,At-AbUm al-Sulldniyya,p. 146.

87
Al-Khatt5b, which was approvedby the companionsof the Prophet(PBUH). Henceit
16
hasbecomea consensus.

Muslim scholars stated that there was no definite amount to the khaaj, but this

should be left to the discretion of the ruler, who must consider the interests of the
Muslims and the wealth of the land involved, ensuring that dhimmis am not
17
overburdened.

(c) Al-'Ushlir (trade tax)

This tax is not only imposedon dhimmis,but also on Muslims andthe inhabitantsof
dir al-Parb (the abodeof war). Howevertherearedifferencesin the amountspaid; a
Muslim must pay 2.5%,(the sameasthe amountof tradezak5t),a dhimmTmustpay
5% anda foreignerwho inhabitsthe abodeof war'Smust pay 10%.

The basis of this tax is the act of 'Umar b. at-Khattdb, who sent out the tax
collectors-19 Yet al-Sh5fi'I held that this tax is not imposed on dWmnziý,who do not

it
haveto pay unlessthey have it
accepted in the covenantof 20
dhimma.

Muslim scholarshave stipulated some conditionson the goodson which the rate is
applied,which are as follows:

Dbimmis shouldmove their merchandisethroughthe Muslim country with the

aim of commerce.

16Ab7uYu-suf,Al-nar5j, pp. 68 ff ; AI-M5wird-1,AI-Aýkdm al-Sulldniyya,p. 42; AlJa§ý5§,Aýkdm

al-Quran, vol. III, p. 430.

17AI-Aýka-mal-Sulldniyya,pp. 148f.; Ibn al-Qayyim,AbUm Ahl al-Dhirr=, vol. 1,pp. 115f.
18Abodeof war (Dk al-,Varb)is a term usedtraditionaRyto indicatethoseterritorieswherethe faith

of Islam does not reign, i. e. where Muslim law is not in force, or which arenot coveredby agreements
andregulations about payment of poll-tax "Jizya! '. See Shorter Encyclopaediaof Islam, pp. 68 f
Islamic DeskReference,p. 79
19Al-Khar5j, pp. 274 ff.; AI-MughnT1, vol. VIII, P. 518.
20Biddyat al-Muitahid,Vol. 1,p. 297; AI-Mughn-1, VIH, pp. 517 f-,Al-Majm7u'Sharbal-Muhadhdhab,
vol. XXI, p. 204.

88
 2. The minimum amountof merchandiseliable for this tax shouldbe at least200
derham or 20 mithqj'l, which is the same as the minimum amount of property
liable for the payment of z aMt 21

Ibn al-Qayyim stated that this tax shouldbe imposedoncea yearby the Im5m."the
leader of Muslims", who should consider the interests of Muslims. Hence it is
acceptable for him (the Im5m,of Muslims) to decrease
the amountof this tax or even
it, if he this is for the Muslim 22
country. This thereforeallows the
stop sees good
Muslim countr? nowadays to adapt its trade policies to comply with the

of
requirements internationaltradeagreements.

In conclusion dbimmis are not oppressedby imposition of thesefinancial duties,

firstly becausethey are small andwithin the boundsof their abilities, and secondly
becausethey are consideredto be a supportto the country,helping it to perform its
duties towards its subjects,which include dhimmis. A point to also note is that
4
Muslims pay different kinds of zaUt and fadaqj-? . which amountto more in total

than the dhimmispay. Nowadaysminorities all over the world pay different kinds of
taxes, the same as the original citizens pay. These taxesenablecountries to fulfill

their commitmentstowardstheir subjects.

(2) The Social Duties and Awareness of Muslim Culture

As well asthe abovefinancial duties,dhimmisareexpectedto considerthe feelings

of the Muslims among whom they live. Thus Muslim scholarshave statedthat they

shouldnot do the following actions:

21Seetheseconditionsin, Abu Y-usuf,Al-Khar5j, pp. 271 L; Ibn Rushd,Biddyatal-Mujtahid,vol. 1,

p. 297; Ibn Quddma,Al-Mughn7l, vol. VIR, pp. 519 f.

22SeeAt"m AM al-Dhimma,vol. 1,p. 158.
' The Muslim country,in this study,meansthe countryof the IslamicCaliphatethat applies[slam in
its rule andthat all Muslimsareattachedto. Nowadaysthereis no existanceof this country. HenceI
the
mean moral meaning of it, which thejurists, "
"aAF1iqahJ" meanwhenthey mentionit in their
booksof IslamicLaw.

89
 1. Mention Islam in derogatoryterms.

2. Citc the Quran incorrectly or quote it falsely.

3. Denounce the Prophet or show contempt towards him.

4. Commit adultery with Muslims.

5. Force Muslims to reject their faith or threaten their souls or property.25

Moreover they should not be seen drinking alcohol or cating pork in places where

Muslims live, although dhinmis can do this in places where only they livc. 26They

should also not be seeneatingor drinking in public during the daytimeof the month
RamaVj'n.27 This behavioroffends Muslims and could tempt them into behaviour
of
that goesagainstIslam.

Thus all of the aboveare the rights anddutiesof dhimmisin the Muslim country,and

show the generous attitude of Islam towards dhimmis.However,the authorof the

manuscript this thesis is studying,lived during a difficult period. His stancetowards

dhimmis was in reaction to Muslim being repressedby dhimmis in the Muslim
country. Other examples of the oppression of dhimmisby Muslims during Islamic
history were probably also in reaction to aggressivebehaviour from &immis to
Muslims. However, despitethesereactions,Islam still holds a clear stanceon how to
treat dhimmis, and any Muslim behaviour which departs from this stance is
consideredto be departingfrom the rules of Islam.

That the aboveis true is what madeone Christianmetropolitan,in the first half of the
eleventh century, prefer being controlled by Muslims than by people of other
religions and persuasions.He was the metropolitanof Nisibis, Ellyya, A. D. 1008-49,

and his words were written in 'The Eclipseof Christianintyin Asia'.

24Someof the kinds of zakdtand§adaqdtthat Muslimspay arezak5t.'urU4al-tijdrah, zak5tal-zuril,

wal-thimar, zak5t al-amwýl, §adaqat al-fitr andthe other,freewill §adaq5L

25Q5sim,A. Q., Ahl al-Dhhrunaff Mkr al-'UýUral-Wusp, p. 26; Al-Qara4dw-L, Y., Ghayral-
Maslim7infif al-Mujtama' al-Isl5rnII,p. 42.
26Al-Sarkhas-1, Sharbat-Siyaral-Kablir,vol. UL p. 254.
27SeeIbn Quddma,Shamsal-Din, AI-Sharhal-Kablir,vol. X, p. 612; AI-Ghaz, Abu-Udmid, Al-
5111,
Waj-izfif Fiqh al-Im5m al-Sh5ri'T,vol. 11,p. 201.

90
 "What we believe concerning the Muslims is that their piety and love
impressesus morethan the piety of peoplefrom all the other religions andkingdoms
that are opposed to us, whetherwe arein their land or not, andwhetherthey treatus
well or not. And that is because
the Muslims regardit as a matterof religion andduty
to protect us, to honorus, andto treat us well. And whosoeverof themoppressesus,
their Master, i.e. their Prophet,will be his adversaryon the day of resurrection.And
their law approvesof us and distinguishesus from the peopleof otherreligions,
whether Magians or Hindus or ýabians or the otherswho to
are opposed us.. It is

clear also that Muslims, when they haveoppressedus and done us wrong, andthen
have turnedto their law, find that it doesnot approveof their harmingandoppressing
us; but people of other religions, when they honour us anddo us good, andturn to
their law, find that it doesnot praisethemfor this. So the wrong doing of the Muslims
towards us, and their enmity againstus, andtheir confessionthat in treatingus thus
they are actingcontraryto their law, is betterfor us than the goodtreatmentof others
who confessthat it is contrary to their law to treat us well.1928

28 Browne, L. E., The Eclipse of Christianity in Asia, pp. 48 f.

91
Employment of Dhimmis

Every job is a big responsibility,anddemandsspecialskills andqualifications.Hence

Islam emphasizesthat jobs shouldbe filled by the peoplebestqualified to do them.
The Prophet (PBUH) said,

"Whoever appointed a man in a gang,whenthereanotherone who hadbeen

collecting good deeds, which made God more satisfiedwith him than the first, he
betrayedAllah, betrayedHis Messengerandbetrayedthe believers."'

On this basis the Muslim country has the right to appoint people to jobs according to
the commonweal of the country. In ýA41'ýMuslim, AbUuMusd al-Ash'afi- said,

"Two of my cousinsandI enteredthe apartmentof the Holy Prophet(PBUH).

One of them said:Messengerof Allah! Appoint us to be the rulersof somelandsthat
the Almighty and Glorious God has entrustedto your care. The other also said
something similar. The Prophet
replied, "We do not appointto this position one who
it is 2
asksfor nor anyonewho covetousof the same".

This tladThhapparently statesthat appointing people to jobs is not the right of

individuals but of the country. Thus Islam insists that the appointmentis the sole
prerogative of the leader and not the individuals. Equally the leadershouldonly
appoint people to jobs on the basisof how well they can do the job and thus benefit
the Muslim country. Who they are or how much they want thejob shouldnot be the
main reasonfor choosingthem.

To understandthe issue of employing dhimmis in the Muslim country, we should

divide jobs into the following,

I Al-]Udkim,A]-Mustadrak'ald al-ýablbayn,vol. IV, pp. 92 f., Kit5b al-Ahka-nL

2 ýa4libMuslim, vol. III, p. 1014,Kit5b al-Im5ra,Chapter:Prohibitionof a desirefor a positionof
thereof.
authorityandcovetousness

92
a) Military jobs

Muslim scholarshavetwo different opinionsaboutthe questionof allowing dhimmis

to be appointedin military jobs:

Several one of whom is Mdlik b. 3

Anas, say that Muslims are not allowed
a) scholars,
to usedhimmisin thesejobs becauseof this evidence:

1. TheQuranicverse:

"Let not the believers take for friends or helpers unbelievers rather than
believers: if any do that, you shall have no relation left with Allah except by way of

precaution, that you may guard yourselves against them. But Allah cautions you (to

fear) Himself; for the final goal is to Allalf 94

.
Thesescholarssaythat therearc also

many other versesthat prohibit Muslims from taking unbelieversas helpers,and thus
in
it is forbiddento usethem military jobs5.

2. The Sunna of the Prophet (PBUH):

',ýiisha, the wife of the Prophet (PBUH), said: "The Messenger of Allah set out

to badr. When he reached barmt (a

al-wabara, place four miles from Medina), a man

met him who was known for his valour and courage. The Companions of the
Messenger of Allah were pleased to see him. He said: "I have come so that I may
follow you and get a share from the booty". The Messengerof Allah said to him: "Do

you believe in Allah and His Apostle?" He said: "No". The Messenger of Allah said:
"Go back, I will not seek help from a muskik (polytheist)". He went on until we

reached shajara, where the man met him again. He asked him the same question again

and the man gave him the same answer. He said: "Go back, I will not seek help from

a mushdk. The man returned and overtook him at Baidj"? He asked him as he had

3 Mdlik b. Anas,AI-Mudawwanaal-Kubrd,vol. 1,p. 400; AI-Mughn-i,vol. Vin, p. 414.

4 Quran,(HI: 28).
5 SeeQuran,(V: 51; V: 57).

93
asked previously: "Do you believe in Allah andHis Apostle?" The Man said:"Yee.
The Messengerof Allah saidto him: "Then comealongwith Uss,. 6

b) The majority of scholars say that it is allowed for Muslims to usedhimmisin

jobs.7 Their main evidenceis that the Prophet(PBUH) usednon-Muslimsin
military
thesekinds of jobs manytimes,someof which are,

1. The Prophet (PBUH) used some Jewish peoplein military jobs andgavethem
8
booty.
sharesin the

In al-Ijudaybiya, the Prophet(PBUH) sentoneof unbelievers,called Khar5shb.

'Umayya al-Khuzii'l, to tell Quraysh what the Prophet and Muslims cameto
Meccafor?

The Prophet(PBUH) usedýafwdn b. 'Umayya in the battle of Punayn,while he

10
was stiHa non-Muslim.

Moreover AI-JaUdý, in "Aýkdm al-Qur'5n", declares that thereare many Aýddlith

about the Prophet (PBUH) saying that He used Jewish people and unbelievers in
"
battles.
some

However the majority of scholars stipulate some conditions which mustbe met if
in
Muslims usenon-Muslims military jobs12:

Confidencein them.

6 ýaA Muslim, vol. IH, p. 1006,Kit5b al-Jih5dwal-Siyar,Chapter:Disapprovalof seekinghelp

from a disbelieveron a military campaign.
7 At-Mughn7i,vol. VIII, pp. 414 f; Al-Sarkhas-t,
al-Mabrut,vol. X, pp. 23 f.; Al-Majrdu-ISh# al-
Muhadhdhab,vol. XXI, P. 37.
8 SunanAl-Tirmidh7t,vol. IV, pp. 108f., KitAb al-Siyar,B5b: Md j5' fLAhl al-DhimmaYaghz7un ma'
al-Muslirranhal Yusham lahum.
9 Al-Suhayff,Al-Raw4 al-'Unuf, vol. IV, p. 27.
10SunanAb-UDdwUd,VOLIII, p. 296, Kitiib al-BiyU', B5b: F-ITa4mIn al-'Xriya; Mustadrakal-
Ijakim, vol. IH, p. 49, Kit5b al-Maghdifi.
11Abkdm al-Qur5n, vol. II, p. 447.
12Al-MajmU' Sh# al-Muhadhdhab,vol. XXI, p. 38.

94
 2. Needof them.

3. They may not become so powerful that the country cannot control them.

The majority rebutted the evidence of the MMIT scholars, saying that "a]-muwNst"
in the Quranic Verses means cordiality to unbelievers and to not be satisfied with

their religions, and it does not mean anything about using them in jobs. They also say
that the Ijadlith of the Prophet (PBUH), in which he disagreed with using the

unbeliever, is abrogated, or that the Prophet did that becausehe did not trust in the
13
unbeliever.

Therefore this secondopinion tendsto be moreacceptable,especiallyif we take into

account that M5lik b. Anashimself, allowed Muslims to use dhimmis in military jobs
is 14
if there a need.

b) Non-Military jobs
Muslim scholarsalsohavetwo opinionsaboutthis point:

Some 15
scholars say that it is not allowed for dhimmis to be usedin jobs connected
a)
with Muslim affairs. Someof their evidenceis,

1.Allah saysin the Quran,

".. And never will Allah grant to the unbelieversa way (to triumph) over the
16
believere'.

The scholars said that appointingan unbelieverover a believeris the main way to

give unbelieversa way to triumph over believers.

13Al-ýdb-un-i,Raw5T al-BaydnTafs-Ir'Ay5t al-Aýkdm, vol. 1,p. 402.

14Al-imdrn M51iksaid,"It is allowedto useunbelieversin military jobs for fighting unbelievere'.See
Ibn Rushd,Al-Bay5n wal-TabýTil, vol. XVII, p. 260.
is I havenot usuallymentionedthe namesof the scholarswho haveopinionsin this point becausethey
havenot beendeterminedby namein the references,but by just saying:"somescholarssay.." without
mentioningnames. Seethe references usedin this issue.
16Quran,(IV: 141).

95
 2. The Prophet (PBUH) said, ".. I will not seek help from mushHk (an

unbeliever)"17

3. It was narrated that 'Umar b. al-Khatt5b preventedAb-uMUsffal-Ash'arl"from

(a job) in al-,Vka.18
appointinga Christianasa writer clerical

b) The scholars who allowedunbelieversto be appointedin military jobs, saythat it

is also allowed for themto be employedin otherjobs. They usethe aboveevidence,
which allows unbelievers to be appointed in military jobs, andother evidenceas
follows to supporttheir opinion.

1. The person who guided the Prophet (PBUFOin the emigration,"al-hijfd', from
Mecca to Medina was 'Abd Allah b. 'Urayqit, 19
who was an unbeliever. In spiteof

that, the Prophet (PBUH) usedhim in this most importantmatter,eventhough 'Abd

Allah knew that the Prophet was demandedby the peopleof Quraysh,who were
to
willing give one hundredcamelsto the one who caughtHim.

2. The Prophet (PBUH) made the ransom for eachof the interneesof the battle of
badr, to teach ten Muslim children how 20
to write. This means that the Prophet

(PBUH) used unbelievers in one of the affairs of the Muslim country, which is
teachingMuslim children to write.

3. When the Prophet (PBUH) was on the way to Meccain 6 A. D. andreacheda

place called "dbU al-Pulayf9', he senta spy from the tribe of Khuzd'a, to get the
from 21
Quraysh.
news
22
This spy was an unbeliever. Despitethat the Prophetentrustedhim with this serious

job.

17ýýIý Muslim, vol. IIII, p. 1006,Kit5b al-filidd wal-Siyar,Chapter:Disapprovalof seekinghelp

from a disbelieveron a military campaign.
is In al-Qayyim,AbUm Ahl al-Dhimm, vol. H, p. 210.
19SeeAl-Raw4 al-'Unuf, vol. H, p. 224.
20AI_Sii'5tli,Al-Fatti al-Rabb5nTli-Tartlib Musnad4mad al-ShaybdnT,
vol. IV, p. 47.
21Ibn Zdd al-Ma'dd, vol. IV, p. 202.
al-Qayyim,
22Ibid, Vol. IV, p. 312.

96
Furthermore the majority of scholars23have rebutted the evidence of the other
in
opinion this way:

* The Quranic verse, ".. And never will Allah grant to the unbelieversa way (to
triumph) over the believers". 24

The scholars explain the word "sabj7j", (a way), in this verse, in different ways,

saying that it signifies a way on the Day of Judgement, (yawm al-&i-ma), becauseit
is coupled with this in the verse: ".. But Allah will judge between you on the Day of
Judgment and never will Allah grant to the unbelievers a way (to triumph) over the
believers". 25 This was the opinion of 'Arl b. Ab-uT51ib and Ibn 'Abb5s. They also

it in this world, where (sahfla) (Pu#a), 26

say that might signify means evidencc.
.

9 The Ijad7ith of the Prophet, "I will not seekhelp from mushiik (an unbeliever)".
The scholars say that this Ijad-ith is abrogated,becauseit had beenin existence
beforethe Prophetusedunbelieverafter the battle of badr.27

* What was narrated about 'Umar b. al-Khaltdb preventing AbU M-Usdal-Ash'aill

28
from appointing a Christian as a writer (a clerical job) in al T
ra.
_b.

This is interpreted to mean that 'Umar did not trust the Christian, or that the job, at
that time, gave the employee accessto state secrets. Hence 'Umar prevented from

appointing that man in that particular job at that time. But this does not mean that
unbelievers are not allowed to be used in other jobs, or even in the samejob if the

nature of it has changed somewhat since then.

231havenot mentionedthe namesof thesescholarsbecausethey havenot beendeterminedby name

in the references.Seethe referencesusedin this issue.
24Quran,(IV: 141).
25Quran,(IV: 141).
26SeeTafs-IraI-Qurjub-1,
vol. V, pp. 419 ff.; Al- Fakhr al-RM-, Mafatlý al-Ghayb,vol. X1, p. 66.
27 Al-ýabuun-i,
Tafs-ir'Xy5t al-Aýkdm, vol. 1,p. 402.
29Ibn al-Qayyim,Abk5m AM al-Dhimma,vol. 1.p. 210 f.

97
From the above, it seemsthat the most acceptableopinion is the one basedon
allowing dhimmis to be employedin the Muslim country,whetherin military jobs or
not, as long as they are trustworthy.The following points supportthis opinion.

1. The strengthof the evidencefor this opinion.

2. This opinion is more in line with the position of dhimmisnowadays.

3. The generousstanceof Islam towardsdhimmh; which is particularly shownby the

followingQuranicverse,

"Allah forbidsyounot,with regardto thosewhofight you not for (your)faith

nor drive you out of your homes,from dealingkindly andjustly with them: for Allah
loves thosewho are just". 29

However there are some jobs for which it is not permissible to employ dhin2mls,
because these jobs are of a religious kind, or need to be filled by Muslims for some
for
other reasons, example the position of caliph and of the chief of the Muslim army.
The caliph must be Muslim becausehe is the leader of the Muslim country, and the

chief of the army must also be Muslim because "al-AhYd", which is striving against

enemies, is obligatory for Muslims only. Thus both of thesejobs should be filled by
Muslims, and it is not permissible for non-Muslims to be appointed in them.

This seemsto be a reasonablestance for the Muslim country to take, because

employing peoplein Islam is the right of the Muslim country, as we have saidbefore.
Also any country has the right to impose certain conditions, when it seesthem
on
necessary, thosewho will be appointedto certainjobs. On the other hand,thejobs,

which Ain2mis are not allowed to fill in the Muslim country, are very few and are
jobs basedon the Islamic faith or relatedto it. Thereforeit is reasonablefor thesejobs
to be filled by Muslims.

Other than thesefew jobs, dhimmisare allowed to work alongsideMuslims in various

jobs in the Muslim country.This hashappened,to lesseror greaterextent,throughall
the different stagesof the history of the Muslim country. Oneexampleof this is when
the capture of Caesarea,"QWýiyyd', put a finish to the conquestof Palestine,the

98
prisoners were sent to the caliph 'Umar b. al-Khalt5b. Somehe madeclerks and
in 30
employed governmentservice.

The following are further examples of employing dbimmis.-

* Athanasius,a native of Edessa,wasappointedby Maraw5nb. al-Ijakam, the

'Umayyad caliph, along with Isaac, another Christian. He became bead of the

governmentoffices in Alexandria and was also treasurerto 'Abd al-'AzTzb.

Maraw5n,the governorof 31
Egypt.

o Sulaym5nb. 'Abd al-Malik, The 'Umayyadcaliph, madea Christian secretary,

al-Batfliq b. Naqd,overseerof his in
constructions Ramla(Palestine),which were
32
water channels,wells, anda mosque.

During the 'Abb5sid caliphate,Al- Mans.

1ir,the caliph, appointeda Jew,M-usd,
the two 33
revenue. Buk5m, from BUra,in Egypt,
one of collectors of a rich man

came to Al-Ma'rh-un, the 'Abb5sid caliph, andaskedto be madeheadman

of his
him headman district. 34
town. The caliph made of BUra and

e Ibn Saghd,who wasnamedPaul,the Coptic secretary,wasfinanceminister in

Egypt during the Ikhshlid dynasty. Also the Fatimids attached great importance to

the postof chief secretary,andchosetheir secretaries,both Muslim and dhimmis,

in
for their skill writing.35

29
Quran,(LX: 8).
30Al-Balddhff, Futu-bal-Buld5n,p. 193.It hasbeennarratedabout'Umar b. al-Khalldbthat he

avoided appointing non-Muslims in mattersof the Muslim country.(See,for example:Ibn al-Qayyim,

AýUrn Alit al-Dhimma,vol. 1,pp. 2 10 f.) But theseincidentswhich arenarratedabout'Umar might
haveonly happenedin certaincases,whenhe thoughtthat it wasnot beneficialto usethemin the
matters of the Muslim country, and it doesnot mean he believedthat appointingthem was forbidden.
That is becauseappointingindividualsin differentjobs is a matterthat belongsto the ruler of the
Muslim country,who haswide authorityin employingpeople.
31Tritton, the CaliphsandTheir Non-Muslim Subjects,pp. 19 f.
32Al-Bal5dhiCt, Op. Cit., p. 195.
33Tritton, Op. Cit., p. 22.
34Ibid, p. 23.
35Ibid, p. 25; Seealso,MaWud. S. S., Ahl al-Dhimmafif Miýr f1ial-'Aýr al-Falirrillal-Awwal, pp. 27
ff.

99
It can be deducedfrom the abovehistorical evidencethat the differenceof religion
between Muslims and dVmmis did not prevent dhimmis from being employedin
variousjobs in the Muslim country.This indicateshow tolerantMuslims werein their
dealings with dVmmis, especially whenwe take into considerationthat the Muslim

country is an ideologicalcountry,basedon the principlesof Islam, and for

established
the purposeof applyingits rules inside and spreadingits faith outside.It would not be
strange for a country like this to appoint only those who believein its faith and
ideology. Yet it choosesto employ dhimmisin its differentjobs, eventhoughthey do
not believein its religion or its purposes.

However, this tolerantstanceof the Muslim countrycould allow dhimmisto takeup

important positionsandbecomea powerful force in the administrationof the country.
if dhimmis were in these positions and abused the trust placedin them, then they
could use their authority to oppressMuslims. This happened severaltimes in the
history of the Muslim country,oneexamplebeing during the Mamluk dynasty,when
Ibn al-Durayhimwrote aboutthe oppressionof Muslims by &immis.

When dhimmis abuse the trust given to them it can make Muslim scholars or rulers,

adopt a strict attitude towards them as a reaction. Hence this explains the strict
attitude of some scholars or the strict conditions imposed by some rulers on dhin2mis,

not only in employment issues but in

also other issues, and this was the reason that
Ibn al-Durayhim made the main focus of his book the prohibition of employing
dWmmis in the jobs of the Muslim country.

100
The Dress of Dhimmis

When we look at the textsof the Holy Quranandthe Sunnaof the Prophet(PBUH),
we realize that they have not dealt with this topic. Thus thereis no religious basisto
it, but it might have a socialor political basis,as somehave '
inferred.

It is saidthat dbimmiswereobliged to wcar certainclothesat the time of 'Umar b. al-

Khatt5b But the opinion saying that this began in the time of 'Umar b. 'Abd al-
.2
'Az-iz, the 'Umayyadcaliph who orderedit, is morelikely andhencemoreworthy to
be accepted?

Most dhimmis probably preferred wearing their own clothes, which expressedtheir

religious and national existence, and helped them keep their identity and culture in

the Islamic environment. Thus most &Vmmis probably had no problem with ruling
that insisted they wear their own clothes. However during the periods of fanaticism

and weakness of the relationship to Islam at some stagesof the Islamic history, this

ruling probably did cause a problem for &immis, making them as targets of
humiliation in the Muslim society. When this rule was first introduced it is certain

that it was not linked to the concept of humiliating dhimmis, becausethat would have
directly opposed the Islamic stanceon how to treat dhi=iS. 4

However therewasno insistencefor dhin2misto wear this dressduring an the periods

5
of the Muslim history. But sometimes,
probablyin reactionto times when dbimmis

had abusedtheir power, Muslims attempt to return this dress back.This helpsto

explain the stance of Ibn al-Durayhim regarding the dress of d6immis, as he

1Seethe introductionof Dr. 1jumaydAllah to the book of Ibn al-Qayyim,Abk5m AM al-Dhimma,p.

94.
2 Ibn Abkdm AM al-Dhimma, vol. H, p. 735.
al-Qayyim,
3 Dr. the Introductionof Al*5m AM al-Dhimma, p. 30.
al-*dWi,
4 See:Section(3): "Ibe Positionof Dhimmis in Islanfl, andparticularly"ProtectingDhimmis from

wrong or in
harm7' chapterthreeof this study.
5 Al-Mujtama' al-Mi§ff fl 'A§r §a15171n
al-Mam5l-ik,p. 50.

101
supportedthe compulsory wearing of "the dressof dhimmis"which wasdetailedin
6
the covenantof 'Umar.

However nowadaysthere is no requirement for dhimmisin the Muslim country to

wear these clothes, as there is no basisfor themin either the Quranor the Sunnaof
the Prophet (PBUH).

6 See:Section(2): "Compilationof the Boole', in chapteroneof this study.

102
Greeting Dhimmis with the Saldm
Muslim scholarshavehaddifferent opinionsaboutthis topic, which occupiesa place
in both the books of Islamic law and the books of the Tradition of the Prophet
(PBUH). Some scholars,Ibn al-Durayhim' among them, havearguedthat it is not

for Muslims to greet &immis 2

with the SaliiM. They usetheseAtdd-tth of the
allowed
Prophet(PBUH) asevidence

"Do not greetfirst the Jewsandthe Christianswith the saldm.. ,, 3

.

The narration of this IjadTlthtransmitted on the authorityof WAY%is: "When you

meet the "ý

Jews.. But the accountas Ibn Mdja narratedit, is that the Prophet(PBUH)

said, "I am travelling tomorrow to the Jews, so do not greet them first with the
'.5
saldm!

However when we review the textsof the Quranandthe Sunnawhich determinethe

morals of Muslims and the frame of their relationshipto non-Muslims,we find these
texts:

In the Quran:

"Mah forbids you not, with regard to thosewho fight you not for (your) faith nor
drive you out of your homes, to be generous to them and deal with them justly. Allah
loves those who are 6
jUSrs.
surely

We also find in the Quran,"When a (courteous)greetingis offered you, meetit with

(at least) 7
a greetingstill more courteous,or of equalcourteSysi..

1Manhajal-ýawýb,pp. I 10 f.
2 Ibn al-Qayyim,AýUm Ahl al-Dhimma,vol. 1,pp. 191ff.
3 ý41ý Muslim, vol. III, p. 1185,Kitdb al-Sal5m,Chapter:Prohibitionof sayingfirst al-salamu

alaykum to the peopleof the book, andhow their salutationshouldbe respondedto, narratedby Abu-
Hurayra.
4 Ibid.
5 SunanIbn Mdja, vol. H, p. 1219,Kitdb al-Adab,Chapter:returnthe greetingsof the dýýs,

narratedby 'Abd al-Rabm5nal-JuhanT.

6Quran,(LX: 8).

103
In the Sunna:
The Prophet (PBUH) said, "rhose who are nearestto Allah arc they who are first to
8
give a salutation). Also, on the authorityof 'Amr b. al-'A§, a manaskedthe Prophet
(PBUH): "What Islamic traits arethe best?" The Prophetsaid,"Feedthe people,and
know andthosewhom you not do know". 9
greetthosewhom you

These texts of the Quran and the Sunnashowthat thereis a generalframeworkon

which to base the relationship with non-Muslims, and suggeststhat the Ah.ddith
which forbid greeting them with the saldrn do not go alongwith this framework.
Hence these Abddlith seem to be an exceptionto that rule, especiallywhen we take
into considerationthe following behaviour of the Prophet (PBUH) towards non-
Muslims:

* He stoodup as the funeral of a Jew passedbeforehim, and saidto the one who was
surprised at his behaviour, "Was he not a human being or did he not have a
"10
soul?

hesitate ill Jewishboy in his "

house.
e He did not to visit an

He joined Jews in planting, bought from them and ate from their food. 12

He was very generouswith the Christiansof Najriin in that he let them stayat his
13
mosqueand allowed them to perform their own prayersalongsideMuslims there

However the relationship of Muslims to non-Muslims took anotherform after the

Jews of Medina had showed their enmity towardsthe Prophetandhis companions,

7Quran,(IV: 86).
9 SunanAb-uDiwUd, vol. 111,p. 1435,Kitdb al-Adab,Chapter:Excellenceof one who is first to give

a salutation,narrated by Ablu-Hurayra.
9 ý4qi al-Bukh5ff, vol. VHL p. 167,The Book of askingpermission,Chapter:To greetthosewhom

one knows and one does not know.

10ý41ý al-Bukh5rLvol. H, p. 224, The Book of funerals,"al-janVV', Chapter:Standingfor the
funeralprocessionof a Jew,narratedby Jdbir b. 'Abd Allah; ýa4likiMuslim, vol. 11,p. 455, The Book
of funerals,llal-jani-71, Chapter:Standingup on seeyinga bier.
11ý41ý al-Bukliddvol. H, p. 246, The Book of funerals'W-jani'd, Chapter If a boy becomesa
Muslim andthendies,shoulda funeralprayerbe offered for him? Narratedby Anasb. Mdlik.
12Aburn Ahl al-Dhimma,vol. 1,pp. 269 f.

104
when they broke their covenantwith him, joined with idolatersin Meccain alliance
him,
against and tried to kill him. The Quranexpressesthis in the following verses:

'-rhere you are, you love them,but they do not love you, andyou believein
the entire Book. When they meet you, they say: (We believe),but when they arc
alone they bite their fingertips with rage.Say:"Die of your fury. Allah knows what is
hidden in the hearts!" If you are visited by somegood fortune,it vexesthem; and if
you are visited by some misfortune, they rejoice at it; but if you forbearand fear
Allah, their wiles will not hurt you at all. Allah knows fully what they do". 14

One aspect of their hostility was also that when Jews passedby Muslims, they
pretcnded to grect thcm saying: "al-si-mu lalaykunf', which dcath
mcans: bc upon
you, then the Prophet (PBUH) said,

"When the Jews offer you salutation,someof them say,"al-simu 'alkykunP

be
(death uponyou). You (in
shouldsay respondto it): "Let it be uponyou".15

The Prophet also said, "Do not greet first the Jews and the Christians with the
16
saldrW,.

These AW71th and the other similar ones determine the characteristics of the

relationship during the period when Muslims were the target of their plot and hostility

of the unbelievers. Yet it should be understood that this was an exceptional measure
designed to deal with this particular case.Thus when that particular case changed, the

general framework of the relationship, which is built on treating unbelievers kindly

and justly, was reinstated. An important piece of evidence about this is that the

13Moammad b. Isb5q,al-Sira al-Nabawiyya,publishedwith al-Raw4al-'Unuf, vol. III, p. 3. See

more accountsof this generous treatment

of non-Muslims: in 'The Positionof Dhimmis in Islard" in
this chapter.
14Quran,(111:119,120).
15 vol. VIII, p. 181,The Book of askingpermission,Chapter: How to returnthe
al-Bukhdfl,
greetingsof the dhinw2is,
narratedby 'Abd Allah b. 'Amr b. al-'2i§: Muslim, vol. IIL p. 1183,
Kit5b al-Sal5m,Chapter:Prohibitionof sayingfirst al-salamu.alaykurnto the peopleof the book, and
how their salutationshouldbe respondedto, narratedby 'Abd Allah b. 'Amr b. al-'Xý.
16ibis Ijad7ithpassedabove.

105
Prophet (PBUM himself, who ordered thosetemporaryinstructions,died while his
to a 17
Jew.
armourwas mortgaged

Moreover, evenduring thosetemporaryconditions,the scholarsheld that if a Muslim

was surethat a dbimmi-hadsaid," al-sali'mu 'alaykum". not " al-simu lalaykunl', the
Muslim shouldanswerhim, becauseof the Quranic:vcrse:

"When a (courteous)greetingis offered you, meetit with a greetingstill more

(at least) 18
or
courteous, of equalcourtesy"'.

The important point to notehereis that the Prophet(PBUH) did not meanthat these
rules, which were brought in to deal with exceptional should
circumstances, be
instated as permanentrules.It might be allowed for that temporarymeasureto return
if Muslims are a targetto similar conditionsof enmity in the future. Other than this,
the
the normalposition and general basisof the relationship,which is built on treating
dhimmiskindly, mustbe applied.

17SunanIbn Mdja, vol. 11,p. 815,Kit5b al-Rahn(mortgage),Chapter:Abu-Bakr b. Ab-uShayba.

talkedto us, narratedby Ibn 'Abb5s; Sunan al-Ddrirrri, vol. II, p. 260, Kit5b Chapter:
al-Buy-u', In the
mortgage,narrated by Ibn 'Abbis.
18Quran,(IV: 86). Seein this point: Al-'AaynT, 'Umdat al-Q5ri' Sharb al-Bukh5ff, vol. XVIR,
p. 305; AýUm AM al-Dhimma, vol. 1,p. 199.

106
 CHAPTER FOUR

The Authorities Mentioned

in the Manuscript
'A bd Allah b. 'A bd Aflah b. 'Lfbayy b. Salff]
A Companionof the Prophet (PBUH). His name was 'Abd Allah b. 'Abd Allah b.
'Ubayy b. Mdlik b. S51irnb. Ghanamb. 'Awf b. al-Khazrai,al-Anýdff, al-KhazrajT.Salul
was the mother of his father.His father 'Abd Allah b. 'Ubayy b. Sal-ulwasthe headof
Ta).He askedthe Prophet(PBUH) to give him permissionto
hypocrites (Ra's al-Mumfli-q.
kill his father,but the Prophetdid not agree.He waskilled at the battle of al- Yami'main

12 A. H. / 633-4 A. D. 1 [p. 93]

'AbdAftah b. al-Jamiýh
The father of Ab-u 'Ubayda b. al-Jarrdh. His name was 'Abd Allah b. al-Jarr-5hb. Hildl,

al-Fahff, al-Qurash7l.He was one of the unbelievers of the Meeeans, who fought the
Muslims at the battle of Badr in 2 A. H. / 624 A. D. He was killed by his son, AbU
2
,Ubayda,at this battle. [p. 941

"Abd AIM b. Mas Wd

A well-known Companion of the Prophet (PBUH) and an early convert. His name was
'Abd Allah b. Mas'Ud b. Gh5fil b. Harb, Abu 'Abd al-Rahmdn. He was the first one to

recite the Quran aloud in Mecca. He became an administrator in Kufa. During the
Caliphate, 'Uthm5n b. 'Uaffa-n, he travelled to Medina, where he died in 32 A. H. / 653
A. D. when he was 60 years of age. He narrated 848 IjadTithin the Prophetic Tradition

booksý[p. 541

1Ibn Ijajar al-Asqal5n7t,AI-45ba fli Tamylz al-ýabdba,vol. IV, pp. 95 f.

2 AblulNalm H-11yat al-Awllyd', vol. 1,p. 101;AlTakhr al-Rkli, Mafa-tilial-Ghayb,vol. XXIX, p. 240;
Al-Shawk5n7l, Fatti al-Qacrlr,voL V, P. 194.
3 Uilyat al-Awliyd', vol. 1,pp. 124ff.; Al-Iý5bafif Tarnyh al-ýaýdba,vol. IV, pp. 129ff.; Ibn al-Ath-ir,
'Usd at-Gh5bafli Marifat al-ýabdba,vol. III, pp. 256 ff.; The ConciseEncyclopaediaof am,pp. 173ff.

108
'A bd Allah b. 'Ubayy b. Salff]
The head of hypocrites (Ra's d-Munfifl-q. Tn)and the father of 'Abd Allah b. 'Abd Allah
b. 'Ubayy b. Sarul, the Companion of the Prophet (PBUH). His name was 'Abd Allah b.
'Ubayy b. Mdlik b. al-ljdrith b. 'Ubayd al-KhazrajT, Ab-ual-kiubdb, known as Ibn SaIRI
Sd,ffl was his grandmother's name. He hated Islam and Muslims very much, and he was

the person who began the controversial dispute about Nshaý

',; the wife of the Prophet

4
(PBUH). He died in 9 A. H. / 630 A. D. [p. 511

'AbdAllah b. 'Umar
One of the Companionsof the Prophet(PBUH) and the sonof 'Umar b. al-Khalt5b,the
second Caliph. His name was 'Abd Allah b. 'Umar b. al-Khajt5b al-'Adaw-i, 'Abd
AbUU

al-Ra4mdn. He was one of the noblestpre-IslamicQurash7ifamilies. 'Abd Allah wasa

man of high moral qualities who refused to becomeCaliph, after the killing of Uhman.
He was born.in Meccain 10 B. H. / 613 A. D., anddied therein 73 A. H. / 692 A. D. He
2637 Hadlithin the PropheticTradition '
books. [p. 1081
narrated

'A bd Allah b. al-Zubajyr

A Companion of the Prophet (PBUH) and the first baby born in Medina in the first year

after Hijra. His name was 'Abd Allah b. al-Zubayr b. al-'Awwdm al-Qurash7i,al-Azd-1,
Ab7u Bakr. He was the son of the Companian al-Zubayr b. al-'Aww5m and Asm5' bint
Abli Bakr. He was born in Medina in 1 A. H. / 622 A. D. He led a conservative revolt

against BanT 'Umayya, and declared himself Caliph in 64 A. H. / 683 A. D. after the
death of Yaz-id b. Mu'dwiya. He was murdered in Mecca by the army of al-ljaýdj b.

Yu-suf in 73 A. H. / 692 A. 33
D. He narrated Ijadlith in the Prophetic Tradition books.6

[p. 531

Khayr al-Din al-Zirikl7l,At-ATim, vol. IV, p. 65.

5 tMyat al-AwIly5, vol. 1,pp. 292 ff.; Al-lýdba, vol. IV, pp. 107; 'Usd al-Gh5ba,vol. 111,pp. 227 ff.; At-
A'15m,voL IV, P. 108.
6 Ijilyat al-Awliy5', vol. 1,pp. 329 ff.; AI-Iýdba,vol. IV, p. 69; Al-A'15rr4vol. IV, p. 87.

109
'A bd al-Malik A Mm wj-n
An 'UmayyadCaliph. His namewas 'Abd al-Malik b. Maraw5nb. al-Ijakarn aP UmawT
al-Qumsh7i,AW al-Warid. He wasborn in 26 A. H. / 646 A. D. andgrew up in Medina.
He was appointedasgovernorof Medinawhenhe was 16 yearsold by Mu'5wiya b. AN
Sufy5n. He becamea Caliph after the deathof his father in 65 A. H. / 685 A. D. He died
in / 7
in Damascus 86 A. H. 705 A. D. [p. 221]

'Abdal-RaPmj-n b. Ghunm
One of the greatestscholarsof al-Shi'mandPalestine.His namewas 'Abd al-Ra4manb.
Ghunm b. kaffizal-Ashaff. He wasborn during the life of the Prophet(PBUM. 'Umar b.
al-Khatt5b, the secondCaliph, senthim to al-Shim to teachthe peoplethere.He died in

78 A. H. / 697 A. D.8 [p. 123]

(,, 7/1A bU Bakr

',-ý0 a]-$iddTq
The first Caliph, who held togetherthe Muslim communityafter the deathof the Prophet
(PBUH). His name was 'Abd Allah b. Ab7uQu45fa 'Uthmdn b. '.ýimir b. Ka'b al-
TamTmT,al-QurashT,Ab7UBakr. Originally a rich merchantof Meccahe wasthe second,

after Khadiija, to believe in the mission of the Prophet,andaccompaniedthe Prophet

(PBUH) on his Hijra from Mecca to Medina.Celebratedasbeing the closestpersonal
friend of the Prophet and as having an unswervingloyalty to him andan unshakeable
belief in every aspectof the Propheticmission,he wasknown asthe faithful (aAFiddTq).

7 Ibn Kathlir,Al-Biddya wal-Nihdya,vol. VIII, pp. 246 ff.; Sh5kir,MaWud, Al-UrM al-5ml, vol. IV,
pp. 191 ff.; Al-Zirikly, Al-A'15m, vol. IV, p. 165.
a Al-lýdba, vol. V, p. 99; Ibn ]Uajaral-'Asqalan-i,Tahdh-ibal-Tahdh-ib,vol. VI, pp. 225 L; Al-Dhahab-i,
Siyar A'15m al-Nubald',vol. IV, pp. 45 f.; Al-Suy-ul-l,Tabaqdtal-ljuffa-?,p. 15.

110
He was born in Mecca in 51 B. H. / 573 A. D. and died in Medina in 13 A. H. / 634 A. Dý

[P. 541

Abu Bakr a]- Taifflsh!

A scholar of Tradition andliterature,andoneof M51171
jurists (fuqabj'). His namewas
Mu4ammadb. al-Warid b. Muh.ammadb. Khalaf al-Quraslffal-Fahf-Ial-AndalusT,Ab7u
Someof the bookshe wrote are "Sirdj al-Muruk" and"al-Ta'Rqa!'. He
Bakr al-Tart7ush7i.
was bom in Ta4gsha,in the of
east al-Andalus, in 451 A. H. / 1059A. D. and died in

Alexandriain 520 A. H. / 1126A. D. 10[p. 106]

Abffa]-Dard,!F-'
A companion of the Prophet (PBUH). His name was 'Uwaymir b. Mdlik b. Qaysb.
'Umayya al-Anýdff, al-Khazraji, AbU al-Dardd'. He wasa merchantin Medinabefore
5m. Ab-Ual-Dardd"wasappointedasa judge in Damascusby Mu'dwiya b. Ab-uSufydn
during the caliphateof 'Umar b. al-Khatt5b. He died in al-Sbim in 32 A. H. / 652 A. D.

He narrated179 klad-Ithin the PropheticTradition "

books. [p. 17]

AbUDj-wUd
One of the greatestTradition scholars in his time. His name was Sulaym5n b. al-Ash'ath
b. Is4dq b. Bash-iral-Asdi, al-Sajistdn-1,Ab-uDdwUd. His book, "al-Sunan", is one of the

six famous Tradition books. He was born in 202 A. H. / 817 A. D. He was originally
from Sajist4n. Beside his book "al-Sunan7'he wrote many books such as "al-Mar5slil",

"Kit5b al-zuhd" and "al-Ba'th". He died in in 275 A. H. / 889 A. D. 12[p. 1231

al-Baýra

9 Hilyat al-Awfiy5, vol. I, pp. 28 ff., A14ý5ba,vol. IV, pp. 101ff.; Usd al-Gh5ba,vol. III, pp. 205 ff.; Al-
A'15m,vol. IV, P. 102.
10Ab-uBakr al-Tart7ush-1,Sir5j al-Mul-uk,The Introduction,pp. 5 f.; Ibn al-'Im5d, Shadhardtal-Dhahabfl-
Akhbiir manDhahab,vol. VI, 102ff.; Kahh5la,U. R., Mujam al-Mu'affiffin,vol. XH, p. 96; Al-A'15m,
vol. VII, pp. 133f.
Hilyat al-Awliy5'. vol. 1,pp. 208 ff.; Al-I§dba,vol. V, p. 46; Al-A'Idm, vol. V, p. 98.
Tabaq5tal-Uuff-a?,PP.261 f.; Mu'jam al-Mu'allif-in, vol. IV, p. 255; Al-A'15m, vol. III, p. 122.

III
Abg.,Vanif'a
The founder of the Ijanaff Schoolof Law, which todayhasthe largestfollowing among
the Muslim community. He was one of the greatjurists of 5m, andone of the historic
SunnTMujtahids. His name wasal-Nu'm5n b. Th5bit al-Tamiml, al-KUT, Ab-UkJanifa.
He wasoneof the four Imims of the Suiwa.He wasborn in al-Ku-fain 80 A. H. / 699 A.
D. and grew up there. He studied with Pfar al-ýddiq in Medina,aswell aswith other
teacherselsewhere.He died in Baghdad in 150 A. H. / 767 A. D. He refusedto be a
judge (qdVj) more thanonetime, because
of his extremefear of Allah. 13[p. 77]

A bg al-&san al-Mas "M

An eminent historian from Baghd5d. His name was "Aff b. al-Ijusayn b. 'Aff, Ab-u al-

Ijasan al-Mas'Ud-i. He was descended from the children of 'Abd Allah b. Mas'lid, the

famous Companion of the Prophet (PBLJH). He went to Egypt and lived there. He is the

author of many famous books, some of which are "Muriij al-Dhahab" and "al-Tanb-ih

He died in Egypt in 346 A. H. / 957 A. D. 14 [p. 221

wal-Ishr5f'.

AbUHYzim.

A scholar and a judge of Medina. His namewasSalamab. D-Indral-Makhz-um7t, Ab-u

k1dzim, and he was also called al-Araj. He wasoriginally a Persian.Ab-UJJdzimwas
He died in 40 A. H. / 757 A. D. 15[p. 117]
wise anda sUlK.

pp. 73 f.; Siyar A'15mal-

13 Ibn al-'Im5d, ShadharRal-Dhahab,voL 11,pp. 229 ff.; Tabaq5tal-Vuffia-Z,
Nubal5', vol. XI, pp. 390 ff.; The ConciseEncyclopaediaof an-4pp. 19 f.
14Al-Dhahab-i,Tadhkiratal-Uuffa-?,voL III, p. 70; Mujam al-Mu'affifin, voL VIT, p. '80;Al-A'15m, voL
IV, p. 80.
15 Ifilyat al-Awliy5', vol. III, pp. 229 ff.; Tadhkiratal-Uuffa-?,vol. 1,p. 125;Tahdh-lbal-Tahdh-ib,vol. IV,
pp. 126 L; Tabaq5t al-Uuffa-Z, pp. 53 L

112
A bg Hili-I
A scholar and a narrator of Ijad7ithfrom al-Baga. His namewasMutammad b. Sarim,
Abu Ijildl al-Rdsib-1,al-Býff. He was a slave of BanUSima b. LuiVy. Ab-u Hildl narrated
Ijadlith from al-Ijasan, Ibn Siffn and others. He was blind and died in 169 A. H. / 785-6

A. D. during the Caliphateof A]-MahdT,

the AbbasidCaliph.16

A AVHurayra
A Companion of the Prophet (PBUH). His name was 'Abd Allah, (or 'Abd al-R4m5n)
b. ýakhr al-Daws-1.He was known as Ab7uHurayra, becauseHe was very fond of cats and

always kept a kitten with him. Abu-Hurayra had a very good memory and lived close to

the Prophet (PBUH), so he is considered to be a source of more ýIadFththan any other

individual. He was born in 21 B.H. / 602 A. D., and grew up orphaned. He converted to
Islam in 7 A. H. / 628-9 A. D. He narrated 5374 ýIadTthin the Prophetic Tradition books.

He died in Medina in 59 A. H. / 679 A. D 17[p. 1051

.

AM Mu-sial-Asb'firT
A Companion of the Prophet (PBUH). His name was 'Abd Allah b. Qaysb. Sal-linb.
ija4dr b. Ijarb, Ab-u M-usd, from BanTal-Ash'ar, in Q415n. At the adventof Islam, he

came to Mecca and acceded to Islam. He was a govenorof al-Baga by 'Umar b. al-
Khattab in 17 A. H. /638 A. D., and then a]-KUfaby'Uthm5n b. Affa-n.He wasborn in

21 B.H. /602 A. D., anddied in al-Ku-fain44 A. H. /665 A. D. He narrated355,Vadith

in the PropheticTradition 18
books. [p. 391

16 Tahdii7ibal-Tahdh-lb, vol. DC,pp. 173 ff.

17 Ijilyat al-Awliyd', voL 1,pp. 376 ff.; The ConciseEncyclopaediaof am, p. 20; Al-A'15m, vol. 111,p.
308.
18 Hilyat al-Awliyd', voL 1,pp. 256 ff.; AIJýdba f-ITamy-izid-ý45ba, vol. IV, p. 119; Usd al-Ghaba,
V,
vol. pp. 309 ff., Al-A'Idm, voL IV, p. 114.

113
AbgNuwj's
One of the very well-known poets. His name was al-kiasan b. HdnTb. 'Abd al-Awwal b.
ýab54 al-klakam7l, nick-named Ab-uNuw5s. He was a Persian who became a prWg6 of
H5rUn al-Rash7id,the famous 'Abb5sid Caliph. He was born in al-Ah wiz in 146 A. H. /
763 A. D., grew up in al-Baýsra,and then moved to Baghdad. He was a bon vivant who,

enjoying high living, has become famous in folklore as a kind of "court jestce' to the

Caliph. He died in Baghdad in 198 A. H. 1814 A. D. 19[p. 158]

M a]-QYsima]-.,
VakTm
One of the judges (al-QvVY6 of Samarqand.His name was Isýdq b. Mubarnmadb.
Ismd'-iI al-Samarqand-Ial-Ijanaff, AbUal-Qdsimal-Ijak7im.Someof his bookswere"al-
Saw5d al-A'? ae' and "Al-ý45'if al-115hiyyC. He died in 342 A. H. / 953 A. D.20[p.

2001

AbU QuPj-fl
A noble of Quraysh before the time of 5m, and the father of Ab-u Bakr al-ýiddTq, the first

Caliph. His name was 'Uthmdn b. '.ýkmir b. 'Amr b. Ka'b al-Um7i al-QurashT, Ab7u
Quýffa. He was born in 83 B. H. / 542 A. D. He acceded to Islam on the day of conqest

Mecca. He died the death his Ab-u Bakr in 14 A. H. / 635 A. D. 21 [p. 94]
of after of son

Ab9Sa'Mal-K. hvdrT
A Companion of the Prophet(PBUM. His namewasSa'd b. M51ikb. Sindrnal-Khudff
al-Anýdfi al-Khazraji, Ab7USa'Id. He naffatedmany Vadith, because
he lived closeto

19 The Concise Encyclopedia of arn, PP. 20 f.; amic Desk Reference,p. 15; Mu'jam al-Mu'affirin, vol.
IH, p. 300; Al-A'15m, vol. 11,p. 225.
20 Al-A'Idrn, voL 1, p. 296; Mujam al-Mulallifi-n, voL 11,p. 237.

21 Al-I§dba,vol. IV, pp. 221 f.; Al-A'15m, vol. IV, p. 207.

114
the Prophet (PBUH). The number of tladFth he has narrated in the Prophetic Tradition

is He
books 1170. was bom in Medina in 74 A. H. / 693 A. D.22[p. 107]

A bg Sulaymin al-BustT
A scholar of ýIadlth, Fiqh and literature from Bust. His name was 4mad b. Mutarnmad

b. lbridhfim b. al-Khalt5b, al-Khatt5bli al-Bust7i. He was born in 319 A. H. / 931 A. D. AbU

Sulaym5n is the author of many books, some of which are "Shar4 Kit5b al-Sunan li Abli

Daw-ud", "Ghar-lb al-Ijadlith" and "Shar4 al-Bukhdr"I'. He died in Bustin 388 A. H. / 998
23
A. D. [P. 151

A bigTOM
An uncle of the Pr4het (PBUH) andthe fatherof 'Ari b. Ab7uTdlib, the fourth Caliph.
His name was Ab-u Tdlib b. 'Abd al-Muttalib b. Hdshimb. 'Abd Mandf b. Qqayy. He
was born in 536 A. D., about 35 years before the birth of the Prophet(PBUH). He
became the head of the clan of the BanTHYshim,to which the Prophetbelonged,at the
time of the Prophet's mission. As clan chief, he extendedthe clan's protectionto the
Prophet againstthe enmity of the Quraysh.He wasalso the guardianof the Prophetafter

the deathof 'Abd al-Muttalib. He died in 2 B. H. / 619 A. Dý4 [p. 42]

AW TOM a]-Makki'
A Faq-1hand Sliff scholar from Mecca. His name was Muýammad b. 'Arl b. 'Aliyya al-
k1drithl, Ab7uPlib. He grew up in Mecca and moved to al-BJýra, then to Baghdad where
he lived and died in 386 A. H. / 996 A. D. One of his famous books is "Q-ut al-Qurub" on
25
SufIsm- [P. 109]

22 klilyat al-Awliyd', vol. 1,pp. 369 ff. -,Tahdh-lbal-Tahdh-ib,voL IH, pp. 416 f.; 'Usd al-Ghaba,voL V,
pp. 211 f.
23 Tadhkiratal-ijuffa-?,vol. M pp. 209 ff.; Mujam al-Mu'affifin, voL H, p. 61.
24 Al-Isdba,vol. VII, pp. 112ff.; The ConciseEncyclopaediaof am, p. 21.
25 Mujam al-Mu'affiflin, vol. XI, p. 27; Al-A'Idm, vol. VI, p. 274.

115
AbU 'Lfbayd
One of the greatestscholarsof Tradition, literature andFiqh. His namewasal-Qdsimb.
Sall5m al-Harawl-,al-Azd7i,al-KhuzdT,al-Khuras5n7f, al-Baghd5d-1,Ab-U'Ubayd. He was
born in Hanft in 157 A. H. / 774 A. D. and studiedthere,andthen movedto Baghdad,
where he becamea judge (Qjdi) in for
Tars7us 18 years.He died in 224 A. H. / 838 A. D.
in Mecca where he had come for pilgrimage He is the authorof manybooks,

"al-Ghar-ib "al-Amwar'. 16[p. 79]

someof which are al-Mqannaf"and

AM 'Ubayda
Arabic philologist from al-Baýra- His name was Ma'ammar b. al-Muthannd al-7-im7l,al-
Ba§fi-, AN Tbayda. He was born in al-Baýra in 110 A. H. / 728 A. D. He wrote around
200 books, some of which arc "Majdz al-Qur'W', "Ma'dnT al-Qur'5n" and "Ayy5m al-

in / 27
'Arab". He died in al-Baým 209 A. H. 824 A. D. [p. 66]

A bg 'Ubayda b. &-Jarrfij?]
A famous Companion of the Prophet (PBUH) and one of the ten to whom Paradisewas

promised. His name was "Xmir b. al-Jarr54 b. Hildl al-Fahfi-, AbU

al-QurashTI, 'Ubayda.

He embraced 5m very early and distinguished himself by his bravery and unselfishness,

on account of which the Prophet named him a]-Amk. He accompanied the Prophet

(pBUH) on all his battles. He was the commander of the Muslim army, which conquered
Syria (d-Shi-m). He was born in Mecca in 40 A. H. / 584 A. D. and died in Syria in 18 A.

H. / 639 A. D. 28[p. 941

I Tahdh-lbal-Talidh-ib,voL VH, pp. 315 ff.; Tadhkiratat-ljuffa-?,voL H, p. 5; Siyar A'15m al-Nubald',

X,
vol. pp. 490 ff.; Tabaqdt
al-Ijuffa-Z,
pp. 179 f.; Al-A'15m, vol. V, p. 176.
27 Tahdh-lbal-Tahdh-lb,voL Y.,pp. 246 ff.; amic DeskReference,p. 16; Al-A'Mm, voL VII, p. 272.
29 Hilyat al-Awliy5', voL I, pp. 100ff.; Al-l§aba,vol. IV, pp. 11 ff.; ShorterEncyclopaediaof am,p. 12.

116
A bg 'Ubayd Afiah a]-ShYm.T
It has been difficult to tracethis person.Howeverhe might be AbU 'Abd Allah Makb7ul
al-Shdnil. See Ma47ul, No. 90. [p. 1991

A bUa]- WalFdal- Tarýlffsh

T
Sce Ab7uBakr al-Tart7ush7l.

A]-A,bnaf b. QqYS
0
A courageousand wise noble from al-Ba^ cited as an exampleof forbearance.His
name was al-A4naf b. Qays,b. Mu'dwiya,b. klqayn al-Mirfl, al-Sa'd7i,al-Minqafi-,al-
TamIml, Ab-uB*. He wasborn in al-Baýrain 3 B. H. / 619 A. D. but he did not seethe
Prophet(PBUH). He cameto Medinaduring the Caliphateof 'Umar b. al-Khaltdb,where
he stayedfor one year andthenwent back to al-Baýra.He wasthe governorof Kburasj-n.

He died in 72 A. H. / 691 29
A. D. [p. 2021

Wisba
The daughter of Ab-UBakr, andthe favorite wife of the Prophet(PBUH). Her namewas
'*ý'isha bint Ab-u Bakr al-ýidd1q, 'Abd Allah b. 'Uthm5n-As a wife of the Prophetshe
had the title 'Umm.al-MuminIn (Mother of the believers).Shewasborn in Meccain 9
B. H. / 613 A. D. kisha
'. wasbetrothedto the Prophetat the ageof six or seven,after the
death of KbadTja.The marriage was consummatedafter the Wjra. Shewaseighteen

when the Prophet (PBUH) died. Towardsthe end of her life shewasoften consultedon
matters of tladTth and Sunna. Shedied in Medina in 58 A. H. / 678 A. D. Shenarrated
2210Vadith-30[p. 791

29 Tahdh-lbal-Tahdh-lb,voL 1,p. 167;Siyar A'15m al-NubalY, voL IV, pp. 86 ff. -,Al-A'15m. voL 1,pp.
276 f.

117
A]-Akbfash
A well-known scholar of QhTdt and Tafs-ir from Damascus.His namewasHdrUnb.
Mu-sd b. Sharlik al-Taghlib-i,AbU 'Abd Allah. He was known with AI-Akhfash al-
Dimashq7Ior Akhfash Bdb al-Ribiyya.He wasoneof the rccitersof the Holy Quran.He
/ died in 292 A. H. / 905 31
A. D. [p. 70]
wasborn in 201 A. H. 816 A. D. and

'Allb. AbU Tilib

A member of the houseof Hi-shim,cousinof the Prophet(PBUH), who wasto become
his son-in-law, and eventually the fourth rightly guidedCaliph. His namewas 'AlT b.
Ab-u Tdlib b. 'Abd al-Muttalib al-Hdshim7i,al-QurashT,Ab-Ual-Ijasan.Oneof the first
converts to 5m. He became a Caliph after the killing of 'Uthm5n b. 'Affa-n in 35 A. H. /
656 A. D. He wasborn in Meccain 23 B.H. / 600 A. D. andkilled by 'Abd al-P,4man
32
b. MaIjam in 40 A. H. / 661 A. D. He narrated586 ýIadTthfrom the Prophet(PBUH).

[p. 541

'Amr b. a]-X..s,
One of the Companions of the Prophet (PBUH). His name was 'Amr b. al-'Xý b. Wd'il

al-Sahm-1,al-Qurash7i,Ab-U 'Abd Allah. He was born in Mecca in 50 B. H. / 574 A. D.

'Amr accededto Islam shortly before the conquest of Mecca and went on to become one

of the most successful Muslim military leaders. He conquered Egypt and became its

governor in 20 A. H. / 641 A. D. during the Caliphate of 'Umar b. al-Khatt5b. He died in

Egypt in 43 A. H. / 664 A. D 33[p. 115]

.

30 Al-Iýdba,vol. VIII, pp. 139ff.; Ibn Sa'd, The Womenof Madina,pp. 43 ff.; Malik, F. H., Wivesof the
Holy Prophet,pp. 88 ff., Kabt5la, U. R., A'ldm al-Nisd', vol. III, pp. 139ff
31 Mujarn al-Ma'allifin, Vol. XIII, pp. 130L; Al-A'15m, vol. VIII, p. 83.
32 Hilyat al-Awliyd', vol. 1,pp. 61 ff.; Al-115ba,vol. IV, pp. 269 ff.; 'Usd al-Ghiba, vol. IV, pp. 16 ff. -,
The ConciseEncyclopaediaof am, pp. 33 L
33 Al-Iý5ba,vol. V, pp. 2 L; 'Usd at-Gh5ba,vol. IV, pp. 115ff.; amic DeskReference,p. 34; Al-A'Idm,
vol. V, p. 79.

118
'Amr b. D.Tnj-r
A scholar of Had7Ithand Fiqh from Mecca. His name was 'Amr b. Dindr al-Jamb7i,Ab-u
Mutammad al-Athram. He was originally from Persia, born in'Fan'j" in 46 A. H. 1666
A. D. He was trustworthy in the narration of ffadTth,and was Mecca's MuRF. He died in

Mecca in 126 A. H. / 743 A. D. when he was 80 years oW4 [p. 193]

Anas b. Mfflik
He was a personal servant of the Prophet (PBUH). His name was Anas b. Malik b. al-
Na4r b. 12am4am.al-Naffiff, al-KhazrajT, al-AqR71, Ab-uThum5ma, or Ab-UIjamza. He

was a known Companion, born in Medina in 10 B. H. / 612 A. D. After the Prophet

(PBUH) died he moved to Damascus,then to al-Baga where he died in 93 A. H. / 712 A.

D. He narrated 2286 UadFtbin the Prophetic Tradition books.35[P. 181

A]- "Aý b. Hishim b. al-MughTra

One of the unbelievers of Mecca, and the uncle of 'Umar b. al-Khatt5b from his mother

the second Caliph. He was killed by his nephew, 'Umar b. al-Khattab, at the battle
side,

2 A. H. / 624 A. D. 36 [p. 951

of Badrin

Aýbagb
A great scholar of the MOW Schoolof Law from Egypt. His namewasAýbaghb. al-
Faraj b. Sa'Td b. NW. He wrote manybooks.A§baghdied in Egypt in 225 A. H. / 840
37 [P.
A. D . 1361

34 Uilyat al-Awliy5', vol. IIL pp. 347 ff.; Tahdh-Lb

al-Tahdh-ib,vol. VM, pp. 26 C; Tabaqdtat-Ijaffai?,p.
43.
35 Al-115ba,vol. L p. 71, Siyar A'15mal-Nubal5', voL 1111,pp. 395 ff.; Al-A'15m, voL H, pp. 24 f.
p. 254.
36 Mafa-tiýal-Ghayb,vol. XXM p. 240; Al-Ra47iqal-Makhtuam,
37 Tabaq5tal-H.uffa-?,p. 200; Mujam al-Mu'allifin, vol. II, p. 302; Al-A'Idm, voL 1,p. 333.

119
A slam, a slave of 'Umar
One of the old Followers from Medina. His name was Aslam al-'Adaw-i, Ab-UKhRid, or
Ab-u Zayd. 'Umar b. al-Khatt5b, the secondCaliph, bought him in 11 A. H. / 632-3 A. D.
Aslam narrated t1adith from Ab-u Bakr, 'Umar, 'Uthm5n, 'AR, Mu'ddh b. Jabal and

others, and his narration was trustworthy. He died in 80 A. H. / 699 A. D., according to
historians, but he died before that.39[P. 126]
most some say

AI-Aýma'f

An eminentscholarof Arabic language,poetry andliteraturefrom 81-BJýra. 'Abd al-

Malik b. Quraybb. 'Aff b. Aýma'al-Bdhirl,AbUSa'Idal-Aýma'!.Hewrotemanybooks,
someof which are "al-Ibil", "al-Mutarddif"
and"al-Khayr'. He wasbornin al-Baýra in
39
122A. H. / 740 A. D. anddied therein 216 A. H. / 831 A. D. [p. 221

'Afff' b. Din'j7r
An Egyptian scholar of tIadTtb and Tafsk His name was 'Atd' b. D-Indr al-Hazarl, al-
MisrTI. He wrote a book in Tafs.Th,narrating it from Sa'Tdb. Jubayr. He died in Egypt in

126A. H. / 744 A. Dýo [p. 55]

'AlFb. AbgRabiýb
A scholar of Vadfth and Rqb, and one of the Followers.His namewas 'Ald' b. Ab-u
Ab7uM4ammad. He wasborn in Jund,in Yemen,in
Rab5b, Aslam b. ýafwdn al-Jund-1,

38 AI-1ý5ba,vol. L p. 37, also,vol. 1,p. 107;Tahdhlbal-Tahdh-ib,vol. 1,pp. 233 ff ; 'Usd al-Gh5ba,vol. 1,

pp. 77 f.; Siyar A'15m al-Nubal5', vol. IV, pp. 98 ff. -,Tabaq5t
al-ljuffa-?,p. 16.
39 At-A'15m, voL 4, p. 162;Mujam al-MuallTin, vol. VI, pp. 187f.
40 Tahdhibal-TahdYlb,vol. VII, pp. 198ff.; Mujam al-Mu'allifin, vol. VI, p. 283; Al-A'15m, vol. IV, p.
235.

120
27 A. H. / 647 A. D. and grew up in Mecca. 'Ata' became the big scholar, who gave

Fatwi"after the deathof Ibn 'Abb5s. He died in Meccain 114A. H. / 732 A. Dýl [p. 194]

A]-Awzj-'F
An eminent S&T and jurist from d-S&Tm. His namewas 'Abd al-Rahm5nb. 'Amr b.
Yu4mid al-Awz5'T, Ab-u 'Amr, from the tribe of Auzj". He wasborn in BaYabakin 88
A. H. / 707 A. D. andgrew up in al-Biqj", andthenmovedto live in Beirut. He refused
to be a judge. Al-Awzd'! is the authorof "al-Sunan"on Fiqh and"al-Masd'ir'. He died
in Beirut in 157A. H. / 774 A. Dý2 [p. 1191

Ayygb (PBLTH)
Job of the Bible. He is called "the servantof God" in the Holy Quran,andrepresentedas
a patient man. It is relatedbriefly in the Quranthat God put Job to the test, that the latter

afterwards addressedprayers to God, that he wasrestoredto his former stateand that

God returnedto him all his family 43
andpossessions. [p. 197]

'Azar
The father of the Prophet IbrWim (PBUH). The Holy Quran mentions him by name in
Sjirat al-An'ffm (VI: 74). Some scholars say that the father of IbrWim had also the name

of "r5raV', or "TdraW'. It may be notedthat some believe

commentators that the word

41 Hilyat al-Awliyd, vol. III, pp. 310 ff.; Tabaq5tat-Ijuffai?,p. 39; Siyar A'l5m al-Nubald', vol. V, pp. 78
ff.; Al-A'15m, vol. IV, p. 235.
42 Ijilyat al-Awliyd', vol. VI, pp. 135ff., Siyar A'Idm al-Nubald', vol. V, pp. 107ff ; Mujam al-
Mu'anif-Ln,vol. V, p. 163.
43The Holy Qur'Sn,(XXI: 83-84;XXXVUI: 41-44); Ibn Kath1r,Al-Bid5ya wal-Nihdya,vol. L pp. 226
ff.; ShorterEncyclopaediaof am, pp. 26 f, Hughes,TbomasPatrick,Dictionaryof Islam,pp. 248 L;
Tabbara,A. A., Ma'a al-Anbiy5' fi al-Qur5n al-Kafim, pp. 208 ff.

121
"'Azar", which is a non-Arabic word, is a term of abuseor disgust, rather than the proper

lbrdh-im's "
father. [p. 85]
nameof

Babj-'al-D. Thb. R,?Sbi-q

It has been difficult to trace this person. Yet he might be al-Ijasan b. RashTq,the famous

scholar and the 1jadlith narrator. His name was Al-Ijasan b. RashTqal-'Askary al.-Miýffl,
Ab-u Mu4ammad. He narrated kiad7ith from Al-Nasd'T, the author of "al-Sunad, and

many scholars narrated kladlith from him, one of them being Al-Bayhaq-i, the known

scholar of ]Uad7ith
and the author of 'W-Sunad'. He was born in 283 A. H. / 896 A. D. and

died in 370 A. H. / 980-1 A. Dý5 [P. 1341

A]-Baybaqi'
A well-known traditionist.His namewas A4111ad b. al-kiusaynb. 'AIT, AblulBakr. He was
born in Bayhaq,in Naysab7ur, in 384 A. H. / 994 A. D. andgrew up there.He travelledto
Baghdad,al-Kffa, Mecca and manyothers.Al-Bayhaq7twasthe authorof manybooks,
some of which are " al-Sunanal-Kubrid"and "'al-Sunan
al-ýughrid".He died in Naysdb7ur
in 458 A. H. / 1066 A. D. and his corpse was movedto Khusrawjird,his village in

Bayhaq,whereit wasburiedý6[p. 110]

A]-Bukbj-rl
One of the greatest traditionists.His namewasMutammad b. Ismd'-il b. lbriNin b. al-
MughTraal-Bukhdff, Ab-u'Abd Allah. He wasbom in Bukhdr5in 194A. H. / 810 A. D.
and grew up an orphan.In 210 A. H. / 825 A. D. he starteda long journey to collect the
kiadTithof the Prophet(PBUH). He visited Khurasdn,Iraq, Egypt andal-ShdrncoHecting
around 100.000Ijad-Ith,and then chosethe oneshe trustedto put in his famousbook "al-

44 Al-Bid5ya wal-Nih5ya,vol. 1,p. 146;Al-Qurlub-1,Al-J5miLi'aWam al-Qur'dn, vol. VJ14pp. 22 f

AtTakhr al-IZ5ilf,Mafa-tqial-Ghayb,vol. XUL p. 31.
45 Tabaqdtal-ljuffa-?,p. 384; At-A'Idm, voL II, pp. 190f.

122
i5mil al-ý411ý", which is the most important and trustworthy book in Tradition
111adith". Al-Bukh5ff is also the author of some otherbooks,someof which are"al-
Adab al-Mufrad" and "al-Qu.'afal"'. He died in Khartank, two parasangsfrom
Samarqand,in 256 A. H. / 870 A. Dý7 [p. 70]

Dj-wffd (PBL)H)
The Biblical king andProphetwho recievedthe Divine Revelationof the Psalms,called
in Arabic "al-Zab&Z".He wasthe fatherof Sulaym5n"Solomon" (PBUH), who wasalso
king Prophet!8 [p. 214]
a and a

A]-FuVayl b. 'lyJV
A great SUff and a trustworthytraditionist.His namewas al-Fu4aylb. 'Iy54 b. Mas'Ud
Abu-
al-Tamliml al-Yarbu-'!, 'Al-l. He was bom in SamaNandin 105A. H. / 723 A. D. and
grew up in Aby@V. He was the Shaykh of the SacredMosquein Mecca.He died in

Meccain 187A. H. / 803 A. Dý9 [p. 200]

A]--, ffJjjjj-

The leading general of the early 'Umayyads. His name wasal-vajdj b. Y-Usuf"Abu-
MuslirW' b. al-Ijakam.al-Thaqaf-i,Ab-UMutammad. He wasborn in al-Td'if in 40 A. H. /
660 A. D. andgrew up there.During the Caliphateof 'Abd al-Malik b. Maraw5n,he was

a governor, first of Mecca,Medina andal-Td'if for abouttwo years,and then of Iraq for

46 Tabaqdtal-]Juffa-?,pp. 433f.; Al-A'15m, vol. 1,p. 116.

47 Tadhkiratal.ljuffa-?, vol. H, p. 122;Tahdh-1b
al-Tahdh7ib, vol. IX, pp. 41 ff.; Tabaq5tal-kiuffa-Z,pp. 248
f.; ShorterEncyclopaediaof am,p. 65.
49 The Holy Qur'dn (IV: 163;XXI: 78-80;XXXIV: 10-11);AI-Bid5ya wal-Nihdya,vol. H, pp. 10 ff.; The
ConciseEncyclopedia of am,pp. 94 f-,Dictionaryof Islam,pp. 71 f.; Tabb5ra,Maa al-Anbiy5' rt al-
Qur'dn al-Kafim, pp. 272 ff
49 Hilyat al-Awliy5', Vol.VIII, PP.84 ff.; Tadhkiratal-Ijuffa-?,vol. 1,p. 225.

123
20 years. He built the city of Wdýit, betweenal-Ku-faandal-Bqra, wherehe died in 95
50
A. H. / 714 D. [p. 1641
A.

Hamm& al- Turk.T

p
It wasso difficult to tracethis persondespitea wide searchof the rrfcrcnccs. [p. 169]

tlamza

An uncle of the Prophet (PBUH), an early convert to 5m andoneof its moreardent

champions in the battlefield. His namewas Ijamza b. 'Abd al-Multalib b. Hdshim, Ab-U
Ilmdra. He was born in Mecca in 54 A. H. / 556 A. D. andgrew up there.Hamzahad
been a hunter,andwasa manof prowess.He waskilled at the battle of 'U4ud in 3 A. H.
/ 625 A. D. by the lanceof a slavecalled W4sh.T,who had beenpromiseda rich reward
for the life of tiamza by Hind, the wife of AbU Sufy5n, the leader of the Meccan
The Prophet(PBLTH)
mournedhis deathwith particular 51
sadncss. [p. 951
opposition.

Hjýgn a]-Rashi'd
The fifth 'Abb5sid Caliph. His name was HdrUn al-Rash7idb. Mujýammad al-MahdT b. al-
Mans7ural-'Abb5sTi, Ab7uJa'far- He was born in al-RaVy in 149 A. H. / 766 A. D. and

grew up in the house of the Caliphate in Baghdad. He became a Caliph after the death of
his brother al-Mid-I in 170 A. H. / 786 A. D. The Caliphate reached its apogeeduring his

for over 20 years. He died in Tu-sin 193 A. H. / 809 A. D 52[P.

reign, which extended .
1581

50 Tahdh7lbal-Tahdh-lb, vol. H, pp. 184ff.; Siyar A'Idm al-Nubald',vol. IV, p. 343; Al-A'ISm, voL H, p.
168.
51 AI-4iba, voL II, pp. 37 E; The ConciseEncyclopedia of am, p. 147;Al-A'Idni, voL H, p. 278.

124
A]-.,Vassj"n
It has not been possibleto tracethis man with certaintyin the referencesavailable.Yet
he might be al-klasanal-Baýffi.[p. 951

A]-gasan b. A bff al-,ffasan

Seeal-tiasanal-Bqfl'. [p. 381

Al-ýTasan al-Bagf
A great scholarof the Followersof the Prophet(PBUH). His namewasal-klasanb. Ab-u
al-Ijasan,Yasdr al-Baýff, Ab-u Sa'Td. He wasknown for his wide knowledgeof 5m. He
was born in al-Madinain 21 A. H. / 642 A. D. andgrew up underthe wing of "Ari b. Ab-u
Plib. He movedto al-Bqsra,wherehe lived until he died therein 110A. H. 1728 A. D.
, 53
He wrote a book in "Fa4d'il Makka7. [p. 761

Al-t-Iasan A 'AIT
A grandson of the Prophet (PBUH). His name was al-Ijasan b. 'AU b. Ab-uTilib al-
Hdshiml, al-Qurash-i, Ab7u Mu4ammad. He was bom in Medina in 3 A. H. / 624 A. D.
Ffis mother was F51ima al-Zahr5', the daughter of the Prophet (PBUH). He died in

Medina in 50 A. H. / 670 A. D. 54[p. 117]

HYtib b. AbffBaltaa
v&
A Companion of the Prophet (PBUH). Ifis namewasljdtib b. Ab-uBaltaa al-Lakhm-i.
He accompaniedthe Prophet on all his battles.The Prophet(PBUI-1)senthim with his

52 Ibn al-'Imdd, Shadhardtal-Dhahab,voL IL pp. 229 ff.,- Al-Bidiya wal-NMya, voL Y, pp. 172L-,Al-
Ta-rAhal-5nill,vol. V, pp. 157ff.; amic DeskReference,p. 130;Al-A'Idin, voL VIU, p. 62.
53 Udyat al-Awliyd', voL II, pp. 131ff.; Tahdh-ibal-Tahdh-lb,voL H, pp. 231 ff.; Ibn al-'Im5d, Shadhar5t
al-Dhahab, voL H, pp. 48 M'. Tabaq5t al-Uuffa-?,
p. 28.
54 Al-Is.dba,voL II, pp. II ff.; 'Usd al-Ghiba, voL IL pp. 9 ff.; Al-A'Mm, voL IL pp. 199f.

125
book to al-Muqawqis in Egypt. He was bom in 35 B. H. / 586 A. D. and died in Medina

in 30 A. H. / 650 A. D. 55[p. 97]

Hisbi-m b. 'A bd a]-Mdik

An 'Umayyad Caliph. His name was Hish5m b. 'Abd al-Malik b. Maraw5n. He was bom
in Damascus in 71 A. H. / 690 A. D. He became a Caliph after the death of his brother
Yaz-id b. 'Abd al-Malik in 105 A. H. / 723 A. D. He died in al-Raýdfa (4 parasangsfrom

125A. H. /743 A. D.56[p. 221]

al-Raqqa)in

Hisbj"m b. 'Urwa
A great traditionist and one of the Followers of the Prophet(PBUH). His namewas
Hish5m b. 'Urwa b. al-Zubayrb. al-'Awwdm al-Qurashl,al-AzdY,Ab-ual-Mundhir. He

was born in Medina in 61 A. H. / 680 A. D. and lived there.He travelled to then

al-Ku-fa,
to Baghdad where he died therein 146 A. H. / 763 A. D. He narratedaround400 klad7ith

in the PropheticTradition 57
books. [p. 113]

Hu-d (PB UH)

A pre-Islamic Prophet to Arabs mentioned in the Holy Quran (7: 65-72; 11:50-60;
ýid,
26:123-139).H-ud was sentasa "warner"to the extinct tribe of '. who rejectedhim.58

141

53 Tahdh-lbal-Talidh-lb,vol. H, p. 147; 'Usd al-Ghdba,voL I, pp. 360 ff. *,Al-A'Idm, voL H, p. 159.
56 Al-Bid5ya wal-Nih5ya,vol. IX, p. 240; Siyar A'15m al-Nubali', vol. V, pp. 351 ff.; Al-Urikh al-5el,
vol. IV, pp. 265 ff.; Al-A'Idm, vol. VHI, pp. 86.
57 Tahdh-ibal-Tahdh-ib,vol. XI, pp. 44 ff-; Tapaqdtal-Uuffa-?,pp. 61 f.; Shadhar5tal-Dhahab,vol. 11,p.
212; Siyar A'Mrn al-Nubala',vol. VI, pp. 34 ff.; Al-A'Idm, vol. VIR, p. 87.
5" At-Bid5ya wal-Nihdya,vol. 1,pp. 123ff. *,The ConciseEncyclopaediaof am, p. 160; Dictionaryof
Islam,pp. 181 f; Tabbdra,Ma'a al-Anbiya' fi al-Qur'Anal-Karlim,pp. 86 ff.

126
Hudha b. a]-Yamjj7
A well-known Companionof the Prophet(PBUH). His namewaskludhayfab. ki b. Mir
al-'Abs-t, Ab-u 'Abd Allah. "Al- Yamin " was the title of "tr' his father.The Prophet
,
(PBUH) disclosedto him the namesof Hypocrites"aI-Munj'f7qUn".He wasinstalledasa
governor of Madd'in in Persiaby 'Umar b. al-Khaltiib. He narrated225 kladIth from the

prophet(PBUH). He died in 63 A. H. / 656 A. Dý9 [p. 176]

lblTs
He was originally one of the Angels or the Jinns,who refusedto bow down to Adam
when so commanded by Allah. For this disobedienceAllah cast him out of heaven,

reprieving him howeverfrom annihilationuntil the Day of Judgement.

lbris is called "al-

describedin the Holy Quranas "the 60

adversary". [P. 1811
shayidn"and

Ibn "Abbä-s
One of the greatest Companion scholars, called "kIabr al-'Ummaý', the doctor of the

nation, becauseof his doctrine of Quranic exegesis. His name was 'Abd Allah b. 'Abb5s

b. 'Abd al-Muttalib al-Qurash7i,al-HdshimT, Ab7ual-'Abbds. He was bom in Mecca in 3

B. H. / 618-9 A. D. and grew up at the beginning of the time of the Prophethood, living

close to the Prophet (PBUH), so that he narrated many JjadTth from him. He died in al-
61
Td'if in 68 A. H. / 687 A. D. [p. 33]

Ibn 'AbdWs
A historianfrom al-Ku-fa.His namewasMuhammadb. 'Abd7us
b. 'Abd Allah al-Ku-fl-,al-
Jahshaydfi',Ab-U 'Abd Allah. He grew up with his father in Baghdad.Someof the books

59 Uflyat al-Awliyd', vol. 1, pp. 270 ff.; Al-I§dba, vol. 1, p. 332.

60 The Concise Encyclopaedia of am, pp. 165 ff, Dictionary of Islam, p. 84.
61 Ijilyat al-Awliya', vol. 1, pp. 314 ff.; AMýdba, vol. IV, p. 90; Tahdh-lb al-Tahdh-ib, vol. V, pp. 242 ff.;
'Usd al-Gh5ba, vol. Ul, pp. 192 ff.

127
he wrote are "Kit5b al-Wuzard' wal-Kuttdb" and "AkhbZir al-Muqtadir al-'Abbasr'. He
62
died in 331 A. H. / 943 A. D. [P. 169]

Ibbn--A bWa]-RijR
An eminent scholar of kfadTithfrom al-Mad-Ina.His namewasMuh.ammadb. 'Abd al-
Witmdn b. 'Abd Allah b. Ij5ritha b. al-Nu'm5n b. Naf' b. Zayd b. 'Ubayd b. Tha'labab.
Ghanrn b. Mdlik b. al-Najdr al-Anýdff al-MadanT.He wasa scholar,narratingkladTith
and his narration was trustable. He narratedIjadlith from Isbdqb. Yaby5 b- Taqia, His

brother1jdrithab. Ab7u
al-Rij5l, Rab-Iab. Ab7u
'Abd 63
al-Raým5nandothers. [P. 5oi

7-f-
Jon
-
'Atiyya
A famous scholar of Tafs-ir and Fiqh from al-Andalus.His namewas 'Abd al-kfaqqb.
Gh5lib b. 'Abd al-Rahm5nb. 'Aliyya al-Muýdribll,al-Ghirndlri,AbUMuýammad.He
was a judge in al-Mariyya. Ibn 'Atiyya wrote many books, some of which are "al-
Mutarrar al-Wajlz fl' TafsTir al-Kit5b al-'Az7iz" and "Bim5mij". He was born in 481 A.

H. / 1088 A. D. died in L-urqain 542 A. H. / 1148 A. D. 64[p. 32]

and

IAbntliabit-b
A scholar of Fiqh, history and literature from al-Andalus. His name was 'Abd al-Malik b.
Habib b. Sulaynidn b. Hdfu-n al-SularCi, al-libiff, al-Qurtub-IAb-uMaraw5n. He was
originally from Tulaytila, from Ban7uSulaym5n or one of their born
slaves, in Mira in
174 A. H. / 790 A. D. He lived in Qurtubaandvisited Egypt andthenreturnedto al-
Andalus, where he died in Qurjubain 238 A. H. / 853 A. D. Ibn Ijab-ibwasan eminent

62 Ibn 'Abd7us Kit5b al-Wuzar5'wal-Kutt5b,the Introduction,pp. (A) f.; Tabaqdtal-ljuffa-Z,

al-Jahshiy5rTl,
p. 297; Mujam al-Mu'affifin, vol. X, p. 275; Al-A'15m, vol. VI, p. 256.
63Ibn 1jaiar,Taqrl-bal-Tahdh-lb,vol. L p. 479; Tahdh-ibal-Tahdh-ib,vol. Vi, p. 154.
" In 'Aliyya, Al-M4arrar al-WajTzfli Tafs-iral-KitAbal-'Az7iz,the Introduction,voL 1,pp. 26 ff. -,Al-
A'15m,voL Ill, p. 282.

128
scholar of the MOM- School of Law. He wrote many booksin both Fiqh andhistory,
65 [P.
someof which are "Tafs-irMuwatta' M51ile' and "kiufu-bal-dM". 133]

yr- __
Jon Ham

A famoustheologianfrom al-Andalus.His namewas 'Arl b. Ahmadb. Sa'Tdb. klazmal-

ýdhifl, AM Mubammad. He was bom in Cordova "Qurjuba"in 384 A. H. / 994 A. D.
Ibn Ijazm followed the Phiff School of Law and so maintainedthat the only level of

meaning in the Holy Quran was the explicit. He wrote many books on a variety of
subjects including theology,literature,religions and Fiqh. Someof his famous books are
llal-Fiýal fil-Milal wal-Ahwd' wal-Nihar', "al-Muhalld" and "al-Ihk5m li Aus7u-I
al-
AbUrn". He died in 456 A. H. / 1064A. D.66[p. 126]

Ibn tlibbi-n
A traditionist andhistorianfrom Bust,in Sajist5n.His namewasMuýammadb. Vibb5n
b. Aýmad b. kfibbdnb. Mu'ddh b. Ma'bad al-TamTmT al-Bust7i,Abu-kidtim. He wasborn
in Bust and travelled to manycountries.Ibn klibbdn wrote manybooks,oneof them is
,,al-musnad al-ýýIiý" on kladlith, which is said to be more correct than Ibn Mdja's
in
Sunan.He died Bust in 354 A. H. / 965 67
A. D. [p. 1111

Ibn lsbj'q
One of the oldest Arab historians. His name was Mu4ammad b. Is4dq b. Yasdral-
MadanT,Ab-u 'Abd Allah. He was bom in Medinaandgrew up there.He devotedhis
work to the collection of storiesand legendsof the life of the Prophet(PBUH). His book

65 Tahdh-ibal-Tahdh-ib,voL VI, pp. 347 L; Mujam al-Ma'alliftn, voL VI, p. 181;Al-A'15ni, voL IV, P.
157.
66 Ibn ]jazm, AlTiýal FL-al-Milal wal-Ahw5l wal-Nibal, the Introduction,voL 1.pp. 3 ff.; Tapaqýtal-
ljuffa-?,pp. 436 L; The ConciseEncyclopaediaof am,p. 171.
67 Tadhkiratal-kluffal?,voL III, p. 125;Tabaq5tal-Huff-a?,pp. 374 f *,Al-A'15m, voL VI, p. 78.

129
"al-STra al-Nabawiyya! ' is the most important traditional biography of the Prophet

(PBUH). He lived in Baghdad and died there in 151 A. H. / 768 A. D 68[P. 67]
.

TL Juntyj
--
Jon

A jurist 'Taq.1-h" of the SacredMosquein Mecca.His namewas 'Abd al-Malik b. 'Abd

al-'Az-iz b. Jurayj, Ab7u

al-Warid and Ab-uKh5lid. He wasoneof the greatestscholarsof
al-lJij5z in his time and the first one who composed books on Islamic studiesin Mecca.
in
He was born in Mecca 80 A. H. / 699 A. D. and died therein 150A. H. / 767 A. D.69

[p. 94]

Ibn Rushd
An eminent jurist of the MOM- School of Law and the grandfather of Ibn Rushd al-
ijafi-d, the philosopher. His name was Mu4ammad b. A.4mad b. Rushd, Ab-Ual-Warid,
known as "'Ibn Rushd al-Jadd or Ibn Rushd al-Faq-ih!'. He was born in Qurtuba in 450 A.
H. / 1058 A. D. Ibn Rushd wrote many books on Fiqh, some of which are "al-Baydn wal-
T4jir' and "Biddyat al-Mujtahid wa Nihdyat al-Muqta§iX'. He died in Qurtuba in 520

A. H. / 1126 A. D-70[p. 391

1701-
J-7S, WJ 7

A Follower of the Prophet (PBUH) and oneof greatscholarsof Baýra.His namewas

Mu4ammad b. SICin al-Baýfi al-Anýdff, Ab7uBakr. He wasbom in Bas. in
ra 33 A. H. /
653 A. D. His father was a slave of Anas b. M5lik. He was known for his wide

69 Tadhkiratal-ijuffa-Z,voL 1,p. 163;Al-Raw4 al-'Unuf, Vol. 1,71beIntroduction,pp. ff. -,Shorter

Encyclopaediaof am, p.,149.
69 Tadhkiratal-Ijuffa-T,voL 1,p. 160;Mujam al-Mu'allif-in, voL VI, p. 183;Al-A'15m, voL IV, p. 160.
" Mujam al-Mu'allifl-n, voL VIII, p. 228; Al-A'Idm, vol. V, pp. 316 f.

130
knowledge about the interpretation of dreams. He died in Baga, in 110 A. H. / 719 A.
71 [P.
D. 1591

Ibn Wahb
A scholar of Ijad7ith and Fiqh from Egypt. His name was 'Abd Allah b. Wahb b. Muslim

al-Fahf-i al-Miýrfi, Ab-u Muhammad. He was born in Egypt in 125 A. H. / 743 A. D. He

was one of M5lik b. Anas' friends. Ibn Wahb was a trustworthy Memorizer 'VO-Ir" and

was the author of (al-Rimi') and (al-Muwatta'), both are on Ijad7ith. He died in Egypt in

197 A. H. / 813 A. D 72 [P. 1321

.

Ibräh im (PBUH)
The prophet "Abraham "in the Bible. He was one of the five Messengerscalled Uff al-
IAzm "the possessorsof constancy". He was also an ancestor of the Prophet Mutammad
(PBUH), who was his descendant through IbrWim's son, Ism5lil. lbrWim. and his son
Ismd'111built the Ka'ba in Mecca (traditionally founded first by ',ýkdam). He also

established the pilgrimage to Mecca calling mankind to the "ancient house" (al-Bayt al-
!3
'AtTq) [p. 851

lbr, ibim- b. Adham

A well-known ýUufll.His name was lbrWirn b. Adham b. Maný-ural-Tam-im7ial-BaUld,
AN lsýdq. His father was a rich man from Balkh. He waseducatedby many scholarsin

Iraq, al-Shdmandal-ljij5z. He died in 630 A. H. / 1233A. D.74[p. 22]

71 Vilyat al-Awliyd', voL 11,pp. 193ff. -,Tahdh-lbal-Tahdh-ib,voL IX, P- 190;Tabaq5tal-H.uffa?, pp. 31

f.; Shadhardtal-Dhahab,vol. 11,pp. 52 ff.
71 Tadhkiratal-Ijuffa-Z,voL 1,p. 279; Vilyat al-Awliyd', voL VIR, pp. 324 ff. -,Tahdh-lbat-Tahdh-lb,vol.
VI, pp. 65 ff.; Mujam al-Mu'allifin, voL VI, p. 162.
73 The Holy Qur'5n, (11:124-132;XIV: 35-41;XVI: 120-122;XXII: 26-29); Al-Biddya wal-NiWiya,voL
1,pp. 144ff. -,Ihe ConciseEncyclopaediaof arn,pp. 18 f-,Tabb5ra,Ma'a al-Anbiy5' fil al-Qur'5n al-
Kar-Im,pp. 105ff.
74 Uilyat al-Awliy5', vol. VII, pp. 367 ff., alsovol. VIU, pp. 3 ff.; Al-Dhahab-i,Siyar A'Idm al-Nubald',
voL VII, pp. 387 ff.; At-Bid5ya wal-Nih5ya, vol. X, p. 135; Al-A'Idm, vol. 1, p. 31.

131
'Ikrima
One of the Followers of the Prophet (PBUH) and a scholar of Tafs1r, STraand IjadYth.
His name was 'Mma b. 'Abd Allah al-Barbaff al-MadanT,Ab-u 'Abd Allah. He was a

slave of 'Abd Allah b. 'Abb5s. 'Wrima was one of the greatest scholars of Tafs-ir and
MaghdzT. He was bom in 25 A. H. / 645 A. D. and died in Medina in 105 A. H. / 723 A.
75
D. after he had visited many countries. [p. 78]

"Imri-n b. Asad
It hasnot beenpossibleto tracethis man in the referencesavailable.[p. 154]

fi'(PB UH)
The Arabic namefor Jesus.He wasoneof the five Messengerscalled Uff al- 'Azm (the
of
possessors, constancy).In the Holy Quranhe is usually called 'Isj'b. Maryam (Jesus

son of Mary), and his titles include Masjý (Messiah), Nab.

T (Prophet) and RaSO
"messengerof God". He is also mentioned in the Holy Quranas"Roun min Allah

(Spirit from God) and"Kalimat AIM" (the Word of God).76[p. 206]

Al-ksfakhrT

An eminent jurist of the Sh5fi'! School of Law. His namewasal-kfasanb. Ah.madb.

yaz-ld al-igakhrTi,Ab-u SaId. He was a judge in Qum, "a city betweenA§baMn and
Sdwa", and Sajistdn.Oneof his outstandingbooksis "al-Qa4d"' in Fiqh. He wasborn in

244 A. H. / 858 A. D. and died in 328 A. H. / 940 A. D 77[P. 1381

.

75 Ijilyat al-Awliyd', vol. III, pp. 326 ff.; Tahdh-1b

al-Tadh-lb,vol. VII, pp. 234 ff, Tabaq5tal-kiuffia-Z,
p.
37. Shadhar5tal-Dhahab,vol. H, pp. 32 f.
76 ne Holy Qur'5n, (IV: 171-172;V: 72-750);Al-Biddya wal-Nih5ya,vol. H, pp. 56 ff.; The Concise
Encyclopaediaof am,pp. 208 f, Dictionaryof Islam,pp. 229 ff.; Tabb5ra,Ma'a al-Anbiy5' f-i al-Qur5n
al-Kafim, pp. 322 ff.

132
A-birb. 'AbdAllah
A well-known Companionof the Prophet(PBUH). His namewasMir b. 'Abd Allah b.
'Anir b. klar5m, al-KhazrajT,al-Anýdfif, al-Salani7l.He fought in nineteenbattlesand
narrated 1540 klad-Ithin the Prophetic Tradition booksof al-BukhdCiandMuslim. He

born in 16 B.H. / 607 A. D. and died in 78 A. H. / 697 A. D.78 [p. 211

was

inwayiiya b. Asmj7-'
One of the Ijadlith scholars from al-Baga. His name was Juwayriya b. Asmd' b. 'Ubayd

al-12uba'Y al-Baýff, known as Ibn 'Ubayd. He was descended from the tribe of Qubaya,

from Bakr b. Wd'il, or from the place where they lived in Baga. He was a trustworthy

He died in 173 A. H. / 789 A. D. 79[p. 155]

traditionist.

Ka'b al-Apbj-r
One of the Followers "al-Tdbi'lin". His name was Ka'b b. Mdti' b. Dh7uHajin al-
1jimayff, Ab-u Is4dq. He wasoneof the eminentJewishscholars,and accededto Islam
during the Caliphateof Ab7uBakr. Ka'b went to Medinaduring the Caliphateof 'Umar b.
al-Khatt5b, and later to al-Sh5mwherehe lived in klims.,
and died therein 32 A. H. / 652

A. D. whenhe was 104 80

yearsold. [p. 1861

Ka'b b. al-Ashraf
A pre-Islamic poet. His name wasKa'b b. al-Ashramal-T51, from Ban7U Nabh5n.His

mother was Jewish, from "BanUal-NaVfr". After he grew up he followed Ka'b

Judaism.
did not like Islam when it arrived and wrote defamatory poems about the Prophet

77 Mujam al-Mu'alfirin, vol. 111,p. 204; Al-A'15m, vol. 11,p. 179.

73Tahdh-ibal-TahWlb, vol. H, pp. 37 f.; Al-ATim, vol. 11,p. 104.
" Tahdh-lbal-Tahdh-ib,voL IL P. 107;Siyar A'Idm al-Nubald', voL VII, pp. 317 f -,Al-A'Idm, voL H, p.
148.
vol. 1,p. 49; Ijilyat al-Awliya', vol. V. pp. 325 ff., alsovol. VI, pp. 3 ff.; AI-Iýdba,
90Tadhkiratal-]Uuffa-?,
V, 322 f.; Siyar A'Idm al-Nubald', vol. HI, 489 ff.
voL pp.

133
(PBUH) and Muslims. Five Muslims from al-Aqdr killed him in 3 A. H. / 624 A. D. and
brought his head back to Medina, after the Prophet (PBUH) had called Muslims to kill

him, becauscof his bad bchaviour Islam

against and 81
Muslims. [p. 130]

A]-Kdb. T
An eminentjurist from Baghdadandal-Shdfi'rs friend. His namewaslbr-ah-Imb. Kh5lid
b. Ab7ual-Yamdnal-Kale-Ial-Baghd5dT,AbUThawr. He wasoneof the greatestscholars

of Fiqh, who had his own Madhhab. He wrote many books explaininghis own opinions,
which were similar to thoseof al-Shdfi'-f s Madhhab.He died in Baghdad in 240 A. H.
82
854 A. D. [p. 801

rrt.
b.
Ababbi-b a]-Aratt
A well-known Companion of the Prophet (PBUH), who accededto Islam early. His name

was Khabb5b b. al-Aratt b. Jandala b. Sa'd al-Tamlni7i, Ab-u 'Abd Allah. He

accompanied the Prophet (PBUH) on all his battles. He to

went al-Ku-fa, where he died in

37 A. H. / 657 A. D. when he was in the 73rd year of his age. He has 32 klad-ith in the
83
Tradition books. [p. 2251
Prophetic

T-J-L

Aakyffima
An eminent scholar of Ijad7ith.His name was Khaythamab. Sulaym5nb. Ijaydara b.
Sulaym5n al-Qurashlal-Sh5m7i He wasa trustworthynarratorof the Hadith
al-Atridbul§-I.
of the Prophet(PBUH). Khaythamawas the authorof "Al-'Tih.dd fli
wal-Mathdn7i Fa4d'il

91 Al-Suhayri,Al-Raw4 al-'Unuf, vol. 111,pp. 139ff ; Al-A'15m, voL V, p. 225.

92Tadhkkatal-Ijuffad?,voL H, p. 87; Mujam al-Mu'dUrin, voL 1,p. 28, Al-A'Idni, voL 1,p. 37.
" VHyatal-Awliy! ', Vol. 1,pp. 143ff.; Al-l§dba,vol. H, p. 101; 'Usd al-Ch-aba,vol. 11,pp. 98 ff.

134
al-ý45ba". He was born in 250 A. H. / 864 A. D. and died in 343 A. H. / 954-5 A. D.84

[p. 2061

ma"91

A jurist of al-Sh5m in his time, and oneof the Memorizersof kladTith.His namewas
Makb7ulb. Ab-u Muslim, Shahr5bb. Shddhil,Ab7u'Abd Allah al-Sh5mTal-DimashqT,a
slave of Hudhayl. He was originally from born
Persia, in Kdbil and grew up there.He
travelled a lot to coUcct Ijadith andcameto Damascuswherehe lived until he died in
112A. H. / 730 A. D." [p. 1181

Malak a]-Ma wt -
The Angel of deathandoneof the Archangels.He is known in the Holy Quranas"Malak
His is lzrd'll, as the Sunna 86
mentioned. [p. 207]
al-Mawf'. name

Mi-lik b. Anas
The founder of the Mdliki` School of Law. His namewasMalik b. Anasb. Malik al-
Aýbaýl al-]Uimayfl, Ab7u'Abd Allah. He wasborn in Medina in 93 A. H. / 711 A. D. He
received Traditions from Sahl b. Sa'd, who was one of the last surviving Companions.
Malik studied with Ja'far al-ýddiq, the great scholar and descendantof the Prophet
(pBUH). One of his famous books is al-Muwa&, which is the earliestcollection of

Ijadiith, andthe first book of Fiqh. He died in Medina in 179A. H. / 795 A. D 87[P. 171
.

" AI-Dhahabl,Siyar A'Mm al-Nubald',voL XV, pp. 412 ff.; Tabaqdtal-kiuffa-?,pp. 353 f.; Mu'jam al-
Mu'affifin, vol. IV, p. 131.
85 Tadhkiratal-ljuffa-?,vol. 1,p. 101;kMyat al-Awliy5', voL V, pp. 177ff ; Siyar A'Idm at-NubalY, voL
V, pp. 155ff.; Tabaqdtal-kluffa-Z,p. 42; Mujam al-Mu'allif-in, voL XH, p. 319.
"'Ibe ConciseEncyclopaedia of am, p. 202; amic DeskReference,p. 179.
97 kWyatal-Awliyd', vol. VI, pp. 316 ff.; Tahdh-lbal-Tahdh-ib,vol. X, pp. 5 ff.; Siyar A'15m al-Nubald',
voL VIII, pp. 48 ff.; Tabaq5t
al-Ijuffa-Z,pp. 89 f.; Al-A'15m, vol. V, p. 257.

135
Milik
b. Dlnj"r
An eminentscholarof Ijadlith from al-Baga. His namewasMdlik b. DTndral-Baýff, Ab-u
Y4yd. He was Allah fearing and earned his own keep.Mdlik wasone of the Ijad-ith
died in in 88
Narrators, "Rumft al-tladlth al-Nabawl". He al-Bqra 131 A. H. / 748 A. D.

181]

A]-Malik al-KFmil
One of the Ayyubis Sultans. His name was Mu4ammad "al-Malik al-Kdmil" b.
Muhammad "al-',ýidil" b. A yyub, Ab-ual-Ma'dri, N5ýir al-DYn. He wasborn in Egypt in
576 A. H. / 1180A. D. His father installedhim asthe king of Egypt in 594 A. H. / 1198
A. D. He ruled for forty years,half of themduring the life of his father,who died in 615

A. H. / 1218A. D. He died in Damascus in 635 A. H. / 1238 89

A. D. [p. 128]

MRik b. Migb wal

An eminent traditionist of al-Ku-fa. His name was Mdlik b. Mighwal b. 'ýýirn b.
Ghaziyya b. k1dritha,b. Ijudayj b. BajRa,al-Baiarl al-Kfff, Ab7u'Abd Allah. He narrated

many HadTith,
and his narrationwas trustworthy.He died in 158-9A. H. / 775-6 A. DýO

[P. 1101

A]-MaKk al-Muýpfl5zr
in Egypt andal-Sh5m.His namewasQutuzb. 'Abd Allah
The third king of the Maml7uks
al-Mu'izz-i, Sayf al-DIn. He was a slave of al-Mu'izz 'A.
Ybak' al-Turkum5n7t, and
became the commander of the army "At5bik al-'Asakir" of al-Maq7urb. al-Mu'izz. He
became a king after he haddethronedal-Manfur in 657 A. H. / 1259A. D. In the battle

" VHyatat-Awliyd', vol. 11,pp. 200 ff ; Tahdh-ibal-Tahdh-lb,voL N. p. 14; Siyar A'Idm al-Nubald', vol.
V, p. 362.
89 Al-Biddya wal-Nih5ya,vol. XHI, p. 171;Al-T5r-ikhal-anill,voL VI, p. 323; Al-A'Idm, voL VII, p. 28.
90 Tahdh-lbal-Tahdh-lb,vol. X, pp. 20 f.; Siyar A'Idm al-Nubald',vol. VII, pp. 174ff ; Tabaq5tal-H.uffa-?,
p. 85.

136
of "Ayn MUt"he routed 'W-Tatj? "in 658 A. H. He was killed by Blibars, who was his

army and
commander, someof the army's leadersin 658 A. H. / 1260A. Dýl [p. 165]

A]-Ma'mffn, the Caliph

The son of HdrUn al-Rash7id. His name was 'Abd Allah b. Hdrun al-RashTd b.
Mutammad al-Mahd-i b. Ab-u Ja'far al- ManýUr, Ab-U al-'Abb5s. He was the seventh
Abbasid Caliph in Iraq. Al-Ma'm7un was born in 170 A. H. / 786 A. D. He became a
Caliph in 198 A. H. / 814 A. D. During his Caliphate, he promoted scientific study and

the translation of works of Greek learning into Arabic. He also founded an academy in
Baghd5d called the House of Wisdom "Bayt al-Vikma". He died in Badlindlin, and was

buried in in
Tars7us 218 A. H. / 833 A. D. 92[p. 2221

A]-Ma 'miffb b. ME a]-Nu-n

One of the so-called petty kings (MuA&Z of a]-Tawj`i4 in al-Andalus. His name was
Y4y5 b. Ismd'-11 b. 'Abd al-Rahm5n b. ',Kmir b. Dh7ual-N-unat-Ijaw5rTi al-Andalus-1,

Ab-U Zakariyyd al-Ma'm-un. He was the governor of Tulaytila, after the death of his
father in 435 A. H. / 1043 A. D. He conquered Valence 'BaEnsya "in 458 A. H. / 1066
93
A. D. He died in 460 A. H. / 1068A. D. [p. 2161

AI-M, WýUr, the CaHPb

The secondAbbasid Caliph. His name was 'Abd Allah b. Muhammadb. 'AlT b. 'Abd
Allah b. al-'Abb5s, Ab-u Jafar al-Maný-Ur.He wasborn in al-kfam7ima,'TromArVal-
Sbx;ý'4 ncar Ma'j-n ". in 95 A. H. / 714 A. D. He becamea Caliph after the deathof his
brother al-Saffa-bin 136 A. H. AI-Manýu-rbuilt Baghdadin 145A. H. andmadeit the

capital city of his Caliphate,insteadof al-Hdshimiyya,which his brother had

al-Saffa-b

91 Al-MaqF1271,
Al-Suruk li-Ma'rifat Duw1 al-Muruk, Vol. L p. 507.; Al-SuyUj, 1jusn al-Muý54ara fl-
Akhb5r M4r wal-Qdhira, Vol. 11,p. 59; Al-A'15m, Vol. V, p. 201.
92Siyar A'l5m al-Nubald', Vol. X. pp. 272 ff.; Al-Bid5ya wal-Nih5ya, Vol. Y., pp. 298 ff.; Al-Ta-r-tkh al-
5rrfl-,Vol. V, pp. 197 ff.; The Concise Encyclopaedia of am, pp. 250 L, Al-A'15m, Vol. IV, p. 142.

137
built. He died in Bi'r Maym-un,in Mecca, in 158 A. H. / 775 A. D., while he was in the

Iýrdm for the purpose of performing Ijaj "Pilgrimage". 94[p. 169]

state of

Maym9n b. Mahri-n
A scholar of Fiqh from al-Raqqa.His name was Maym-unb. Mahrdn al-Raqq-t,Abu.
Ayy'u-b.He was born in 37 A. H. / 657 A. D. andgrew up in al-Ku-fa.Maym7un
wasthe
slave of a woman in al-Ku-fa, who released him later. He was appointed a judge of al-
Raqqa by 'Umar b. 'Abd al-'Az7iz.He died in 117 A. H. / 735 A. D.95[p. 2011

. Of

Mis Ar
A traditionist from al-Mufa. His name was Mis'ar b. Kiddrn b. Zah-ir al-HildIT al-'; KmiCi

Ab-u
al-Raww5sTi, Salama. He narratedabout 1000IjadTithand was called "al-Mushaf

becauseof his extremelykeenmemory.He died in al-Ku-fain 152A. H. / 769 A. Dý6 [p.

2261

Mu "Ywiya b. Ab9 SufyYn

One of the Companians of the Prophet (PBUH). His name was Mu'dwiya b. Ab7uSufydn,
ýakhr b. ljarb b. 'Umayya b. 'Abd Shamsb. 'Abd Mandf al-Qurash7ial-Amaw-1.He was

the first Umayyad Caliph and founder of the Umayyad dynasty. Mu'dwiya was born in

Mecca in 20 B.H. / 603 A. D. He accededto Islam on the day of the conquest of Mecca
in 8 A. H. / 630 A. D. The Prophet (PBUH) chose him to be one of his copyists, because

93 Al-A'15m, vol. VIII, P. 138.

94 Al-Biddya wal-Nih5ya,voL X, pp. 130ff. -,Al-T5rAh al-5dif, vol. V, pp. 101ff.; Al-Aldra, voL IV, p.
117.
95 Tadhkkat al-ijuffa-Z, vol. 1, p. 93, VHyat al-Awliy5', voL IV, pp. 82 ff.; Siyar A'15m al-Nubald', voL V,
71 ff.; Tabaq5t al-Ijuffa-?, pp. 39 f.
pp.
I kiilyat al-Awliy5'. vol. VH, pp. 209 ff., Tahdh-ib al-Tahdh-lb, vol. X, pp. 102 ff.; Siyar A'15m al-
Nubal5', vol. Vil, pp. 163 ff.; Tabaqdt at-Uuffa-Z,pp. 81 f

138
of his ability to read and write Arabic. He died in Damascus in 60 A. H. / 680 A. Dý7 [p.

2191

MuPammad b. 'Affal-Tirmidhf
A scholar of Tradition and theology from Tirmidh. His name was Muh.ammad b. 'Arl b.

al-Ijasan b. Bishr, Ab7u 'Abd Allah, known as " al-IjaWIm al-TirmidlO. He was the

author of many books, some of which are "Nawddir al-'UsUl fif Ah5dYth al-Ras7ul"and

"al-Riyd4a wa Adab He died around 320 A. H. / 932 A. D. 98[p. 105]

al-Nafs".

Mutammad b. a]-Mubasbsbir
It hasnot beenpossibleto tracethis man despitea wide searchin the references.[p. 154]

Mujibid
A famous Follower "TYNT' anda greatscholarof Tafs-irandTajw-id(recitationof the
Holy Quran). His name was Muj5hid b. Jabr,Ab-Ual.-H.ajdj al-Makki-,a slaveof BanT
MaUii-um. He studiedTaffir with Ibn 'Abb5s.Muj5hid wasborn.in 21 A. H. / 642 A. D.
and died in 104 A. H. / 722 A. D. It was said that he died he in
while waspraying the

stateof SujUdý9[p. 108]

Muqj-til &-HamadYnY
I could not trace this name.Yet he might be Muq5tiI b. Sulaym5nb. BashIral-Asdi al-
BalkhT, Ab-u al-Ijasan.Oneof the interpretersof the Holy Quran,originally from Balkh,
who travelled to al-Ba§raand Baghdad.
He died in al-Baýrain 150 A. H. / 767 A. D. He

'7 AI-1§5ba,voL VI, pp. 112ff.; The ConciseEncyclopaediaof am, p. 278; AI-A'Mm voL VIL pp. 261 f.
98 Tabaq5tal-Huffa-?,p. 282; Mujam al-Mu'affifln, vol. Y.,p. 3 15; Al-A'15m, voL VI, p. 272.
99 ijilyat al-AwliyW, vol. HI, pp. 279 ff.; Mujam al-Mu'allifl'n, vol. VIII, p. 177;Al-A'15m, vol. V, p.
278.

139
wrote many books, some of which are: (al-Taffir al-Kab-ir),(Naw5dir al-TafCir)and
loo
(Mutashdbihal-Qur'dn). [p. 94]

Mus'ab b. Vmayr
0
A well-known Companianof the Prophet(PBUH). His namewasMus.'ab b. 'Umayr b.
Hdshim b. 'Abd Mandf al-Qurash7i,from BanT 'Abd al-Ddr. He was the sonof rich
parents. Mq'ab was one of the earliest converts to Islam. The ardour with which he

adopted the teachingsof Islam could be seenfrom his attitudeto his mother,who was
depicted as a most loveablccharacter,andparticularly from his wordsat the captureof
his brother in the battle of Badr. He died asa martyr in the battle of Tbud in 3 A. H.
101
625 A. D. [p. 941

Musay1ma
The foremost of a number of false prophets who appearedin Arabia towards the end of
the life of the Prophet (PBUH) and during the Caliphate of AbU Bakr. His name was
Musaylama b. Thum5ma b. Kab-ir b. ]jab-ib al-Ijanaff al-WOM, Ab-UThum5ma. He

claimed to have received divine revelation, and spoke of himself as the "R4mj'n al-
yamjmd'. In the battle of "al-Yamffma" in 12 A. H. / 633-4 A. D., he was slain by
Wa4shT, the slave who had killed Ijarnza b. 'Abd al-Multalib at 'UýUd in 3 A. H. 1625
102
A. D. [p. 701

A]-MUSfiYYib
The governor of Khuriisdn in the time of al-Mahd-1,the AbbasidCaliph. His namewas

al-Musayyib b. Zuhayr b. 'Amr, Ab-uMuslim al-]? He

abb-i. was the headof the police in

" Ibn al-'IrriNd,Shadhar5tal-Dhahab,vol. 11,pp. 228 f.; Siyar A'Idm al-Nubal5',vol. VII, pp. 201 f.; Al.
A'15m,vol. VIL p. 281.
101kiilyat al-Awliyd', vol. 1,pp. 106ff.; Al-I§dba,vol. VI, p. 101;ShorterEncyclopaediaof am,pp. 415 f.
102Sirat Ibn Hish5m,vol. IV, pp. 220 ff.; The ConciseEncyclopaediaof am, pp. 289 f.; Al-A, 15m,Vol.
VII, p. 226.

140
the time of al-Maný-ur, al-Mahd7i and H.drUn al-Rash7id,the Abbasid Caliphs. Al-
in
Musayyab died 175 A. H. / 791-2 A. D. 103
[p. 1701

Muslim b. a]-tlajjjj-
One of the outstandingearly collectors of the Prophetic Traditions. His name was
Muslim b. al-ljajdj b. Muslim al-Qushayffal-Naysdb-uCi, Ab-Ual-Ijusayn. He wasborn
in Nays5b-urin 204 A. H. / 820 A. D., andtravelledto al-kfij5z, Egypt, al-Sh5mand h-aq.
According to the consensus of SunnIMuslim Tradition experts,his collection,known as
llal-ýah-ih", forms, togetherwith ýa4714
of al-Bukh5fi, the mostreliable collection of the
Prophetic Traditions. Beside this famous book "ýa47i4Muslim!', he wrote manyother
books, some of which are "al-Musnadal-Kablie',"al-AqrW' and"al-11al". He died in

261 A. H. / 875 A. D. 104

[p. 1301

A]-MutawaWl, the CaliTb

An Abb5sid Caliph. His name was Ja'far b. Muhammad "al-Mu'tasimý'b. HdrUn al-
RasYid, Ab-u al-Fa4l. His title is al-Mutawakkil 'Ala Allah or Bi'mr Allah. Al-
Mutawakkil was born in Baghdad in 206 A. H. / 821 A. D. He became a Caliph after his
brother "al-Wifthiq" in 232 A. H. / 847 A. D. He changed the capital city of the

Caliphate from Baghdad to Damascus, where he lived for two months. But he did not
like its climate, so he came back to SdmirW, where he lived until he was killed in 247

A. H. / 861 A. D. 105
[p. 142]

103Al-Khal-ibal-Baghddd7l,Tdr-ikhBaghd5d,voL XIII, p. 137;Al-A'15m, voL VH, p. 225.

104Tadhkiratal-H.uffa-Z,voL H, p. 150;Tahdh7ib al-Tahdh-ib,voL X, pp. 113ff.; Tabaqdtal-Ijuffai?,pp.
260 L; Shadhar5tal-Dhahab,voL HI, pp. 270 ff.; amic DeskReference,p. 297.

141
APNYbigha

One of the eminentpre-Islamicpoetsfrom al-ljijdz. His namewasZiydd b. Mu'dwiya b.

I?ab5b al-Dhuby5nTal-GhatafalnTal-Mu4aff, AbU 'Umdma. He usually came to the
market of 'Ukd? "Siq 'M4" wherepoetsshowedhim their poems.He died about 18
106
B.H. / 604 A. D. after a long life. [p. 60]

NEIl'
An eminent traditionist andoneof the greatestscholarsof Tdbi'Un in Medina. His name
was NO' al-MadanT, AbU 'Abd Allah. He had a wide knowledge of Ijad-ith,and his

narration is trustworthy.He grew up in Medina and was a slaveof 'Abd Allah b. 'Umar.

/
He died in 117A. H. 735 A. D. 107
[p. 126]

N44 b. A bff Salama

One of the famous writers, "al-Kutt0', during the caliphate of al-Mutawakkil, the

'Abb5sid caliph. His name was NaJ54b. Salamab. NaJ54b. 'It5b b. Nahdr, Ab-uSalama.
He undertook some important jobs in the Administration of the 'Abb5sid dynasty until he
became a vizier at the time of al-Mutawakkil. He was killed in 245 A. H. / 859-60 A.

D108[P. 1451

A]-Nahk'l
SeeSharlikAl-Nahk'!. [p. 451

Al-Bidaya wal-Nih5ya,vol. X, pp. 336 f.; Al-Ta-r-lkhal-5nCl,voL V, pp. 337 ff.; Al-A'15m. voL H, p.
10-5
127.
106Mu-jam al-Mulaflifln, voL IV, p. 188;Al-A'15m, voL IH, pp. 54 f
107Tahdh-lbal-Tahdh-lb,voL X, pp. 368 ff. -,Al-A'15m, voL VIH, pp. 5 f.
108In Manfulr,Mukhtqar Ta-r-ikhDimashq,vol. XXVI, pp. 114ff.

142
Nu-P (PB UH)
The Prophet Noah, one of the five Messengerscalled 'Ul-u al-'Azm (the possessors
of
constancy),the other four Messengersbeing Abraham, Moses, JesusandMuh.ammad
(PBUT). The story of how N-U4(Noah) built the Ark and filled it with two of every
speciesto save the righteous from the Deluge "al- ",
7-uia-n is very popularandclearly
mentioned in the Holy Quranand the Tradition of the Prophet(PBUH). The origin of the
holy day of the 7ishUW
'. is traditionally the commemoration
of the day the Ark cameto

the Mount 109

"J-udiyy". [p. 141
reston

A]-QUtbY

I could not tracethis name.Yet he might be al-'Utb-1,Muhammadb. Ahmadb. 'Abd al-

,Az7lzal-Amaw-I al-QurtubT,Ab-u 'Abd Allah. A scholarfrom al-Andalus,attributedto
'Utba b. Ab-USufydn b. Ijarb. Someof his booksare "Al-Mustakhraja al-'Utbiyya 'ald

al-Muwatta"' and "Kir5' al-D-urwal-Ar4-in".He died in al-Andalusin 255 A. H. / 869 A.

110
D. [p. 651

Sa '.Tdb. JuAqyr
A greatscholarof the Followers"al-TdbiW'. His namewasSaId b. Jubayral-Asad-ial-
KUT, AbU 'Abd Allah. He was originally from al-Ijabasha.He wasbom in 45 A. H. /
665 A. D. and murderedby al-ljaýiij in Wdsit in 95 A. H. / 714 A. D. He waseducated
b.
by 'Abd Allah 'Abb5s and Ibn 111
"Umar. [p. 331

10' 71beHoly Qur'dn, (XI: 36-44;LXXI: 1-28);Al-Biddya wal-Nih5ya,vol. I, pp. 102ff.; The Concise
Encyclopedia of am,p. 303; Dictionaryof Islam,pp. 434 ff.
110Shadhardtal-Dhahab,vol. III, pp. 243 L; Siyar A'15m al-Nubala',vol. XH, pp. 335 f.; Al-A'Idm, vol.
V, p. 307.
Hdyatal-Awliya, voLIVpp. 272ff.; Tabaqatal-ljuffa-?,p. 31; SiyarA'15mal-Nubali', voLIV, pp.
321 ff.; Al-A'l5m, vol. III, pp. 93.

143
yRip (PBUH)
,
A Prophet with the rank of Divine Messenger 'WasU]"9mentioned in the Holy Quran as
having been sent to the tribe of Tham7ud.His messagewas symbolized by a camel "al-
Nj-qa " which the people killed; for their rejection of the revelation they were destroyed
112
by an earthquakeand a thunderbolt. [p. 131

A]-Sha'bf

An eminentjurist andtraditionist from al-Ku-fa.His namewas 'Amir b. Shar5b-ilb. 'Abd

DhTKabdr al-Sha'b-ial-Ijumayff, Ab-u'Amr. He wasborn in al-K7ufain 19 A. H. / 640 A.
D. and grew up there. He was one of the Followers "al-Mbi'Un", whosenarrationof
Ijadith was trustworthy. He wasappointedto be a judge by 'Umar b. 'Abd al-'Az Tz.He
in
died suddenlyin al-Ku-fa 103A. H. / 721 A. D. 113
[p. 2181

A]-ShYfi'i'
One of the four Im5msof Sunnaandthe eponymof the Sh5fi'l Schoolof Law. His name
was Mutammad b. WIN b. al-'Abbiis b. 'Uthm5n b. Shdfl' al-
al-H5shimTaI-QurashTi
Matlab-1,Ab-u 'Abd Allah. He wasborn in Ghazzain Palestinein 150A. H. / 767 A. D.
in Mecca.Al-Shdfi'T studiedIslamic Law (al-Fiqb) in Medina with Mdlik b.
and raised
Anas, and also pursued studies in Baghdad,where he returned several times, thus
becoming intimately acquaintedwith Vanaff Law. In 199A. H. / 815 A. D. he travelled
to Egypt, where he died in 204 A. H. / 820 A. D. He was the authorof famousand
114
important books in al-Fiqh and'Uýffi al-Fiqh suchas"al-'Umm! 'and "al-Risdla". [P.

771

112,1beHoly Quran(VII: 73-79;XI: 1-68);Al-Bid5ya wal-Nih5ya,vol. 1,pp. 134ff -,The Concise

Encyclopaediaof am,pp. 349 f.; Hughes,
Dictionaryof Islam, pp. 562 f-,Tabbdra,Ma'a al-Anbiy5' fifal-
Qur'in at-Kafim, pp. 92 ff.
113Hilyat al-Awliyd', vol. IV, pp. 310 ff.; Tabaq5tal-tiuffa-?,pp. 32 f.; Siyar A'15m al-Nubald',vol. IV,
pp. 294 ff.; Al-A'15m, VOL III, P. 251.

144
0
LjJ7-1
W.
1-h
al- Wys4ti-
L711
It has not been possible to tracethis man with certaintyin the referencesavailable.[p.
1691

Shan-kal-Nakb. T
A jurist and traditonist of al-Ku-fa.His namewasSharlikb. 'Abd Allah b. al-kfdrith al-
muff, Ab7u'Abd Allah. He wasborn in Bukhdr5in 95 A. H. / 713 A. D. Shar-ikwasa
judge in al-Ku-fa in 153 A. H. / 770 A. D. He wasknown for his intelligenceandwide
in / A. 115
knowledge.He died in al-K7ufa 177A. H. 794 D. [p. 1141

Shayba b. Rab.T'a
One of disbelieversof Mecca. He waskilled with his brother, 'Utba b. Rab-i'a,andhis

nephew,al-Wal7idb. 'Utba, by Ijarnza b. 'Abd al-Multalib, 'Ubaydab. al-Ijdrith and 'Al-i

in
b. Abu-T51ibat the battle of Badr 2 A. H. / 624 A. D. 116[p. 95]

S,bu'ayb (PBUH)
One of the Prophetsmentionedin the Holy Quran.He was sentto the peopleof Madyan,
who are mentioned in the Holy Quran as AýPifb a]-Ayka. Shu'ayb (PBUH) has

beenthoughtto be the father-in-lawof the Prophet

Moses(PBUH).' 17[p. 141
sometimes

114Tadhkiratal-ijaffa-Z,vol. 1,p. 329; 1jilyat al-Awliyd', vol. K pp. 63 ff.; Tabaqdtal-Ijilffad?,p. 152;
Mu,jam al-mulallifln, vol. IX, p. 32.
I's Tadhkkatal-Ijaffa-?,voLl, p. 214, Tabaqdtal-ljuffa-?,p. 98; SiyarA'Idmal-Nubald', voLVlE4pp.
200 ff ; AI-Biddya wal-Nihdya,vol. X, p. 171.
116AI-Raw4at-'Unuf, vol. III, p. 38; Al-Bidiiya wal-Nihdya,vol. 111,p. 314-,AI-RabTqal-Makhtum,p.
246.
117The Holy Qur'5n, (VH: 85-93;XI: 84-95;XXVI: 176-189);Al-Biddya wal-Nih5ya,vol. 1,pp. 189 ff. -,
The Concise Encyclopaedia of am, p. 370; Dictionaryof Islam,p. 581.

145
A]-Suddl
A scholarof history andTaffir of the Holy Quran,andone of the Followers(al-MbPffn).
His namewas Ismd'111 b. 'Abd al-R4mdn al-Sudd-1. He wasoriginally from al-kiijdz, and
lived in He died in 128 A. H. / 745 A. D. 118
[p. 401
al-Mufa.

Sulaymi-h (PB UH)

The biblical king Solomon. A Prophet held in Islam to be the paragon of wisdom. The
Prophet Sulaymdn's wisdom included the unseen and traditional sciencesof cosmology.
He could speak the language of birds (mantiq a]-fayi), and had powers over the jinn
19[p. 201
world!

Sulaymi-n b. 'A bd a]-Malik

An Umayyad Caliph. His name was Sulaym5n b. 'Abd al-Malik b. Maraw5n,Ab-u
AyyO. He wasborn in Damascusin 54 A. H. / 674 A. D. He becamea Caliph after the
death of his brother al-Walld b. 'Abd al-Malik in 96 A. H. / 715 A. D. During his
Calipjate, Juddn andTabaristiinwereconquered.He died in Ddbiq, in Qansiffn,in 99 A.
ii. / 717 A. D. He ruled for two yearsand severalmonths.120[P. 1641

SulaymYn b. Mahri-n
A scholar of Ijadlith, QuranandFiqh from al-Ku-fa.His namewasSulaym5nb. Mahridn
al-AsdT, Abu- Mu4ammad. He was originally from al-Rayy. He was born in 61 A. H. /

"I Siyar A'Idm al-Nubald', vol. V, pp. 264 f.; Al-A'15m, vol. 1,p. 317; Mujarn al-Mu'alliflin, vol. H, p.
276.
rhe Holy Qtir'dn, (XXI: 81-82;XXXIV: 12-14);Al-Biddya wal-Nihdya,vol. H, PP.18 ff., Shorter
119,
Encyclopaediaof am,pp. 549 ff. -,Dictionaryof Islam,p. 601; Tabbdra,Ma'a al-Anbiyd' fil al-Qur'5n al-
KarTim,pp. 284 ff.
120Al-Biddya wal-Nih5ya,vol. IX, pp. 173f.; Siyar A'15m al-Nubald', vol. V, pp. III ff.; Al-Ta-r-ikhal-
drn7j,vol. IV, pp. 231 ff.; Al-A'15m, vol. III, p. 130.

146
681 A. D. and grew up in al-Ku-fa. Sulaym5n narrated about 1300 Ijadlith. He died in al-

K7ufain 148 A. H. / 765 A. D. 121

[p. 206]

A]-Tabarl

A greatscholarof Tafs-irandhistory from Baghdad.His namewasMuýammadb. JaCirb.

Yaz-id al-Tabaff, Ab7uJa'far. He was born in 224 A. H. / 839 A. D., and lived in
Baghddd. Al-Tabafl' refused to be a judge. He is the authorof many books,someof
which are "Akhbdr al-Rusul wal-Muruk!', which is known as "Tdr-ikh al-Tabar-i"and
"Jami' al-Baydn f-I Taffir al-Qur'dn", which is known as"Tafiffiral-Tabar-If'.He died in
122
3 10 A. H. / 923 A. D. [p. 100]

A]- Taiýtffshf
[p. 212]
SeeAb7uBakr al-Tart7ush7i.

TYWDýS
One of the eminentFollowers,anda greatscholarsof Ijad-IthandSufism.His namewas
TdW-usb. Kays5n al-Khawl5nTal-Hamaddn7i,Ab7U'Abd al-R4nldn. He wasoriginally
from Persia, born in al-Yarnan in 33 A. H. / 653 A. D. andgrew up there.He died in
Muzdalifa, or Mind in 106 A. H. / 724 A. D. when he was performing Haj
123
&&Pilgrimage's.[p. 1991

AI-Tba', UiN
A scholar of literature and philology. His name was 'Abd al-Malik b. Muýammadb.
ism5ql, Ab7uManý-Ur al-Tha'dlib-l.He was the authorof many books,someof which are

121Ijilyat al-Awliyd', vol. V, pp. 46 ff.; Siyar A'Idm al-Nubala, voL VI, pp. 226 ff.; Al-A'Idm, VOL1H,
p. 135.
"I Tadhkiratal-tiuffa-Z.VOLII, p. 351;Tabaqdtal-ljuffa-Z.p. 307; Majam al-MuaUif-Ln,voL DC,p. 147.
123ffilyat al-Awliy5', vol. IV, pp. 3 ff.; TahdhTbal-Tahdh-ib,vol. V, p. 8; Tabaq5tal-kiuffa-Z,p. 34;
Shadhar5tal-Dhahab,VOLH, pp. 40 f.; Al-A'15m, vol. U1,p. 224.

147
"Yat-Imat al-Dahr", Fiqh al-Lugha" and "Siýr al-Baldgha". He was born in Naysdb-urin

350 A. H. / 961 A. D. and dicd in / 124

429 A. H. 1038 A. D. [p. 18]

A]-Tha'lab-T
An interpreter of the Holy Quranfrom Nays5b-ur.His namewasAýmad b. Muýammad
b. lbrdblin al-Thalabli, Ab7uIst5q. Someof the bookshe wrote are"'ArTis al-Majdlis"
and "al-Kashf wal-Baydn fil Taffir al-Qur'5n", which is known as "TafsTir
al-Tha'labr'.
in
He died 427 A. H. / 1035A. D. 125[p. 331

Thumi-ma b. 'UthR
One of the Companionsof the Prophet(PBuH). His namewasThum5mab. 'Uth5l b. al-
Nu'mdn b. Salamab. 'Utayba al-Yam5mT,Ab-U'Um5ma,from Ban7u
kjaidfa. He wasone

of the lords of the peopleof Before

al-Yam5ma. he convertedto Islam, he wascaptured
by someMuslims andtied in the Mosque,but the Prophet(PBUH) commandedhim to be

released. Then Thum5ma.

went and took a bath Qghtasala)
and cameback to mosqueand

to Islam. He was killed in 12 A. H. / 633 A. D. 126

[p. 77]
converted

Vbj-da b. al-$jýnit
A Companianof the Prophet (PBUH). His name was 'Ubddab. al-§dmit b. Qaysal-
Aqdfii al-KhazrajT,Ab-Ual-Warid. He attendedal-'Aqaba,andwasone of "Nuqabzj"'.
He accompaniedthe Prophet (PBUH) on all his battles. "Ubddawasthe first to be a
judge in Palestine.He wasbom in 38 A. H. / 586 A. D. anddied in al-Ramla,or Bayt al-

Maqdis, in 34 A. H. / 654 A. D. He narrated181Ijad-Ithfrom 127

the Prophet(PBUH). [p.

511

'24
Mujam al-Mti'alWin, vol. VI, p. 189;Al-A'15m, voL IV, pp. 163 f.
125Al-Biddya wal-Nih5ya,voL XH, p. 40; Mujam al-Mu'affifln, voL 11,p. 60; Al-A'15m, vol. 1,p. 212.
126Al-l§dba ft Tamylizal-ýýdba, vol. 1,p. 211; Al-A'Idm, vol. H, 100.

148
Wayda

A Companionof the Prophet(PBUH). His namewas 'Ubaydab. al-kidrith b. al-Multalib

b. 'Abd Mandf, Ab-U kidrith. He wasborn in Meccain 62 B.H. / 562 A. D. andgrew up
there. 'Ubaydahadconvertedto Islam beforethe Prophetwent to the Houseof al-Arqarn
He
b. Abli al-Arqam. was killed at the battle of Badr in 2 A. H. / 624 A. D. 128
[p. 951

r T--
oc
umarb. 'Abdal-'Azlz
He was an Umayyad Caliph after Sulaym5nb. 'Abd al-Malik. His namewas 'Umar b.
'Abd al-'Az7iz b. Mraw5n b. 'Abd al-Ijakam al-'Umaw-ial-QurashT, ljafý. He was
Ab7U
known with the justice in his rule ashis grandmother,'Umar b. al-Khalt5b, so he was
sometimescalled "the fifth rightly-guidedCaliph". He was born in Medina in 61 A. H. /
681 A. D. andgrew up there.He wasmadea governorof Medinaby al-Warld b. 'Abd al-
Malik, and aI-Sh5m by Sulaym5n b. 'Abd al-Malik. 'Umar b. 'Abd aPAzTz becamea
/
Caliph in 99 A. H. 718 A. D. he died in 101 A. H. / 720 A. D. 129
[p.
and continued until

171

b.
umar al-KhaffJ b
A well-known Companianof the Prophet(PBUH) andthe secondrightly-guidedCaliph.
His name was 'Umar b. al-Khalt5bb. Nufayl al-Qurash-ial-'Adaw-i,Ab7ukfafý.He was
resolute,strong-willedand 'Umar
courageous. convertedto Islam aboutfive yearsbefore

the Prophet's Migration (al-Hijra). He was the first to be called AmTral-Wmink, and
known to be a just man.He wasbom in 40 B.H. / 584 A. D. andmurderedwith a knife in

1-1 Al-Ildba, vol. IV, p. 27; Tahdh-lbal-Tahdh-lb,vol. V, p. 111;Siyar A'15m al-NubalF, voL If, pp. 5 ff.
128Al-l§dba, vol. IV, pp. 209 L; At-Raw4al-'Unuf, voL III, p. 38; Al-A'15m, voL IV, p. 198.
129kWyatal-Awliy5', vol. V, pp. 253 ff.; Tahdh-ibal-Tahdh-ib,vol. VII, p. 475; Tabaqdtal-kluffa-Z,p. 46;
Shadhardtal-Dhahab,vol. 11,pp. 5 ff.; Al-A'15m. vol. V, p. 50.

149
23 A. H. / 644 A. D. by Ab-uLu'lu'a, the slave of al-MughTra b. Shu'ba, while he was

Muslims in the Prophetic Mosque.130

[p. 39]
praying al-Fajr with

'Urwa b. Muha=ad
A Muslim scholaranda narratorof VadTthof the Prophet(PBUH). His namewas 'Urwa
b. Mutammad b. 'Atiyya b. 'Urwa al-Sa'd7i,from Ban-uSad b. Bakr. He narratedkjad-ith
from his father,his grandfather,andothers.He wasthe ruler of Yemenfor abouttwenty
during the time of 'Umar b. 'Abd al-'Az-iz 131
Caliphate. [p. 1371
years

'Usaq

I have not been able to tracethis person.Yet, asmentionedin the manuscript,he wasa
Christiananda slaveof 'Umar b. al-Khalt5b,who called him to Islam but he refused,and

him he was at the point of death 132

[P. 1141
released when .

'Utba

One of the disbelieversof Mecca, who cameout of the Meccanarmy with his son,al-
Warid b. 'Utba, andhis brother,Shaybab. RaWla,to challengethe Muslims at the battle
of Badr in 2 A. H. / 624 A. D. He waskilled with his son andbrother by 'Ubayda, 'Ari

Ijamza this 133

battle. [p. 95]
and at

,'Uthmi-n b. 'AfMn
A famous Companianof the Prophet (PBUH) and the third well.-directedCaliph. His
was 'Uthmlin b. 'Affadnb. Ab7u
al-',Ký b. 'Umayya He
al-Qurash7i. was one of the
name

I" AI-1§5ba,vol. IV, pp. 279 f., Vilyat al-Awliy5', voL 1,pp. 38 ff.; The ConciseEncyclopaediaof am,
pp. 407 f.
131In klibb5n, Al-Thiq5t, voL VH, p. 287.
132See,the manuscript,p. 114.

150
ten Companians to whom Paradise was promised. 'Uthm5n was called DhU al-ND-ray-n
because he had, at different times, married two daughters of the Prophet (PBUH), 'Umm
Kulth7urn and Ruqayya. He became a Caliph after 'Umar b. al-Khalt5b was kifled in 23
A. H. / 644 A. D. 'Uthm5n was born in Mecca in 47 B.H. / 577 A. D. and murdered in

Medina in 35 A. H. / 656 A. D. 134

[p. 179]

Wahb b. Munabbib
A historian from ýan'd' and reputed to be one of the Followers (al-Tjb! Un).His name

was Wahb b. Munabbih al-Abndw-i al-ýan'dffl al-Dhim5cl, Ab-u 'Abd Allah. He was born

in ýand' in 34 A. H. / 654 A. D. He was originally from Persia, and his mother was from
kJimyar. He was a judge of ýan'd' by 'Umar b. 'Abd al-'AAz. He died in 114 A. H. / 732
135
A. D. [p. 2141

AI-W, jýhidi'

An eminentscholarof Tafs-Irandliterature.His namewas 'Arl b. Ah.Madb. Muh.ammad

al-ShOPT,Ab-Ual-kiasan.AI-Wdtiff is the authorof
b. 'AIT al-W5tidll al-Naysdb7ufi-
many books, some of which are "al-WajTz" and "Asb5b al-Nuz7ur'.He wasborn in

in A. / 136
Naysdbu-randdied there 468 H. 1076A. D. [p. 321

AP WaIld b. 'Utba
One of the disbelievers of Mecca. He was killed with his father, 'Utba b. Rabli'a, and his

Shayba b. Rab-Pa, by 'Ari, ljamza and 'Ubayda at the battle of Badr in 2 A. H.

uncle,
137
624 A. D. [p. 95]

133Al-Raw4 al-'Unuf, vol. III, p. 38; al-Biddyawal-Nihiiya,vol. III. p. 314; AI-RWiq al-Makht7um,
p.
246.
134AMýAba,vol. IV, pp. 223 f. -,Uilyat al-Awhyd', vol. 1,pp. 55 ff.; Al-A'Idm, vol. IV, p. 210.
1351jilyat al-Awliy5', voL IV, pp. 23 ff. -,Tahdh-ibal-Tahdh-ib,vol. XI, p. 166;Tabaqdtal-Ijuffa-T,p. 41.
136Mulam al-Mu'allif-in, vol. VII, p. 26; al-A'Idm, vol. IV, p. 255.
137Aj-Raw4 al-'Unuf, voL III, p. 38; Al-Bid5ya wal-NihSya,vol. III, p. 314; al-Rab7iq p.
al-Makht7urn,
246.

151
Yapyi-b. AbUKathir
0
One of the greatestscholarsof Yam5main his time. His namewasYoyd b. ýdlih.al-
P'T al-Yam5m-i,Ab7uNaýrb. Ab-UKath7ir.He wasa slaveof Ban-iTT. Yaýya wasone of
the trustworthy traditionists. It was said that he spent 20 yearsstudyingkjadTthwith

scholars of the Followers (Tj-bPffn). He died in 129 A. H. / 747 A. D. 138

[P. 117]

Y4yj- b. KhRid
a
A noble of BanTBarmakand the teacherof HdrUnal-Rash-id,the fifth 'Abb5sid Caliph.
His name was Y4yd b. Kh5lid b. Barmak,AbUal-Fa4l.He fosteredHdrun al-RashTd
and looked after him from whenhe wasyoung.He wasborn in 120A. H. / 738 A. D. and
died in 190A. H. / 805 A. D. in a jail, in al-Raqqa,wherehe hadbeenput by a command

Hdr1in 139
al-Rash7id. [p. 1661
of

Yapyj- b. Mu'j-dh
a
An eminent SUff and preacher "WWY?"from al-Rayy. His name was Yabyd b. Muldh b.
Jalar al-Rdzi, Ab-u Zakariyyd. He was a wise man, known for his aphorisms. Yahyd

lived in Balkh and died in Nays5b-urin 258 A. H. / 872 A. D. 140[p. 118]

Yazfd al-Raqfisb.T
An eminent suff from al-Baga. His name was Yaz7idb. Ab5n al-Raqdsh7l,Abu- 'Amr. He

was a pious asceticwho gavehis entire attentionto the worshipof God. He died between
/ 141
110 and 120 A. H. 728 and 738 A. D. [p. 206]

139Ijilyat al-Awliyd', voL 111,pp. 66 ff, Tahdh-ibal-Tahdh7Lb,voL XI, p. 268; Tabaqdtal-kiuffa-?,p. 5 1;

Siyar A'Idm al-Nubald',vol. VI, pp. 27 ff.; Al-A'Idm, vol. VIII, pp. 150f
139Shadharatal-Dhahab,voL U, pp. 417 ff.; AI-Bid5ya wal-Nih5ya,vol. X, p. 204; KWib al-Wuzar5'
wal-Kuttýb, pp. 177ff.; Al-A'15m, vol. VIU, p. 144.
140Mu'jam al-Mu'allif-in, voL XIH, p. 232; al-Alam, vol. VIII, p. 172.
141Ijilyat al-Awliy5', vol. III, pp. 50 ff.; Tahdh7ib
al-Tahdh-lb,voL XL pp. 270 ff.

152
Yu-nu,s (PB UH)
The Jonah of the Bible. He is also called DbU a]-Nu-nand ýýhib al-ffl-t The Prophet
Y-Unus(PBUH) was a Divine Messenger (Rasft who was swallowed by a big fish,
praised God nevertheless,and was delivered. His is
message salvation through complete

to God.142
[P. 197]
resignation

I
T-sha'b. Nu-n
The Joshua of the Bible. The Holy Quran does not mention him by name but alludes to
him. When the prophet Moses (PBUH) commanded his people to enter the Holy Land

they were afraid to fight the giants, the people of great strength. Two men of those who
feared Allah encouraged them to do so. One of these two men was Joshua (Yu-shab.

Y-Tb ý. 143
[P. 181]
Nu-n),andthe otherwasCaleb(KRib b. U,Ia

142The Holy Quran,(XXI: 87-88;LXVII: 48-50); Al-Bid5ya wal-Nih5ya,vol. 1,pp. 237 ff.; The Concise
Encyclopaediaof am, p. 428; Dictionary of Islam, p. 249; Tabbdra,Maa al-Anb'iyý' f-i al-Qur'5n al-
Kafi-m,pp. 306 ff.
143The Holy Quran,(V: 20-27);Ibn Kath1r,Tafs7iral-Qur'5n al-'A?7'm,vol. H, p. 40; Mafaitliýal-Ghayb,
vol. XI, p. 157;Dictionary of Islam,p.255.
I

153
 APPENDDC ONE

Glossaryof Words Mentioned

in the Manuscript
Afrah
From the root (f. r. h.), meaning sturdy or agile. The word in this structure is one of the

comparative and superlative adjectives. It is said of a horse or similar beast to mean the
briskest, the most sprightly, the most active, the most agile or the lightest.' [p. 214]

Apadda a]-Na?ar
A verb in the past tcnse, meaning that somebody looking sharply at something or
2
somebody. [p. 2201

AM a]-Dbinuna
The term of "Dbin2md' is used to designate the sort of renewed contract through which

the Muslim community accords protection to members of the other revealed religions,
Christianity and Judaism. The beneficiaries of the "dhimmd'are called "dWmmR', and
arc collectively referred to as "abl al-Ain2md' or "dhimmipyUd', (people of the

covenant or obligation), (protected people). Their essential distinction from the Muslims

is that they pay thefizya. 3 [p. 4]

AM a]-Kiti-b
The term means "the people of the booV and denotes,in the Holy Qur'dn, Jews and
Christians, who arc recipients of the Torah 'W-Tatw§h"and the Gospel "al-InjV'; which

before
wererevealed the Holy 4
Qur'dn. [p. 3]

' Al-Juhaft, Al-ýib5ý T5j al-Lugha wa $b5b al-'Arabiyya, vol. VI, p. 2242; rbn Man?-ur,Lisdn al-'Arab,
vol. V, pp. 3405 f.: Al-R5zT, Mukht.5r al-$b5b, pp. 501 f.; Arabic-English Lexicon, vol. 11,p. 2389.
2 Al-Fayy-um7L,Al-Mi§bdb al-Muh-ir, vol. 1, p. 172; Arabic-English Lexicon, vol. 1, p. 524.
3 Encyclopaediaof Islam, vol. 11,pp. 227 ff.; The Oxford Encyclopaediaof the Modem Islamic World,

vol. 1,p. 374, Al-FayrUz5b5dT1,

Al-Qdrrrus al-Mub-11,vol. 4, p. 115.
4 Ab-u1jayy5n, Al-B* al-Mub-ij, vol. 11,p. 282; Al-M5ward-1,Al-Aý*5rn al-Sulidniyya, p. 143;
Encyclopaediaof Islam, vol. I, pp. 264 ff.

155
A]-'Aiam

(also, al-'qjam). This Arabic term is used by the Arabsto denotethe Persians,and is
parallel to the Greekword barbatv!i. e. thosewho have an incomprehensible
andobscure
way of speaking.To the Arabs, the barbarianswere primarily their neighbours,the
Another
Persians. by
term used the Arabs to denotethe is
Persians 3
"al-Furs". [p. 1331

Akbnj-
It is said of time or fortune to signify that it destroyed him her.6 [p. 213]
or

Am.Tr(emir)
(Plur. Vmaa, from the root amara,"to command'). It meanscommander;prince,cmir;
7
house. [P. 13]
title of the princesof a ruling

(9) A]-Angr
(the belpers).A title given by the Prophet (PBUH) to the believers of Medina who
received and assisted the Prophet after theWjra "emigration" from Mecca to Medina.
They are sometimescalled moreexplicitly "Anfiral-Nabiyy", the helpersof the Prophet
(pBUH). Descendantsof the original An§dr families sometimes still include the title
in
"Anýde' their family namesto indicate 8
their origins. [p. 205]

5 Al-MiýbA4al-MunTr,vol. U, p. 539; IslamicDeskReference,pp. 339 f.

6 Lisdn al-'Arab, vol. H, P. 1283;Arabic-EnglishLexicon,vol. I, p. 819.
7 HansWehr, A Dictionaryof Modem written Arabic, p. 27; Islamic DeskReference,p. 92.

156
(10) A rja fa
From the root (r. j. f.) which means somebodytelling of something falsely, or not
according to the truth or the reality, and that he therebycausedcommotionor agitation;

or because
the information wasunclear? [p. 222]

A tKA7b
The plural of "wafab". which means a disease,sicknessor pain, or violent pain or
continuing pain. It sometimesmeans emaciation of the body because of fatigue or
fatigue
disease,andsometimes or weariness,and 10
languor. [p. 224]

BaniffIsri"Iff
(T,be CAM= ofIsi2l17).The nameby which the Holy Qur'dn mostcommonlycalls the
Jews, whom it calls also "al-YahUd" and 'Afladhka hjdff". Isr-511was one of the
Prophet Ya'q7ub'snames. As well as this, they are called "kI-Abi;! ni"9n"or "a]-
" [p. 213]
ý7bjjyyiffn".

Qaynuqj-'
BanDý
Quray?a
one of the threemain Jewishtribesof Yathrib "Medina", the othersbeing Ban7u

Banu They lived in the south-west

part of the city. 12[p. 51]
and al-Na4ir.

8 ShorterEncyclopaediaof Islam,pp. 43 L; IslamicDeskReference,p. 134.

9 Lis5n al-'Arab, vol. III, p. 1596;MukMir al-ýiýdh, p. 235; Arabic-EnglishLexicon, vol. 1,p. 1042.
10Lis5n al-'Arab, Vol.VI, p. 4848; A Dictionaryof Modem written Arabic, p. 1072;Arabic-English
Lexicon, vol. II, pp. 2944f.
" The ConciseEncyclopaediaof Islam,p. 63; Mahr5n,Dir5s5tFiTa-r-1khal-Sharqal-Adný al-Qad-Im,vol.
II, p. 6.
12Al. Raw4al-'Unuf, vol. III, pp. 137f.; ShorterEncyclopaediaof Islam,p. 208; IslamicDeskReference,
p. 358.

157
Banff Quray,7a
Oneof the threemain Jewishtribes in "Medina". 13[P. 64]

Bid'a
In a strict sense,the word indicatesa belief or practicefor which thereis no precedentin
the time of the Prophet(PBUH). According to al-Sh5rl'!, it meansany innovationwhich

to the Qur'dn and the Tradition of the 14

Prophet. [p. 117]
runs contrary

Dj)7iq
A small silver coin. It equalsa sixth part of the coin called a .Fw *am [p. 200]
.

Dayr

(plur. 'Ad5ira'q, "Chdstian Monastcry". It denotes a place where monks lived, giving

their entire attention to worshipping God. These places continued to function after the
Arab conquest of the Middle East, and were very numerous in Iraq, Syria, Palestine and
Egypt. They were open to virtually all travellers, and often provided a safer stopping-

place than anywhere else. The buildings were generally surrounded by places of
16[p. 1231
debauchery.
entertainment and even

13 Al-Raw4 al-'Unuf, vol. III, pp. 267 ff. -,The ConciseEncyclopaediaof Islam,pp. 326 L; Islamic Desk
Reference,P. 365.
11 Al-M4b54 al-Mun7ir,Vol. 1,p. 53; Islamic DeskReference,p. 172.
15Lis5n al-'Arab, vol. II, P. 1433;Arabic-EnglishLexicon, vol. 1,p. 920.
16 Lis5n al-'Arab, vol. 11,P. 1466;Islamic DeskReference,p. 272; A Dictionary of ModemWritten
Arabic, p. 300.

158
Faqiib
17 [P.
(plur. 'Tuqa&Tq. The term indicates a specialistin Islamic Law and its branches.

134]

A]-Faq. Tr

The word, in the Qur'dn, the word signifiesa needyperson.In mysticterminologyit

meansa person who lives for God In
alone. popular
parlancethe termis usedfor a poor
a or
pauper a 18
beggar. [p. 78]
man,

A]-Fay'

This term, in Islamic conception,meanswar booty gainedfromunbelievers

without
19
fighting. [p. 1351

Al-Fidni
(also, 'W-Fjýinja"- "al-fflinj'-and "W-1fHnja'q, 'Thj2ks". This name was originally used

for the inhabitants of the empire of Charlemagne, and later extended to Europeans in

general. The first definite report of a Frankish embassy in Baghdad dates from 906 A. D.

During the seventh century, the advance of Christendom against Islam brought Franks

and Muslims into close and regular contact. Between the sixteenth and the nineteenth

centuries, the word "W-Rini" did not include Orthodox Christians, but was limited to
20
Catholics and Protestants. [p. 1411

IslamicDeskReference,p. 105.
Ibid, p. 95.
19Ibn Rushd,Bid5yatal-Mujtahidwa-Nih5yatal-Muqtalid, vol. 1,p. 493; Deebal-Khudrawi,A
Dictionaryof IslamicTerms,p. 333.
11 IslamicDeskReference,p. 104.

159
Fitna
(plur. 17-tan". This Arabic word, which means "trial, test or temptation", appears
frequently in the Holy Qur'dn with the meaningof an externaltestof faith. It generally
refers to the series of eventswhich includedthe murderof the Caliph 'Uthm5n and the
conflict between 'Aff b. Ab-u Plib and Mu'dwiya b. Ab-u Sufy5n. This first major
is first, 21
struggle within the Muslim community often called the or the great,trial . [P.

671

&"VL
Gijazwat Badr, "Me battle of Badr"
The first major battle fought betweenMuslims andthe Meccansin 2 A. H. / 624 A. D. at
Badr, to the south-west of Medina.The Meccanforces,commandedby Ab-uJahl, were
defeated and aboutseventyMeccans,with Ab-UJahl amongthem,werekilled. The Holy
Qur'dn, in Surat al-Anfall VRI: 12, indicatesthat angelsfought on the Prophet'ssidein
this battle. The Muslim successgaveimmenseprestigeto the infant Islamic community

in Medina and dealt a major blow to the pride of the 22

Meccans. [p. 51]

Gbirra
(also, 'kbiiT'9. "Ghirra" is in the feminine form of "ghirr". Both words mean
inexperienced in affairs; ignorant of affairs; negligent or heedlessof them, 'ýrbar&'and

lgharka "also meanthe sameý3[p. 163]

Hamhama
06
Al-hamhama is the sound of a horse whenhe uttershis cry, or
(itif n. 1ý6amhama9.

desires fodder.24[p. 2221

" Islamic DeskReference,p. 103;A PopularDictionaryof Islam,p. 83.

22Al-Raw4 al-'Unuf, vol. III, pp. 29 ff.; Encyclopaediaof Seerah,vol. 1,p. 3 1.
23Lisdaal-'Arab. vol. V, p. 3235;Al-Mijb5h al-Mudir, vol. H, pp. 608 f.; Arabic-EnglishLexicon, vol. 11,
p. 2238; At-Mujam al-Was-11,vol. 1,p. 195.

160
Hawi-m
0
A plural of 'A§-ma, which denotesan owl, a certain night-bird of small size,that
25
frequentsthe burial-places. [p. 2241

A]-Inj. z-],"the Gospel"

The term of "InjjW is usedin the Holy Qur'5n to denotethe Holy Scripturerevealedto
the Prophet Jesus,"'Isd" (PBUH). The Inji7containeda prophecyof the coming of the
Prophet Mu4ammad (PBUH). Muslims believethat the real Injil hasbeenlost, because
of the persecutionwhich Christians sufferedfor aboutthreecenturiesafter the time of
26
Jesus. [p. 1301

ja-fl-

A horse-cloth or coveringfor a horseor similar beastfor protectionfrom the cold. Jil5l

27
this. [p. 2221
also mcans

A]-Jida
or llwujd". From the verb "wajada" which means that somebody became

possessedof wealth or property, or somebody was, or became, rich; possessedof

in no 28
need. [p. 200]
or
competence sufficiency;

24Al-juhaa, Al-*ib5h, vol. V, p. 1905;Lis5n al-'Arab, vol. II, p. 1012;Al-Mukht5r al-ýiý5b, p. 157;
Arabic-EnglishLexicon,vol. I, p. 636.
1 Lis5n al-'Arab, vol. VI, p. 4724; Arabic-EnglishLexicon,vol. II, p. 3046.
I Wif, Al-Asfar al-Muqaddasa ff al-Ady5n al-S5biqalil-Islam, p. 106;J-1-Z5da,Al-F5riq Bayn al-
Makhl-uqwal-Kh5liq, p. 14.
27Lisdn al-'Arab, vol. 1,p. 664; Al-Mujam al-Was-11, vol. 1,p. 131;Arabic-EnglishLexicon,vol. 1, p.
437.
28Lis5n al-'Arab, Vol. VI, p. 4770;Mukhtdr al-$ý5b, pp. 709 f.; Arabic-EnglishLexicon, vol. II, p. 2924.

161
A]-Ann
Arabic term for bodiescreatedof "smokelessfire", which areintelligent, imperceptible
to human senses,capable of appearingunderdifferent forms andof carrying out heavy
labours. They are mentioned in the Holy Qur'dn, andplay an importantpart in Arabic,

Turkish, Indian andIndonesianfblkloreý9 [p. 20]

A]-Jizya
A tax formerly levied on non-Muslim adult malesfrom Dhimmis, "Ahlal-Dbimmd',
to it,
who were able pay provided that they belongedto a religion recognisedas divinely

revealed, that is, they were peopleof the book "Ahlal-, VhTY'. The infirm andpoor were
excluded from paying the Azya. The basis of the Azya is the Holy Qur'dn, (Sum,IX: 29).
It was normally understoodto be a tax for civil protectionandthe upkeepof the army,
30
but it did in practicesometimestake on the aspectof a tribute. [p. 79]

A]-Jumu'a
The day of the week whenMuslims gatherto perform congrcgationaUyal-Jumulaprayer
in the Mosque, and listen to a sermon there from the prayer leader "al-ImjW'.
Attendanceat this prayeris a duty incumbenton all male,adult, free, residentMuslims.
if possible, it should be held in the Great Mosque(al-Masjidal-Jimi), and frequent
is Business
transactions
are during
suspended this time.31[P.
attendance required. prayer

2151

29'Me ConciseEncyclopaediaof Islam,pp. 210 L; Islamic DeskReference,pp. 189f.; A Popular

Dictionaryof Islam,P. 137.
30AI_M5Ward7L. Al-AýUrn al-Sulldniyya,p. 142;S. Al-Jamal,ljdshiyat al-Jamal'AI5 Shar4al-Manhaj,
V,
vol. p. 211; Al-ShirbTnT,Al-Iqnd' fif Ijall Alfa-?Ab-uShujd', vol. 11,
p. 261.
31The ConciseEncyclopaediaof Islam,pp. 133f.; Islamic DeskReference,p. 104;A PopularDictionary
of Islam,P. 260.

162
Kanif
This Arabic term signifies an enclosureof wood or branchesof treesfor camelsand
32
sheep,also signifies the concealingor protectingof a place. [p. 2121

Kanka, church
In Arabic, the word "Kan.Fsd' denotesthe Jewish as well as the Christian placeof
Some it denotesthe Christianplaceof worship 33[P.
worship. scholars said exclusively.

1231

ir.-
K halaq
,
it is 4
This word describesa garmentor pieceof cloth andmeans old and worn-out? [p.

2181

A]-Khams al-Fawasiq
This term denotesfive kinds of harmful animals,mentionedin the Ijad-Ith,( Five kinds of
animals are harmful and could be killed in the kfaram "Sanctuary".Thesearethe crow,
kite, the the mouse and the rabid dog) ý5 [p. 64]
the scorpion,

azrai
One of the main andfamousArab tribes in Medinabeforeand at the time of the rise of
Islam. They seem to have been more numerous than al-Aws, the other main tribe in

32Al_jUharl,Al_ýjb5ý9vol. IV, 1424;Lis5n al-'Arab, vol. V, p. 3941;Al-Miýbdb al-Mun7ir,vol. II, p. 744;

vol. H, p. 801.
Al-Mu'jam al-Was-11,
33ShorterEncyclopaediaof Islam,p. 216; Islamic DeskReference,p. 68. Dictionary of Islam,p. 56.
34Al-juhar-1,Al-*ib5b, vol. IV, p. 1472;Lis5n al-'Arab, vol. II, p. 1246;Mukhtdr al-ýib5b, p. 187.
35ýabiý al-Bukh5fl, Arabic-English,vol. III, p. 34, The book of al-kjaj, chapter:whatkind of animalscan
be killed by a Mubrim.

163
Medina. Al-Khazra i and al-Aws played an active role in supporting the Prophet (PBUH)

Hijra from Mecca Medina. 36[p. 52]

and a]-Mubjjiifn at the to

A]-Kuffa-r
(also, "Kifir9b". sing. 'WWtr';J,'TnFjd1'9.
In mostpassages
of the Holy Qur'5n, the term
37
refersto who
unbelievers, are threatened
with God's punishment
and hell. [p. 58]

Liji-M
The term signifiesthe pieceof iron in
put the mouthof a horseto control it. 38(p. 215]

Lujai
This term is the plural of 'lu!#a" which meansa greatexpanseof water or sea,of which
be bottom be 39
the extremitiescannot seenandthe cannot reached. [p. 208]

Magbi-ra
in 40
This term refers to a cave or cavern a mountain. [p. 220]

Marsiffm
This Arabic term means drawn,traced,sketched;painted;recordedin writing, written;
designed,planned; decreed, ordered.Mars7um
(plu. MarffsTm)also signifiesdecree;act,
41 [P.
edict; regulation,ordinance. 121

36Islamic DeskReference,p. 208; A PopularDictionaryof Islam,p. 146.

37A Dictionaryof ModemWritten Arabic, p. 833; Islamic DeskReference,p. 172;A PopularDictionary
of Islam, p. 139.
38Lis5n al-'Arab, Vol. V, p. 4001; Al-Miýbdb al-Mun7ir,vol. II, p. 754.
39Al-juhafl, Al-ýAi5ý, vol. 1,p. 338; Lis5n al-'Arab, vol. V, p. 3999;Arabic-EnglishLexicon, vol. 11,p.
2650;A Dictionaryof ModemWritten Arabic, p. 858.
40Al. jUharl, Al-p5t, Vol. H, 773; Lis5n al-'Arab, vol. V, p. 3313;Mukht5r al-ýiýit, p. 484.

164
A]-Masjid al-&nfm
"T'he sacred Mosque". The word of "Masjid', Mosque, refcrs to the place of public

prayer. AI-Masjidal-Výuým "the Sacred Mosque" is the temple at Mecca, which contains
the Ka'ba, in is
which placed d-, Vajaral-Aswad"thc Black Stone". The term BWAIUh

"the House of God" is applied to the whole enclosure, although it more specially denotes
2
the Kaba itSCIf! [p. 76]

mawli"
(plur. 'ýnawj-Yq. This term signifies master, lord; protector, patron; client; charge;
friend, companion, associate;"Al-Mawld" is the Lord, God."Mawldy" and"Mawldnd"
ý3 [P.
are a form of to
address a sovereign 13]

Ma wqia t &ffihn, the battle of $ifflhn

A significant event in the early Islamic history. The battle and the immediate events
it lasted over a period of three months up to 37 A. H. / 657 A. D., on a plain
surrounding
called yNihn, which is in the south of the River Euphrates "aMut§t'. The conflict was
between 'Art b. Ab-u Tdlib and Mu'dwiya b. AbU Sufydn, the governor of al-Sh5m.
When 'Ari was on the point of winning, he acceptedthe proposal of Mu'dwiya, actually
by 'Amr b. al-',ýi§, to arbitrate the conflict as a legitimate dispute, because
conceived
,Ari wished to avoid further bloodshedý4 [p. 225]

"I Al-Miýb54 al-Mun7ir,vol. L p. 309; A Dictionaryof Modem Written Arabic, p. 340; Arabic-English
Lexicon,vol. 1,p. 1086.
42A Dictionaryof IslamicTerms,p. 189;A Dictionaryof ReligiousTerms,p. 186;Islamic Desk
Reference,pp. 275 f.
43Al-juhari, Al-ýiý-aý,vol. V1, p. 2529;Al-Mkb54 al-Mun7tr,vol. 11,pp. 927 f; A Dictionaryof Modem
Written Arabic, p. 1101.
' Ibn Kath7ir,At-Bid5ya wal-Nih5ya,vol. VII, pp. 239 ff.; The ConciseEncyclopaediaof Islam, pp. 33 f.
A PopularDictionaryof Islam,p. 233.

165
Minbar
(plur. 1ýnai7i-bir'g,')9upfit". A key piece of furniture, put in mosques,from which the
Friday Khulba or sermon is preachedby the mosque Im5m. The minbar in a large
is
mosque often a very high and ornate structure, intricately carved from beautiful
woods. It is usually sited in the mosque fairly close to the mffinTb,wherethe Im5m
45[p. 2161
performsprayers.

Mufassiign
(sing. 'ýnufassir'q.The word refersto interpretersof the Holy Qur'dn. A Mufassirmust
have a wide knowledgeof Ijad7Ith,the sciencesof Quran,Fiqh andthe Arabic language

to be qualified to correctly interpretthe wordsof the Holy 46

Qur'dn. [p. 761

A]-Mun, iflqUn
(sing. 'ýnun.5filq'g, Wypoerites". In the Holy Qur'dn, this term coversa wider semantic
range than the translation usually given in Westernlanguages. The English word that
comes nearest to 'ýnunWjqgn " in its totality of use in the Qur'dn is "dissenters",
the
muni-fiqffn clearly being dissenterswithin the Muslim community,whetheropenly or in

secret. The English word "hypocrite" most closely fits the post-Qur'anicMuslim usage
of the term. The mun-O-qUn are roundly condemned throughout the Holy Qur'dn. The
latter warns, in Surat al-Nisd' (4:145),that the munifi-qUnwill be in the lowest level of
7
hell, unlessthey repent! [p. 46]

45A Dictionaryof IslamicTerms,p. 401; A Dictionaryof Modem Written Arabic, p. 939; A Popular
Dictionaryof Islam,pp. 170f
46A PopularDictionaryof Islam,p. 173;A Dictionaryof IslamicTerms,p. 326.
4" IslamicDeskReference,p. 141;A PopularDictionaryof Islam,pp. 179f.

166
Nj'qgs
48[P.
A boardbeatenwith a stick or hammer,taking the placeof bells in easternchurches.

1241

A]-Nafj-rj-, "the Chfistians"

(sing. vaým-hrq, 'Nazarenes". An Arabic name for Christians. Today the formal name
is 'MasJ7XYYffn" from Wasi-h" (Messiah), a usage established by Christian

missionariesý9 [p. 4]

Qalfinsuwa
This is variouslydescribedby Arabic writers but would appearto be a cap wom undera
turban, equivalent to the modem tarhffsh.Zamakhshaff translates"qalansuwa" as
'Tali-tl which is the Persian word for a cap. Arabic authorsfrequentlymentionthat
"Qalansuwa".50[p. 1241
orientalswear

Quziýda

What falls by the action termed "aI-qarV"Vfor instance, of gold andof silver; andof
garment or piece of cloth, which a tailor cuts with his shears,
or by the gnawingof a rat
51[p. 220]
or mouse.

"' Tritton, A. S., The Caliphsandtheir Non-Muslim Subjects,p. 5; ShorterEncyclopaediaof Islam,p.

437; A Dictionaryof ModemWritten Arabic, p. 991. Lis5n al-'Arab, vol. VI, p. 4522.
49The ConciseEncyclopaediaof Islam,p. 298; ShorterEncyclopaediaof Islam,pp. 440 ff.; Islamic Desk
Reference,pp. 67 f.
50Lis5n al-'Arab, vol. V, p. 3720;Izzi Dien, M., The Tbeoryandthe Practiceof Market Law in Medieval
Islam,p. 159.
51Al-Juhei, Al-ýib5b, vol. R p. 1101;Lis5n al-'Arab, vol. V, p. 3589; Arabic-EnglishLexicon, vol. 11,
p. 2516.

167
Quraysb

The tribeinhabitingMeccain thetimeof theProphet(PBUH)andto whichhebelonged.

At the presentdaytherearemanyQurash4yffn living asBedouinin theneighbourhood
of Mecca,
while in thecity itself thekey of the Kaba is heldby a clanof Quraysh
called
Sha
, 3.52
ýYb, [p. 97]

A]-Rj-fi(fa, Rejecters
(dsp, IaI-Rawj'FjV'q. A general name given by the Sunn.Tsto the Sbf7tes, becausethey

repudiate the validity of the Caliphs who proceeded 'Ari b. Ab-uT51ib. These Caliphs,

Abu- Bakr, 'Umar and 'Uthm5n, along with 'AIT, are considered to be the rightly guided
Caliphs by Sunn.Ts.ShPitcs believe that only 'AIT and his descendantshad the right to the
first be 53
Caliphate, and so consider the three to usurpers. [P. 1751

Rj'bib
(plur. Vubbi-Y9, "a monk". The figure of the monk is known in pre-Islamic poetry and

in the Holy Qur'dn and Tradition. The pre-Islamic poets refer to the monk in his cell, the
light of which the traveller by night seesin the distance and which gives him the idea of

shelter. in the Holy Qur'dn the monk and the Qiss7jsare the religious leaders of the
Christians. From the fact that in Muslim literature from the early centuries A. H., the

epithet r5hib was given to various pious individuals. Thus it is evident that there was
it then. 54[p. 1231
nothing odious about

52Al. RaW4al-'Unuf, vol. 1,pp. 73 f.; Islamic DeskReference,p. 365.

53ShorterEncyclopaediaof Islam,p. 466; 71beConciseEncyclopaediaof Islam,p. 328; A Popular
Dictionaryof Islam,p. 210.
m Lis5n al-'Arab, Vol.1111,
P. 1748;ShorterEncyclopaedia
of Islam, p. 467; Islamic DeskReference,pp.
273 f.

168
Raq.Tq
(also, "'Abd'g, "slaw". Islam has never preached the abolition of slavery as a doctrine,
but it has endcavourcd to moderate the institution and mitigate its legal and moral

aspects. Spiritually, the slave has the same value as the free man, and the same eternity is
in store for his soul. The Holy Qur'dn and the Tradition make the emancipation of slaves
55[P. 1251
a meritorious act.

Al-Ribd'
(from the root 'ývbj`,, "to pvw, incvrase,cxcccd'q.Usury or profit (interest)from the
loan of money or goods, which is totally prohibited. To staywithin the letter of the
religious law and to soothe consciences, some banks today offer the solution of
"sleepingpartnership";this defines 56
the placingof capital as a co-investment.
muViraba
[p. 1231

A]-Ris,bi-
(also, mshj-, sing. zishwa or mshwa "a bdbc'g. A thing that one gives to a person,in

that he mayjudge in his (the giver's) 57

favour. [p. 81]
order

$j-b

A certain speciesof tree from which, when it is pressed, thereissueswhatresembles

milk, producingan effect like thatof a flameof fire, andin some instances
weakening
the sight. Also a certainkind of bitter tree, one of which is termed"ffiba", or the

" ShorterEncyclopedia of Islam,pp. I ff ; The ConciseEncyclopedia of Islam,p. 373; Islamic Desk

Reference,p. 420.
'56The ConciseEncyclopedia of Islam,p. 335; Sdbiq,Al-Sayyid, Fiqh al-Sunna,vol. III, pp. 281,294.
1 Al-juhari, Al-ýib5ý, vol. VI, p. 2357;Lisdn al-'Arab, vol. III, p. 1653:Arabic-EnglishLexicon, vol. 1,
p. 1091,Al-Mujam al-Was-ij,vol. 1,p. 348.

169
 juice
expressed of a kind of bitter tree,or, as somesay,the juice
expressed of the "f5h "
58
(or aloes). [p. 224]

A]-Salaf
Men of piety and faith in past generations.In the Islamic sidethe term signifiesthe
Companionsof the Prophet (PBUH), the Followers,andtheir Followers.59 [p. 81

&Wma'a

This term meansa cell in whicha monkdevoteshimselfto worshippingGod.TheHoly

Qur'dn has mentionedthatthenameof AM wascommemorated in abundantmcasurc,
[p. 1231
in theseplaces-60

A]-Shirk
('Tblýytbcism ", 'Wolatry'q. The Holy Qur'dn uses this term in direct contrast to the

profession of the Oneness of God and expressly declares polytheism to be the sin for

which Alldh has no forgiveness. Tradition literature reflects the hostile feeling against

the polytheists "al-mushdMn ". who in the law books are generally regarded as outlaws.

In a later period it was recognised that all unbelievers are not the same and are not to be
61 [p. 41
treated alike.

58LMn al-'Arab, vol. IV, p. 2520;MukhUiral-ýkidý, p. 372; Al-Mujam al-Was-11, Vol. 1,p. 527, Arabic-
EnglishLexicon,vol. H, p. 1741.
5' Al-Harawl, Dhammal-KaldraTalkh7qal-Suylltt fi ýawn al-Manliq vol. 1,p. 119;The 71beoryandthe
practiceof Market Law in MedievalIslam,p. 151.
I The Holy Qur'5n, (SUratal-Ijaj XXII: 40); LisAnal-'Arab, vol. IV, p. 2498.
61Islamic DeskReference,p. 344; A PopularDictionaryof Islam,p. 231.

170
SUP,
ffliyya
"Tbijya-bSup&iyya" is certaingarmentsor piecesof cotton cloth, so called in relation to
"ý;491" or "s4W", a placeor town of Ycmcn, wherethey arc woven,or whencethey arc
62
brought. [p. 2181

P Tatj'r, the Mongols

In the accountsof the Mongol conquestsof the eighth century, the conquerorsarc
cvcrywhcre called Tatdr, and the peopleof Mongol origin and languagealwayscalled
themselvesthus. Al-Tatdr conqueredBaghdadin 656 A. H. / 1258A. D. and Damascus

on 17 Rab1l'1 658 A. H. /2 March 1260A. D. But they were defeatedby al-Mu?affar

Qutu? and his army that was led by B-ibarsal-BindiqddCiat 'in Jdruton Friday, 25
Rama4dn658 A. H. 13 September1260 A. D., while they hadbeenin their way to
[p.
Egypt-63
conquer 72]

A]-Tawba
PC

repentance" The word, often usedin the Holy Qur'dn, originally means "return" and is

used cithcr in conncetion with God, who turns with forgivcness to the pcnitent,or for

someone who turns to God with repentance. Its validity depends on three conditions:a
conviction, remorse and a firm resolutionto abstain from sin in the future. Sin being an
God, is
repentance indispensable
for 64
salvation. [p. 135]
offenceagainst

A]- TawrR, "the Torah"'

This term is used in the Holy Qur'5n to denotea holy scripturerevealedto the Prophet
Moses "Mosd"(PBUH) after the time of Abraham"lbfzfh.Fnf"andJacob" YaqffH' and

62Al-juhaj-1, Al-ýibdb, vol. V, p. 1726; Lis5n al-'Arab, vol. III, p. 1957; Arabic-English Lexicon, vol. 1. P.
1320.
61The Concise Encyclopaedia of Islam, pp. 272 L; The Cambridge History of Islam, vol. 1, pp. 212 L;

IslamicDeskReference,pp. 443 f.
64IslamicDeskReference,p. 374.

171
afterwards confirmed by Jesus " 'AT'. The Tawr5t also contained a prophecy of the

coming of the Prophet(PBUH). The Holy Qur'dn (11:75; V: 13) hasmentionedthat the
MoseS. 65 [P. 130]
real Tawr5t waschangedafter the time of

A]-Ta'zk, Discredonaiypunishment
A punishment intended to prevent the culprit from relapsing. Many crimes, now
punished by this, were counted as sins in the Holy Qur'dn and for them therewasno
tadd punishment.The kind and amountof taz.Fris left to the discretionof the 66
judge.

[p. 1311

Taylasj-D
This is a simple veil or cloak which is thrown over the head and shoulders orjust the

shouldcrs. It is a charactcristic of 'Taqirs"and tcachcrs of thcology. It is similar, not only

in
in this respect, but also origin to the western academic robes and 67
hoodS. [P. 1291

ThiM,R
A helper or a succourcrwho undertakesor managesthe affairs of his party, kinsfolk.or
68
tribe. Thim5I also means a refuge or protector. [p. 218]

O(LaaMj7-9

-" ý, `kbokr" 9. It is usedas a title for Muslim doctorsof divinity or law. They
'Rim
(sing. 44
form the theocratic elementof the govcmmcntandtheir 'Tatwas"or decisions,regulate
69
life. [P. 1291

65
Ibid, p. 453.
66The Theoryandthe Practiceof Market Law in MedievalIslam,p. 138.
67Lisdn at-'Arab, Vol. IV, p. 2689;Al-Mi§Wý al-Mun1ir,vol. 11,p. 513; Mukhtdr al-ýibat, p. 395.
68AI-Azharlt,Tahdh-lbat-Lugha,vol. XV, p. 94; Al-Juhafl, Al-ýibd4, vol. IV, p. 1649;Lis5n at-'Arab, vol.
1,p. 506.

172
Ifujil

IMR
(sing. One of the meaningsof this Arabic word is governorsor rulers,whom
,
the Caliph installed on the statesof his Caliphate.The other meaningof this word is
workers, labourers or workmen. It is also usedto rcfer to the one who collects $adaqaý
Tjnj1.70
I, [p. 16]

wuzal;i, p
(sing. -waz.Fq. A title of ministers and of dignitaries in several Near Eastern kingdoms.

The office of ministcr to the Caliph devcloped in power, especially in the period of the

'Abbdsids under the Barmakids. The Arabic word today has the sense of a minister in a
71[P. 169]
government.

Yawm a]-Qiyj'ma, the Day of Resumcdon

The cataclysmic events and upheavals of this day are frequently and graphically
describedin the Holy Qur'dn. This day alsohasmanyother names,someof which arc
(Yawm al-,ffisfb) the day of judgementand(al-Yawm al-'Akhir) the last day. Yawmal-
Qiyj-ma and its events constitute are of the necessarybeliefs, which determine the
the Muslim faith.72[P. 99]
contentof

Y,?wm 'Uhud, the battle of 'Uhud

0a
The day of Tq2ud is the day when the Prophet (PBUH) and the Muslims fought the
Mcccans in 3 A. H. / 625 A. D. at Týud, a hill to the West of Medina. The Mcccans

were led by Ab-u Sufy5n. In strictly military terms the result of this battle was a draw.

69The Theory and the Practice of Market Law in Medieval Islam, p. 136.
70Al-Mi§bdb al-Mun1r, vol. H, p. 588; Mukhar al-ýibdh, p. 455.
71Lisdn al-'Arab, vol. VI, p. 4824; Islamic Desk Reference, p. 477; Al-Mujam al-Waslij, vol. H, p. 1028;
A Popular Dictionary of Islam, p. 258.
72Islamic Desk Reference,p. 374; A Popular Dictionary of Islam, p. 260.

173
The Prophet(PBUH) waswoundedandhis uncle k1ammb. 'Abd al-Multalib waskilled,

togetherwith more than seventyMuslims, during this 73

battle. [p. 941

Za "fari-n
"saffron".A certaindye 74
andperfume. [p. 218]

zini-

The Arabic word means both adulteryandfornication. Ibe Holy Qur'5n, the Tradition
and Muslim law forbid any sexualintercoursebetweenpersonswho arc not in a stateof
!5 [P.
matrimony 130]

73
Al_p, aW4al_'UnUf,Vol. III, pp. 147ff.; Encyclopaedia of Seerah,Vol. 1,pp. 31 f.; The Concise
Encyclopaediaof Islam,p. 68 f
74Lis5n al-'Arab, vol. 111,p. 1833;Mukht5r al-*iýdb, p. 272; Arabic-EnglishLexicon, VOLL P. 1231.
75IslamicDeskReference,pp. 103L; A PopularDictionaryof Islam,p. 265.

174
 APPENDIX TWO

Glossary of Places Mentioned

in the Manuscript
Badr
A small town south-westof Medina,wherethe Prophet(PBLJMdefeatedthe unbelievers
624 1
of Mecca in 2 A. H. / A. D. [p. 51]

Baghdi-d
The capital city of Iraq, on both sides of the river Tigris 'D#1a ". The origins of the pre-
Islamic name arc not clear. The actual city, founded by the second Abbasid Caliph Ab-u
Jalfar al-Manýu-r, continued to be the centre of the Abbasid Caliphate and the cultural

metropolis of the Muslim world, until it was conquered by the Mongols in 655-6 A. H. /
1258 A. D. After that date it was a provincial centre until 1921 A. D., when it became the

Iraq.2 [P. 241

capital of modem

Dimashq, 'Damascus"
The capital of modemSyria anda major Middle Easterncity from early medievaltimes
onwards.In 14 A. H. / 635 A. D., Kh5lid b. al-Warid it
conquered from the Byzantincs.
It
was made the capital of the 'Umayyad Caliphateby Mu'dwiya b. Ab-uSufydn in 35 A.
H. / 656 A. D. The greatMosqueof the 'Umayyadwasbuilt by the Caliph al-Warid b.
,Abd al-Malik. When the Abbasidsdefeatedthe 'Umayyadsat the battle of the Zad river
in 132 A. H. / 750 A. D., the capital of the Empire shiftedfrom Damascusto the newly
founded city of Baghd5d. Despitethis, Damascuswasalwaysan importantcity through
Islamic history, and was recognizedas suchby succeedingdynastieslike the Ayyu-bids
3
Mamruks. [p. 721
and

Encyclopaediaof Seerah,vol. 1,pp. 31 f; IslamicDeskReference,p. 47.

The ColumbiaLippincott Gazetteerof the World, p. 140;LongmanDictionaryof Geography,pp. 39 f.;
IslamicDeskReference,P. 47.

176
V; 2IT-fill

An ancient city, now a village, in Northern Syria near Urfa in Turkey. It was conquered
by the Muslims in 19 A. H. / 640 A. D. and became the capital of the 'Umayyads under
Maraw5n b. Mutammad. After the lattce s defeat by the Abbasids in 132 A. H. / 750 A.
D., the city was destroyed, but later became a ccntre of translation under the guidance of
Th5bit b. Quffa. After having been governed by the Ayyubids, the city was destroyed in

1271 A. D. and not rebuilt after the Mamluk victory over them in 1303 A. D .4 [P. 184]

A1--,ffijj"z

The name of the northwesternpart of the Arabian Peninsula, the birthplaceandthe

spiritual ccntrc of Isl5m. The areassurroundingthe two Holy cities, Mecca and Medina,

are sacredpreserves which only Muslims are allowed to enter. From the beginning of
Isl5m, the region was under the control of Muslim rulers,first the four rightly guided
Caliphs, then the 'Umayyads and, until 1258 A. D., the Abbasids.It then fell to the
Egyptians and, in 1517 A. D., to the Ottomans.King al-Ijusayn b. 'Aff reignedfrom
1916 to 1924 A. D., and since 1925 A. D. the regionhasbelongedto the territory of
5
SaudiArabia. [p. 130]

A]-Biud, 'ludia -9-9

A country situated in the South of Asia. Islamic existence in India began with the first
Arab conqucsts in Sindh undcr Muh.ammad b. Qdsim in 93 A. H. / 712 A. D. Islam was

carried deeper into India by Ma4m7ud of Ghazna, (died in 422 A. H. / 1030 A. D. ), and
firmly established in the Bunjab and Kashmir. Under the Delhi Sultanate (602-962 A. H..

3 The ColumbiaLippincott Gazetteerof the WorK p. 485; LongmanDictionaryof Geography,The

ConciseEncyclopaediaof Islam,pp. 91 f.
4 IslamicDeskReference,pp. 129f.; A PopularDictionaryof Islam,p. 97.
5 IslamicDeskReference,p. 133.

177
/1206-1555 A. D.), and undcr the Mongols (932-1274 A. H. / 1526-1858), Islamic rulc in
6
India reachcdits height. [p. 207]

Al-ýVka
The capital of the Lakhmids,locatedto the Southeastof presentday al-Najaf al-Ashraf in
7
Iraq. [p. 391

A]-Kgfa
A city in Iraq, foundedby Sa'd b. Ab-uWaqqdýin 16 A. H. / 638 A. D., after the whole
of Iraq had been wrested from the hands of the Sasanians. It took part in the revolt
against the Caliph 'Uthmdn b. 'Affa-ii, who supported'Art in the battle of the Cameland
in the battle of ýiffifn. Al-Kffa wasthe brain behindthe pro-Abbasidmovement,and it

was at its great Mosque that the first Abbasid Caliph Ab-U al-"Abb5sal-Saffa-4was
solemnly investedin 131 A. H. / 749 A. D. It remainedthe Capital of the Abbasidsuntil
the founding of Baghdadin 144A. H. / 762 A. D. Al-Kffa alsoheld a prominentplace
in the gestation of the Arabo-Islamic civilisation and culture. It gaveits nameto the
famous writing, known as Kufic script, and the first glimmerings of Islamic Law,
Tradition and Exegesisof the Qur'dn took place there. Asceticism and mysticism,
Qur'dn reciting, grammarandthe studyof history in 8
werepractised al-K7ufa.[p. 225]

APMadin'a a]-Munawwara.. Wedina, "-*

A town in the Hejaz "JJiJ5z", in SaudiArabia, which wasthe residenceof the Prophet
(PBUH) after the Hijra in 622 A. D. andis the placewhenhis tomb is situated.After
Mecca it is the secondmost sacredcity of Isl5m, andis the place wherethe Prophet's

" The EuropaWorld Year Book 1998,vol. 1,pp. 1648ff.; LongmanDictionaryof Geography,pp. 201 f
The ConciseEncyclopaedia,of Islam,p. 187.
" Islamic DeskReference,P. 136.
a Islamic DeskReference,p. 221.

178
Mosque is situated. Its early namewasYathrib. Medina is frequentlycharacterizedby

the epithetal-Munawwara,"the RadianV'ý[p. 130]

Makka al-Mukarrama, 'Mecca -qp

A city in SaudiArabia, locatedin the Hejaz"al-lJiJ5z", about72-km. inland from the red
sea port of Jidda. It is the most sacredand celebrated city of Isl5m, wherethe Prophet
(PBUH) was bom in 751 A. D., and lived for muchof his life. Muslims turn towards
Mecca in prayersandundertakethe pilgrimage"al-Ijaj" to that city, not only becauseof
its Prophetic and historical association,but becauseit containsthe Ka'ba "the Sacred
House". The Holy Qur'dn wasfirst revealedto the Prophet(PBUH) nearthis city, andit
was from Mecca that he made his famous migration (Hijra) to Medina in 622 A. D.
Mecca is often characterizedas al-Mukarrama "the Revered" and also referredto as
10
'Umm al-Qurd" the Mother of cities. [p. 1301

t. 9 9
j
M4s4 Wgvp
A country located in the northeastof Africa. It wasconqueredby "Amr b. al-'A§ in 640
A. D. / 18-9 A. H. during the Caliphateof 'Umar b. al-Khalt5b.Now it is known asthe
Arab Republic of Egypt, with Cairo (al-Qihira) as its capital city. The prcstigeof al-
Azbar University has often given the pronouncementsof Egyptianreligious leadersa
great weight in the Islamic world; during the last few centuries Cairo has been the

the Arab world." [p. 83]

cultural capital of

9 The ColumbiaLippincott Gazetteerof the World, pp. 1176f.; IslamicDeskReference,p. 262; A Popular
Dictionaryof Islam,P. 168.
10LongmanDictionaryof Geography,p. 269; The ColumbiaLippincott Gazetteerof the World, pp. 1174
f.; A PopularDictionaryof Islam,p. 168.
" The EuropaWorld Year Book 1998,vol. 1,pp. 1207ff.; LongmanDictionaryof Geography,pp. 133f.;
,11leConciseEncyclopaediaof Islam,p. 107.

179
Najrjj7

A town in southwesternSaudiArabia along the Yemenfrontier. In 10 A. H. / 630 A. D.,

the Christianssenta delegationto meetthe Prophet(PBUH) in Medina. They were much
impressedon hearing some verses of the Holy Qur'dn (3:59-61) explaining the true
position of Christ, and they enteredinto tributary relationswith the new Muslim State.
During the Caliphate of 'Umar b. al-Khatt5b,many Christiansimmigratedto a locality
12
not far from al-Ku-fa,called al-Najrdniyya. [P. 123]

A]-Sbj"m
The region locatesin the north of Arabic peninsulais called al-Sh5m.It consistof Syria
in the north and cast, Lcbanon in the north, Jordan in the southandPalcstincin the
13 [P.
West. 1841

Tfirsws
An ancient town of Cilicia, Turkey. After the Muslim conquest, it became one of the

frontier towns which formed a protective line against the Byzantine country. It was

restored, populated by Arabs and given a mosque by the Abbasid Caliph Hdfu-n al-
RashYd in 171 A. H. / 788 A. D. The Abbasid Caliph al-Mam-un was buried there. It was
for a short time by T-UlUnids and passed into the hands of the Hamadanids, but in
ruled
354 A. H. 1 965 A. D. the large, prosperous town was taken by the Byzantine people. It
14
fell to the Mamluks of Egypt in 1275 A. D. [p. 221]

12The ConciseEncyclopedia of Islam,p. 296; Islamic DeskReference,p. 310.

Mujam al-Buld5n,vol. III, pp. 311 ff.
13 Al-Hamaw-i,Ydq7ut,
14 Islamic DeskReference,p. 442.

180
 rL
Pr
Uyud
A mountainaboutfive km northof Medina,well knownfor thebattlefoughtin 3 A. H.
624 A. D. betweentheProphet(PBUH)andtheunbelievers of Meccawhowereeagerto
their defeat the battle Badr. 15[p. 94]
avenge at of

A]- Yami-ma
A district in SaudiArabia. It becamenotoriousin early Isl5m becauseof the revolt there
of Musaylama b. Ijab-ib, who is known as Musaylarna al-Kadhdhdb "thc liar". To its

easternborder lies Bahrain, and Yemen lies to its west, Najd and kiijdz lie to its north,
its 16
Dahnd' andal-Rub' al-Khdl-l to south. [P. 130]
lie

15 Encyclopedia of Seerah,vol. 1,p. 31; IslamicDeskReference,p. 465.

Irl Islamic DeskReference,p. 482.

181
CONCLUSION
 CONCLUSION

At this point of the study, we will provide a conclusion to the previous

chaptcrs,mcntioningbricfly the outcomcsof this rcscarch.

This thesis studied the book "Manhaj al-ýaw5b fif Qubý Istikt5b AM al-
Kit5b", (The correct method to rcctify the ugly practiceof appointingthe Peopleof
the Book in writing professions),andeditedit in an academicway for the first time.

Evidence was presentedin part one of the thesiswhich supportsattributing

this book to the authorIbn al-Durayhim,N-ural-D-In'AIT b. Ab-ual-Fath.,(712 A.H.1
1312A.D. - 762 A.H./ 1361A. D.). A counterclaim wasmadeby Ddwud 'AIT al-F54,
who is a at
professor Faculty
al-SharTi'a in Fez, 'Tjs". (in Morocco),suggestingthat
the book was compiled by an unknownMoroccanauthorin the eleventhcenturyof
Hijra. But this is considerederroneousdue to the evidencepresentedin this thesis.

The thesis examined the verses of the Quranandthe Traditionswhich form

the basis of the tolerant stanceof Islam towardsdhimmis.It alsodetailedthe rights
and duties of &immis who live in the Islamic State,showingthat Islam insiststhat
&jmmis aretreatedaswell astheir Muslim neighbours.Opinionsof Muslim scholars

about various of
asPCCts the rclationship bctwccn Muslims and dhimmis wcrc
discussedand analysedin the light of the Quranandthe Traditions.This analysisled
the author of this thesis align himself with the scholarswho led the most tolerant
attitude towardsdhimn2is.

Historically this studyprovedthat dhimmisweregenerallytreatedwell by the

sultans and the cmirs during the Mamluk cra. The study of "Manhaj al-ýawdb"
clarified the position of dbimmis in Egypt during that period, showingthat manyof
them held important positions which gave them control over Muslims. This

sometimesled to dWmmispersecuting Muslims.

The thesis showed that the method chosen by Ibn al-Durayhim to deal with the
sultans and emirs in that time, in an attcmpt to end this pcrsccution,providcsan
example of the relationship between scholars and rulers during that period of the
Mamluk rule.

183
 And finally the thesis suggeststhat although the general stance of Islam
towards dhimmis should be onc of tolcrancc and support, in the case of similar
problems occurring in the future the book '?Aanhajal-ýawdb" could provide a useful
model of how to deal with them.

184
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 Critical StudyandEdition of
Manhaj Al-ýawdb fl- Qub4 Istiktiib Ahl Al-Kitdb

Of

Mur al-Din 'Aff Ibn Ab7ual-Fatb

Known as Ibn al-Durayhim

By

Ahmad MuhammadAhmad Al-Shamoubi

M. A. AI-Azhar University, Cairo, Egypt

PART TWO -

A THESIS SUBMITTED IN FULFILMENT OF THE

REQUIREMENTSFOR THE DEGREEOF DOCTOR OF
PHILOSOPHY
In the Departmentof
Theology and Religious Studies

University of Wales
Lampeter

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