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Recent advancements in dual clutch transmission modelling and simulation

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 Recent advancements in Dual Clutch Transmission Modelling
and Simulation
Paul Walker a , Nong Zhanga, Jeku Jeyakamurana, Ric Tambab,
Simon Fitzgeraldb
a
Faculty of Engineering and Information Technology, University of
Technology, Sydney,
PO Box 123, Broadway, NSW 2007, Australia
b
Nautitech Consulting International;
Unit F, 2 Hudson Ave, Castle Hill, NSW, 2154, Australia

ABSTRACT
This paper investigates and evaluates the existing work on the modelling, simulation, and
control of DCT powertrains; paying particular attention to methodology, assumptions, and
the obtained results, identifying key developments and limitations related to these
endeavours. This is followed up with evaluation of the analysis and modelling of relevant
principles and subassemblies within the DCT. Investigating first the wet clutch, and
different methods employed in its control of DCTs. Next, the synchronisation process as
applied to manual and dual clutch transmissions, as well as current and past methods
developed for calculating the drag torques in transmissions; and finally, the analysis of
automotive powertrain dynamics is investigated. Ultimately, this study intends to provide
the reader with a complete understanding of the requirements for the development of a
comprehensive model of DCT equipped powertrains.

1 INTRODUCTION
The Dual clutch transmission (DCT) was initially developed in the 1940s [1], but only
with recent developments in precision control has it been possible to develop it for general
use [2]. With the comfort of automatic transmissions (AT) and the efficiency of manual
transmissions (MT) DCTs have become highly desirable to meet emissions requirements and
provide improved efficiencies desired by consumers. To ensure that the shift quality and AT
capabilities are maintained the state-of-the-art must be developed and understood so that
further investigation of the DCT is well directed. Consideration is therefore required for
current modelling efforts for DCTs, reviewing adopted methods, assumptions, and results.
This is particular crucial as transient development in the powertrain are strictly limited by the
techniques employed during modelling, and by developing an understanding of limitations to
current work it will then be possible to seek resolution of such problems. Additionally, by
review other subsystems within the DCT it will be possible to garner an understanding of
where further development is required and to what extent it is possible to achieve an
improved result.

2 DUAL CLUTCH TRANSMISSION MODELLING, CONTROL AND SIMULATION

The bulk of the modeling work done on DCTs is very similar. The powertrain is treated
as a multi-degree of freedom dynamic system with a series of inertial and compliant elements.
Internal components of the transmission are often treated as rigid bodies. Torque
relationships are developed at various points within the system, including engine, road load,

a
Email address: paul.d.walker@eng.uts.edu.au
and clutch friction torque, and then shift and clutch controllers are developed [3-7]. Once the
model is completed numerical examples of control of shift change is presented and
“successful” results are discussed.
Commonly, the engine makes up one pair of elements and the driveshaft, wheels,
differential, etc are grouped and reduced into one or more inertia-compliant sets. The
transmission itself is considered as two separate clutches, each with a gear pair, attached to
the output shaft. With synchronisers considered as a second clutch setup by Goetz [3] or as a
switch Zhang, et al, [8] or not at all Lei, et al, [9]. These components make up the remainder
of the dynamic system as individual elements of either rigid Lei [9] or flexible type Goetz [3].
This develops a model that hybridises rigid body and flexible body motion, which is useful in
generating and simulating control over the DCT. In general these modeling methods are
relatively simple, where more extensive models could be used in conjunction with model
reduction techniques to improve the accuracy of results.
Control of DCTs has been attempted using fuzzy [10], closed [3], and open methods [11]
with closed loop being the best. Goetz [3] uses engine control, output torque, and clutch slip
control to achieve the best results. Other methods include opening the clutch when negative
torque is generated [9] and clutch slip in conjunction with engine speed [7] are also used for
closed loop control. Overall a highly integrated transmission and engine controller is required
to achieve the best results. Fuzzy logic and open loop methods that have been presented are
questionable in application primarily as the transmission and powertrain are both well
established torsional systems that have a long history of successful modeling and simulation.
Ergo the use of fuzzy logic is questionable, and the need for closed loop control is almost
critical to achieving the levels of precision required.
When used in simulation the results vary depending on the comprehensiveness of both
model and control method adopted. Goetz [4] shows that the best quality shift is achieved
using integrated controller discussed above. Kulkarni and Zhang [7, 8] generate relatively
high torsional results for launches and shifts with a less developed system. While [9] results
show abrupt torque changes associated with transient generation, but poorer modelling has
limited the result accuracy. The primary issue is then how does one assess the accuracy of the
results if a limited model is presented. Are the results representative of the physical responses
of the transmission.
Typically, this type of question would be resolved through either powertrain or in-car
testing. This is where the main issue lies; there is very little published work on the validation
of DCT powertrain control methodologies. However, the simulations can be assessed based
on the presented model. For example, Kirshstein [6] and Goetz [3] both present
comprehensive model development within the published work, with this established it is then
possible to review results critically and understand how results were achieved.
2.1 Key Results
To achieve the highest quality shifts closed loop control is a must. Within this there needs
to be engine and clutch control that includes speed matching in the inertia phase, and output
torque profile matching in the torque phase [4, 7]. The most comprehensive control processes
have the best success at achieving high quality shifts, with poorer results developed in the
more simplified control methods, examples being [9, 11]. Further refinement of methods
could improve these results, but it is apparent here that closed loop clutch slip, output torque
and engine control provide the most successful control methods.
Open loop control can be utilised if longer slip times are chosen [11]. This “gain” costs
lost shift quality with longer transitory periods. But, in general relatively smooth shifts are
required in approximately 200ms [12]. This will cost the final shift quality, and it can be
expected that significant transients will be generated during shifts, making it less desirable for
passenger vehicles.
 Of particular importance to the system is the effect of light damping on the ability to
realise quality control of the system. Kirschstein [6] demonstrated that the slip controller gain
can cause torsional response that emulates clutch engagement judder. This is attributed to the
light system damping and the selection of gain close to the stability limits. Therefore the
controller design must carefully consider the effect of this light damping under all conditions,
particularly as there is minimal damping within the powertrain, and undesirable transients can
be easily developed with poor design.
A commonality to all works is the generation of vehicle responses and transient
conditions. In the most extensive work of Goetz [3-5, 17] it is demonstrated that it is
exceedingly difficult to develop a control architecture that can eliminate the torsional
vibrations completely. This suggests the need to integrate further damping, such as dual mass
fly wheels, into the design. Alternatively more comprehensive development of drag torques
within the system can be established to refine the system damping; an example of drag model
development is presented by Changenet [32].

2.2 Assumptions and Limitations

Usually assumptions that are made in the modelling process are required to develop a
model that is computationally appropriate. Typically this includes ignoring backlash,
temperature effects, or treating clutches as Coulomb friction elements [7]. Other
assumptions, made for the sake of expediency, can hinder the analysis.
The process of synchronisation is ignored by most authors simply because it occurs before
clutch engagement and therefore is not critical to control [8]. It is argued by [13] that this
process primarily associated with shift quality, and therefore greater investigation is required.
[14-16] all demonstrate the complexity and uncertainty of synchronisation, and that detailed
understanding is required to ensure the process is effective.
With the DCT being such a lightly damped system it is expected that the drag and other
frictional losses would play an important role in the system damping. This is not the case
with the majority of papers. Goetz [17] is the only author to integrate losses into the
transmission, [7] lumps them as an efficiency loss in the powertrain model, and others ignore
these losses [10]. Over simplification of the losses also impacts synchronisation modeling as
it plays a key role in the clutch engagement and locking processes [18].
There is also the tendency for authors to ignore the hydraulic actuation of the system. [7,
8] both use actuation profiles of pressure against slip speed to simulate the hydraulics, but it is
more often the case that hydraulics is ignored [9, 11]. The most comprehensive modeling by
[3] uses a phenomenological based approach for modeling.

3 CLUTCHES AND CONTROL

The wet clutches have been chosen for use in DCTs over dry clutches due to its torque
capacity, thermal stability – most notably under slipping conditions, frictional stability, and
wear characteristics [19]. At the same time the primary control methodology has been
through hydraulic actuation, with electromechanical methods lacking the required force
densities at the time [19]. Though [20] has recently presented a compact electromechanical
system that can be used in smaller dry clutch applications. Further refinement of dry clutches
has been demonstrated by Berger [21] demonstrating that it is indeed possible to develop dry
clutches for extended slipping periods and high loads required during launch, making it
possible to use the more efficient dry clutch for extended applications in DCTs.
As shown by [3] the hydraulic control system can be very difficult to model accurately,
invariably dynamic system modeling as seen in [22] or experimental methods [23] provide
simpler methods for model development. Particularly, pre-fill and impact of the piston make
modeling difficult [17, 24]. These issues are associated with the numerical simulation of the
controller rather than issues with physical characteristics of the system.
Previous discussion on the methods employed for control has shown that closed loop
control is preferable over open loop, fuzzy or other control methods. Furthermore integration
with engine control is a necessity to ensure maximum quality is achieved [4, 7]
The final issue within the realm of clutches is the technique used to control the system.
Typically ATs have always used hydraulic control to engage and disengage clutches as this
method is both compact and reliable. Electro-mechanical (EM) systems have seen little use
as they lack these characteristics. More recent work by Berger [21] has shown that it is
possible to generate electro-mechanical control of clutches and DCTs using only two motors.
Alternative work has used compact linear drives to achieve similar results [20]. The EM
control techniques are preferred in most cases now as corresponding hydraulic systems has
higher time lag in control making it more difficult to achieve precision control.

4 SYNCHRONISATION
The process of synchronisation in DCTs is a vestige of the manual transmission system,
the use of synchronisers is a direct result of the replication of MT characteristics in the DCT.
Though this has speed up the development of DCTs it has resulted in limiting its capacity to
be controlled as it is an inherently manual device in terms of operation [18, 25]. This process
has received limited investigation in research into DCTs, note [3] partial treatment for control.
Kim [25] in particular demonstrates how the manual load varies over the complete actuation
sequence, and it would therefore be expected that the control of the synchroniser using
hydraulic or electromechanical techniques would have to be capable of accommodating such
variations in shift force. Particularly as overloading the system is likely to cause clash of
synchroniser chamfers and damage components.
The governing equations of synchronisers are well established [18, 26, 27]. The main
concern in DCTs in now how to treat drag, a critical torque in the process; particularly for
control and design purposes. Razzacki [28] continues to assume that it is added to upshifts
and subtracted from downshifts, as with MTs. As the speed of the pre-selected gear is
decoupled from the engaged clutch this is no longer the case. Thus the inequality that ensures
synchroniser blocking is maintained must be re-evaluated to ensure that it will hold under all
operating conditions, particularly as its failure will interrupt the shifting procedure.
Modeling has shown that the clutch engagement phase of synchronisation is extremely
reliable. However the lockup phase of synchronisation is not as repeatable or reliable. This is
where the majority of problems occur [14, 15]. Two of the primary failure modes of
synchronisers occur during this stage. Clash is the early onset of this phase, while block out
is where torque balancing is not correct and engagement is therefore incomplete [29].
Furthermore, the engagement of the chamfers results in high engagement time variability,
largely due to the initial contact point and the forces resulting from applied load and
coefficient of friction [14-16, 29]. This is a highly random variable in the synchronisation
process and contributes significantly to the uncertainty of its actuation. By pre-selecting gears
in the DCT it is possible to avoid some of the issues that are generated in synchronisation.
Though, as synchronisation failure requires restarting of the shifting process, it is still likely to
adversely affect shifting in DCTs.
It is consequently argued, from the work presented here and previously, that the over
simplification of synchronisation in the modeling and simulation of DCT architectures has
resulted in limited results in demonstrating shift control. It is likely sourced from the
modeling of AT systems, where shifting is completed by engaging and disengaging clutches
and bands, see [30] for an example.
5 DRAG TORQUE
The development of comprehensive drag torque models for geared systems has been
performed by [31] and [32] with good results. Invariably this must consider all losses
associated with transmissions including speed and load based sources [31]. Changenet [32]
notes speed sources as windage and churning in gears and bearings, and load based losses
friction in gears and bearings for a manual transmission. In a wet clutch DCT this must also
include drag associated with the clutch and shaft-in-shaft arrangement.
Windage is the drag developed on a gear as it rotates through the air-oil vapour mixture
and is more dominant at high speeds [33]. Experimentally validated modelling uses Π-
Theorem to develop equations for determining windage [34-36]. Though [36] application of
fluid dynamics analysis is considered to be more general as it is based on the physics of the
system.
Churning losses are generated as the gear rotates through oil and are similar in theory to
windage drag. Generally it has been modeled based on Π-Theorem [37, 38]. Luke and Olver
[39] demonstrated that these models are limited under certain speeds and viscosities; and by
simplifying the gear to a cylinder or disc the impact of teeth on this churning is ignored.
Changenet and Velex [40] developed this to resolve the issue of teeth and demonstrated
results to have reasonable experimental accuracy.
Bearing losses can be easily sought from bearing catalogues, for example SKF [41], which
are based on the work of [42], these models are simple but accurate and can be used
effectively to model both windage and friction drag generated in the bearing. Similar
methods have been adopted by [32], but [31] simplifies these losses to known values so that
they can be ignored during modeling.
Gear friction is divided into rolling and sliding friction by [33], requiring detailed analysis
of the gear kinematics. Michlin [43] provides an algebraic analysis, though a simpler method
adopted by [32] is also available. This integrated rolling and sliding frictions into one
equation set for modeling and greatly simplifies the modeling process.
In open wet clutches drag is developed when there is relative speed between clutch plates.
Kitabayashi [44] shows that facing area, grooving, and AFT flow all affect drag. While [45]
and [46] both use Naiver-Stokes equations to determine drag torque. Though [46] model is
validated reliably over a broader range of slip speed, and should be considered reliable by
comparison to other works. The drag in the wet clutch is likely to take a more dominant
portion of total drag in the system, and as it varies with slip speed, not total speed, it is likely
to influence the shifting processes significantly.
Shaft-in-shaft drag is determined from solutions to the Naiver-Stokes equations presented
by [47], but there is little consideration in literature. Subsequent evaluation of this type of
drag should be performed to determine its degree of influence.
As stated these drags need to be integrated with the dynamic model of a DCT to develop
an accurate representation of the system damping. Further consideration of drag is required
for synchroniser analysis, and it can also be used to optimise transmission efficiency. Hohn
[48] demonstrates this by analysing churning in gears and showing, qualitatively, that there is
an optimum submersion depth. It could therefore be considered possible as being capable for
optimising drag to ensure that losses are minimized without interfering with lubrication of the
transmission.

6 POWERTRAIN DYNAMICS
Effective powertrain modeling has been demonstrated by [49] for the purpose of
investigating the phenomenon of stick-slip and impact of friction gradient on transient
development using finite elements, with validation. The results are consistent with presented
work of Goetz [5] demonstrating the effect of negative friction gradients on slipping clutch
stability. The use of Laplace transforms by [50] has also been demonstrated to be accurate for
powertrain modelling. Similarly, rigid body analysis by [51] has been able to optimise AT
shifts. One of the major differences between work on AT systems such as Crowther [49] or
Zhang [51] and the work present on DCTs is that there is a propensity for the DCT works to
hybridise rigid and flexible body dynamics. This is likely to reduce the effectiveness of
modeling and control/simulation of the systems as the same model is sued both as for control
and generation the system response. Therefore it is possible to develop accurate models that
can be validated accurately, with the simplified models of [10, 11, 52] unnecessarily limiting
the results.
Abel [13] successfully integrated synchronisers into a powertrain model, using object
orientated programming. Demonstration effective control over synchronisers and clutches
when using specific modeling software, implying that it’s possible to perform a similar task
with other software. Whilst [53] was able to integrate a friction launch clutch with an AT
system with the torque converter removed. Notch filtering was then used to eliminate
transients near the natural frequencies of the system, again with validation. This work was
fully capable of demonstrating successful launch of a vehicle with in-car testing, generating
only minimal transients for the clutch. This is of importance to modeling and control of
DCTs as it can be shown that minimal transients are developed when relying solely on
friction clutches for launch and damping.

7 CONCLUSION
There have been many attempts to develop models and simulate the control of DCTs; the
results have been quiet varied. This is largely through the assumptions made in developing
the model. To achieve a fully realised model that provides accurate results greater attention
needs to be placed on system modeling. The integration of synchronisers and drag losses into
such a model will further enhance accuracy, and provide analysis of how they impact on shift
quality and control of the DCT powertrain.
There are many examples of DCT control considering the actuation of clutches alone, and
through results have varied form model to model the overall consensus has been that it is
possible to reduce transient vibration during shifting of gears, but the ability to eliminate
transients is not considered possible. This has largely been attributed to the light system
damping available is this transmission. Alternate works have demonstrated otherwise, with
the overall implication of the work being that there is further room for improvement of both
modeling and control of DCT systems. Furthermore, though clutch modeling and control is
well established, other aspects of the DCT architecture need a higher level of consideration to
maximize the quality of modeling and simulation.

8 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Financial support for this project is provided jointly by the Australian Research Council
(Linkage ID # LP0775445) and Nautitech Consulting International.

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