Sensor Network Architecture for Optimizing Irrigation Systems to Improve

Water Productivity

By

Hassan Afzaal
2011-ag-2801
B.Sc. (Hons.) Agricultural Engineering

Supervisory Committee:

Supervisor:
Dr. M. Jehanzeb Masud Cheema
(mjm.cheema@uaf.edu.pk)

Member:
Prof. Dr. Muhammad Arshad
(arsmrz@yahoo.com)

Member:
Dr. M. Ahsan Latif
(mahsanlatif@uaf.edu.pk)

1
Abstract
There is a growing concern about water shortage in Pakistan, as per capita water availability has
declined from 5000 m3 during 1950s to 1100 m3 now. Surface irrigation method has less
efficiency ranges between 40-60% resulting excess water losses at drainage end and runoff.
Sprinkler and drip irrigation system are not utilizing effectively by farmers due to lack of
technical knowledge e.g. crop water requirements and MAD levels. In this study wireless sensor
network of moisture sensors was developed and evaluated under different irrigation system such
as drip, sprinkler and border irrigation systems. Study area for this research was selected in water
management research center. For drip and sprinkler irrigation system, system was develop for
irrigation scheduling. Different MAD and fertigation levels was assessed in this study. A
software was develop to monitor and control these irrigation systems. In border irrigation, soil
moisture sensor network was developed to determine proper cut off depth and time. Three
borders of width 15, 20 and 25 feet with three replication were evaluated in this study. In each
border treatment two soil moisture probes was placed on the surface to detect water arrival and
time of wetting front to optimize water use efficiency and water productivity. This system helped
to improve labor efficiency, water productivity and water use efficiency. This system saved
water about 50% for in case of drip irrigation and 44% in case of sprinkler irrigation system. The
wireless sensor network proved to be reliable and efficient for real time, continuous and remote
monitoring of irrigation systems.

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 CHAPTER 1
1.1 INTRODUCTION
Pakistan’s economy largely depends upon agriculture and its allied sectors. According to
economic survey of Pakistan (2014-2015), agriculture accounts 20.88 % of GDP and 43.5 % of
employment. Pakistan population is rising at the rate of 3% per annum and on the basis of
population Pakistan is the 7th biggest country of the world. Agriculture is providing food to
largely rising population and serving as a last resort. Agriculture is also providing raw materials
to industries, foreign exchanges and participating in industrial development. More than 50% of
Pakistan population is involved in agriculture. Since agriculture is the biggest consumer of
available fresh water in Pakistan, water management has crucial role to play in water shortages.
The country is facing serious water shortage. According to State Bank of Pakistan’s report,
“Guidelines for efficient agri water management financing”, per capita water availability in
Pakistan has declined from 5000 m3 during 1950s to 1100 m3 now. According to the data
released by the World Resources Institute (WRI), Pakistan is predicted to be most water scarce
country in the region by 2040. With high population growth rates and urbanization of
agricultural areas, food security remains an important issue for Pakistan policy makers. Food
security envisages firm place in vision 2025 of Pakistan, which provides the road map for future
growth and development of food.

Furthermore, climate change has further deteriorated the conditions, which affected Pakistan
strongly during last decade, as a result water resources of Pakistan are shrinking. The main
reason is the adverse climatic conditions and continuous extraction of Water. In this devastating
conditions, continuously monitored irrigation system has become the basic necessity for farm
managers, irrigators and farmers to effectively utilize their resources, energy and time. So in
these conditions techniques are needed to be develop based on science and engineering
principles for efficient and more productive irrigation systems.
Plant needed water in different amount during their growth. Water stress is limiting factor in crop
production especially in arid and semi arid areas. It is impossible for human to look after each
and every plant. So the system is needed to inform farm manager, when plants are in water stress
conditions. Gravimetric method is the most accurate method to determine the moisture content in
soil. But it’s laborious and impossible for larger agricultural areas to determine soil water status.
However, with the advent of cheap electronics tools, it is possible to alert the irrigator to irrigate

3
their farm i.e. GSM modules.
In arid and semi-arid areas, deficit irrigation gain importance. Deficit irrigation encourages to
increase water productivity at the expense of crop yield. However, Precision irrigation is an
alternate to deficit irrigation, to increase water productivity without compromising crop yield.
Precision irrigation applies exact amount of water, at right place and right time. Precision
irrigation should be the precision practice that involves both the precise valuation of the crop
water requirements and the application of water at the right time, that allow spatially uniformed
applications (Smith et al., 2010). Precision irrigation is in infancy stages internationally. There is
no framework available defining the principle, adaptation and applications of precision
irrigation.
There is great potential in saving water in conventional irrigation methods due to lower irrigation
and application efficiency. The most important element in irrigation scheduling is the estimation
of crop water requirement, which can be measured by different techniques such as soil sensors,
weather stations, lysimeters and imagery. Among them soil sensors gives directly moisture loss
in real time. Lysimeters considered to be most accurate estimator of crop water requirements.
From thermal and digital photography crop water requirements can be determine based on soil
surface temperature and canopy of crop.
In recent years, water management has received great interest in inclusion of sensors in
irrigation scheduling. The most important sensors for irrigation scheduling are soil moisture
sensors, which determine either volumetric water content Өv or matric potential Ѱm. Soil water
content is communication vector between soil and plant atmosphere so it is necessary to
determine the how much of applied water infiltrates, percolates, available to plants and returned
back to atmosphere (Arriaga & Rubio, 2016). Soil moisture sensors are beneficial to asses if the
irrigation scheduling is right and percolation does not occur (Espejo et al., 2009), especially in
sandy soils having faster infiltration rates. Soil moisture sensors may connected with data loggers
to record moisture status continuously. Soil moisture sensors provide basis for automated
irrigation systems. Reading acquired by soil moisture sensors, can actuate the pump of an
irrigation system when needed. In addition to these sensors, water level sensors and water flow
sensors are very useful. Water level sensors can determine the applied irrigation depth, while
water flow sensors determine the water flow rates and volume used by the irrigation system.

4
Now a days virtual sensors are getting importance over the traditional sensors (Ruiz-Canales and
Ferrandez-Villena., 2015). Different studies showed that the virtual sensors can be calibrated
with reference data and can be used irrigation controllers for irrigation automation. The
advantage of virtual sensor is reduced cost and faster speed than the traditional sensors. Low cost
sensors based on resistivity can be calibrated with soil moisture content. Temperature and
salinity compensation can be determine to successfully deployment of these sensors in field with
accurate measurements. The sensor sensitivity can be enhanced into finer resolution by using
analogue to digital converter. Microcontroller are available which can give of 10 bit resolution
under suitable prices thus giving high accuracy to low cost sensors.
Volumetric water content is key element in autonomous irrigation system. Volumetric water
content can be estimated from different principles such as dielectric constant, resistivity, time
domain reflectometer and capacitance. Sensor property can be calibrated against moisture
content and serves as the tool for soil water monitoring. Moisture sensor act as actuators for
closing and opening of solenoid valves when needed.
Around eighty percent of world water supplies are using for irrigating crops. This Irrigation
provides more than thirty five percent of world food supply from about twenty percent of arable
land (Ayars et al., 2003). The most common irrigation method using in the world is surface
irrigation method. Basin, furrow and border irrigation are the most common techniques to reduce
the water losses in surface irrigation. Runoff and root zone drainage from surface irrigation is
contributing to nonpoint source pollution. These nonpoint sources are increasing the concerns for
water security and irrigation efficiency. There is need to introduce more precise irrigation
methods to overcome the problem of food security and water safety for next generations.

Pakistan government is planing to increase the food productivity to manage the needs of
overgrowing population. Pakistan food production is not sufficient despite of green revolution.
Irrigation system of Pakistan is part of Indus basin irrigation system, which receives average
precipitation below 300 mm annualy. Annual crop water requirement considered to be 1600mm
Pakistan farms outlets are getting about 400mm which is enough for 75% cropping intensity.
Average crop intensity of Pakistan is about 101%, thus irrigation system of Pakistan is under-
irrigated by 35% (Trimmer,1990).

5
 Total Area under Production (mha) in Pakistan
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0

Figure No 1: Total Area under production (mha) in Pakistan

(Source: Economic Survey of Pakistan 2014-2015)

Indus basin irrigation system is known to be largest contiguous irrigation system of the world.
About 23.299 Million hectares are irrigating in Pakistan (Economic Survey of Pakistan, 2015-
16), which are mostly resides in Indus basin. Pakistan has sub-tropical climate and monsoon
occurred in summer season. July and August usually gets the highest amount of rainfall. Grains
and vegetables grown in Pakistan. The major crop of Pakistan is wheat which is grown over an
area about 9.26 mha in winter (Rabi). Kharif crops are maize, cotton and rice which are grown
over an area about 6.809 mha collectively.

The topography of Pakistan is flat. Large networks of irrigating canals (64,000km) serving water
for irrigation. Soil in Pakistan has poor structure and poor infiltration rates. Surface irrigation
method is commonly used irrigation method in Pakistan. Due to poor field leveling irrigation
efficiency and crop production is very low. Field irrigation efficiencies is estimated about 50%
and water conveyance efficiency is about 40 % (Trimmer, 1990). So only 30% is received at
mogha for crop use.

6
Over the time ground water- table is declining rapidly because of continuous extraction of water
and no recharge arrangements.

Crop Water Requirement (inches)

80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0

Figure No 2: Crop water requirements of different crop (inches)

(Source: Text Book of Irrigation Water Management By Dilip Kumar Majumdar)

Half of the Pakistani population consumed less than recommended calorific value in 2014 and
about 47 percent of population was food scarce(WFP, 2014). Food production in Pakistan is
largely depend upon irrigation, as it provide more than ninety percent of wheat, pulses and other
crops (FAO, 2015). Pasture irrigation also serving livestock for milk and meat production (FAO,
2015). However, per capita water availability has declined rapidly, higher growth rate of
population, declining of water tables is rising concern about management of resources wisely.

Climate change is also going to affect agricultural production because of temperature variation as
it will affect the temporal phenology of crops (Kirby et al. 2017). Different climate models
represents uncertainty related to future water availability in Indus basin. However, Laghari et al.
(2012) predicted the increment in water availability for short period because of glacier melting,
but availability will be remarkably decrease afterwards. Rising temperature will affect the snow,
timing of flows and pattern of precipitation.

7
Objectives
The objective of this research is to improve water productivity under different irrigation methods
by introducing moisture measurement mechanism based on a network of soil moisture sensors.
The objectives of this study are:

 To develop and deploy sensors network to monitor soil moisture.

 To evaluate effects of sensors network on different irrigation systems.

CHAPTER 2

2.1 REVIEW OF LITERATURE

More than 45 percent of the population of Pakistan has no food security, uneven food access and
victim to malnutrition (Kirby et al, 2017). Most of the agricultural production in Pakistan
depends upon irrigation, however, aquifers and water availability is in stressed condition. Kirby
et al. (2017) examined the population growth rate, required food production and corresponding
water demand. In this study, on the basis of historical trends of food production, population
growth rate, water use and food availability projected towards 2050. Study showed that the
availability of food improved in last decade because of increasing cropping area and importing
oils and pulses. Results showed that ground water use demands will double in 2050 which are in
already in stressed conditions. Climate conditions are uncertain, but may create unfavorable
conditions in future. To avoid more stressed condition for water resources of Pakistan, some
strategies would require such as irrigation infrastructure and dams, increasing water productivity,
changing cropping patterns, less usage of high water intense crops such as rice and sugarcane,
export less and import more food.

Gonzalez Perea et al. (2017) developed a system consisting on smartphone app and personal
computer for irrigation scheduling. This system proved satisfactory in irrigation scheduling in
the strawberry sector. The agro-climatic data is taken account by the app, soil data and hydraulic
system information provided to irrigators, farmers on daily basis about irrigation times. This
system resulted water saving range from eleven to thirty three percent.

8
Singh et al. (2017) assess drought tolerant crop safflower under deficit irrigation and suggested
the safflower crop as remedy for fast declining Ogallala aquifer. They suggested the crop
modeling is valuable tool to simulate water footprints under different climate scenarios for
safflower crop. They asses the feasibility in optimization of water use of safflower crop. They
calibrated the CROPGO model to estimate water balance, water use efficiency and
evapotranspiration for safflower crop. The model was calibrated for different cultivars of
safflower crops on the basis of soil water extraction data. The model gave satisfactory results in
prediction of water use efficiency and evapotranspiration with square root mean error of 0.6
kg/ha/mm and 34mm.

Gonzalez-Esquiva et al. (2017) determine the crop water requirements with the percentage of
green cover in images by using allometric equations. Differentiating plants from soil was the
biggest problem in these systems. Automatic computer algorithms process and sense images
quickly eliminating human supervision. Color analysis techniques showed accuracy and
efficiency in increasing yields. In this paper different two color segmentation techniques are
described to develop the web application for detecting green color. From this system crops can
be monitored remotely which includes uploading images, image analysis and storages these
images into database for graphical visualization of results. Results of this system extensively
validated on lettuce crop based on probabilistic color models RGB clustering with respect to
manual segmentation. The results showed very less relative errors for both of these methods
such as less than 2.4% and 4.8%. These techniques can be processed in seconds to show the
final results.

Thermal imaging has capability to quantify the crop water requirement by measuring surface
temperature of plant canopy. Due to finer resolution of thermal imaging and decreased weight of
thermal imaging sensors, UAV systems become viable for agricultural and civil engineering
applications. Santesteban et al. (2017) evaluated instant and seasonal variability of water status
in vineyard. This system can be used for 7.5 hectares with 9cm high resolution. Crop water stress
index was quantified from this system from thermal imagery. Crop water stress index values
compared with stem water potential and stomal conductance at 14 different locations at the time
of UAV scan. Spatial modeling is used to evaluate the crop water stress index. Crop water stress

9
index correlated with stomal conductance and stem water potential enabling instantaneous
monitoring of crop water status.

Moisture content can be well approximated from Frequency Domain Analysis by detecting
change in capacitance in probes dipped in soil by presence of water. However, capacitance is
greatly affected by temperature thus giving incorrect measurements. Oates et al. (2017) studied
the temperature compensation for electrical capacitance based soil moisture sensors. Two
techniques were used in this study. In first technique fixed signal was passed through soil via
probes and then measured the resultant signal amplitude. In second technique, soil capacitance
control the frequency in variable frequency oscillator, and time is measured in charging and
discharging. The capacitance is affected by temperature as well as by sensitive electronics.
Results showed that the temperature effects adds in capacitance while electronics sensitivity
subtracts from capacitance. Daily monitoring of soil and electronics temperature can’t be
cancelled out in day and night. This study examined the recently developed capacitance based
probes prepared in low cost and compared it with high cost soil moisture system. Algorithms
were made to minimize these temperature compensation effects.

Malvi et al. (2017) developed and assessed automatic irrigation system based on soil moisture
content e.g. turning on or off the pump on the basis of soil moisture level. In farming using water
resources in irrigation is of prime importance. Automation lessens the human interference thus
optimizing the irrigation system for increased water use efficiency. In conventional drip
irrigation system, farmer has to look after irrigation time which is different for each crop. With
the advent of cheap and industrial electronics, it is possible to develop and deploy sensor
commercially on low prices. This project has made lot of application for water scarce areas.
Microcontroller Atmega 328 was used in this system.

Müller et al., (2016) performed field experiments with numerical model to optimize drip
irrigation system based on soil matric potential. In this study water stress were investigated in
eggplant by applying four different treatments. Treatments were applied under two different
depths i.e. low and high. Water applied at 150%, 100% and 66% of maximum crop water
requirement e.g. evapotranspiration. Soil matric potential measurement were taken at 5cm, 10cm
and 15cm depth, using wireless sensor network. Field data was used to calibrate the numerical
model. HYDRUS software was used to evaluate the irrigation depth, frequency, soil texture and

10
irrigation threshold on water losses and transpiration. Results suggested that the -15kpa was
suitable at 10cm depth for early growth stage and -40kpa was enough during fruit formation.

The prediction of runoff from well drained and permeable soil can be determined from continuity
principle and equation of motion with suitable boundary conditions. However, there are
complexities on predicting soil physical properties and hydraulic conductivities. Baiamonte
(2016) developed the simple model to predict runoff generation time. In this study, relationship
is derived between length and time. Interception effect on delay time is also modeled in this
study.

Due to lack of water resources, irrigation systems need to be optimized. Many researches used
ICT in agriculture to improve irrigation systems efficiency. Wireless sensor network and
actuators are using worldwide in this regard. Bennis et al. (2015) presented a model of wireless
sensor network for drip irrigation system. In this model different sensors were used to monitor
irrigation system such as soil moisture sensor, temperature sensor and pressure sensor. In this
model, irrigation system malfunctions were also taken account, such as the pipe bursting or
emitter blockage. In this model different level of information transmission were considered by
wireless sensor network.

Navarro-Hellína et al., (2015) developed the wireless sensor network, which used GPRS
communication between sensing nodes. Sensing nodes consisted on various sensors to give
information about soil water status. Each sensing node was autonomous and solar powered. The
data of all sensing nodes tranferred to remote server. Server kept record of all information and
generated the database. Information could retrieved from the sensors using PC, mobile or tablets.
It was concluded that, 15 minutes sampling rate and 30 minutes sending rate was efficient for
adequate solar and battery life.

Nikolidakis et al., (2015) developed the integrated system for automated irrigation management
with an advanced wireless protocol named ECHERP (Equalized Cluster Head Election Routing
Protocol). The system determined the ET with the help of historical climatic data and change in
current climate values. If the collected climatic data is above the threshold values, more frequent
data is proposed to minimize the quantity of water. If the change in climatic values is below the
threshold level, then it sampling time interval increased to prolong the sensor life. The results

11
showed that the ECHERP (Equalized Cluster Head Election Routing Protocol) is energy efficient
and it prolonged the sensor life.

Cancela et al., (2015) developed automatic irrigation system to determined the threshold values
of soil water potential at which at which water stress begins, callibrated the crop cofficients and
measured plant water status. The crop evapotranspiration was determined by SimDual kc model,
which estimates the soil water balance by dual kc approach. The model was counter checked by
time domain reflectometer. Granular matrix sensors (GSM) were used to determined soil water
potentials, which were connected with wireless sensor network. GSM sensors also calibrated and
validated with TDR. Leaf water potentials allowed us to obtain plant water relationships.
Coefficient of determination between SIMDual model and TDR was greater than 0.74, TDR and
leaf water potential was greater than 0.65 and between TDR and GMS was greater than 0.81,
showing the good fit. The process applied in this study proved to be useful for irrigation
scheduling and triggering the pump on reaching threshold values.

Escarabajal-Henarejosa et al., (2015) calculated the crop water requirements using digital
photography on the basis of plant canopy. The grounder cover fraction gives the basis to
determine crop water requirements e.g. more spatial coverage gives more water used by plants.
In this research FAO-56 methodology was used to estimate crop water requirements using crop
cofficients. The results were compared with actual irrigation management of plots, where soil
moisture probes were used to quantify over irrigation and to analyze management inadequacies.
There was increase of 6.93 % in crop production and 17.8 % decrease was recorded in this
research.

Oates et al., (2015) determined the effect of temperature on soil moisture resistivity based probes
to improve irrigation scheduling. Measurements of soil moisture sensors may affect by different
factors such as soil temperature, probes length, amongst others, that can measure incorrect
determination of soil moisture levels. Soil moisture probes may variate in determining soil
moisture in different temperature under same conditons. The objective of this research was to
show various recorded results on several experiments driven on calculating appropriate
temperature compensation for a simple soil moisture measurement. Reference moisture sensors
were used to calibrate the sensors, which were used in this research. Results were satisfied and a

12
method was introduced to compensate measured values based in a rolling average model of soil
temperature.

Models are usually used in irrigation scheduling and automation that are based upon soil water
content. Escarabajal-Henarejosa et al., (2015) studied the relationship between ground cover and
root depth for lettuce. In irrigation scheduling water balnce gives good approximation of
development and growth of crop usually used in automated irrigation system. One component of
water balnce is root depth, which gives soil volume. This research gave good approximation of
root depth and to analyse pros and cons of water in soil volume to determine the water
availability for crops. In most cases, root depth usually taken as approximate and fixed value. In
these cases, the values obtained does not represent the actual water balnce, thus causing
inefficicencies. This research is helpful for optimizing of water resources due to adjustment of
water content to actual water content.

Water and energy resources can be controlled by using automated irrigatio system (Fernández-
Pachecoa, Ferrández-Villenab, Molina-Martínezc, & Ruiz-Canales, 2015). There is need to
assess the automated irrigation system for efficient water resources. Fernández-Pachecoa et al.,
(2015) proposed performance indicator to asses the implementation of automated irrigation
system. Results shows that automation is a low-cost investment as it comprises on the 1.24–
6.72% of the total cost. Results also showed that automated irrigation system saved energy 2.05–
8.21% and water about 0.71–6.46%.

Ruiz-Canales and Ferrandez-Villena (2015) presented new proposals in automation and water
management in agriculture. They suggested to devise methods which can accurately crop water
requirements or water balance. Water balance can be determined by soil moisture sensor, agro-
climatic station and lysimeters. Soil moisture sensors can determine soil water balance, but these
sensors can measure water content on very small portion of soil and are not calibrated for
different sites and soils. The other disadvantage of soil moisture sensor is that they usually are
not installed properly, thus giving incorrect information. Agro-climatic stations can determine
crop reference evapotranspiration. These devices requires the knowledge of crop coefficient of
different crops. These coefficients varies with crop types and varieties. These devices provides
good approximation of crop water requirement, but can’t determine exact requirement for each
crop. More precise values of crop water requirement can be determined by lysimeters. Using

13
information communication technologies (ICT) is one of the viable option for precise
agricultural management. Use of automation, electronics and sensoring technologies is
remarkably increased during last decade due to advent of low production cost. But these devices
are not using and developing for agricultural purposes. For crop water management numerous
wireless sensor networks introduced. But problems exists in adaptation of sensor network,
difficulty in handling with nodes, hardware incompatibility and most of these sensors are not
specifically designed for agricultural purposes.

Arnold et al., (2014) investigated the advancing wetting front in surface irrigation for alfalfa
crops. By using wireless sensor network proper cutoff distance, cutoff time and runoff volume
determined in this study. Results showed that the irrigators were cutting the runoff lately,
wasting water. Cutoff distance were suggested about 60-70% of field length. Field tests proposed
the model base strategy to reduce the runoff for surface irrigation.

Gutierrez et al. (2014) developed automated irrigation system to optimize water use efficiency
for agricultural crops. Wireless sensor network of soil moisture and soil temperature was used in
this study. A gateway also provided, which handles sensor data, control actuators and transmit
sensor information over the webpage. Moisture and temperature threshold based algorithm was
developed to limit the water quantity. The system was powered by solar cells and embedded
communication link, through which system can be programmed over webpage. The system gave
promising results in crop field for 136 days, for which it saved 90% of water.

Dong et al., (2013) developed the precision irrigation system by integration of central pivot
irrigation system with wireless underground sensor network. The system provided the
autonomous irrigation management capabilities by monitoring soil condition continously.The
wireless underground sensor network communication established by the three different links
such as undergroung to underground communication, underground to aboveground and
aboveground to underground links. The results showed that the integration of wireless
underground sensor network with center pivot was feasible.The wireless communication
between underground antennas increased up to 400% by bringing changes in conventional
designs. The result showed that the communication between wireless underground sensors
affected by location of sensors, soil physical properties, soil moisture and vegetation canopy

14
height. It was concluded that autonomous precision agriculture solution is feasible through
empirical anlysis.

Singh and Sharma (2012) studied and improved the average information gathered from wireless
sensor network from the agricultural field. In this algorithm 180bits/sec were used. It transmit
water level information to main station, computes threshold values and calculates values based
on transmission signals range. Thus the system reduces the information losses and efficient
delivery of information to central database. This wireless sensor network comprises on radio
frequency transceivers, sensors, microcontrollers and power source. In last decade, several
technologies has developed which reduces the cost of sensor nodes and central system, thus
enabling its deployment commercially. Sensor nodes make it possible for environmental
monitoring with data processing and data analysis.

In last decade, automatic irrigation system has gained rapid growth and wide acceptance. Now a
days irrigation system with lesser labor and lesser input cost are demanded. Purnima and Reddy
(2012) reviewed the existing technologies on automatic irrigation system and proposed an
economical automatic irrigation system with remote monitoring capabilities. The system consist
on low power and low cost monitoring sensors and with controlled sms system with the help of
GSM. To collect data from nodes, Bluetooth modules were plugged with microcontrollers. The
system informs end user about moisture content, temperature and concentration of CO2 via sms
using GSM modules.

Drainage water plays an important role in effective water management. Kim et al. (2011)
investigated the wireless lysimeter in this study. In this study passive capillary wick type
lysimeters were used to monitor water below root zone of irrigated crop. For real time web
monitoring of lysimeters, wireless lysimeters were developed by using wireless sensor network.
Twelve wireless lysimeters were installed throughout the field at 90 centimeters below soil
surface. Two tipping buckets in lysimeters were used to measure drainage water and soil
moisture sensors were used to monitor soil water content. A climatic station was also embedded
in the system to measure weather data. Field data wirelessly transmitted to central station by
which it uploaded on website through internet. For communication between field sensors and

15
web server Bluetooth modules were used. There was high correlation between estimated and
observed filed data with R2=0.95.

Water stress is considered to be the important limiting factor in growth, quality and production of
crops. Improving irrigation efficiency is crucial for arid and semi-arid regions. Boutraa et al.
(2011) compared the assessment of automatic irrigation system with manual irrigation system.
Wheat crop was used in this study to evaluate the irrigation system accuracy. Plants were grown
under two different MAD levels such as 40% and 80%. Moisture loss was detected using
humidity sensors which were controlled by microcontrollers. Plants kept in one kilogram
capacity bags mixed with compost and sand. The irrigation system accuracy evaluated by
measuring the growth of plants. Growth indicator includes dry and fresh weight of plants, root
and shoot. Results showed the superiority of automated irrigation system over manual irrigation
system.

It the history of mankind, irrigation is as old as human itself. To irrigate large agricultural fields
is laborious and lots of resources are requires for successful operation. For effectively
management of irrigation, soil water data, weather data and crop data is of prime importance.
Irrigation scheduling help us to take decision about irrigation e.g. when to irrigate and how much
to irrigate. In Pakistan most of the irrigation system apply water on uniform basis neglecting the
spatial variability in field thus neglecting precious resources, time and money. Variable rate
irrigation save water, increase yield and ensure food security for next generations by limiting the
losses and increasing the profitability. Umair and Usman (2010) presented the irrigation
controller system based on artificial neural network for irrigation scheduling. The system took
input parameters as soil moisture, temperature, radiations and humidity. Output is simulated as
amount of water required based on evapotranspiration, crop type and ecological conditions.

Lecina et al. (2010) analyzed the impacts of irrigation modernization on water saving. In this
study conceptual approach was used, which was based on water productivity and accounting.
73% of study area was comprised on surface irrigation while remaining was sprinkler irrigation
system. Results showed the higher crop yields in result of irrigation modernization. Crop
evapotranspiration was higher in sprinkler irrigation than the surface irrigation system. Results
indicated that sprinkler irrigation system will increase water depletion and water use.

16
Productivity of crops, human life quality and food security can be increased by using wireless
sensors networks. In labor intensive areas IT devices can be used for effectively management of
system and to increase the productivity. Hwang et al. (2010)(a) developed greenhouse
management system using wireless sensor network. The system can collect and monitor
information about crop growth by using captured images using CCTV. This system can be
remotely monitored and automatically controlled.

Hwang et al. (2010) proposed agricultural monitoring system related to agriculture environment
production using wireless sensor networks. Server collect information related to soil and
environment with the help of soil sensors, global positioning system and CCTV cameras. The
sensor information is collected by sensor manager, CCTV photos can be collected by
information manager and coordinates are collected by GPS manager. The system powered up by
solar cells which are capable to run 24/7. The information related to environment and soil can be
collected remotely sitting anywhere in the world. The results of this system are yield
enhancement and better site specific management.

Smith and Baillie (2009) describe the basic concept of precision irrigation. They reviewed the
different precision irrigation systems. Different indicators were used to assess the irrigation
application technologies such as adaptive control, variable rate and decision making on the basis
of measurements. Precision irrigation differs much from the current irrigation systems. In this
paper precision irrigation has defined under the principle of precision agriculture. It is well
known that the precision irrigation is encourages the variable rate irrigation as oppose to the
conventional.

Nutrient management play key role in plant growth and production. Nutrient management also
consist on plant nutrient optimization and protect environment (Hedley et al, 2009). Precision
irrigation can take charge of this problem by controlling soil moisture, limiting drainage and
improving plant nutrient usage. Precision irrigation encourages to make small management zone
for effectively management of resources. These zones can be obtained by characterizing soil
properties such as EC, pH, N, P, K and organic matter. Hedley et al. (2009) used soil moisture
wireless sensor network with meshing networking capabilities. Sensor nodes were solar battery
powered and able to run for 4 weeks without solar energy. Soil moisture sensors at two depths,
soil temperature, and metric potential sensor were used in this study to grab soil properties. Data

17
transmitting from these sensor was on fifteen minutes interval. Data can be retrieved over
internet via 3g networking. Real time soil moisture data was examined for three zones under
wheat crop. Results showed that zone one require continuous irrigation during summer to avoid
water stress. Zone two required occasional irrigation while zone three required no irrigation for
entire growing season. This type of data is very useful in site specific management.

Irrigation use major water resources, scarcity of water resources threatens the food availability.
There is need to devise methods for the optimize use of fresh water for irrigation. Hedley and
Yule (2009) examined and verified that the alluvial soil required variable supply of water for
best use of irrigation. Water can be further saved by holding irrigation at specific growth stages
of crops. The water supplied to two crops pasture and maize and soil water mapped spatially by
high resolution EC to deduct soil water holding capacity at two different sites. One site covered
about 156 hectares, with wide range of available water capacities e.g. 116-230 mm/m. Second
site covered about 53 hectares with relatively same available water capacities 161-164mm/m.
Water balance model was used to derive available water capacity maps on daily basis. Due to
waterlogging one site was wetter than predicted. In this study variable rate irrigation was
compared with uniform rate. Results showed that variable rate irrigation was beneficial as it
saved 21.8 % and 26.3% at site 1 and site 2 respectively.

Ruiz-Garcia et al. (2009) presented the technical and scientific aspects of wireless sensor
technologies and provided standards for agriculture food sector. Wireless sensor network proved
to be very efficient in environmental monitoring systems, precision agriculture and controlling
systems. In this study wireless sensor network and radio frequency identification system were
focused, its present form, historic development and applications including zigbee, passive, active
and semi passive radio frequencies identification. Future projections of wireless sensor network
were also discussed in this paper.

Vellidis et al. (2008) developed and assessed the real time prototype of sensor array consisting of
soil moisture and soil temperature sensors for irrigation scheduling. The system consisted on the
receiver which was connected with the laptop computer and multiple sensor nodes were placed
in filed. Sensor wade was consisted on three soil moisture sensors, four thermocouples and radio
frequency identification transmitting data to receiver. These node proved useful in determining

18
soil water variability in field. In this study these sensors were evaluated for cotton crop and
determined timing and amount of irrigation required precisely.

Water scarcity and growing water demand reduced the availability of water for agricultural
purposes. For the survival of agriculture in water scarce areas, effective management of water is
substantial. Ali and Talukder (2008) discussed the different factors affecting eater productivity
and applied and possible techniques to improve water productivity. Multiple approach in needed
to tackle the food security challenge for overgrowing population. Genetically water saving
verities of crops must indulge with engineering solution for better water use efficiency.
Scientific knowledge is needed to improve water productivity.

The main objective of management of agriculture inputs to increase the crop production, improve
quality and secure the environment (Adamchuk et al, 2004). Variability in field is necessary to
determine to reduce the inputs and decision making processes. Different sensors have made to
determine soil characteristics. These sensors includes physical, electrical, electromagnetic,
pneumatic, radiometric and acoustic. Among those sensors only electrical and electromagnetic
gain importance because of low cost and adaptability.

Soil strength is important property of soil. Penetrometers usually used for determination of soil
strength. However soil strength is affected by lot of parameters such as water content is soil and
bulk density. In this study Vaz et al. (2001) developed the combined penetrometer and time
domain reflectometer to check the effects of moisture content and density on soil strength.
Equations can be developed for accurate estimation of soil strength reducing the effect of
moisture and density.

Alley and Alifornia (2001) examined the effect of reduced runoff by limiting tail water runoff for
clay soils and assesses its impacts on salinity and crop production for three years on alfalfa hay.
In moderately saline conditions, tail water runoff reduced by two percent, declining annual.
Water applied efficiency was increased from 8.9 to 15.2 kg/ha-mm. Results showed that by
limiting tail water runoff water application efficiency can be increased without compromising the
crop yield.

Albaji et al. (2001) compared the various irrigation methods based upon a parametric evaluation.
In this study soil properties were examined such as texture, depth, EC, slope, depth, calcium

19
carbonate content. After analyzing soil properties, different mapper were prepared for suitability
of surface, drip and sprinkler irrigation system. Maps were prepared by geographic information
system. Results showed that fifty five percent of study area was suitable for surface irrigation.

Results also showed that 7.34% was not recommended for sprinkler and surface irrigation. Study
showed that by using sprinkler irrigation system in 72.5 % of study area will improve the
irrigation efficiency. Finally it was concluded that for this study area sprinkler irrigation system
is more suitable than all the irrigation systems.

Trimmer (1990) studied the effect of partial irrigation in Pakistan. In Pakistan water is declining
rapidly, so partial irrigation is practices in many areas. Partial irrigation includes the principles of
selecting specific crop variety and irrigation scheduling. In this field very less research has been
conducted in Pakistan. Mathematical models generated for deficit irrigation underestimated the
non-numerical irrigation management elements. These models tend to ignore the inputs, while
accounting all the output (benefits), resulted poor performance than the actual system. The most
important actions to be taken includes water management rules, improving water courses and
level fields.

CHAPTER 3

Material & Methods

3.1 BASELINE SURVEY
A baseline survey from farmers was conducted from District Vehari, Faisalabad, Nankana,
Sargodha, Bahawalnagar and Chiniot of Punjab province. Template of the questionnaire is
attached with the report. Farmers were interviewed about precision irrigation, high efficiency
irrigation systems, automation and existing methods which they are using for irrigating their
crops. Sample size for each district was selected as 20 farmers equally distributed in the irrigated
parts of the district. The basic purpose of this survey to collect information about irrigation
current situation and required advances needed by farmers.

20
 Figure No 3: Selected districts in Punjab for baseline survey

3.2 Field Survey of Selected Farm

Farm was selected in Water Management Research Center (PARAS). Field area was 2.2 acres.
Field was split into three parts for three different irrigation system e.g. border, sprinkler and drip.

21
 Figure No 4: Specification of the field for conducting experiment

Field Area = 420*235= 98,700ft2 = 2.26 Acres

Water course area = 1645ft2 = 0.038Acres

Available field Area = 2.122Acres

3.3 Alignment and Leveling of Field

A profile survey was carried out to align the field so that the irregularities of the field can be
removed as well as to develop grids. By necessary adjustment, field is aligned into rectangular
field. Field boundary line AB length was not equal with field boundary line CD. So in order to
get proper geometrical shape, some area excluded from the field.

22
Station BS IS FS HI RL Remarks

Figure No 5: Field Boundary laid on Google Earth

23
AB1 1.46 101.46 100 Benchmark

AB2 1.37 101.46 100.09

AB3 1.31 1.56 101.46 99.9 CP

AB4 1.20 101.21 100.01

AB5 1.06 2 101.21 99.21 CP

CD1 2 100.27 98.27

CD2 0.16 0.4 100.27 99.87 CP

CB1 0.88 99.71 98.83

CB2 1 1.02 99.71 98.69 CP

AB1 1.05 97.69 96.64

AB2 1.1 97.69 96.59

Table 1: Field Leveling

3.4 Designing of Irrigation Systems

Three different irrigation system were designed to evaluate the effect of sensor network on water
productivity of crops.

 Sprinkler irrigation system was designed on half acre with two treatments e.g. automatic
sprinkler irrigation system and manual irrigation system.
 Drip irrigation system was designed on half acre with fourteen different treatments based
on fertigation and MAD (Management Allowed deficit)
 Border irrigation was designed on about one and half acres. There were total three
treatments with three replications in border irrigation on the basis of border width.
Experiments were conducted on the width of 20ft, 40ft and 60ft.In these experiments
sensor aided the irrigator to cut of the discharge at right time.

3.4.1 Sprinkler Irrigation System

Sprinkler system is designed on 2604 m2 or 0.64 Acre. The system consist on the four rain guns
with throw radius of 21 meters. Sprinkler system specifications are following:

Table 2: Specification of Sprinkler system

24
Item Description MAKE MODEL

PVCPipe ISO-4422 A075060SGS00

HandleValve Local HV1

Raingun Commet 601 Commet 601 italy

Hydrant LOCAL GIH1.5

Furthermore this system is divide into two treatment i.e. Manual and Automatic.

a) Automatic Sprinkler System

In Automatic sprinkler system sensor recorded the calibrated resistance, save it on database and
transmit the data on the website to real time monitoring by end user. Moisture threshold values
were defined in this this system to trigger the valves when reach above or below its prescribed
value. Fifty percent MAD level maintained in the system. When the moisture level reaches
below the 50% MAD, sensor autonomously actuate the pumps and solenoids valves to start the
irrigation. An Email also sent to end user about starting the pump. Pump automatically stop,
when moisture level reached above 50% MAD. In this system, the administrator can monitor the
whole system on Internet or on the field.

b) Manual Sprinkler System

In manual sprinkler system the conventional sprinkler irrigation system was used. In
conventional irrigation system farm irrigated on the time basis for specific depths. In manual
sprinkler irrigation system no moisture sensor were uses. A comparison was conducted between
manual and automatic sprinkler irrigation systems on the basis of water quantity and crop
productivity.

3.4.2 Designing of Sprinkler Irrigation System

25
For proper distinction between treatments, 0.1 acre area remained uncultivated. Automatic and
manual treatment will not be disturbed by overlapped flow as the barren area will collect that
overlapped flow.

Figure No 6: Design of Sprinkler Irrigation System

26
3.4.3 Drip Irrigation System
Drip irrigation consisted on the fourteen different treatments based on MAD and fertigation
levels. Drip irrigation system is installed on raise bed and furrows.

Figure No 7: Design of drip irrigation system

One sensor installed in each treatment. Different algorithms was used to manage the different
treatments.

Figure No 8: Layout plan of one treatment

27
Table 3: Drip Irrigation Implementation Plan

28
3.4.4 Algorithms for Drip Irrigation System
Three different algorithms were produced to control drip irrigation system.

a) Automated System

In this system sensor triggers the pump on the basis of MAD and fertigation levels. Sensors start
the pump, when moisture level reached below it’s predefine moisture content. This methodology
applied on 9 treatments.

b) Time Based System

In this system predefined time mechanism is feed into system for the whole growing season. The
irrigation start on predefine time and stop after saturating the soil. Time was selected on the basis
of crop coefficient and emitter discharge.

c) Evapotranspiration Based system

In this system historical weather data collected. On the basis of weather data, evapotranspiration
was calculated. On the basis of evapotranspiration, irrigation applied on daily basis.

Table 4: Weather data

29
3.4.5 Border Irrigation System
Border and flood irrigation system are the most commonly used irrigation methods in Pakistan.
Sensors can be helpful to determine cut of depths to increase the efficiency of these irrigation
systems. Sensors can also guide farmers about irrigation scheduling e.g. when to irrigate. Border
irrigation is divided into nine irrigation zones with three treatments and three replications.

Table 5: Border Irrigation Layout Plan

Subplot 1 Subplot 2 Subplot 3

Dimension 20ft by 80ft Dimension 40ft by 80ft Dimension 60ft by 80ft

Subplot 4 Subplot 5 Subplot 6

Dimension 20ft by 80ft Dimension 40ft by 80ft Dimension 60ft by 80ft

Subplot 7 Subplot 8 Subplot 9

Dimension 20ft by 80ft Dimension 40ft by 80ft Dimension 60ft by 80ft

30
3.5 Soil Sampling
Gridded soil sampling was carried out 65.6 ft by 65.6 ft to develop management zones for site
specific inputs. Twenty eight grids were thus formed and soil samples were taken from the center
of each grid.

Figure No 9: Grids formation for soil sampling

31
The soil samples were taken at 15cm and 30 cm depths using auger at the center of each grid and
noted GPS location. Thus 56 samples were collected.

Figure No 10: Taking soil Samples in PARAS field

32
 Table 6: Soil sample data

Sample Code North East pH EC N P K Organic

# Matter

dS/m % ppm ppm %

1 A1 31.38819 73.0106 8 4.32 0.04 6.1 120 0.91

2 A2 31.38832 73.01046 7.9 3.18 0.017 9.5 220 0.35

3 A3 31.38842 73.0103 8 2.28 0.017 12.5 280 0.35

4 A4 31.38853 73.01013 7.9 2.21 0.03 15.1 280 0.63

5 A5 31.38865 73.00996 8 3.48 0.007 18.8 480 0.14

6 A6 31.38877 73.00981 8 3.95 0.08 19.5 1000 1.75

7 A7 31.3889 73.00964 8 2.7 0.066 12.5 260 1.32

8 A8 31.38876 73.00952 7.9 2.08 0.01 11.1 220 0.21

9 A9 31.38865 73.00968 8 2.64 0.017 11.2 220 0.35

10 A10 31.38851 73.00982 7.9 2.07 0.042 11.3 220 0.84

11 A11 31.38839 73.01 8 1.88 0.04 16.8 320 0.91

12 A12 31.38828 73.01015 8 1.85 0.049 15.6 280 0.98

13 A13 31.38815 73.01032 8.1 1.24 0.028 10.5 260 0.56

14 A14 31.38804 73.01049 8 4.3 0.077 18.8 560 1.54

15 A15 31.38792 73.01035 8 6.63 0.059 15.5 420 1.19

16 A16 31.38805 73.01019 7.9 3.9 0.07 18.8 640 1.4

17 A17 31.38814 73.01005 8 8.19 0.014 17.7 520 0.28

18 A18 31.38826 73.00989 7.9 3.8 0.014 10 200 0.28

19 A19 31.38839 73.00973 8 4.76 0.021 9.5 200 0.42

33
20 A20 31.38851 73.00959 8 3.34 0.031 19.5 520 0.63

21 A21 31.38862 73.00943 8 3.36 0.01 18.5 520 0.21

22 A22 31.38848 73.00932 7.9 2.12 0.024 11 220 0.49

23 A23 31.38835 73.00947 8.1 4.7 0.042 12.5 400 0.84

24 A24 31.38825 73.00959 8 2.82 0.028 16.4 280 0.56

25 A25 31.38815 73.00973 8 1.56 0.07 12.5 260 0.14

26 A26 31.38803 73.0099 7.9 1.69 0.07 11.7 260 0.14

27 A27 31.38792 73.01004 8 1.21 0.014 10.1 200 0.28

28 A28 31.38777 73.01023 7.9 1.14 0.024 9.5 200 0.49

29 B1 31.38819 73.0106 8 2.22 0.028 9.7 200 0.56

30 B2 31.38832 73.01046 7.9 1.15 0.031 8.2 160 0.63

31 B3 31.38842 73.0103 8 2.15 0.024 12.8 260 0.49

32 B4 31.38853 73.01013 7.9 1.27 0.014 14.4 260 0.28

33 B5 31.38865 73.00996 8 1.21 0.01 9.6 200 0.21

34 B6 31.38877 73.00981 7.9 1.29 0.07 12.5 240 0.14

35 B7 31.3889 73.00964 7.9 1.38 0.028 9.2 180 0.56

36 B8 31.38876 73.00952 7.8 1.96 0.01 14.8 280 0.21

37 B9 31.38865 73.00968 7.9 1.17 0.031 11.5 220 0.63

38 B10 31.38851 73.00982 7.8 1.1 0.01 12.8 260 0.21

39 B11 31.38839 73.01 7.9 1.15 0.028 9.1 180 0.56

40 B12 31.38828 73.01015 7.9 1.06 0.017 8.3 160 0.35

41 B13 31.38815 73.01032 8 1.18 0.014 7.8 180 0.28

42 B14 31.38804 73.01049 7.9 2.22 0.031 7.5 200 0.63

34
43 B15 31.38792 73.01035 7.8 1.99 0.035 8.1 180 0.7

44 B16 31.38805 73.01019 7.8 1.17 0.007 7.8 160 0.41

45 B17 31.38814 73.01005 8 1.74 0.042 8.1 200 0.84

46 B18 31.38826 73.00989 7.9 1.94 0.021 9.2 200 0.42

47 B19 31.38839 73.00973 8 1.36 0.028 9.5 200 0.56

48 B20 31.38851 73.00959 7.9 1.12 0.01 10.4 240 0.21

49 B21 31.38862 73.00943 8 1.24 0.042 19.2 360 0.84

50 B22 31.38848 73.00932 7.9 2.21 0.031 18.8 360 0.63

51 B23 31.38835 73.00947 7.9 1.44 0.031 19.8 640 0.63

52 B24 31.38825 73.00959 7.8 1.18 0.031 8.1 160 0.63

53 B25 31.38815 73.00973 7.9 2.17 0.028 8.5 160 0.56

54 B26 31.38803 73.0099 7.9 1.76 0.028 12.5 260 0.56

55 B27 31.38792 73.01004 8 1.78 0.042 16.4 280 0.84

56 B28 31.38777 73.01023 7.9 1.97 0.045 7.2 140 0.91

35
3.6 Sowing of Crop
Following implements were used to prepare the land for sowing:

a) Rotavator
b) Disc Harrow
c) Laser land leveler
To pulverize the soil, rotavator and disc plough were used. Rotavator prepared the soil for the
next crop in very less time. Disc harrow ensures the elimination of weeds in upper soil horizon.
After preparation, field leveled with laser land leveler. Laser land leveler saves water and time.

Figure No 11: Field Preparation for sowing of seed

Seed selection

Seed selection is an important decision to make. The right choice can enhance yield, however
inappropriate variety may lead things in opposite direction. A good seed must has following
characteristics:

 High Yield potential

 Resistant to adverse climatic condition
 Winter hardiness
 Disease and insect resistance
 Herbicide tolerance
Different seeds were taken in consideration e.g. galaxy 2013, Pirsabak 2013, Seher 2006, Millat
2011 etc. Galaxy 2013 is selected, as it suited best our field conditions. Seed was purchased from
Punjab Seed Corporation.

36
3.6.1 Seed drill calibration
Seed drill was used for sowing. Seed rate was 50.82 kg/Acre. The distance between rows was 9
inches.

Seed drill calibration was done by following procedure:

Drill length = 8 ft

Drill width =4.5 ft

Total covered area in one revolution=36 ft2

Seed in one revolution = 42 g

Total area in acre=43560 ft2

Total revolutions in acre=43560/36=1210

1210*42=50820 g

50820g.kg/1000g=50.82 kg

3.6.2 Sowing of seed

Sowing of wheat is completed at 22nd November, 2016.

37
 Figure No 12: Seed Drill Calibration

3.7 Equations Used

Volumetric moisture content can be determined from the following equation.

…………….(1)

Where
= Volume of water
Vwet = Total volume of wet material

And

Gravimetric can be described as follows

……………(2)

Where = Mass of water

= Mass of Soil

38
Volumetric and gravimetric water content are inter convertible such as:

………….(5)

Where
SG or = Degree of Saturation
Degree of saturation can be determined by following formula:

…………..(6)

Where ɸ= Porosity

= Volume of voids

V= Total volume

Effective Saturation can also be determine by following formula:

………….(7)
= volumetric water content

= residual water content

= saturated water content

3.8 Sensor Network Architecture

Sensor network consisted on the following components:

a) Sensor Node
b) Main Server
c) Power source

39
3.7.1 Sensor Node
Sensor node is independent unit from central system e.g. server which is capable of processing
and gathering information from sensors and it can communicate with central system and other
nodes in the network. Usually wireless networking is used in sensor node. Each node consisted
on following hardware:

 One or more sensors

 Microcontroller
 Battery
 Networking protocol
 Solar Panel (Optional)
 Wifi Module (Optional)

Figure No 13: Typical representation of Sensor Node

3.7.2 Sensor Node Components

a) Soil Moisture Sensor

Sparkfun soil moisture sensor were used in this experiment. These sensor can read resistance in
soil. More water in soil gives less resistance and vice versa. This resistance or voltage needed to
be read by some external hardware. Microcontroller can read these information. Furthermore,
resistance can be calibrated with moisture content for useful agricultural application.

40
 Figure No 14: Spark-Fun Soil moisture Sensor

This sensor gives voltage 0-5 volts depending upon amount of water in soil. Microcontroller has
capability to disperse these 5 volts in 10 bit resolution e.g. 1024 parts. Sensor gave its final value
between 0-1024.

Figure No 15: Moisture Sensor hookup guide

b) Micro-controller
Arduino microcontroller used in each node to collect information of each sensor and transmit it
to the main server. Arduino uno uses atmega-328 chip to perform functions. It can read digital

41
and analog input and outputs. It can be powered up easily with 5V USB cable with any battery or
laptop.

Figure No 16: Arduino Uno Microcontroller

Table 7: Arduino Uno Specification

c) Battery and Solar Panel

Boards are powered up by lithium ion rechargeable battery of 3.7 volts. Microcontroller can run
on these batteries upto four days. However, solar panels were used to automatically recharge the
batteries during its proper function. 5v 500mA solar panels were used for this purpose.

42
 Figure No 17: Sensor Node Powering Circuit

3.7.3 Sensor Node Programming

Nodes programmed to collect sensor data, stored it in the storage card and transmit real time
sensors reading to main server. The step wise procedure written for nodes was following:
a) Waking up sensors
b) Read the sensors
c) Store the sensors reading in storage card
d) Collect or send data to other nodes
e) Transmit sensors readings to main server or sink node
f) Deep sleep of sensors and microcontrollers for energy saving
g) Delay time (10 minutes for next reading)

Simple looping structures were used for taking reading from sensors at specified intervals.
3.7.4 Sensor Accuracy Assessment
Before developing the sensor network, it was necessary to assess the sensors accuracy. For this
purpose the already developed “Sensor based Precision Irrigation” prototype utilized. Prototype

43
proved useful in calibrating the sensors and understanding the behavior of sensors. This platform
consisted on all hardware and software to check the accuracy of sensors.

Sensor accuracy can be checked in real time by software developed for this system. Sensor
output can be visualized in graphical format. Different statistical functions can be used to
visualize the sensor accuracy.

Figure No 18: Sensor Calibration Platform

44
 Figure No 19: Software for calibration of Sensors

3.7.4 Server
Main server Consisted on the following hardware and software.

 Computer
 GSM module
 Relays
 System power
 Networking protocol
 Communication Module

45
 a) Computer

Credit card size, linux operated Raspberry Pi 3 model B used in this system, which acted as
server for the whole system. A microprocessor 1.2 GHz 64 bit quad core embedded is this mini-
computer which is powerful enough to handle communication between sensors. It has an
integrated wifi chip, which serves the purpose the communication between sensors.

Figure No 20: Raspberry pi 3 Model B

b) GSM Module

Global system for mobile (GSM) is used to send text messages to user by the server when any
activity occurs in the system e.g. moisture threshold value reaches. GSM working is same as the
ordinary cell phone, but it can be controlled by microcontrollers unlike cell phone. In this

46
experiment GSM used the alert the irrigator about the current situation of water. Moreover relays
can be controlled directly with the GSM or by the server. For example by dialing GSM sim card
number, pump can be turned on.

Figure No 21: GSM Hardware description

47
3.7.5 Networking Protocol
Message Queuing Telemetry Transport (MQTT) protocol was used for sensor, server and web
communication. MQTT is light weight subscribing and publishing service. This protocol
originally developed by IBM. Because of its light weight, simplicity and wide applications it is
using successfully for wireless sensors network.

Figure No 22: MQTT Architecture

To work with wireless sensor network, this protocol needs a broker, which collect information
from the sensors and publish it online or website. Mosquito broker was used for this application
in this system.

3.7.8 Main Server Programming

In this project, the main server has to control several moisture sensors, water level sensors,
relays, pump, GSM module, data logger and generate database in storage card as well as on the
internet. To simplify the complexity, the whole field programming in split into two parts e.g.
a) Drip and sprinkler irrigation programming
b) Border irrigation programming
Programming of drip and sprinkler Irrigation was complex. Its step wise procedure as follows:
 Initiation of all modules
 Collecting information from all nodes

48
  Actuation of valves and pump on the basis of node sensors data
 Generating and storing database
 Upload database on website
 Sending or receiving text messages for users
In drip and sprinkler irrigation systems, it is necessary to irrigate the one zone at a time. There is
possibility that the moisture content falls below the specified MAD level in more than one zone.
In this case the both zone will irrigate, damaging the irrigation system in sprinkler irrigation case
and less discharge in drip irrigation system. To tackle this problem, complex nested loops were
used in coding.
Its step wise procedure as follows:
 Read all sensors
 If zone 1 moisture content falls below specified MAD level then enter in loop 1 (To start
irrigation)
 Open vale and pump
 Send message
 Read sensors
 Data logging
 If zone 1 moisture content rise above specified MAD level then enter in loop 2
 Read sensors
 Data logging
 If zone 1 attain saturation then enter in loop 3 (To stop irrigation)
 Stop pump and valves
 Exit from zone 1 to check next zones
Step wise procedure for border irrigation system as follows:
 Initiate all the modules
 Read sensors
 Generate database
 Upload database on internet
 Notify user by text message if moisture content falls below specified MAD level
 Deep sleep of all system for energy saving

49
 CHAPTER 4
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.1 Survey Results

4.1.1 District Faisalabad
Faisalabad district is located in upper Punjab. Famous as industrial city. It has mixed cropping
pattern. Sample size at Faisalabad was 20 and 85% of all the farmers were familiar with P-
irrigation. Other 15% were guided about this system. 17 farmers have used Android device in
one or the other way but 3 farmers never used an android device.

95% of the total sample are strongly willing to adapt this technology. Other 5% have some issues
to use this kind of irrigation system. In their view, expected cost must be in the range of 15000-
150000 PKR. They are mostly interested in automatic sprinkler irrigation system. A
comprehensive training is required for operation and maintenance of the system.

Figure No 23: Survey Results for District Faisalabad

50
Source of irrigation includes both canal water and groundwater. The average discharge for canal
water is 1.5 cusec. Irrigation interval is 7 days all over the area covered. Groundwater quality is
not up to the mark in some areas. Flood irrigation is the common irrigation method in Faisalabad.
Cutoff time and point is the result of the irrigator’s expertise. They keep visiting during irrigation
event to cut the inflow at proper time. 0-15 feet from ending corner is mostly chosen as cutoff
point.

4.1.2 District Vehari

District Vehari is located in lower Punjab and famous for cotton production. 20 farmers were
interviewed from district Vehari. Questions about their basic information, knowledge about
precision irrigation, use of Android Devices, decision about selection of cutoff point and
willingness to adopt precision irrigation system were asked from the selected farmers. Out of 20
farmers, 75% knows about P-Irrigation concept already. Remaining 25% were briefed about
merits and importance of P-irrigation systems/techniques.

Majority of the sample size is strongly willing to have this kind of systems on their own farms.
85% of the farmers shows positive response for adaptation question. Remaining 15% were afraid
of operation and maintenance complexity. Almost all of the farmers had issues for maintenance
and operation but most of them were convinced.

Source of irrigation is canal water as well as groundwater. The average outlet discharge in this
area was 1.78 cusec. All of the farmers choose cutoff point by their experience. There is no hard
and fast method for selection of the appropriate point for cutoff inflow. They keep visiting their
fields for inspection distribution of water throughout the field. Flood irrigation method is
generally practiced in the area. The irrigation interval is 7 days throughout the sampled area.

Most of the farmers were interested to install automatic sprinkler/drip irrigation system. When
they were asked for expected cost of these systems, answers were different according to the
understanding of farmers about these systems. Expected cost was in range of 5000 to 200000
PKR.

51
 Figure No 24: Survey Results for District Vehari

District Sargodha

Sargodha district is also located in upper Punjab and it is famous for its citrus orchards. 20
farmers were interviewed from all over the Sargodha to conduct baseline survey. 70% of the
farmers were familiar with the term P-irrigation and remaining 30% were introduced to this.
Android devices were used by 90% of the sample size.

Flood irrigation is being practiced by all the famers. Irrigation source included both canal as well
as groundwater. Irrigation interval is 7 days and farmers used their experience to find out the
cutoff point. But most of the farmers said that they fill their field up to the end before cutting the
supply. Average discharge in the area was estimated as 1.6 cusec.

100% of the sampled farmers were agreed to install this system on their farms. They are
expecting an average cost under 100000 PKR for this system. Training for operation and
maintenance of the system is highly desired by the respondents.

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 Figure No 25: Survey Results for District Sargodha

District Chiniot

Chiniot district is located between Sargodha and Faisalabad. Chenab River is passing through
Chiniot city. 80% of farmers said yes when they were asked about familiarity with P-irrigation
technology/system. Remaining 20% were introduced with this technology one by one. 95% of
the respondents from this district are familiar with Android devices and are currently using some
android smart phones.

Canal and groundwater both are used as source of irrigation in this area. Farmers adapted flood
irrigation method for irrigating their crops with an irrigation interval of 7 days. Average canal
water discharge ranges from 1-1.5 cusec. Irrigation water is applied till water touches to tail end
of field.

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 Figure No 26: Survey Results for District Chiniot

All the farmers are highly interested in installing an automatic sprinkler system on their farms if
the capital cost of the system is less than 150000 PKR. Intensive training is demanded by the
respondents to adapt and operate this kind of system.

District Nankana

Nankana is also located in upper Punjab and famous for its historical values. Wheat-maize-rice is
commonly practiced cropping pattern in this district.

60% of the respondents had knowledge about P-irrigation system and introductory lectures were
delivered to the remaining. Android devices are being used by 75% of the farmers in sample size.

Irrigation interval is usually 7 days in this area. Source of irrigation is canal and groundwater.
Average discharge is 1.4 cusec. Some areas at tail end of canal as well as water courses do not
receive canal water. So the farmers use groundwater pumped through electric tube wells with

54
average discharge ranged from 0.5-1 cusec. They generally do irrigation through flood method.
The supply is only shutdown if water reached to tail end of field.

Figure No 27: Survey Results for District Nankana

90% of the sample size are interested in adapting automatic drip/sprinkler system. 10% are afraid
of high initial cost. The expected cost by the farmers was under 100000 PKR. According to the
response of farmers, hand on trainings are indispensable for making this system successful in our
farming community.

District Bahawalnagar

Bahawalnagar district is located in southern Punjab. Wheat and cotton are most important food
and cash crops.

This district is in southern Punjab and a remote area. Only 55% of the respondents heard about
P-irrigation and still not cleared what is it? Comprehensive lectures were delivered to farmers for

55
creating interest in baseline survey. Android smart phone is being used by 70% of respondents in
this area.

Figure No 28: Survey Results for District Bahawalnagar

Flood irrigation method is usually popular among farmers for irrigating their crops. Source of
irrigation is only canal water as groundwater in this area is saline to brackish. Average canal
outlet discharge is 1.5-1.9 cusec for different areas. Irrigation interval is 7-15 days as canal water
is not constantly available throughout the month. Complete filling of field is done and there is no
cutoff point before tail end.

After understanding marvelous benefits of this system all the respondents are interested in
adapting P-irrigation system for improving water productivity as they are already facing acute
water shortage. Training for operating and maintaining this system is highly demanded as most
of the farmers are not already familiar with these highly efficient systems.

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4.2 Spatial Variability in Field
Data acquired by soil samples can be used in important field analysis. Point data can be
interpolated using GIS and useful information can be seen in the form of maps.

Figure No 29: Spatial Variability in Soil pH

Soil pH variation in field can be seen clearly in figure no 29. Soil pH range from 8.1 to 8.5.

Figure No 30: Spatial Variability of Phosphorous in Field

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 Figure No 31: Spatial Variability of Nitrogen in Field

Figure No 32: Spatial Variability of Potassium in Field

58
Figure No 33: Spatial Variability of Organic Matter in Field

Figure No 34: Spatial Variability of EC in Field

59
 Figure No 35: Soil Management Zone maps for pH

Figure No 36: Soil Management Zone maps for EC

60
Figure 2.9, Soil Management Zone maps for EC

Figure No 37: Soil Management Zone maps for OM

Figure No 38: Soil Management Zone maps for Nitrogen

61
Figure No 39: Soil Management Zone maps for Phosphorous

Figure No 40: Soil Management Zone maps for Potassium

62
4.3 Field Calculations
4.3.1 Uniformity Index of sprinkler irrigation system
The collectors were levelled in the field evenly on the plane surface. It was free from obstacles as
obstacle may block the free distribution of water.

Table 8: Sprinkler Uniformity Index

z1(ml) z2(ml) z3(ml) Σz(ml) n m= Σz/n x1 x2 x3 Σx CU%

180 260 320 760 3 253.3 73 6.7 67 146 80

4.3.2 Infiltration Rate Calculations

63
 Cummulative time Vs Infiltration Rate
0.9

0.8

0.7
Infiltration Rate (mm/min)

0.6

0.5

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
Cummulative time (Minutes)

Figure No 41: Relationship between infiltration rate and Cumulative time

4.4 Sensor network and remotely monitoring system

A website is developed for real time monitoring of the system. This website can be easily
accessed by the IP address of the server in the network. However to deploy this website over the
internet port forwarding option was used with fixed IP address provided by Pakistan
Telecommunication Limited (PTCL).

64
Figure No 42: Website Introduction Page

65
Figure No 43: Sprinkler Irrigation System Layout

Figure No 44: Drip Irrigation System Layout

66
Figure No 45: Surface Irrigation System Layout

Figure No 46: Sensor Node Visual Display

67
4.4.1 Database and data management
Data collected from sensor was stored in the central database or main server. Data interval was
ten minutes. Sqlite database engine was used to store and manage data. Each reading from sensor
was stored with timestamp and necessary information. Data can be retrieved directly from the
server or online sqlite database engine.

Figure No 47: Sqlite Database Engine

Table 9: Data retrieved directly from main server

Node
id Irrigation Type No value epoch timestamp
1 Sprinkler 2 783 1.49383E+12 5/3/2017 17:40
2 Sprinkler 2 783 1.49383E+12 5/3/2017 17:50

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 3 Sprinkler 2 782 1.49383E+12 5/3/2017 17:59
4 Sprinkler 2 782 1.49383E+12 5/3/2017 18:09
5 Sprinkler 2 782 1.49384E+12 5/3/2017 18:18
6 Sprinkler 2 782 1.49384E+12 5/3/2017 18:28
7 Sprinkler 2 781 1.49384E+12 5/3/2017 18:38
8 Sprinkler 2 782 1.49384E+12 5/3/2017 18:47
9 Sprinkler 2 782 1.49384E+12 5/3/2017 18:57
10 Sprinkler 2 782 1.49384E+12 5/3/2017 19:06
11 Sprinkler 2 782 1.49384E+12 5/3/2017 19:16
12 Sprinkler 2 782 1.49384E+12 5/3/2017 19:25
13 Sprinkler 2 782 1.49384E+12 5/3/2017 19:35
14 Sprinkler 2 783 1.49384E+12 5/3/2017 19:45
15 Sprinkler 2 784 1.49384E+12 5/3/2017 19:54
16 Sprinkler 2 783 1.49384E+12 5/3/2017 20:04
17 Sprinkler 2 784 1.49384E+12 5/3/2017 20:13
18 Sprinkler 2 783 1.49384E+12 5/3/2017 20:23
19 Sprinkler 2 784 1.49384E+12 5/3/2017 20:33
20 Sprinkler 2 784 1.49384E+12 5/3/2017 20:42
21 Sprinkler 2 784 1.49384E+12 5/3/2017 20:52
22 Sprinkler 2 784 1.49385E+12 5/3/2017 21:01
23 Sprinkler 2 785 1.49385E+12 5/3/2017 21:11
24 Sprinkler 2 784 1.49385E+12 5/3/2017 21:20
25 Sprinkler 2 784 1.49385E+12 5/3/2017 21:30
26 Sprinkler 2 785 1.49385E+12 5/3/2017 21:40
27 Sprinkler 2 784 1.49385E+12 5/3/2017 21:49
28 Sprinkler 2 784 1.49385E+12 5/3/2017 21:59
29 Sprinkler 2 785 1.49385E+12 5/3/2017 22:08

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4.5 Irrigation Systems Evaluation
Three different irrigation systems were compared and evaluated in this study i.e. drip, sprinkler
and border irrigation systems.

a) Water consumption by irrigation systems

In this study, drip irrigation is proved to be the most efficient irrigation system. Water consumed
by drip irrigation was 205 mm for whole season.

Figure No 48: Water Consumed by Irrigation systems

70
 Figure No 49: Water saved by Irrigation system

b) Agronomic performance of Irrigation system

Figure No 50: No of plants per square meter for different irrigation systems

71
Figure No 51: No of tillers for different Irrigation systems

Figure No 52: Plant Height for different Irrigation systems

72
Figure No 53: Spike Length for different Irrigation systems

Figure No 54: No of Grain for different Irrigation systems

73
Figure No 55: Grain Weight for different Irrigation systems

Figure No 56: Grain Yield for different Irrigation systems

74
Figure No 57: Biological Yield for different Irrigation systems

Figure No 58: Harvest Index for different Irrigation systems

75
 CHAPTER 5

Summary

Baseline survey was conducted to determine farmer needs as well as to improve farmer income
and livelihood. Most of the farmers were eager to adopt precision irrigation system and was
aware of water scarcity. Due to poor financial conditions of Pakistani farmers, they were unable
to adopt advance and efficient technologies to improve irrigation efficiency. Indigenized system
were successfully developed in this study, which reduced the costs considerably thus improving
adoptability of the system. Remotely monitored sensor based precision irrigation system
successfully developed and proved reliable for monitoring soil water status.

Precision irrigation encourages variable placement of irrigation. Soil variability was determine
by soil sampling analysis. Soil parameters such as N, P, K, organic matter and pH were
determined in laboratory. On the basis of different parameters attained by soil samples, results
were extended for whole field by GIS software using interpolation methods. Spatial distributed
maps presented the exact requirement and location for the placement of valuable resources e.g.
fertilizers. For variable application of water, moisture sensor were installed on representative
locations of the fields.

Three different irrigation systems were evaluated in this study i.e. sprinkler, drip and border
irrigation systems. There were two treatments of sprinkler irrigation system e.g. automatic and
manual. There were three treatments and three replications of border irrigation systems based on
border width. There were fourteen treatments of drip irrigation system based on MAD and
fertigation levels, however, this in study only two treatments were evaluated i.e. manual and
automatic drip irrigation system.

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CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Sensor based precision irrigation system proved efficient as it saved water about 50% for drip
irrigation system and 44% for sprinkler irrigation system as compared to conventional irrigation
systems. Three border treatments were evaluated in this study i.e. 15 feet, 20 feet and 25 feet
border width. 20 feet border treatment width proved to be better treatment than other treatments
as agronomic results were better for this treatment.

In terms of agronomic results, overall sprinkler irrigation system excelled over drip irrigation
system as number of plants, number of tiller, plant height and grain weight was more than the
drip irrigation system.

Future projections and recommendation are described below.

 Farmers should adopt cut off strategy in their farms to improve irrigation efficiency and
water productivity.
 Cut off distance must be between 60 to 70 percent of their farm length.
 Farm length should be higher to attain fruitful results from wetting front.
 Indigenized soil moisture sensors needed to be develop locally.
 Communication range for wireless sensor networks must be improved.
 Solar panels must be improved for electronics equipment with low voltage and low
currents.
 Government must play its part in adoptability of these system by subsidizing and by
making local industries.

77
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