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19

Engaging the Passion


Perspectives on the Death of Jesus The Death of Jesus in Islam

Reality, Assumptions, a.nd Irnplicaiions


Oliver Larry Yarbrough, editor
Suleiman A. Mourad

The Qur'an refers to Jesus in ways that leave no doubt he enjoyed


a special status in the eyes of Muhammad and his direct followers.
As one of God's prominent messengers1-a distinguished list that
includes Abraham, Moses, Jesus, and Muhammad-the Qur'anic Jesus
is a human (Qur'an 4:172; 5:75), although unique in many ways,
even so among prophets (Qur'an 2:253). One example of this is the

1. The Islamic tradition d;wifies prophets into two types. The 6nt type is 11abi (prophet) and
includes such names as Adam, Noah, Sarah, !Avid, Solomon, John the Baptist, and M:uy.
The second type is rcuiif {messenger), and it signifies a prophet who was entrusted with a
scripture. Hence, messengers are above prophets in th.lt their responsibilities were not restricted
to delivering the usual signs or wamin&' and summoning people to God, but they were also
.20Js- charged with starting new religions. Hence, Moses, jesus, and Muhammad are the messengers
and their messages are the Torahljudaism, the Gospel/Christianity, and the Qur'an/blam,
Fortress Press re.spectivdy. Abraham, too, belongs to this distinguished list on accounts of the covenant and
Minneapolis his special presentation in the Qur'an as the •first• monotheist (han!/). On the prophets in the
Qur'an, see Brannon Wbeder, Propl•ds in tire Qr1ro11: An llllroductlcm to the Quran ami M•ullm
Exegesis {London: Continuum, 2002).
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ENGAGING THE PASSION THE DEATH OF JESUS IN ISLAM

fact that the Qur'anic Jesus had no human father. In this respect, an infant in the cradle (Qur'an 3:46; 5:110), which appears in the
the Qur'an upholds the virgin birth of Jesus and furnishes three apocryphal Arab1'c Infoncy Gospel 1; creating birds from clay (Qur'an
annunciation stories. The first annunciation story appears in Qur'an 3:49; 5:110), which appears in the apocryphalin.foncy Story of Thomas
19:16-35, where a "spirit" from God proclaims to Mary that she will 2:1-5; and raising people from the dead (Qur'an 3:49; 5:110), which is
conceive a son; this story parallels the one found in Luke 1 :26-35. encountered in Gospel stories such as the raising ofJairus's daughter
The second annunciation story appears in Qur'an 3:42-49, where (Mark 5:21-43) and ofLazarus Qohn 11:1-44).
an angel tells Mary that she will conceive of God's word (kalima); Despite the tremendous significance of such a presentation ofJesus
this second story parallels the one in the apocryphal Protoe11at1gelium in the Qur·an, it is misleading to understand it and the tenns that
ofJames 11:1-3.2 A very brief third annunciation story in Qur'an are used as echoing Christian beliefS or Christian definitions. To
21:91 states that God blew his spirit into Mary's womb, hence she a Christian audience, such a presentation and theologically loaded
conceived Jesus. These stories do not necessarily reflect confusion in terms-especially Jesus as Logos (Word of God) and Holy
the Qur'an regarding the circumstances of Jesus' conception and the Spirit-attest to or assume Jesus' divinity. But to a Muslim audien<:e
way it was caused. Qur'anic language in this respect is in agreement this is absolutely not the case. The Qur'an categorically rejects Jesus'
with examples from the Bible and the Gospels.3 divinity (e.g., Qur'an 2:116; 6:101; 10:68; 18:4; 112:3), and on more
The three Qur'anic annunciation stories attest to something that is than one occasion, it warns against those who say that Jesus is God
supernatural about Jesus and one can even say unique to him. This (Qur'an 5:17; 5:72), God's son (e.g., Qur'an 4:171; 9:30; 19:35), or
is especially the case if they are read along such descriptions ofJesus ought to be worshipped alongside God (e.g. Qur'an 5:116; 9:31).
as a word (kalima} from God (Qur'an 3:45; 4:171), and a spirit (ruh} Moreover, despite the fact that the Qur"anic Jesus is presented as
from God (Qur'an 4:171). In addition, God empowered Jesus with having no father, it is dear that he is the son of Mary. He is called
the Holy Spirit (ruh al-qudus), as in: Jesus son of Mary (e.g., Qur'an 5:114; 61:6}, the Messiah Jesus son
of Mary (al-Masih 'lsa ibn Maryam) (e.g., Qur'an 3:45; 4:171), the
And We bestowed clear wonders upon Jesus son of Mary, and
strengthened him with the Holy Spirit. (Qur'an 2:253) 4 Messiah son of Mary (ai-Masih ibn Maryam) (e.g., Qur'an 5:17; 5:75),
or simply the Messiah (ai-Masih) (e.g., Qur'an 4:172). The Qur'anic
The uniqueness of Jesus among prophets is further attested in the Jesus is therefore human.
miracle stories listed in the Qur'an, such as him speaking while still Now with respect to the mission ofJesus, the Qur'an defines it as
furnishing the link between Judaism and Islam. On the one hand,
2. On the similarity between these two Qur'anic annunciation stories and the Christian teXD
noted above, see Suleiman A. Mourad, MQn the Qur'anic Stories about Mary and Jesus, • Bullttin
Jesus was sent to the Jews to confirm to them the veracity and
rif tht RDyal I1utitutt for lllttr-Frlitll StuJiu 1, no. 2 (1999): 13-24. applicability of the Torah. On the other hand, he was delegated with
3. For instance, in the binding of Isaac story in Gen. 22, God and God'J angel are used
interchangeably to indicare the one who wu r:onveoing with Abraham. Also, the Gospels
the announcement of the advent of Muhammad:
furnish variant annum:iationlbirth narratives forJesus, as in Matt. 1-2, Luke 1-2, and John 1.
4. See also 2:87 and 2:253. All quotatioDJ from the Qur'an are based on The Q11;a11, traDJ. Tarif Remember when jesus son of Mary said: "Children of Israel, I am the
Khalidi (New York: Penguin Books, 2009).
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ENGAGING THE PASSION THE DEATH OF JESUS IN ISLAM

messenger of God to you, con6rming what preceded me of the Torah, issue of Jesus' death on the cross. What the Qur'an says about it has
and I bring you glad tidings of a messenger to come after me called
been examined in modem scholarship, mostly by scholars engaged
Ahmad." When he brought them wonders they said: "This is sorcery
manifest." (Qur'an 61:6) in reHgious dialogue or polemics. 8 One reason for the interest is the
popular conviction that the Qur'an denies the crucifixion and death
Some Muslim scholars have taken this Qur'anic pronouncement as a of Jesus. The beHef is that the Qur'an upholds not only that Jesus
confirmation that Christianity was a temporary religion to bridge the did n?t die on the cross, but that he never experienced death while
period from the time ofJesus until the advent ofMuhammad.5 in this wor1d. Muslim polemicists take this as proof that Christians
There is one additional mission for Jesus that is indicated in the are wrong and have invented the crucifixion narrative and inserted it
Qur'an, and which in my opinion accounts for the serious division into their revealed Scripture, thus corrupting it. Christian polemicists,
between Islam and Christianity regarding the dispute over Jesus {i.e., however, take it as proof that Islam is misinformed, and thus could
human vs. divine). The Qur'an describes Jesus as the "portent of the not have been a true religion revealed by God.
Hour" (43:61), and this description has been understood to mean that This presumed Qur'anic denial is tied precisely to a pair of verses
Jesus will return before the Day of Resurrection to finish his two- (Qur'an 4:157-58), and it places Islam's scripture in direct contrast
part mission.6 In this respect, the Muslims believe that the Qur'an is with the foundational dogma of the Christian faith. The text of these
identifying an "Islamic" future role for Jesus, and the imp1ication is two verses reads,
that Jesus ceased to be a mere "Christian" figure. He is also an Islamic
And their saying: "It is we who killed the Christ Jesus son of Mary, the
figure, which explains why Muslims feel obliged not only to claim
messenger of God"-they killed him noc, nor did they crucify him, but
him but a1so to challenge and correct the Christians' belief about his so it was made to appear to them. Those who disputed concerning him
divinity.' are in doubt over the matter; they have no knowledge thereofbut only
follow conjecrure. Assuredly, they killed him not, but God raised him
The Passion Narrative (Death on the Cross) up to Him, and God is Almighty.
In the Qur'an
This is the only place in the Qur'an where the issue of Jesus'
Yet, of aU the Qur'anic material related to Jesus, nothing is as crucifixion is raised. Examples from the Islamic tradition demonstrate
perplexing and confusing as the passion narrative, particularly the that although MusHm scholars have overwhelmingly rejected the

S. See for butance Sayyid Qu1b, Social Justice ;, Islam, trans. John B. Hardie (Oneonta, NY:
Islamic Publicatiotu International, 2000), 317. 8. See for example, E. E. Elder, •The Crucifixion in the Koran,• M1ulirn World 13 (1923): 242-58;
6. The Day of Resurrection is the preferable Islamic tenn that is used CD indicate 1he resurrection Henri Micbaud,Jinu selon It Corell/ (Neuch.itel: Del:~cbaux et Niesd~. 1960), 59-71; Geofliey
of all creation to face judgment at 1he End of Times. On me rerum ofjesus before the Day Parrinder,jtsus in tilt Qur'on (New York: Oxford University Press, 19n), 105-21; Mahmoud
of Resurrection, see, for hutance, Suleiman A. Mourad, jesus according to Ibn 'Asakir,• in Ibn M. Ayoub, "Towards an Islamic Chriscology, 2: The Death ofjesus-Reality or !Uusion?" 11~
'Asakir a11d Early Islamif History, ed. James E. Lindsay (Princeton. NJ: Darwin Pa:ess, 2001), M1ulim World10 (1980): 91-121; Giuseppe Rizzardi,JI problema della crlstologia conmica (Milan:
31-37. lstiruto Propaganda Libraria, 1982), 141-43; Nilo Geagea, Mary in tile Komn: A Meeting Point
7. I am not here ignoring the fact that the Qur'an and Islam claim that aU the prophets of God bttiVWI Cilrislio•dty a1ul hlom, tnJU. and ed. Lawrence T. Pares {New York: Philosophical
were Muslims. But we need CD understand that in the sense of me original meaning of the term Library, 1984), 107- 8; and A. H. Mathias Zahniser, "The Fonru ofTawaffia in the Qur'an: A
Muslim, that is, one who submits hhmelflherselfto God and foUows God's commands and law. Comribution CD Christian-Muslim Dialogue,• M1ullm World 19, no. 1 (1989): 14-24.
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ENGAGING THE PASSION THE DEATH OF JESUS IN ISLAM

crucifixion ofJesus, they are sharply divided regarding the reality of Remember when God said: "0 Jesus, I shall cause you to die
his death. The possibility that Jesus actually died and was raised from [mutmvaffik] and make you ascend to Me. I shall purify you ttom those
who blasphemed, and I shall raise those who followed you above those
death, shortly after the crucifixion {not his though), was argued by
who blasphemed until the Day of Resurrection. Then to Me is your
a number of leading early Muslim exegetes and became an essential rerum, and I shall judge between you concerning that in which you
view within the Islamic tradition.9 This shows that, on the one disputed."
hand, the way the Qur'an addresses Jesus' death allows for conflicting
What concerns us here is the first sentence, "0 Jesus, I shall cause
interpretations, and, on the other hand, what is perceived as the
you to die [mutawaffik] and make you ascend to Me." As witnessed
popular position in Islam-namely that Jesus did not die-is essentially
by the debate in Islamic scholarship, 10 it has been very challenging
favored by some Muslim and non-Muslim circles because it is rooted
to interpret the expression mutawaffik (&om the root-verb t-w-J,
in Christian-Muslim polemics aiming at legitimizing one's own
commonly understood to mean to die), especially as linked to what
religion and proving the other religion wrong.
comes next, "make you ascend to Me." What does mutawajfik mean?
In this paper, I will offer my personal reflections on the passion
narrative in an attempt to show that the denial in the Qur'an is not Several explanations have been offered, which can be summed up as
made to the reality of the crucifixion and death ofJesus, but rather to follows. Some exegetes argued that God caused sleep to overcome
their theological implications. In other words, the Qur'an is looking Jesus and then raised him up to himself; hence the meaning of
beyond the crucifixion. Jesus' end was not death on the cross, but mutawaffik in their opinion is to be overcome by sleep. Other
rather resurrection from death to eternal life. Moreover, I will argue exegetes argued that verse 3:55 indicates the removing ofJesus from
that the theological basis under which the Qur'an operates was not this world to the next world without death; here mr~tawaffik means
as developed as that of the Islamic tradition later. Hence, Muslim that Jesus' time on earth came to an end. A third view maintained
scholars reSected on the issues ofJesus' crucifixion and death under that nmtawajfik implies the future death ofJesus, and that the words in
a set of assumptions and in ways that exceed what the Qur'anic text verse 3:55 and their implications should not be understood to follow
says; these assumptions include the conviction that the traditional the exact sequence in which they occur. Hence they propose the
Christian passion narrative and its saving significance, as believed by following order: God will first raise Jesus up to heaven, then he will
Christians, are false. bring him down to earth in the future, when he will die. Essentially,
all three positions reject the belief that Jesus died in the past. A
Old the Qur'anlc Jesus die? fourth view, however, acknowledged that mutawaffik means indeed
the death ofJesus, and that the verse also indicates his subsequent raise
I start my examination of the death ofJesus in the Qur'an with verse
from death by God that occurred in the past. 11
3:55, which reads,

10. See the survey of Muslim exegetical sou~ in Benjamin T . Lawson, wThe Crucifixion of
9. See, lOr example, the disctWion in Neal Robiruon, CllriJt in bla"' and C,riJtia11itr (Albany: State Jesus in the Qur'an and Qur'anlc Cornmenury: A Historical Survey,• B11ltttin ofHtnry Martyn
UniversityofNew York Press,l991),117- 26. /lls/itlllt ofblamic Stndits 10, no. 2 (1991): 34-62 and 10, no. 3 (1991): 6-40.
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ENGAGING THE PASSION THE DEATH OF JESUS IN ISLAM

The promoters of the first three positions articulated them in light assume so would imply that there were Christians who asserted in
of their belief that God would not have left his prophets unprotected, public that they killed Jesus, which is absurd, to say the least.
and could not have allowed Jesus to be killed by his enemies. This Moreover, the direct context of verses 4:157-58 clearly blames
belief is anchored in one of Islam's foundational dogmas, namely the the Jews for crucifying and killing Jesus-such an accusation reflects
belief in God's prophets, in God's abi1ity to guide and protect them, Christian polemics against the Jews rather than an actual Jewish
and in the linear progression of God's messages and messengers. group living at the time of Muhammad or that of Jesus. 14 Qur'an
Therefore, in their efforts to explain away any possibility that God 4:155 denounces the Jews for breaking their covenant with God and
did not come to the rescue of Jesus, some Muslim exegetes for killing God's prophets. The only example that the Qur'an lists
maintained that God indeed prevented Jesus' death by interfering and following the accusation that the Jews killed God's prophets is the
lifting him. up to heaven. Someone else was crucified in his place. case of Jesus. So from the outset, one has to operate in the context
Moreover, the view that Jesus was removed from this world without that the Qur'an is listing the death ofJesus as evidence that the Jews
physical death was justified on the basis of a prophetic hadith that kille4 him. Otherwise, if the Jews did not kill Jesus, then the Qur'anic
speaks of the return ofJesus to kill the antichrist, alter which he will charge that they killed God's prophets is baseless, to say the least.
die and be buried by the Muslims in a grave next to Muhammad. 12 As for the adherents of the fourth view, they also upheld that
This hadith speaks of the future death ofJesus. Thus, there could not God came to the rescue of Jesus only &om crucifixion. Jesus' death
have been a past death, for no human can die twice since God creates in this world occurred and was not prevented, though it was not
humans, causes them to die, then resurrects them. Jesus can die once, caused by crucifixion. They articulated their position in light of the
and his death must be in the future. common meaning of the expression mutawajfik, namely that God
But one notices straightaway that the hadith in question belongs caused Jesus to die, and that the raising to heaven, which refers to
to anti-Christian polemical literature; it was purportedly uttered by Jesus' resurrection, could only occur if preceded by his death. Yet
Muhammad when a Christian delegation from Najran (a region in they disagreed as to the nature of that resurrection: whether only in
western Arabia, south of Mecca) came to him and had an argument spirit or both in spirit and body.
with him over the crucifixion ofJ esus. 13 The prophet refined them by Let's now tum to the issue of the crucifixion in verse 4:157. Unlike
pointing to the future return ofJesus. But the alleged circumstances the disagreement among Muslim scholars regarding Jesus' death as
of this hadith do not fit with the language of verses 4:157-58. To seen above, they were in complete agreement in denying his
crucifixion, although they offered differing explanations of what
actually happened. The most popular explanation is that God rescued
11. For these views and their promoten, see for l!lWilple al-Tabari {d. 3101922}, ]ami' al-bayanfi Jesus &om crucifixion by making someone else look like him, and it
111'wlltii-Qur'a11 (Beirut: Dar al-Kutub al-'Jimiyya, 1992), 3:188-90; al-Jishumi (d. 49411101),
ai-TaiiJhlbfi fofsir lli-QIIr'llll (Milan: Ms. Ambrosiana Library, P184 n.d.), f. 40a; and al-Rni (d. 14. See, for ilutance, Jerome's words "alter they lcilled the aervana of God, and finaUy his Son•:
60611210), 111-tlljslr 11l-kabir (Beirut: Dar al-Kuwb al-'llmiyya, 1992), 8:594S3. Yoram Tsafrir, •70-638: The Temple-less Mounrain,• in Where Heavm and Earth Mttt:
12. See Mound, "Jesus according to Ibn 'Asakir,• 38. jtnut~lem's Sncrrd Espl1111ade, ed. Oleg Gnbar and Benjamin z. Kedar Oerusalem: Yad Ben-Zvi,
~ .13. See fOr example al-Tabari,jamr al-btlyan, 3:290. and Awtin: University of Texas Press, 2009), 86.
·-,(...t..
361
was that person who ended up crucified (again there is disagreement Clearly, the claim that "'It is we who killed the Christ Jesus son of
on the identity of that person). Another less popular explanation Mary, the messenger of God"' is followed by the denial of both the
argues that one of Jesus' disciples volunteered to be crucified in his killing and the crucifying ofJesus: "they killed him not, nor did they
place. 15 But even the most popular view had its share of problems, as crucify him." The pair "kill"/"crucify" (qatllsalb) occurs twice in the
its theological implications could not be, according to some exegetes, Qur'an: the first instance is here in verse 4:157 and the second in
sustainable. For instance, the philosopher al-Razi (d. 606/1210), 16 in verse 5:33, which prescribes the punishment in this world for those
his exegesis of the Qur'an, rejects the possibility that God could have who fight Muhammad-be killed or crucified, have their limbs cut, or
made someone else look like Jesus, for that would inevitably lead homelessness. My argument is that Qur'anic crucifixion (sa/b) means
to doubting the certainty of everything, including faith. 17 In other not only the act itself, but its consequence, and ought to be rendered
words, al-Razi's conundrum is: how can one be certain of anything if as "death by crucifixion." Consequently, I suggest that one needs to
its reality is different from its apparent manifestation? re.ad that part of verse 4:157 in the following way: they did not kill him
To put the debate in Qur'anic exegesis aside and return to verses by crucifixion.
4:157-58, one notices that the emphasis throughout is on denying Following the denial that Jesus was killed we find the explanation
the death ofJesus, much more so than his crucifixion. Indeed, verse "but so it was made to appear to them" (slmbbiha lahum). This
4:157 starts with the claim that "the Jews" say they killed Jesus, and expression means that something was made to appear to those who
the retort to them at the end of verse 4:158 asserts that Jesus is not thought Jesus died on the cross, which is not true. It does not mean
dead because God raised him from death to himsel£ that someone was made to look like someone else. The Qur'an
Let's examine further the entire parts of verses 4:157-58, as this can uses derivatives of the same root sh-b-h to indicate confusion and
explain to us the Qur'anic language and the logic of the argument ambiguity, like in verse 3:7:
that the Qur'an is making. Again, the text of the two verses reads,
It is He who sent down the Book upon you. In it are verses precise in
And their saying: .. It is we who killed the Christ Jesus son of Mary, the meaning; these are the very heart of the Book. Others are ambiguous
messenger of God"-they killed him not, nor did they crucify him, but [mutashabihat]. Those in whose heart is waywardness pursue what is
so it was made to appear to them. Those who disputed concerning him ambiguous therein [ma tashabaha minhu], seeking discord and seeking to
are in doubt over the matter; they have no knowledge thereof but only unravel its interpretation. But none knows il'S interpretation save God,
follow conjecture. Assuredly, they killed him not, but God raised him while those deeply rooted in knowledge say: "We believe in it. All is
up to Him, and God is Almighty. from our Lord." Yet none remembers save those possessed of minds.

It is clear given Qur'anic usage that shubbiha lahum signifies that


15. for a nnge of dwe views, see ai-Tabari, ]11mr af-bllfllll, 4:351-55; and al-tuz.i, af-T'!{sir al- something taken at face value as true leads to confusion and error. So,
kablr, 11:79-81.
the expression shubbiha lahum in verse 4:157 can-and in my opinion
16. When two dares appear in this essay, the fint ~efers to the Islamic (Hijri) calendar; the second
~efers to the Western (G~egorian) calendar. The Islamic calendar begim In 622 C.JI. of the does-only make sense if it contests the claim that Jesus' crucifixion
Western calendar, the year of MuhalnllUd's journey fiom Mecca to Medina. BD.
17. See ai-Raz.i, a/-T'!fsir al-kablr, 11:79. led to his death. It is absurd to assume that the expression indicates

368 369
ENGAGING THE PASSION THE DEATH OF JESUS IN ISLAM

someone else who was made to look like Jesus and was crucified, for it So I suggest the following translation for verses 4:157-58:
clearly refers to something that was mentioned earlier in the text. But
They allege: "We have killed the Messiah Jesus son of Mary, the
prior to that expression only the crucifixion and death ofJesus were
messenger of God." Nay, they did not kill him by crucifying him. They
mentioned. It is equally absurd to argue that Jesus was made to look thought they did, and those who affirm that are confused: they have no
like someone else. This essentially leaves us with the possibility that knowledge about it except by speculation. In certainty they did not kill
the expression either denies the actuality of the crucifixion or asserts
him because God raised him &om death up to Himsel£
that Jesus is not dead as a result of his crucifixion.
In support of this interpretation is the fact that the contrasting of
Then verse 4:157 goes on to say, "Those who disputed fihi are perception and certainty regarding one being dead or alive is
in doubt minhu; they have no knowledge thereof but only follow addressed elsewhere in the Qur'an, as in verse 3:169:
conjecture." The terms fihi and minhu cannot be references to a
Do not imagine those killed in the path of God to be dead. Rather, they
person who was crucified in lieu of Jesus, for then this part of the
are alive with their Lord, enjoying His bounty.
verse would actually make the Qur'an deny that someone else was
crucified in place ofJesus. Moreover, they could not be references to There is no way here to argue that the Qur'an is saying that those
Jesus. Both refer to the same thing. If we accept that they refer to who were killed fighting in the path of God did not die. They
Jesus, then this part argues, Those who disputed about JesllS are itr doubt died indeed. But once they were raised from death, it is not proper
aboutJesr~s, which makes no sense. We only have a logical meaning if anymore to refer to them as being dead. Clearly then, the Qur'an
we read it as a reference to the crucifixion and understand this part of cautions against judging on the basis of apparent perceptions, which
verse 4:157 as an added emphasis that what appeared to them {those can be completely misleading; the misleading perception in this case
who believed they killed Jesus by crucifixion) is a matter of false is to say that someone is dead when he or she is alive in heaven.
perception. In other words, Those who disputed about the cmcifixion It is evident, therefore, that the Qur'an in verses 4:157-58 is
are in doubt about the cmcifixiotl. This is especially the case given what refuting issues of apparent perception that are in reality false: those
comes next: "Assuredly, they killed him not, but God raised him up who think that Jesus was kiUed by crucifixion are dead wrong
to Him." The Qur'an therefore is questioning the certainty (yaqiu) of because he was raised from death and is alive with God. In other
Jesus' death; note that there is no denial of the act of crucifixion in words, the death of Jesus on the cross was annulled by his
verse 4:158. And why is Jesus not dead in certainty? Because "God resurrection.

raised him up to Him." In other words, the verse is saying that one Nonetheless, the complexity of the Qur'anic language allowed
might think Jesus was killed by crucifixion, but he was not, because for conflicting interpretations about Jesus' death. Examples from the
he was raised from death, and he is alive with God. Hence, those who Islamic tradition show that although Muslim scholars have
asserted that he died on the cross, on the basis of what they saw, are overwhelmingly rejected the crucifixion of Jesus, they are divided
wrong. regarding the reality of his death. The possibility that Jesus actually
died and was raised from death was argued by a number of leading
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ENGAGING THE PASSION THE DEATH OF JESUS IN ISLAM

early Muslim exegetes and became an essential view within the tend to discuss the latter issue at length in connection with verse
20
Islamic tradition. 18 3:55. But according to the early Muslim authority on monotheistic
Worth noting here is that the Qur'anic expression shubbiha lahum traditions Wahb b. Munabbih (d. ca. 110/728), the Qur'an in 19:33
in relation to the crucifixion ofJesus is not and cannot be a reference is quoting Jesus informing his disciples that he is about to die and be
21
to the docetic theology, as argued by some scholars,19 for the latter resurrected. Moreover, if one were to accept that the reference to
revolves around the belief that Jesus was made to appear to his Jesus' death is intended as a reference to its fUture occurrence, then
followers in a human form but that in reality he was God appearing this should similarly apply to the case ofJohn the Baptist about whom
in a shadow. But the Qur'anic Jesus is human in every form, which the Qur'an similarly says in verse 19:15:
means that making any association with docetic theology is absurd.
Peace be upon him dte day he was born, the day he dies and the day he
That we find references in later Qur'anic exegesis to explanations is resurrected, alive.
identifying the person who was crucified in place ofJesus, and which
draw on some gnostic sources, is nothing more than later attempts Both verses 19:15 and 19:33 use the imperfect tense with respect to
by Muslim scholars to explain verse 4:157 by drawing on Christian the issue of death {yamJ4t Iamut); in the case ofJohn the third person
sources that were known to them. It does not apply to the Qur'an, singular is used, and in the case of Jesus the first person singular is
nor does it reflect a Muslim adoption of docetic or other gnostic used. If in the case ofJesus, it means his future death, then John, too,
theology regarding the nature ofJesus. did not die and is waiting to die sometime in the future. But this is
Interestingly, the issue ofJesus' death is actually raised in two other absurd. If John died in the past, then the imperfect tense does not
verses in the Qur'an: refer to a fUture death (this is one of the distinctive characteristics of
Qur'anic language).
Peace be upon me the day I was born, the day I die, and the day I am
If one were, therefore, to read verses 4:157-58 in light of verses
resurrected alive. (19:33)
3:55, 19:33, and 5:117, which say that Jesus did actually die, the
I was a wimess to them while I lived among them, but when You caused conclusion can be drawn that verses 4:157-58 affirm the death of
me to die [tmvaffaytar~i], it was You Who kept watch over them. You
are a wimess over all things. (5:117) Jesus, which was foUowed or offSet by God raising him from death.
Indeed, stories about and references to Jesus' physical death that
These verses do not catch the attention of Muslim exegetes like verses occurred in the past are encountered in Islamic scholarship, even in
3:55 and 4:157-58, even though they, too, raise the issue of Jesus' works by authors who affirmed otherwise. For instance, the historian
death; most exegetes did not even make the connection between "the and exegete ai-Tabari (d. 310/922) relates in his History that a group
day I die" in 19:33 and the future coming of Jesus, although they of people from Medina say that Jesus' grave is located on top of al-
Jamma' mountain, south of Medina; actually this story dates Jesus'
18. See, for example, dte disawion in Robinson, Christ in blmu anJ Christianity, 111-26.
19. See, for example, Micluud, jinu stlon le Cora11, 68-71; Rizzardi, II problema della aistologia
COilllfifa, 143; and Claus Schedl, MnllammaJ uru/Jesns: die christologtsch reltaftlnlell Ttxte des Korans 20. See, for example, al-Tabari,jamt al-baya11, 8:340.
(Vienna: Herder, 1978), 435-36. See abo the distuSSion in Parrlnder,jeslls ill the Qurall,llB-19. 21. Ibid.

3+'2..
313
ENGAGING THE PASSION THE DEATH OF JESUS IN ISLAM

time on earth to the period when the Persians ruled western Arabia death when he was told by God that he was to depart this world.
(fourth century n.c.B.) since, as the story indicates, Jesus' tomb He called upon his disciples for the Last Supper, waited on th.e m,
inscriptions were in old Persian. 22 The interesting thing about this washed their feet, and asked them to pray to God to delay his death.
report, regardless of its apparent ahistorical nature, is that 1) al-Tabari Then Jesus was arrested and made to carry his cross to the place of
clearly believes that Jesus did not die, as attested in his exegesis of his crucifixion, all the way being tortured and ridiculed. But when
the Qur'an, 23 and 2) the report is not related on the authority of they reached the spot, God lifted him up to himself, and the one who
Christians or converts from Christianity, but rather on the authority was made to look like him was crucified in his stead. Mary and Mary
of a Muslim-a certain Ibn Sulaym al-Ansari al-Zuraqi-who must Magdalene came to lament at the foot of the cross, but Jesus appeared
have lived in Medina in the seventh century after the time of to them and told them that God saved him and that nothing but good
Muhammad. In another case, the Syrian mystic al-Nabulusi (d. 1143/ happened to him. He also asked them to rally the disciples to a place
1731), contrasting al-mawt al-ikhtiyari (voluntarily giving oneself to that he described, where he met them and gave them his final will.
death) and al-mawt al-idtirari (being taken by death), uses the example According to Wahb, Jesus died that day, and after three hours God
ofjesus as someone who readily gave himself to death. 24 resurrected him.26
One has to emphasize here that coming across references to the
The Christian Passion Narrative In the Islamic Tradition passion narrative in the scholarship of the Islamic tradition does not
Now what about the Christian passion narrative? Do we find any mean at all that the Muslims accepted its theological implications.

mention of it in the Islamic tradition? There is no doubt that the Actually, the aspects of the theological implication that Muslim

various Christian narratives about it were known to Muslim scholars. scholars could not tolerate were Jesus' divinity and his principal role

The historian al-Ya'qubi (d. 284/897), for instance, provides us with in human salvation. They did accept another aspect of the passion

short synopses from the different Gospels regarding the passion story narrative: God's intervening to save Jesus, and how all of that was an

and contests them by simply stating the words of verse 3:55.25 Al- essential prelude for the advent of a new message and in preparation
Tabari, too, relates, on the authority of Wahb b. Munabbih, an for the second mission of Jesus at the end of days. Indeed, this
interesting passion narrative that essentially takes its elements from aspect, as noted earlier, is tied to a fundamental tenant of the Islamic

the Gospels but leaves aside the issue of the crucifixion. According dogma, without which one's faith is incomplete: the belief in God's

to this Islamized passion narrative, Jesus was grieved and terrified of prophets, in God's ability to guide and protect them, and in the linear
progression of God's messages and messengers.

22. The tomb itucriptions read: MThis is the grave of Jesus son of M2ry, the messenger of God
to the people of this land.• See al-Tabari, Ta'rikh al-n1Sul wn-1-nmiltk, ed. M. J. De Goeje ec
al. (Leiden: Brill, 1879-1901), 1:738-39; and al-Tabari, The Hirtory cif ai-Tabarl, ed. Moshe
Perlmann (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1987), 4:123-24.
23. AI- Tabari,jamr al-bayan, 3:289.
24. AI-Nabulusi, Risalat al-Tatvhld, ed. MuhaDUlUd Shikhani (Damascus: Dar Qurayba, 1999), 111. 26. AI-Tabari, Ta'rikh al-umam wa-1-muluk (Beiruc Dar al-Kurub al-'llmiyya, 1991), 1:353-54; al-
25. Al-Ya'qubi, Ta'rlklt 11l· Ylz'qubl (Beiru~ Du ~adir, 1960), t:n-79. Tabari,jcmti al-bayatr, 4:351-52.
~1-'l.J 3+5
ENGAGING THE PASSION THE DEATH OF JESUS IN ISLAM

Modern Reflections on the Passion Narrative But it was like no other day.
It was a day when people wenc deeply into error, so deep in fAct
The debate regarding the proper way to understand Jesus' death and that they reached extreme sinfulness. Evil overpowered them and they
crucifixion and the issues they invoke is by no means restricted to became blinded from the truth even though it was brighter than
medieval Islam. The twentieth century ushered in a new era when daybreak light..•. When they resolved to crucify him, their resolve was
intended to kill the human conscience and extinguish its light. 29
certain fundamental issues have been revisited by Muslim thinkers.
With respect to the rejection of the theological implications ofJesus' Hussein goes on to add that,
passion as main~ined by Christianity, we can still see it done with
the same intensity as in the pre-modem times, although with sharper He !Jesus] was the light of God on earth. When the people ofJerusalem
insisted on extinguishing it, the world around them was darkened. This
theological clarity. The Islamic reformist Rashid Rida {d. 1935}, for darkness is a sign &om God to show that God has forbidden them the
instance, argues that if God aUowed Jesus to suffer and be crucified, light off.Uth and the guidance of conscience. 30
he has then demonstrated his injustice, since Jesus committed no
sin to deserve suffering and crucifixion. For whatever degree of Hussein clearly rejects the reality of the crucifixion; in his
mercy and salvation that God intended to show or extend through interpretation, a complete darkness encased Jerusalem for three hours,
Jesus' passion would be negated by God's gravely compromising during which Jesus was saved and lifted up to heaven. But he
his justice, and this is rationally absurd.27 What we see here in the maintains that once the intention to crucify Jesus was set it acquired
case of Rida is not only a denial of the crucifixion, but also an immense implication, regardless of the fact that Jesus was actually
unreserved rejection of the fundamental role the passion narrative not crucified. In other words, if it were not for God's saving Jesus,
plays in Christian teaching regarding human salvation. they would have carried on with the crucifixion. And their intention
Another modem case takes an interesting twist with respect to meant their rejection of God and all that he symbolizes, hence its
the crucifixion and its meanings and theological symbolisms. 'nte immense implications, which Hussein addresses in the foUowing
Egyptian scholar M. Kamel Hussein (d. 1977) wrote a novel entitled words:
Qarya zalima (translated into English as City of Wrong},28 in which In the events of that Friday all the features of error and sinfulness were
he discusses the implications of the attempt to crucify Jesus. "The present. In each day oflife the tragedy ofthat day is repeated. Let people,
village of injustice," as the Arabic title is properly translated, means therefore, take cognizance of these features and eschew them. For only
then they will find a wide capacity for doing good that truly gratifies
Jerusalem, and the book discusses the events of one day: Good Friday. them. Then, they will gain a pleasant and delightful life.31
Hussein sets the entire novel in the following context,

The day was Friday.

21. Rashid Rida, Tafsir al-manar (Cairo: Dar ai-Manar, 1948), 6:26-27. 29. Hussein, Qarya z11lirna, 1-2 (City oj'Wro1~, 3-4). My translation attempts to re8ect a language
28. Qdrya zDiillld was fine published in 1954 in Cairo by Matba't Misr. The English mnslation. very close to the original Arabic, chus ic varies a litde from that by Kenneth Cragg.
done by Kenneth Cragg, appeared as City of Wn11~: A Friday in jtfUSlllt111 (Anuterdam: 30. lbid., 230 (183).
Djambatan, 1959). 31.1bid., 264 (210).
31-f:. 3tl-
ENGAGING THE PASSION THE DEATH OF JESUS IN ISLAM

Clearly, then, it is the lesson of that day that people need to eternally and was crucified at the hands of his enemies, who went on to boast
heed, as if salvation is dependent on that. Although what we see in that they killed the prophet of God, for that implies that God could
the case of Hussein is yet another attempt to redefine the implication not or did not protect him. When one, therefore, examines the issues
of the passion narrative by shitting the emphasis away from the of the crucifixion, death, and resurrection ofJesus in the scholarship
person of Jesus and toward the ramification of human behavior and of the Islamic tradition, as compared to the Qur'an, one has to keep in
the lessons to be learned, yet, the passion narrative becomes a mind the Muslim understanding of God as well as these assumptions
fundamental stage toward human salvation. regarding God's commitment to protect His prophets. It is under
these assumptions that all Muslim scholars, past and present, have
Conclusion
operated in their attempts to explain and comment on the Qur'anic
Examining the way the Qur'an presents the passion narrative verses addressing the issues of the crucifixion and death ofJesus.
necessitates a few words about the context in which the story operates The other important point that one needs to raise is that the Qur'an
in each of the two monotheistic traditions. Whereas Christianity is a very complicated text in terms of its language, a fact attested in
considers the passion narrative-the arrest, trial, crucifixion, death, the state of Qur'anic exegesis and the disagreement among exegetes
and resurrection ofjesus-as definitional for the Christian faith, Islam as to the proper interpretation of almost every verse. Sometimes, the
looks at it &om a completely different standpoint. Christian ambiguity of the language lett the exegete utterly helpless, as one can
theologians, except for a few, have affirmed throughout the centuries notice from the words of the famous Egyptian Islamic fundamentalist
that God's sacrifice of his son, Jesus of Nazareth, was made for the Sayyid Qutb (d. 1966) describing the death and resurrection ofJesus:
salvation of humanity. Hence believing in the passion narrative is As for how his death occurred and how he was raised to heaven,
a fundamental component of the Christian faith. The Qur'an and they are incomprehensible issues; they pertain to the category of the
the Islamic tradition, however, operate under a different set of ambiguous verses [of the Qur'an] whose proper meaning is known only
to God. There is no benefit from pursuing them, neither for dogmatic
assumptions, most importantly a strict monotheism that does not
nor for legal pwposes. Those who pursue them and rum them into a
tolerate any perception of division within the divine entity.32 Hence, controversy end up in hypocrisy, confusion and complication, without
from an Islamic point of view, speaking of the son of God, however ever getting to the absolute truth or satisfaction about something that
hyperbolically, is a blasphemy. Even if one were to put aside the should after all be deferred to God's knowledge.33
issue ofjesus' divinity, the Islamic tradition asserts that God protected
In another instance, Qutb adds that "the Qur'an does not offer details
his prophets, always came to their rescue, and never deserted them
regarding the raising up [ofJesus]: Was he raised both in body and
when they were persecuted by their enemies. Under this conviction,
soul while still alive, or only in soul after his death?"34
Muslim scholars have rejected outright that Jesus was made to suffer

32. Certainly acme Muslim 5eco, past and present, introduced belleli that, in the opinion ofwhat is
commonly referred to as mainstream orthodox Jsl.un, violate this strict monotheism. Examples 33. Sayyid Qutb, Fi zifalai-Qur·a, (Cairo: Dar ai-Shuruq, 1992), l :403.
include a number ofShi'ite sects and the Bilha'is. 34.Jbid•• 2:802.
~~R 31-l)
ENGAGING THE PASSION THE DEATH OF JESUS IN ISLAM

These comments are made by Qutb in connection with verses 3:55 tradition that deny the crucifixion of Jesus. (Muslims were not the
and 4:157-58. It is clear that the complexity of the Qur'anic language only or first group to question the theological implications of the
and syntax as well as the theological implications of taking sides in crucifixion: mainstream Christianity may accept it as foundational,
this debate, given the diversity of Muslim opinions on the issues but some early Christian groups [e.g., gnostics] rejected its reality out
raised in these verses, persuaded him to caution the Muslims against of hand as one of the conditions of their faith.)
making any speculations about the death ofjesus. Another important point that reveals how Muslim scholars could
It is not my intention to prove that Muslim exegetes were wrong only understand verses 4:157-58 as they did relates to the use of
or that they could not have figured out the meaning of verses these two verses in anti-Christian polemics. Once these verses were
4:157-58. Nor do I want to suggest that the text is simple. But situated in polemics, their function became essentially to point out
a person does read and derive meanings that are shaped by the the error of Christianity regarding the saving significance of Jesus's
assumptions he or she brings to a text. It was inevitable, then, in crucifixion. In other words, by denying the reality of the crucifixion,
my opinion, that the assumptions Muslim scholars brought to the the Muslim exegetes/theologians were undermining the foundation
Qur'an would prevent them from grasping its meaning. The Qur'an of the Christian belief system (of those against whom polemics was
is offering a simple challenge to something the Muhammad employed). Hence, the Muslim exegete became restrained within the
movement could not tolerate, namely, that by killing Jesus his parameters of polemical contextualization and exploitation of these
enemies defeated God. In other words, the movement could not verses, unable to come to a different reading.
accept, as a matter of basic belief, that Jesus' career ended on the cross,
with God unable to intervene. For what would that mean about
God's commitment to protecting them? They had to show that God
was the ultimate victor because he could do something those who
killed Jesus could not: he could raise jesus from death, thus annulling
it. But the issue was too complicated and was thus set aside without
further consideration. It was Muslim exegetes who developed the
theology of God's obligation to protect his prophets, a theology that.
left no way to accept Jesus' dying on the cross. God must have
intervened to rescue him prior to that. Exegetical stories illustrating
how God intervened and who was made to be crucified in Jesus' place
attempt to explain a challenging issue, but these stories neither reflect
a dear understanding of the issue by the Muhammad movement
nor reflect factual history. Rather, they are theological speculations
that employ known and conRicting narratives within the Christian
380 381

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