ARC 203 HISTORY OF EUROPEAN ARCHITECTURE – I

Presentation – Prof.M.Thirumeni

SYLLABUS:

PURPOSE
The aim is to impart knowledge about the art & architecture of the European, Egyptian & Middle eastern cultures, which have served as the cradle of human
civilization during the ancient and the classical time.

INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVES
The course creates awareness about the various factors that influence the architectural productions of a particular culture and race. It also analyses the
planning,
construction, and aesthetics of important historical buildings and develops an appreciation of architectural style as a product of the time, place and culture.

1. ANCIENT EGYTIAN ARCHITECTURE

Factors influencing Egyptian Architecture – Evolution of Tomb and Temple architecture - Outline of Architectural Character – Examples – The Great Pyramids
at Gizeh, Great Temple of Ammon at Karnak, Mortuary temples of Rameses at Thebes and Queen Hatsheput at Darel bahari.

2. ANCIENT ARCHITECTURE OF WEST ASIA

Evolution of Sumerian, Babylonian and Persian cultures – Factors influencing west asian architecture - Outline of architectural character - Examples – Ziggurat
at Ur, Palace of Sargon at Khorsabad, and Palace of Persepolis.

3. CLASSICAL GREEK ARCHITECTURE

Evolution of City states -The development of Hellenic & Hellenistic Art, Sculpture and Architecture – Factors influencing Greek architecture - Outline of
architectural character - Orders in Greek architecture - Doric, Ionic and Corinthian. – Optical corrections in Greek temples - Examples – Parthenon & Erectheon
at the Acropolis of Athens , Theatre of Epidaurus, Agora and Stoa.

4. ROMAN ARCHITECTURE
Evolution of Republican states in Italy – Roman masonry types – Methods of vault and dome construction – Tuscan and Composite order - Factors influencing
Roman architecture - Outline of architectural character - Examples – Pantheon & Colloseum at Rome
Rome, Thermae of Caracalla
Caracalla, Basilica of Constantine
Constantine, Circus
Maximus at Rome.

5. EARLY CHRISTIAN AND BYZANTINE ARCHITECTURE

Evolution of church form from the roman basilica – Factors influencing Early Christian architecture - Outline of architectural character - Example - St.Clemente
at Rome - Schism and the creation of Eastern and western roman empires – Factors influencing Byzantine architecture - Development of the dome &
pendentive in Byzantium – Architectural character - Example - St.Sophia at Constantinople.
 BIBLIOGRAPHY

Books
• 1. A World History of Architecture  by Michael Fazio (Author), Marian Moffett (Author), Lawrence Wodehouse
• 2. A Global History of Architecture  by Mark M. Jarzombek (Author), Vikramaditya Prakash (Author), Francis D. K. Ching ( Editor)
• 3. A History of Western Architecture by David Watkin
• 4. Banister Fletcher's A History of Architecture by Dan Cruickshank
• 5 The History of Architecture: Settings and Rituals by The late Spiro Kostof, Greg Castillo and Richard Tobias 
5. Th Hi t f A hit t S tti d Rit l b Th l t S i K t f G C till d Ri h d T bi
• 6. A Text‐Book of the History of Architecture Seventh Edition, revised by A. D. F. (Alfred Dwight Foster) Hamlin 
• 7. Travels in the History of Architecture by Robert Harbison
• 8. The Classical Language of Architecture (World of Art) by John Summerson

Weblinks
• 1. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_architecture
• 2 h //
2. http://www.bc.edu/content/bc/sites/artweb/architecture.html
b d / /b / i / b/ hi h l
• 3. http://eng.archinform.net/index.htm
• 4. http://www.greatbuildings.com/
• 5. http://www.bluffton.edu/~sullivanm/index/index.html
• 6. http://www.thais.it/default.htm
p // /
• 7. http://www.eahn.org/
• 8. http://arthistoryresources.net/ARTHLinks.html
ANCIENT EGYPTIAN ARCHITECTURE

ANCIENT, MIDDLE & NEW KINGOM PERIOD
 ANCIENT EGYPTIAN ARCHITECTURE

FACTORS INFLUENCING ARCHITECTURE:

Geographical: The satellite imagery shows the narrow fertile strip of alluvial soil on the banks of river
Nile flowing through the desert, which made agriculture possible that resulted in the development of
towns & settlements on the eastern bank of the river. Egyptians built their pyramids & tomb structures
on the western bank, which was known as the valley of the dead. The Nile river also served as a route
of transport & communication & is considered to be sacred by the Egyptians as it serves as the life
blood of Egypt.
• FACTORS INFLUENCING ARCHITECTURE:
• Geological: Egypt had limestone in the north, sandstone in the central region & granite
in the south. The gigantic scale of Egyptian architecture was mainly possible due to the
Egyptian methods of quarrying, transporting & raising enormous blocks of stone to
position.
iti Sun-dried
S d i d & kiln
kil burnt
b t bricks
b i k maded from
f Nile
Nil mud d & chopped
h d straw
t were used
d
for palaces & houses, while stone was used for pyramids & temples.
• Climatic: Egypt has a warm, sunny climate with very little rainfall that has led to the
preservation of its ancient buildings. Since sufficient light reached the interiors through
doors & roof slits, Egyptian architecture is characterized by the absence of windows. The
massive walls, without openings, protected the interior from the fierce desert sun & also
provided the surface for “hieroglyphics” which is a script with pictorial representations.
Th absence
The b off rain
i also
l resulted
lt d in
i the
th use off flat
fl t rooff with
ith thick
thi k stone
t slabs.
l b
• Religious: The key note of the Egyptian religion is the submission to the power of the
sun god, Ammon & the worship of Osiris, the man-god who died & rose again to eternal
life. Egyptian religion had many gods representing the sun, moon, stars & animals. The
belief in life after death made the Egyptians to build numerous tomb-houses &
pyramids for the preservation of the dead.
• Social: the Pharaoh, who was considered to be the descendent of the sun god, headed a
despotic government, which employed vast armies of laborers in the erection of
monumental buildings, g , when the annual inundations made agriculture
g impossible.
p
Social life is graphically depicted in the wall sculptures of tombs. Slave labor is written
all over the monuments of Egypt with the priests enjoying an exalted position in society.
• Historical: The Pharaohs who ruled Egypt have been divided into 30 dynasties & 3
divisions by historians as follows:
1. Ancient kingdom (4400 – 2466 BC) – Mastabas were built during the 3rd dynasty & most
pyramids were built during the 4th dynasty.
2. Middle kingdom (2466 – 1600 BC) – 12th dynasty founded the great temple of Ammon
at karnak.
3. New kingdom ( 1600 – 332 BC) – Thebes became the capital & queen Hatsheput
constructed the terraced temple at Der-el –bahari. Amenophis III built the temple at
luxor & Rameses II completed
p the hypostyle
yp y hall of Ammon temple, p , built the rock
temple at Abu simbel & the Ramesseum at Thebes, mainly by using the slave labor of
the hebrews.
 ARCHITECTURAL CHARACTER OF EGYPT
• The walls of Egyptian buildings are sloped on the outside, which is
referred to as the “batter”
batter of the walls,
walls while remaining vertical on the inside
inside.
These windowless walls were suitable for their relief sculptures known as hieroglyphics.
• Egyptian columns have an inverted bell capital derived from the papyrus flower or the
bud capital derived from the lotus bud.

•Temples are approached by avenues of sphinxes,

sphinxes with the body of a lion & the head of a
man, ram or hawk. The entrance to the temples are articulated by massive pylons. The
interior of temples have great courts, hypostyle (pillared) halls & mysterious chambers.
Light was brought to the interior of temples using clear story lighting method & all wall
surfaces and columns had pictorial frescoes & carvings, painted in brilliant colors.
•Egyptian architecture is impressive for its monumental scale, the solidity & the eternal
character of its buildings.
 EVOLUTION OF PYRAMIDS

•At first priests & high ranking officials came to be buried in tombs that were known as
mastabas. Most of them had many storage chambers for storing all types of goods needed
i the
in th nextt life.
lif However,
H due
d tot frequent
f t thefts,
th ft an under
d ground
g d tomb
t b known
k as the
th
stairway mastaba came to be preferred. The picture above shows the early mastabas at
Giza with false doors & other safety devices.
 ZOSER’S STEPPED PYRAMID AT SAKKARA

The step pyramid of pharaoh Zoser was an

intermediate stage in the evolution of the
pyramid Its architect Imhotep built it in stages.
pyramid. stages
It was started as a square, solid mastaba, but a
series of extensions made it into a six stepped
pyramid with a rectangular ground-plan.
The Zoser complex is rectangular in plan
& the enclosure wall measuring 549m x
274m &rises to a height of 9m. The old
structure was an under ground burial
chamber, which was extended to a 25’ht
rectangular base. In the 2nd stage it grew
into a step pyramid with 4stages. Later 2
more stages were added to make it a 6
tiered pyramid. The entire complex is built
of tura limestone including the offering
chapel.
The bent pyramid was first built at Meydum, which collapsed. Subsequently another bent
pyramid was built at Dahsur,
Dahsur the picture which is given above.
above It was similar in construction
to other pyramids in that it was started with an angle of 52 degrees to the ground. About
half way into the construction the architect changed the angle to 43.5 degrees up to the
peak. It marks another stage in the evolution of the great pyramids.
 THE GREAT PYRAMIDS AT GIZA

• The Giza pyramid complex, on the outskirts of Cairo is considered to be the only
remaining monument of the 7 wonders of the ancient world.
world It consists of the great
pyramid of Cheops (Khufu), the pyramid of Chephren (Khafre), the smaller pyramid of
Mykerinus (Menkaure), the great Sphinx & other valley pyramids & offering chapels.
These 3 pyramids are a testimony to the engineering skills of the ancient Egyptians.
• The Great pyramid of Cheops (Khufu) is the largest & about 760’ square in plan, rising
to a height of 480’,
480 , & covers an area of 13 acres. The 4 sides facing the cardinal points
of the compass are nearly equilateral triangles, making an angle of 52 deg. with the
ground. Of the 3 pyramids the original polished limestone casing is seen at the base of
the Cheops pyramid, the top of the Chephren pyramid, but not on the Mykerinus.
•The
Th mostt astonishing
t i hi fact
f t ini the
th construction
t ti off th the pyramids
id is
i - how
h did the
th EEgyptians
ti
manage to raise these enormous blocks of stone, weighing 2.5 tons & measuring 8’x8’x8’
each, to a height of 480’ ?. One of the theories is that ramps were built of mud brick &
rubble on which the stone blocks were draggedgg on sledgesg to the required
q height.
g Another
theory suggests that first a step pyramid was carved out of an existing mountain to form
the core, around which the ramps were built in a concentric fashion to raise the stone
blocks to each stage & fill up the steps to form the pyramidical shape. Finally the pyramid
was finished off by adding a casing of tura limestone
limestone, as shown below.
below
•Though some of the pyramids indicate an accurate understanding of Pi, Egyptians were
incapable of arriving at this by calculation. It is possible that they had accidentally arrived at
it by counting the revolutions of a drum.
drum
•The entrance on the north side is 47’ 6” above the ground (Z), opens into a passage that
descends downwards leading to the subterranean chamber, about 60’ below GL, which was
subsequently abandoned as a burial chamber. Midway from the descending passage an
ascending passage was cut into the rock that leveled off after a certain height, leading to
the Queens chamber, which was discarded. Finally a grand gallery of about 7’ width,
tapering by corbelled courses of stone to a width of 3’ 6” at a height of 28’, was built that
led to the Kings chamber
chamber, entirely constructed with granite.
granite It measures 34 34’ 6”x
6 x 17’x
17 x 19’
19 ht,
ht
is roofed by 5 enormous blocks of stone & capped by 2 stones in an embryonic arch. The
chamber is sealed off by stone portcullises, weighing 50 tons each, fitted into recesses cut
in the rock. An air shaft of 8”x8” connects to the exterior for the Ka (spirit) to escape.
• The section above clearly shows the descending corridor leading to the subterranean
chamber, the ascending corridor leading to the Queens chamber & the grand gallery
leading
g to the Kings
g chamber in the Great py pyramid of Cheops.
p
• The section on the right is through the Kings chamber showing the roofing by massive
slabs of stone at 6 levels. The grand gallery & the ante chamber that would seal the
entrance by accommodating the portcullises can also be seen.
• The external casing of limestone has entirely disappeared in the Cheops pyramid,
excepting some parts around the base. The smaller pyramids of the nobility can be seen
in the background & Idu’s tomb can be seen in the fore ground.
• The funerary boat, which was excavated from the boat pits in 1954, is exhibited near
the Pyramid of Cheops.
• This boat is thought to have been used by the King during his lifetime & had carried the
Pharaoh’ss body across the river Nile to the pyramid,
Pharaoh pyramid on his death.
death
• The boat is 143’ long with 6 pairs of oars & contains a cabin that is completely paneled
with the royal insignia of the palm capital.
• The pyramid of Chephren (Khafre) is built next to the Great pyramid of Cheops,
Cheops as he is
the son & successor. The Chephren pyramid is actually 10’ shorter & 46’ more narrow at
the base than the Cheops pyramid. But it looks taller than the great pyramid because it
is built on higher ground. The slope of the pyramid is 53 degrees.
• The top of the Chephren pyramid has retained the original limestone casing. There are 2
entrances located one above the other at a height of 50’, that lead to a large limestone
chamber through a descending passageway. The lower corridor directly below the upper
corridor joins after a distance & leads to the inner chamber which is lined with granite.
• This is a reconstructed
diagram of the pyramid of
Chephren with its causeway
connecting to the valley
t
temple,
l the
th pyramidid off
Cheops & the surrounding
environs.
• To the east of the pyramid is located the Mortuary temple, containing the 5 typical
spaces such as the entrance hall, a columned court, 5 niches for the statues of the
Pharaoh, 5 storage chambers & an inner sanctuary. There were 52 life size statues of
Khafre that were plundered or removed.
• Th pictures
The i t above
b show
h the
th statue
t t off Khafre
Kh f in
i the
th Cairo
C i museum & th the views
i off the
th
Valley temple that was constructed about 495 M away & connected to the mortuary
temple by a cause way.
• The pyramid of Mykerinos is the smallest
of the 3 royal pyramids at Giza & he is
believed to be the successor of Khafre.
• It is about 203’
203 tall with a base of 339
339’
square. He is believed to be the king who
alleviated the suffering of his people.
The great Sphinx is located N.E of Chephren’s valley
temple, which was the site of the quarry from which
the stones for the pyramids came. It was carved out
of the remaining spur of rock by his workers 4500
years ago. The sphinx is carved out of sandstone & its
body is 200’ long and 65’tall. The face is 13’ wide & it
was buried in the desert sand until a Pharaoh of the
5th dynasty
d t excavated
t d it.
it The
Th pyramid
id iis widely
id l
considered to be a depiction of royal power of the
Pharaoh.
• The great temple of Ammon at Karnak is the grandest of all Egyptian temples & was
built by many kings starting from the 12th dynasty down to Ptolemy’s period. It has six
entrance pylons, which can be seen in this picture & was built from BC 1550 – 323.
• Like all Egyptian temples it
is approached through an
avenue of sphinxes, with a
pair of massive pylons
serving as the entrance.
The temple area is a vast
open air museum & is the
largest ancient religious site
in the world.
• The 1st entrance pylon is
15 m thick & is constructed
of mud bricks. The batter of
the pylon is characteristic of
Egyptian architecture.
•The pylons lead to a Great court measuring 338’ by 278’, which accommodates the shrine
off Seti
S II & the temple off Ramesses III. The central axis off the temple is oriented in the east-
west direction & the same is emphasized by 6 pairs of columns in the court. The 2nd pylon
leads to the Hypostyle hall, which was begun by Seti I & completed by Ramesses II. The 3rd
& 4th pylons lead to the sanctuary, which also contains the festival hall.
•The detail plan of the Ammon temple shows the 4 pylons leading to the sanctuary, which
has been mostly destroyed. However, the plan shows the 6 pairs of central columns in the
hypostyle hall with 126 (9 rows x 7 lines x 2 sides) shorter columns on either side.
• The top view shows the view of the
great court with the temple of Seti I.
• The bottom view shows another part
of the court with the north gate in
the middle.
• The row of columns near the
enclosure wall have bud capitals &
the 2nd pylon can be partially seen
on the right.
• The great hypostyle hall is about 320’ x 160’ internally & is roofed by enormous slabs of
stone, supported by 138 columns. The roof of the central avenue is raised to a height of
80’ with the columns itself rising to 69’
80 69 ht & having a diameter of 11
11’ 9”
9 with lotus
bloom capitals. The side avenues are lower in order to admit light through clear storey
windows with the columns rising to 42’ ht and 9’ diameter, having lotus bud capitals.
The effect produced by this forest of columns is most awe-inspiring.
• The 2 views above show the columns of the central avenue with lotus bloom capitals &
the columns of the side avenues with lotus bud capitals. The clear storey windows
through which light was brought to the interior of the temple can also be seen.
• This picture clearly shows the clear storey windows made of stone located above the
roofing of the side avenues & the columns of the central avenue with hieroglyphics.
• Not much of the actual sanctuary
remains today as can be observed
from the picture on the top.
• However all the walls & columns
were covered with incised
inscriptions in colour giving the
history of the temple, the names of
the gods to whom it was dedicated &
the royal people who contributed to
its grandeur.
• The picture below shows the festival
hall of Thutmose III
III, which was
constructed during the last period.
The column capitals & shafts
resemble bundled reeds of papyrus
and look more elegant. They are also
considered to be the fore runners of
the fluted columns of the Greek.
• The awesome effect of perspective & monumental scale produced by the forest of
columns in the hypostyle hall can be observed from the picture on the left. The obelisk
of Queen Hatshepsut, located between the 4th & 5th pylon rises to height of 30m.
• This is the view of the Ammon temple from across the sacred lake that shows the
ruined condition of the sanctuary. The obelisks erected by Thutmose I & queen
Hatshepsut can also be seen.
• The great temple at Abu simbel is one of the most stupendous of Egyptian rock-cut
tombs The impressive façade
tombs. façade, 119’ wide & 100’ high,
high is formed as a pylon with 4
colossal statues of Ramesses II, who built it. The vestibule beyond has 8 Osiris pillars &
vividly colored wall relief's. Eight small chambers used for storage adjoin this vestibule.
Beyond it is a small hypostyle hall with 4 pillars that leads to the sanctuary having altar.
• The mortuary temple
Th l off Q
Queen
Hatshepsut at Der – el Bahari is
quite interesting as it consists of 3
terraced courts cut out of the rock &
connected by a ramp.
• The upper court if flanked by 2
sacrificial halls, while on the central
axis is the sanctuary, cut deep into
the rock.
• The fluted columns with square
capitals are fore runners of the
Greek columns & the walls have fine
relief sculptures.
• The Temple at Edfu is the best preserved since it was built during the last period. The
massive entrance pylons with relief sculptures leading to the colonnaded great court &
the hypostyle hall with its façade of pillars can be seen in these 4 pictures.
ANCIENT ARCHITECTURE OF WEST ASIA

SUMERIAN, ASSYRIAN & PERSIAN PERIOD
Factors influencing West Asiatic architecture
Factors influencing  West Asiatic architecture

Building raised on platform

Building raised on platform Fortified wall and Entrance tower
Fortified wall and Entrance tower

The Sumerian civilization lacked natural defensive boundaries, was well connected by land 
to other neighboring civilizations exposed to the threat of invasions for its fertile land
to other neighboring civilizations, exposed to the threat of invasions for its  fertile land 
provided by the two great rivers.
Mesopotamia ‐ “ The land between two rivers ”
Tigris and Euphrates the two great rivers deposited their silt over the plain, forming natural 
banks and frequently changing their courses subjected to annual inundation resulting into 
the formation of calendar and the study of astronomy. Their cities stood in a raised ground 
above the neighboring plain and fortified with city wall and watch towers (entrance tower).
above the neighboring plain and fortified with city wall and watch towers (entrance tower). 
Their individual building within the cities were raised on platform. The stone plinth were 
used to protect their building.
 Stone plinth

ziggurat Wall with bitumen as bonding 
g
P l h
Polychrome and colored tiles
d l d til
material

Assyria:
Stone was rare, availability of soil was plenty, mixed with mud poured into moulds of 
sun dried & kiln fired bricks and polychrome and terracotta tiles.
Bitumen was obtained from natural spring was first used as mastic, eventually its water 
proofing quality was realized and used for lining the drains and to reduce the erosion of 
brick wall.
brick wall.
The Assyrian kings showed great energy in scientific and literary pursuits, the study of 
astronomy lead to the evolution of ziggurat
 Architectural character
Architectural character

Palace complex with temples and 
ziggurat

Courts with rooms around
Entrance gate
Entrance gate 
Buildings raised on platform
Raised on platform ramp

ziggurat
i t

Stone and timber suitable for building were rare, clay was abundant which compressed
in moulds and either dried in the sun or kiln fired bricks every kind of structure.
Their structures were massive towered fortifications temple complexes and palaces
Their structures were massive, towered fortifications, temple complexes and palaces.
Buildings were raised on mud‐brick platform and chief temples had scared ziggurats 
 Entrance guarded by winged 
bulls
Stepped battlement

Flat buttress

Painted walls
Painted walls

vertical recessed panel 
Stone plinth
p
Towers or flat buttress
Courts with rooms around

Generally rooms were arranged around large and small courtyards, rooms were narrow with 
thick walls supporting barrel vault or domes the roofs were usually flat outside
thick walls supporting barrel vault or domes the roofs were usually flat outside.
Burnt bricks were used sparingly for facings or for special character. Walls were whitewashed 
or painted in color.  
Towers or flat buttress strips were vertically paneled and finished in stepped battlements 
with stone plinths below.  
Their entrance were guarded by colossal winged bulls.  Polychrome glazed bricks were used 
for facing.
 Ziggurat Ur 

Secondary court

Ziggurat with its court

The complex consists the ziggurat, its court, a secondary court attached to it and the great 
temples. This complex stood on a rectangular platform at the heart of an oval shaped 
walled city, which is 20 ft above the surrounding plains.
The ziggurat 205’ x 141’ at base and 70 ft high, carried the usual temple on its submit, with 
normal orientation.
 The ziggurat, of Ur

solid core of mud brick skin of burnt brickwork

The ziggurat, of Ur  had a solid core of mud brick , covered with a skin of burnt brickwork 
of 8 ft thick, laid in bitumen and layers of matting at intervals to improve cohesion, 
its sides were slightly convex, giving an added effect of mass, broad shallow 
g y g g
corner buttress.  Weeper – holes were provided through the brickwork for the water to drain 
 View of palace of Sargon
Plan of Palace of Sargon

State court
Main entrance

ziggurat

Grand court
Raised terrace
`
ramp

Rooms &corridors arranged

Temple court with
around courts
Group of small & big temples

Main entrance (Palace of Sargon )

The Cit
Th City off Khorsabad
Kh b d was built
b ilt by
b Sargon
S g II (722-705
(722 705 BC).
BC) It was square-planned,
l d with
ith a
defensive perimeter, and covered nearly one square mile.
The Palace of Sargon, a complex of large and small courts, corridors and rooms, covering
23 acres. Each of the buildings was raised upon a terrace, was approached by road ramps.
The main entrance to the palace leading to Grand court, was flanked by great towers and
guarded by man-headed winged bulls, 12’ 6” high, supporting a bold, semi-circular arch
decorated with brilliantly-coloured glazed bricks.
 Plan of  Palace of Sargon

State court
State chamber
ziggurat

‐ Grand court

Main entrance
Temple court
p Service quarters & 
q
administrative offices

The palace had three main parts, each abutting the grand court.  On the left a group of three 
large and three small temples; on the right service quarters and administrative offices; and with 
the state chambers behind.  The state chambers had their own court, with dado slabs over 7’‐0” 
high bearing relief's of the king and his courtiers.  The lofty throne‐room, about 160’ x 35’ , was 
the outermost of the state suite planned around its own internal court, with timber ceiling.
The plastered walls bore a painted decoration of a triple brand of friezes, 18 ft high around the 
room above.  Walls were 20’ thick.
 Square base Ziggurat
Temple court with sunken vertical panel, stone plinth and stepped 
battlement

Successive tiers paneled
And battlement

Temples  with high plinth, of polychrome bricks and 
panel of half columns
Grand court and temple walls were decorated by sunken vertical paneling, whitewashed 
Grand court and temple walls were decorated by sunken vertical paneling whitewashed
towers had stone plinth and finished with stepped battlement.
The three chief temples had high plinth, projected from the wall, faced with polychrome glazed 
p p
bricks.  The wall behind plinth was panelled with series of abutted half columns. 
The temples had a ziggurat on a square base of 148’‐0” side.  The seven‐tiered ziggurat rose to 
148’‐0” ascended by a winding ramp 6’‐0”wide.The successive tiers were paneled and 
battlement, painted in different colours on the plastered faces.
The Palace of Persepolis was begun in 518 BC by Darius I, was mostly executed by Xerxes I (486‐465 
BC). Various buildings stood on a platform, partly built and partly excavate, faced in well laid local  
stone bounded with iron clamps. The palace 460 m x 275 m (1500 ft x 900 ft) in extent  and rising 15 
m (50 ft) above the ground level. The approach to the palace by magnificent flight of steps on the 
northwest, shallow enough  for the horse to ascend were6.7 m (22 ft) wide.
 Hall of 100 columns

Apadana of Darius

Gateway of Xerxes Palace of Darius

Tripylon

The gatehouse of Xerxes has mud walls faced with polychrome brick, with front and rear portal guarded by 
stone bulls. A doorway on the south led to “ apadana " a grand audience hall 76.2 (250 ft) square and with 
36 columns  enclosed by a 6 m (20 ft) wide walls.  It stood on its own terrace 3 m (10 ft)  high had three 
porticoes, each with double colonnades, stairway, on the north and east sides and mirror rooms across the 
Southside and with four angle towers. This palace along with tripylon and treasury were  the works of 
Darius.  Tripylon lay centrally among the buildings, acted as a reception chamber and ground room. Treasury 
in the south‐east angle of the site is a double‐walled 
administration and store house with columned halls of different sizes and single doorway.
Xerxes added his own palace,  in the south‐west connected by the women Quarters 
known as harem. He also built "Hall of Hundred Columns'. This is a Throne Hall, 225’  
square, with columns 11.3 m (37 ft) high, supporting a flat, cedar roof. Columns had 
capitals with twin bulls or dragons supporting the roof beams. All the monumental stairs 
were lined with relief sculpture.  There were stepped battlements in the parapet walls.  
All these sculptures were originally in painted in brilliant  colours. Column of the smaller 
apartments had wooden shafts & complex capitals which were decoratively painted. The 
walls of the main Halls were built of stone.
AERIAL VIEW OF THE PALACE OF SARGON, KHORSABAD
AERIAL VIEW OF THE PALACE OF PERSEPOLIS
CLASSICAL GREEK ARCHITECTURE

EARLY, CLASSICAL & HELLENISTIC PERIOD
This map of Ancient Greece shows the Greek mainland at the center, parts of southern Italy & Sicily,
where the Doric order was commonly used & parts of Asia minor (Turkey), where the Ionic order was
usually
ll employed.
l d
About 1500 years before the Greek civilization, a civilization flourished on the island of Crete Known as
the Minoan (2700 – 1600 BC) after the legendary king Minos & later the Mycenaean (1600 – 1100
BC) after their capital city of Mycenae.
 FACTORS INFLUENCING GREEK ARCHITECTURE

• Geographical : Greece has a broken coast line with about 3000 islands, which made the Greeks
into a sea-faring people. The colonization of neighboring lands such as the Dorian colonies of Sicily
& the Ionian colonies of Asia minor resulted in the spread of Greek civilization. The mountains of
th country
the t separatedt d th
the iinhabitants
h bit t iinto
t various
i groups th
thatt led
l d tto th
the evolution
l ti off city
it states
t t lik
like
Athens, Troy, Delphi etc.
• Geological : The chief mineral wealth of Greece was her marble, the most beautiful of all building
materials that facilitates exactness of line & refinement of detail. The Greeks even coated coarse
limestone with a layer of marble stucco to achieve the effect of fine grained marble.
marble
• Climatic : The Greek climate is a salubrious Mediterranean type of climate that encouraged outdoor
activity. Consequently most public ceremonies took place in the open air, which resulted in building
types such as the Greek theatre. The sunny climate with sudden showers necessitated the
porticoes & colonnades that are typical of Greece
• Religious : The Greek religion was mainly a worship of natural phenomena with each city having its
own deity. Zeus was the chief god, Apollo was his son, Athena was the goddess of wisdom &
prosperity, Aphrodite for love and Nike, the goddess of victory.
• Social : Classical Greece was peopled by Ionians, Dorians, Aeolians & Corinthians. The people of
the various greek states were bound by their religion, their love of music, drama, fine arts & their
passion for sports & games.
• Historical : The rule of Pericles (444 – 429 BC) marks the climax of Athenian prosperity. After the
Peloponnesian war the Spartans established their supremacy. Then king Philip of Macedonia
unified Greece & his son Alexander the great established the greek empire after conquering Persia
, Egypt& North India. The city of Alexandria was also founded by him.
 ARCHITECTURAL CHARACTER

• Greeks by their innate artistic sense profoundly influenced the development of European art &
hence Greece is regarded as the source of literary & artistic inspiration.
1. Early period (2700 – 700 BC) : Minoan & Mycenaean architecture is rough & massive in character
with the walls exhibiting 3 kinds of masonry – Cyclopean masonry consists of large blocks of stone
piled one on another with small pieces of interstices, bound by clay mortar Ex. Knossos.
Rectangular masonry comprising of rectangular stone blocks in regular courses, with the joints not
always vertical. Ex. Mycenae. Polygonal masonry with many sided blocks accurately fitted together.
Ex Acropolis wall at Athens.
Ex. Athens
2. Classical period (700 BC – 346 BC) : Greek architecture is of the columnar & trabeated style where
the construction system is self evident. Unity of effect in greek temples was achieved by a single
colonnade surrounding the naos. Columns became more graceful & moldings were refined.
Columns were erected by inserting metal dowels at the centre of circular blocks of stone & metal
cramps were inserted in masonry walls. It was mainly temples that were built during this period.
Many refinements to correct optical illusions were practiced. They developed the Doric , Ionic &
Corinthian orders. Color & gilding was freely applied to details & sculptures. Ex. Parthenon, the
Propylae etc.
etc
3. Hellenistic period (346 BC – 146 AD) : During this time the secular architecture developed with the
building of Theatres, Agoras, Stadia etc. & the interaction with other cultures made possible by
Alexander’s conquest affected greek art considerably. The Doric order was commonly employed
d i g the
during th Hellenic
H ll i period
i d & later
l t on the
th Ionic
I i order
d evolved.
l d However,
H during
d i g the
th Hellenistic
H ll i ti period
i d
the Corinthian order was used frequently & the taller version of the Ionic order. Ex. Erechtheion,
theatre Epidauros & Tower of Winds.
 ORDERS IN GREEK ARCHITECTURE Cornice
• What is an Order ? – An Order in architecture Frieze
refers to the column, its capital & the part E t bl t
Entablature
supported by it known as the entablature. In each
order, these parts are in a specific proportion to Architrave
each other & display characteristic shapes,
forms,, treatment & molding.g
Capital
• Evolution of the Doric order

Shaft

Column

The Doric order evolved from the hut that was built with circular logs for posts with square 
planks on top to fix them to the purlins & rafters with rectangular sections that formed the 
framework for the roof. It had a shaft & capital that comprised of the column  which 
supported the Entablature comprising of the Architrave , Frieze & cornice. The triangular part 
at the top of the composition is known as the pediment.
• The Doric column stands without a base, directly on the stylobate (Plinth), which usually comprises
of 3 steps. The radius at the base of the column is taken as the basic module for proportioning. The
ht. of the column inclusive of the capital is about 4 to 6.5 times the base diameter. The circular
shaft which reduces at the top to about ¾ - 2/3 of the base diameter, is divided into 20 shallow
flutings divided by sharp “arrises”
arrises . The shaft rises up to the hypotrechelion formed of 3 grooves,
grooves
above which is the continuation of the shaft called the trachelion or the neck. Above this is the
Doric capital comprising of the square abacus, the curved echinus & the annulets (3 to 5 fillets)
that terminate the flutings of the column.
 DORIC ORDER

Cornice (Cymatium & corona)
M t
Metope
Triglyph ‐ one above the center of 
each column & one above each inter 
columniation
Architrave (beam)
Architrave (beam)
Annulets
Abacus
Echinus
Hypotrechelion
Arrises
Flutings
Doric entablature is 1/4th the height of the 
entire order & consists of the Architrave, the 
Frieze & the cornice. Triglyphs with 3 upright 
channels alternating with squarish Metopes 
with relief sculpture comprise of the frieze
with relief sculpture comprise of the frieze.
Mutules with guttae
Tenia (horizontal molding)

Regulae (flat strip)

Guttae (drops)
 Comparison of Doric order

The 3 examples given above belong to the 
earlier period & the 3 below are of the later 
period.
In the earlier temples the echinus flares 
out ,4 annulets & 3 hypotrachelion grooves 
out ,4 annulets & 3 hypotrachelion grooves
are common. However in the later day 
temples, the echinus is more vertical with 5 
annulets & one hypotrechelion.
The columns also have become more 
slender during the later period & tend to 
have more flutings.
It is astonishing to note that in the Greek 
It is astonishing to note that in the Greek
architecture, which was built about 2500 
yrs ago, such a rigorous system of 
proportions were adopted. 
Moreover the attention given to even small 
h ll
detailing such as the various parts of the 
order, moldings & grooves is fascinating.
THESION, ATHENS PARTHENON APOLLO, DELOS
Comparative plan of Greek Temples.

Greek temples have a walled enclosure 
k l h ll d l
known as the “Naos” with an entrance 
foyer known as the “Pronaos” & a storage 
chamber at the rear called the 
“opisthodomos”. They are classified into 
various style depending upon the number 
of columns in the façade. Thus a temple 
h i 2 l
having 2 columns is known as Distyle, 4 
i k Di t l 4
columns as tetra style & 8 columns as 
octastyle etc.
Similarly if there are one row of columns 
Similarly if there are one row of columns
surrounding the naos it is called peripteral
& if there are 2 rows of columns it is 
known as dipteral & if there are attached 
half columns it is pseudo peripteral.
Hence the Parthenon is peripteral
octastyle, the Olypeion is dipteral 
octastyle & Zeus olympus is pseudo 
peripteral septastyle. Greeks also built 
circular temples.
 IONIC ORDER
Volute capital Egg & dart molding
cushion

24 to 40 flutes

Volutes
Bead molding

Upper Torus
The volutes are connected by an egg &dart molding,
Scotia below which is a bead molding. The echinus below the
Lower Torus abacus is very shallow & comprises entirely of moldings
• Ionic columns including g the capital
p & base have a height
g of about 9 times the base
diameter. The molded base consists of an upper & lower torus divided by a scotia. The
distinctive Volute or scroll capital must be derived from nature. The capital consists of a
pair of volutes or spirals, about 2/3 the base dia in height, on the front & back of the
column connected at the sides by the cushion.
 IONIC ORDER

Dentils
Cornice

Architrave

The Ionic entablature  is about 1/5 of the total height of 
The Ionic entablature is about 1/5 of the total height of
the order & consists of an architrave formed like 3 
superimposed beams, a frieze ornamented by square 
projections called “dentils” & continuous band of relief 
sculpture and the cornice with no mutules, but with  the 
l t d th i ith t l b t ith th
corona & cymatium. 
In the capitals of angle columns it was necessary to show 
the volutes on 2 adjacent faces & hence they joined the
the volutes on 2 adjacent faces & hence they joined the 
adjacent volutes at an angle of 45 degrees, as shown in the 
diagram above.
 Abacus
Spirals
Stalks

Acanthus leaves
• The Corinthian column,, with the base & shaft resembling g
the Ionic is has a height of 10 times the base diameter.
• The distinctive feature is the capital, which is taller than the
others & is usually about 11/8th diameter high.
• The capital is supposed to have originated by observing a
flower basket covered with a tile, left over the grave of a
Corinthian maiden, surrounded by acanthus leaves.
• The typical Corinthian capital is in the form of an inverted
b ll with
bell, i h the
h lower
l part surrounded
d d by
b 2 tiers
i off eight
i h
acanthus leaves. Between the leaves of the upper row rise 8
stalks from which emerge the spirals that support the
angles of the abacus & the central flower shaped ornament.
Each face of the molded abacus is curved outward to a
point at the angles. CORINTHIAN ORDER
• The entablature is similar to the Ionic, rising to 1/5 the
th

height of the entire order, but has more moldings.

• Most Greek temples were built on a raised plateau which was considered as the sacred
temenos This picture shows the view of the Acropolis at Athens,
temenos. Athens with the most famous
temple of Parthenon at the top. Other important structures include the Erechtheion, the
Propylae, the temple of Nike etc. All the structures are of marble & are world famous for
their proportions, geometry, fine sculptures & optical refinements to correct illusions
• This plan of the Acropolis shows the entrance structure called the Propylae on the west,
the main Parthenon temple in the middle & the Erechtheion in the north side. Other
structures include the theatres, the temple of Victory (Nike) and the Stoa.
• The Parthenon was built from 454 to 438 BC, during the reign of King Pericles & is
dedicated to the Goddess Athena Parthenos or the Virgin Athena. Ictinus & Callicrates
were the
th architects,
hit t while
hil Phideas
Phid was the
th mastert sculptor.
l t This
Thi temple
t l iis considered
id d as
a fine example of the Doric style & is renowned for its fine carvings known as the
panathenaic frieze, the enormous statue of Athena in gold & ivory & the practice of
architectural refinements to correct optical illusions.
• The temple is Peripteral Octastyle in plan with 17 columns in its flanks, standing on a
stylobate of 3 steps. At the plinth, it measures 101’- 4” x 228’- 2” with a ratio 0f 4:9.
• The main doorway on the east led to the Naos, about 63 63’ x 100
100’,, having 2 rows of 10
Doric columns supporting passageways on three sides with a 2 floor height space in the
middle. On the back side was the Parthenon, used as a treasury & entered through a
door in the Opisthodomos, with 4 ionic columns supporting the roof. Both chambers
were enclosed by a 4’
4 thick wall. The Pronaos & Opisthodomos each measuring 60’ 60 x
12’, had 6 Doric columns & were fitted with metal grilles to serve as ante chambers.
• In the Naos stood the statue of Athena & the entire temple was surrounded by an
ambulatory 9’wide in the sides and 11’ wide in the front & rear.
•The view above is the Elevation & the 2 views on the 
side are of the flank & a close up of the front façade.

• The prominent external features are the peristyle fluted columns which are 32 in the
sides & 16 in the front & rear. They rise to about 34’- 3” ht & are 5.5 times the base
di
diameter.
t MostM t off the
th columns
l have
h 6’-
6’ 2” base
b di
diameter
t andd ttaper tto 4’
4’- 10” att th
the ttop.
The axis of all the columns are slightly tilted inwards towards the top to prevent the
optical illusion of falling outward. They also exhibit a concave profile known as the
Entasis, which is another refinement to correct the illusion of looking thin in the middle.
• The entablature is 11’ high and has the usual divisions of the Architrave, Frieze &
Cornice. The architrave was ornamented with bronze shields & inscriptions of Alexander
the great. The frieze comprises of the usual tryglyphs & metopes, which about 4’ 5”
square carried fine relief sculpture of the achievements of the athenians.
• Th pediments
The di t which
hi h have
h an inclination
i li ti off 13.5
13 5 degrees
d g are terminated
t i t d att the
th rooff &
each end by an ornamentation known as the Acroterion. The tympana of the pediment
was filled with finest sculpture of Phideas.
The picture above shows the reconstructed view of the interior of 
the Naos, while the one on top right is a view of a model. The 
picture on the right is recreation of the statue of Virgin Athena at
picture on the right is recreation of the statue of Virgin Athena at 
Nashville, USA.
The  Ivory & gold statue is about 42’ high with the winged victory 
on one hand & shield on the other The model tries recapture the
on one hand & shield on the other. The model tries recapture the 
details of the temple such as the sculptures in the tympana & 
frieze.
• The peristyle was enriched with marble beams which were painted. The celebrated
Panathenaic frieze was carved as a horizontal band on the exterior of the naos wallwall. It is
3’- 4” high & is sculpted in such a way as to be seen in the light reflected by the white
marble pavement below. It represents the procession taken once in 4 years to this
temple. Most of this frieze is in the London museum & the picture above is a painting.
• The sculptured metopes on the eastern facade represent the contest between the gods
& giants, those on the west represent the fight between the Greeks & Amazons etc. All
the sculptures were painted with brilliant colors. The Parthenon is considered to be a
miracle of architecture with gleaming marble, marvelous sculpture & glowing color. It
remains as Greece's greatest historic monument & her most precious heritage.
 THE ERECHTHEION

• The Erechtheion was constructed from 420 – 393 BC by Mnesicles,

Mnesicles who was the
architect & contains 3 shrines within its walls. It has no side colonnades & hence is
called “Apteral” in style. The temple is considered to be very sacred as it contains the
olive wood statue of Athena, the salt well of Poseidon & the tomb of Erechtheus.
View from NW

Plan Caryatid porch

Caryatid porch WEST ELEVATION
• The Erechtheion is irregular in plan owing to the sloping site & contains the shrine of
Athena in the eastern portion with the main entrance through the Ionic hexastyle
portico seen in the earlier picture.
portico, picture Behind this is the shrine of Erechtheion & Poseidon
Poseidon,
which is accessed from the northern Ionic tetrastyle portico. The western naos was
added later & entered through the passage connecting the northern portico & the
southern Caryatid porch. The northern portico is 10’ lower than the eastern portico.
 North portico

Caryatid porch

This elevation shows the north portico at 10’ below the Eastern Looking east

The walls in the center have been removed to show the eastern portico 
in this section. It also shows the lower level comprising of water Tanks
• The northern portico is a very ornate example of the Ionic order. The Ionic order of the
eastern portico is not so ornamental. The main building is crowned with an entablature
of 5’
5 ht
ht. having the usual divisions of the architrave,
architrave frieze & cornice
cornice. The frieze of all
the porticoes was done in black marble to which the relief sculptures in white marble
were attached with metal cramps. The sky line was emphasized by the acroterion
ornament of the pediments & the antifixae to the marble roofing slabs. The doorways of
the temple are remarkable forf their brackets, architrave & cornice.
• The Erechtheion is a fine example of asymmetrical architectural composition having
various levels, which gives it different views from all around.
 The Caryatid portico on the south is the
finest example of sculpture of classical
Greece, where 6 draped female figures
or caryatids are spaced like the
columns
l off the
th north
th portico.
ti
They stand on a solid marble wall,
about 8’ high & have a height of 7’- 9”.
They also support an unusual
entablature,
t bl t on which
hi h rests
t the
th marble
bl
roof. All the figures face south : the 3
on the west lean on the right & the 3 on
the east lean on the left leg.
 Hexastyle Doric portico

Temple of Nike Apteros

Pinacotheca

6 Ionic columns THE PROPYLAE

The Propylae is an entrance portal, constructed at the acropolis by Mnesicles, during the
reign of Pericles. The front & rear hexastyle porticoes are at different levels & give access
t a covered
to dh hallll with
ith a wide
id central
t l passage.
g Thi
This passage
g iis fl
flanked
k d by
b 3 pairs
i off Ionic
I i
columns, that leads to a wall with 5 doorways of different heights. The projecting wings
have 3 Doric columns shorter than the central ones. The northern wing provided with
windows was used as a pinacotheca or picture gallery. The temple of Nike is on the south.
OPTICAL CORRECTIONS (REFINEMENTS) IN GREEK TEMPLES

• The vertical axis of the columns were inclined inwards,

by 2.65 inches to prevent the appearance of falling
outward that occurs in perspective.
• Similarly, the stylobate, entablature & pediment were
made convex with the center raised by 2.6 inches with
respect to the ends to correct the sagging appearance.
OPTICAL CORRECTIONS (REFINEMENTS) IN GREEK TEMPLES

Optical corrections made to the lettering 
in the inscriptions of temples, to make all 
of them look the same size.

The change in appearance of 
the end columns seen 
against the sky background 
& the other columns seen 
against the background of 
the Naos wall 

The shaft of the column had a convex profile known as the entasis to
correct the appearance of looking thicker in the middle.
 Theater Epidauros
diazoma
rows of seats

stage

Plan View & Aerial view of Epidauros

Plan, View & Aerial view of Epidauros

Orchestral pit

• The theater,
theater best preserved of all,
all has a diameter of 373’
373 & is scooped out of a hillside.
hillside It has a
circular orchestral platform 66’ in diameter, with 2 banks of seats separated by a “diazoma” or
cross aisle. 32 rows of seats form the lower bank & 20 rows are there in the upper bank. There are
24 flights of step which act as aisles, giving access to all parts of the gallery. The seating is of
marble slabs, the orchestral pit is paved with a harder stone & there is an colonnaded stage. The
theater is marveled for its exceptional acoustics, since the 15000 spectators can perfectly hear the
un-amplified speech. Researchers have now established (2007) that it is due to the marble gallery
absorbing the low frequency sound, such as the murmur of the crowd & the hard stone pavement
reflecting the high frequency sound from the stage and the orchestral platform.
 Plan of the Agora

Views of Stoa
Agora model

• The Agora was an open air meeting place,

place the Greek equivalent of the town square.
square It
was enclosed by Stoa or colonnades giving access to public buildings all around such as
temples, basilica, stadia etc. the Stoa was a colonnaded corridor that connected public
buildings & also gave shelter to pilgrims.
•The palace at Knossos was built gradually from 1700 to 1400 BC. The palace is laid around a 
central court & entered from the north through a portico On the left side of the court is the
central court & entered from the north through a portico. On the left side of the court is the 
throne room & other areas used by the King. Beyond it is the long gallery that gives access to 
many linear rooms. To the right side of the court is located the Queens megaron. Totally the 
palace had 1300 rooms & a theatre covering an area of 6 acres.
CLASSICAL  ROMAN ARCHITECTURE

MORE THAN 1000 YEARS 
 ROMAN ARCHITECTURE Factors influencing Architecture

Map of the Roman empire
• Geographical: The central position of Italy in the Mediterranean sea helped to spread
Roman Art & civilization to the rest of Europe, West Asia & North Africa. Romans first
conquered by war
war, then ruled by laws & civilized by arts & letters.
letters Romans adopted the
language of classical Greek architecture & improved the same to suit their purposes.
• Geological: Rome had an abundance of building materials – Travertine was a hard
limestone, Peperino is a stone of volcanic origin, Tufa is a type of volcanic earth, plenty
of marble and the terracotta which was used commonly. But it was concrete made from
Pozzolona that led to great structural innovations. Pozzolona was a type of sand which,
when mixed with lime & water, formed an exceedingly hard & cohesive concrete that
made the construction of finest Roman monuments, possible.
INFLUENCES:
• Climatic: Italy has a varied climate with the north having a temperate climate, central Italy
experiencing Mediterranean climate & south having an almost tropical climate.
climate This has resulted in
varied architectural features & treatment of buildings. More over, the Roman Empire spread to
Central Europe, Spain, West Asia & North Africa, which resulted in local modifications to the
predominant Roman Style. The Roman order, as it is commonly known comprises of a semicircular
arched opening with columns on either side
side, supporting an entablature
entablature. The roman semicircular
arch was of Etruscan origin.

Roman Orders 
• Religious: Romans were not very religious people & their religion was adopted from the Greeks.
Religion was a matter of state policy. Jupiter was the chief god, with Venus as the god of beauty,
Mars as the god of war & Vesta as the goddess of the Hearth (home). They built more public
buildings than temples – the basilica was the court house, the public baths for recreation, the
amphitheatres for watching sport & the circus for racing.

• Social:. The Domus was the house with a courtyard & implicit obedience to the father was the key
aspect of the family life. The Roman social system had only Roman citizens & slaves with no
middle class. The Forum was the center of public life & national commerce, as the markets were
located around it. The senators enjoyed an exalted position and distinguished themselves as law
makers. The Emperor was all powerful & it was his bounden duty to protect his empire & people.

• Historical: Rome is believed to have been founded in 750 BC by the twins, Romulus & Reemus.
The Etruscans who settled in central Italy were the early builders & they are credited with
developing the Arch & the Tuscan order. After Julius Caesar consolidated the Roman Empire, there
was an unsettled
ttl d period
i d with
ith th
the reign
ig off 3 emperors. Th
Then AAugustus
g t established
t bli h d himself
hi lf & his
hi rule
l
known as the “Augustan age” is considered as a golden period. He is credited with revitalizing art,
architecture & literature. Then followed a line of famous emperors such as Nero, Trajan, Hadrian,
Caracalla & Diocletian, who were all great patrons of architecture. By 300 AD, Constantine had
converted
t d tto Ch
Christianity
i ti it & shifted
hift d his
hi capital
it l to
t Byzantium.
B ti Subsequently
S b tl the
th roman empire i
became too vast & was divided into the Eastern half with capital at Constantinople & western half
with capital at Rome with 2 Emperors ruling them.
 Roman walls

Opus incertum Opus reticulatum
• Romans started constructing walls by using small pieces of stone such as tufa, marble,
pepperino,
p pp , bricks,, etc with lime and pozzolona,
p , therebyy pouring
p g this concrete into walls
with timber shuttering. “opus quadratum” was rectangular pieces of stone laid with
mortar & secured by cramps. “opus incertum” was concrete wall faced with irregular
pieces of stone. “opus reticulatum” was concrete wall with diagonal lines & patterns.
Concrete faced with triangular
g shaped
p bricks of 1.5” thickness was known as “opus p
testaceum”. At regular intervals a brick bonding course was used. Concrete wall faced
with bands of tufa stone in between brick facing was known as “Opus mixtum”.

Opus quadratum Opus testaceum Opus mixtum

Construction of roman arches

• Only
O l th
the semicircular
i i l arches
h iin bbrick
i k & stone
t
were used during the classical period. Other
types of arches were employed during the
Romanesque & gothic periods.
 Construction of Vaults & Domes

Cross vaulting in a basilica showing 
Cross vaulting in a basilica showing
the Groins
The character of roman architecture is largely dependent on the use of vaulting as a 
standardized structural system. The semicircular barrel vault was constructed by having a series 
of brick arches, connected by tiles, thus forming compartments into which, the concrete was 
fb i k h t d b til th f i t t i t hi h th t
poured. The cross vault formed by the intersection of 2 semicircular vaults of equal span was 
used over square spaces. The lines of intersection are known as “groins”. Hemispherical domes 
were used over circular spaces & semi‐domes over exedras.
 Roman architectural character
• The Romans adopted the true arch with radiating voussoirs developed by the Etruscans. Though the
Romans used the columnar & trabeated style of the Greeks, they also developed the arch, vault &
the dome. The combined use of the column, beam & arch is the key note of the Roman style.
• Th R
The Romans added
dd d the
th Tuscan
T & Composite
C it order
d tot the
th 3 orders
d off G
Greek
k architecture,
hit t making
ki g
them 5 in all. The Tuscan order is a simplified version of the Doric, about 7 dia. high, with base,
unfluted shaft, simply molded capital & a plain entablature. The Composite order has a capital that
is a combination of Corinthian & Ionic and was used in triumphal arches, to give an ornamental
character.
h t
Roman Corinthian capital
The Romans used the orders mostly as 
decorative features, as the vaulting & domes 
employed served as the structural system.

Tuscan order
• Architectural charecter:

• The complex civilization of the Romans required building with many storeys and hence they built
these apartments, markets, amphitheatres etc. using the attached half columns, one above the
other in each floor as purely decorative elements.

• Concrete could be made in any part of the Roman Empire and it is this factor that gave uniformity
of appearance to the buildings executed in the various parts of the empire. Concrete vaults were
erected whose spans were never equaled until the use of steel in the 19th century.

• The walls of concrete were sheathed externally & internally with marble,
marble stone,
stone brick or mosaic.
mosaic
Romans also used frequently the marble stuccoes for wall finish. Mural paintings of various types
such as fresco, tempera & varnish were done on prepared wall surfaces.

• Mosaics were used to ornament the floors – Opus vermiculatum is made up of squarish patterns in
stone, marble & many colored glass, Opus sectile is a pattern of marble, porphyry or glass cut into
various shapes and opus spicatum is made of paving bricks, set in a herring bone pattern.

• The walls had either semicircular or rectangular niches to accommodate the statues,
statues which were
sometimes flanked by columns supporting a pediment, which together served to frame the statue.
Gilded bronze covered the roof of important buildings.

• The barrel vault,

vault the cross vault & the domes,
domes which became the standard structural system during
roman times, predominantly influenced the character of their buildings. The octagonal & square
coffer pattern on the ceiling became a dominant decorative element in most buildings.
 EXAMPLES - THE FORUM

The Forum Romanum in Rome is the oldest & was laid out in the valley between the 7 hills. The 
chief public buildings were grouped around it & must have been very impressive since it was
chief public buildings were grouped around it & must have been very impressive since it was 
adorned with victory pillars, statues and surrounded by porticoes, colonnades, basilicas, temples 
& shops. It is believed that initially it was used as a hippodrome for racing horse driven chariots. 
Subsequently many such forums were laid out.
 EXAMPLES – THE PANTHEON, ROME

• The Pantheon, meaning the temple of the gods, was built as a shrine to the 7 deities of
the 7 planets, of the Roman religion. It is the best preserved building of its age in the
world & is actually a rebuilding in 125 AD by Hadrian of the original temple by Agrippa.
Th C
The Corinthian
i thi octastyle
t t l portico,
ti 110’ wideid bby 60’ deep,
d forms
f an imposing
i i entrance
t to
t
this circular temple. The unfluted, monolithic columns of granite with capitals in white
marble are about 46’ -5” high & support an entablature of 11’ height with the pediment
above it. The 8 facade columns, with others, forms a triple colonnade at the entrance.
 Semicircular exedrae Corridor around the dome base to take the lateral 
thrust of the dome  to prevent it from splitting
Rectangular recess
Oculus

142’‐6” dia. 142’‐6”
Staircase

PLAN
Niches for statue
The plan is a combination of a rectangular Greek style portico with the circular form of a
roman temple. At the rear of the entrance portico are niches in which stood the colossal
statues of Augustus & Agrippa, flanking the bronze entrance door. The rotunda (temple)
is circular with both the internal diameter & height as 142’-6”. The circular concrete wall
is 20’ thick, faced externally with brick & lined internally with marble & porphyry. There
are 8 recesses with one forming the entrance & the others accommodating the statue
of the gods. Of the remaining 7, 3 are semicircular exedras & 4 are rectangular
recesses, with all of them having 2 columns in line with the circular plan. The 8 piers
have 3 tiers of niches on the exterior, of which the lower ones are semicircular in plan.
The monolithic marble columns fronting the recesses about 34 34’-10”
10 high,
high support an
entablature, on which sits the attic floor. The attic floor is much shorter in height & has
blind windows treated with marble stucco. The semi circular exedras are roofed by a
semi-dome, while the rectangular recesses have relieving arches. Only the barrel vault
above the entrance & the semi-dome over the apse have been extended up to the attic
floor. The marble columns have their lower third part cabled & upper part fluted. Above
the attic is the springing of this enormous dome which was unsurpassed until 1781 AD.
Even now it holds the record for the largest unreinforced concrete dome in history of
architecture.
The dome is a hemisphere, the inner surface of which is coffered in 5 ranges that
diminish in size as they go to the top. Each of the moldings are adjusted & shortened
with regard to their appearance from below & were originally embellished with central
bronze ornaments. The coffers not only ornament the surface of the dome, but also
serve to reduce its weight. The lighting is only through the circular glazed opening, about
27’ in dia, at the crown of the dome, which still retains its circular bronze cornice. This
method of lighting prod
produces
ces a most impressive
impressi e effect & the ococulus
l s was
as ssymbolic
mbolic of the
sun. It has been found that as wind blows over the dome, it creates a negative pressure
zone at the top that pulls out the air from the dome, thus drawing air through the
entrance by venturi effect. The flooring has small holes to drain out the rain water.
Section, Sectional elevation & view of the detail at the roof top
The thickness of the dome varies from 21’ around the base of the dome to 4’ around
the oculus. Since the height from the floor to the top and the diameter are the same
(142’-6”), the whole interior would exactly fit within a cube of the same dimensions. It
can be seen that the romans were wary of the dome splitting about its haunches. So
they have made the masonry at the haunches extra thick & have gone as far as to
include a corridor encircling the base of the dome, which actually acts as a ring beam.
But architecturally, it is the combination of the dome , the cylinder & the triangular
prism that has captured the imagination of people so much so that Palladio adopts this
idea to the Villa Capra that he constructed in the 16th century.
This view of the interior is a painting by Pannini, who was a renaissance artist. However,
it has been recorded that the ceiling of the portico had a bronze vault & that there was a
bronze relief depicting the battle of the titans, in the pediment of the building. The main
concept is depending upon the time of the year the light would fall on various statues.
 EXAMPLES – THE COLOSSEUM, ROME

The Colosseum also known as the Flavian amphitheatre was built from 70–82 AD. 
Amphitheatres are charecteristic of roman civilization & were built to watch mortal combat. The 
bi
biggest one built in Rome, called the Colosseum, was capable of seating 80,000 spectators. It is a 
t b ilt i R ll d th C l bl f ti 80 000 t t It i
4 storeyed structure, 3 arcaded floors and attic,  rising to a height of 48m. It displays the typical 
roman order comprising of the semicircular arched opening flanked by columns on either side. It 
was used to watch gladiatorial contests & public spectacles.
The external façade has the 3 lower floors pierced by arched openings ornamented with
attached columns of the Tuscan order in the GF GF, Ionic order in the FF,
FF and Corinthian
order in the SF. The top attic floor has pilasters of the Corinthian order with corbels in
between to support the masts of the velarium. Of the 545m long perimeter wall, only
the north side wall is standing. What is seen on other sides is actually the inner wall.
 SECTION THROUGH THE GALLERY
The Colosseum is elliptical in plan, 620’ by 513’, with 80 external arcaded openings in
each floor. Those on the GF form the entrance from which various tiers of seats were
reached through a series of radiating staircases. The arena is oval, 287’ by 180’,
surrounded by a wall of 15’ height. Behind this was a gallery for senators, officers of the
state & the throne for the Emperor. Above this rose the seats for the spectators, with
staircases & corridors beneath to give access. The seats were in 4 main divisions – the
2 lower tiers for those of Equestrian rank & Roman citizens was separated by a high
encircling wall from the topmost bank of seats, which were for the women & plebian.
They were reached by stairs from the surrounding corridors placed in between the
radiating walls.
The construction is remarkable for the skillful combination of materials according to the
purpose for which they were suitable. The components of the concrete used vary – thus,
lava was used for solid foundations, tufa & brick for supporting walls, pumice which is
light in weight was used for the vaults to reduce the weight
weight, and travertine blocks set
without mortar & held together with cramps was employed for the façade. Marble was
used for columns, seats & ornamentation. The supporting structure consists of radiating
wedge shaped piers that support concrete vaults, sloping down towards the center.
Some of the special architectural features of the colosseum are – the massive piers
which support 3 tiers of arcades & vaulting that accommodates ambulatories encircling
the exterior, the decorative use of classical orders on superimposed floors, & the grand
sweeping lines of the unbroken entablature round the building. The proportions of the
attached columns, all having the same diameter are unusual – Tuscan columns are 9.5
diameters high
high, while the Ionic & Corinthian are 8.75
8 75 diameters high.
high The arena
comprised of a wooden floor, covered with sand, which covered an elaborate
underground structure for holding gladiators & animals before the contest began. The
corbels at the top of the attic supported a retractable awning known as the velarium.
The colosseum
Th l had
h d 80 entries
t i att
the GL, of which 76 were for the
public, the north one was for the
Emperor & the remaining 3 axial
entries
t i were for f the
th senators
t and
d
the elite. It is also unique because
it demonstrated the roman ability
to solve structural problems of an
engineering
i i nature. Its I massivei
scale & complex structure compel
admiration for the Roman nation.
 THERMAE OF CARACALLA Clear storey windows of the 
tepidarium

Frigidarium of Caracalla now Reconstructed view of the Frigidarium at Caracalla

The Thermae were the palatial public baths of ancient Rome

Rome, which served as a place
where any person could eat, drink, bath, exercise, shop, read & socialize. Its modern
equivalent would be a combination of a spa, library, gym, mall, club, bar & restaurant.
They were generally raised on a high platform within an enclosing wall, underneath
which were the furnaces & rooms connected with the services.
services They usually consisted of
3 main parts – a great central structure which contained the frigidarium, the tepidarium
the calidarium, & sudatorium, a large open space having a park & stadium and an outer
ring of apartments that had lecture rooms, shops and accommodation for the slaves etc
 View of reconstructed model from north

View of reconstructed model from south
The Thermae of Caracalla at Rome could accommodate 1600 bathers & stood on a
platform, 20’ in height. Beneath the platform were the vaulted storage chambers, the
f
furnaces, corridors
id & hot
h t air
i dducts
t for
f heating
h ti g the
th building.
b ildi g A colonnaded
l d d façade
f d
screened the 2 storeys on the entrance side with shops at the upper level & wash rooms
at the lower level. The main entrance led to a park like enclosure, laid out for games
around which were the lecture halls, drama halls & stadium. Beyond it was the reservoir
 Reconstructed view of tepidarium

Plan of the central building
l f h l b ildi
The central building used exclusively for bathing measured 750’ by 380’ covering an
area of 2,85000 sq ft. There were only 4 doorways on the entrance side, but large
openings were located on the rear side opening into the gardens. It is symmetrical in
plan with the tepidarium at the center & other spaces located around it. The Tepidarium
measuring 183’ by 79’ was roofed by semicircular cross vaults in 3 compartments,
rising to a height of 108’. They were supported on 8 massive piers fronted with granite
columns 38’
38 high supporting short pieces of entablature.
entablature This hall was lighted by clear
storey windows located on the walls under the vaults, which rose above the roof of the
adjoining halls. The calidarium was reached through an ante space & had special flues
on the walls for heating. The frigidarium was open to the sky & was used in summer.
 view of the Tepidarium
Views of the mosaic 
flooring
The interior was elaborately decorated with pavements having bright colored mosaic in
geometric patterns & the lower part of the concrete wall was sheathed in colored
marble. The upper part of the wall was treated with painting & stucco. The columns
were of granite and the vaults were richly ornamented with coffers having colored glass
mosaic. Most interesting were the streams of water issuing from the mouth of lions
carved in marble.
 BASILICA OF CONSTANTINE, ROME

View from the road Cutaway sectional view
Basilicas were halls of justice & commercial exchange (Court) and indicate the
importance of law & business in ancient Rome. This typology is a link between classic &
Christian architecture,
architecture as its form was adopted for the early christian churches. The
usual plan of a basilica is a rectangle having a length of twice its width. Two or four rows
of columns forming 3 or 5 aisles ran the entire length with galleries above the aisle &
the central space rising up to the cross vaulted roof. The entrance was at the side or at
one end with the tribunal located at the other end
end, in a semicircular apse,
apse on a raised
dais. The tribunal was separated from the rest of the spaces by a row of columns or a
low balustrade. The building was generally covered with a wooden roof & had a plain
exterior contrasting with an ornamental interior with mosaic flooring & coffered ceiling.
Also known as the basilica of Maxentius,, it adjoins
j the forum Romanum & consists of a
central nave 265’ long by 83’ wide, roofed at a height of 120’ by an immense cross
vault in 3 compartments. On either side of this are the aisles, also in 3 compartments,
each roofed with a semicircular vault of 76’ span. They spring from walls which are at
right angles to the nave that are pierced by openings & also support the cross vaulting
over the nave. Monolithic columns stood in front of these transverse walls and
supported the entablature from which sprang the nave cross vaults. There were 2 apses
in the north & west. Clear storey lighting was used by having windows above the aisle
vaults but below the intersecting vaults of the nave.
The building is similar to the tepidarium of the thermae & is in many respects a
prototype of a gothic structure in which the thrust & weight of the intersecting vaults are
collected & brought down on to the piers designed to receive them. The vaults of the
north aisle remain with their deep octagonal coffering & a portion of the main concrete
vault in pozzolona hangs in mid air although the columns have disappeared.
 TRIUMPHAL ARCHES

Arch of Constantine
Arch of Constantine Arch of Titus
Arch of Titus
Triumphal arches erected to emperors had either one or three openings & the piers
were faced with corinthian or composite columns. They were adorned with statutory &
bas relief relating to their conquest which they commemorated & were surmounted by
an attic
tti for
f iinscriptions.
i ti Th
The archh off Titus
Tit commemorates t the
th capture
t off Jerusalem
J l in
i
70 AD. It is of single arch type with carved relief of Titus on either side with 4 columns.
The arch of Constantine was built to commemorate the victory over Maxentius. It has 8
corinthian columns supporting an entablature & on the attic was a sculpted quadriga.
 CIRCUS MAXIMUS, ROME

The Roman circus was probably derived from the Greek hippodrome & the Circus
Maximus was so called due its immense size. It was built to hold 2,50,000 spectators &
was about 2000’ long & 650’ wide. The “carceres” held the chariots & horses before the
start of the race & the spina was the central dividing median embellished with victory
pillars & statutory. Rising on either side were the raked seats of the gallery which were
of marble & a colonnaded structure with piers, vaults, corridors & staircases supported
the same. On the top right is the view of the circus today & below is the view of a model.
ROMAN SCULPTURE

Clockwise form top – Vitruvian man, head &

feet of Constantine, Marcus Aurelius, vitruvian
man, Venus & Hercules.
EARLY CHRISTIAN & BYZANTINE ARCHITECTURE

300AD 1000 AD 
 EARLY CHRISTIAN & BYZANTINE ARCHITECTURE

FACTORS INFLUENCING ARCHITECTURE

Geographical: Early Christian architecture was predominantly influenced by existing Roman
art & architecture. Christianity was brought to Rome by Peter, Paul & other disciples where
it grew in spite of opposition & became the universal religion of the Roman empire. Early
christian architecture spread to other parts but was modified in egypt, syria & north africa
according to local conditions. Byzantium, renamed as Constantinople, after its founder is
located at the junction of Bosporus which connects the Mediterranean sea & the Black sea.
It is also located in the trade route between Asia & Europe. Byzantine art spread to all parts
of the eastern empire such as greece, turkey & even to Venice. Roman empire came to be
divided with the western half having its capital at Rome & the Eastern half having its capital
at Constantinople. It was ruled by 2 emperors simultaneously.
FACTORS INFLUENCING ARCHITECTURE

Geological: The ruins of roman buildings mostly provided the building materials for the early
christian churches. Since these churches were modeled on the roman basilica, the architectural
features such as columns & decorative features like the sculptures, mosaic etc. were taken from
old buildings & reworked into the basilican churches.
churches Though Constantinople didn’t didn t have stone
stone, it
became a center for stone work by importing marble, granite & other good quality stone from all
parts of the world.
Climatic: The hotter climate prevalent in roman provinces such as egypt & north africa led to the
use of smaller windows in early christian churches.
churches The christians adapted their church form to the
climate & culture of eastern provinces by having a combination of flat roofs & domes with small
windows located higher up in the walls.
Religious: In 323 AD Constantine made christianity the official religion of the roman empire. The
rise
i off christianity
h i ti it & the
th speed d att which
hi h it spread
d tto allll parts
t off th
the empire
i iis phenomenal
h l&
resulted in the building of many basilican churches. The basic purpose of the church was to shelter
the worshippers who had gathered for prayer & rituals. The Byzantine church was much influenced
by the use of domes & arches. The eastern & western churches finally separated in 1014 AD due to
id l i l differences.
ideological diff More
M over, after
ft the
th eastern
t church
h h forbade
f b d the th use off allll idols
id l & sculpture
l t
due to attacks from muslims, it evolved into the greek orthodox church. These controversies have
vitally affected Byzantine architecture, which is devoid of sculpture, but has paintings.
Historical: The early christian period is generally taken from about 300 AD to 600 AD. Byzantine art
influenced the church architecture of Ravenna & Venice very much. Constantinople became a
meeting point between the Europeans & the Asians, which led to a fusion of architectural ideas
resulting in a very different style of churches known as the Byzantine.
 ARCHITECTURAL CHARECTER

• The Early christian churches adopted the plan of the roman basilica with the central
nave separated from the aisles on either side & leading up to the semicircular apse at
APSE
one end.
AISLE

COURT NAVE CHOIR

ALTAR

• Basilican churches either had closelyy spaced

p columns carrying
y g an entablature or widelyy
spaced columns carrying semicircular arches.
• They had either 2 or 4 aisles flanking the central nave covered by a simple timber roof.
The nave height was raised above the roof of the aisle to accommodate the clear storey
windows that brought light to the interior.
interior
• The entrance was extended into a quadrangle with a covered passage enclosing the
open to sky area. The interior of the basilican churches is impressive due to the long
perspective that leads up to the triumphal arch above the altar.
 ARCHITECTURAL CHARECTER

• The character of Byzantine architecture is determined by the development of the dome

to cover circular, polygonal & square plans for churches & tombs.

• The system of construction in concrete & brickwork was adopted by the Byzantines &
developed to create decorative patterns and bands. Walls were clad internally with
marble & domes with colored glass mosaic.
• The grouping of small domes around a large central dome gave a completely different
form externally for Byzantine churches. The Byzantine capital was shaped for the
transition from the square abacus to the circular shaft.
 EARLY CHRISTIAN EXAMPLE – ST.CLEMENTE, ROME.

Interior view of S.Maria Maggiore
S.Clemente at Rome was rebuilt in the 11th century over an earlier church of the 5th
century but retains the original internal arrangement. An open court surrounded by
arcades forms the entrance
entrance, at the center of which is a fountain for ablutions.
ablutions This led to
a covered narthex, which was used by the penitents. The narthex opened to the nave,
that was flanked by an aisle on either side & was lit by small clear storey windows. The
aisles were separated from the nave by 2 rows of columns that support the arcade &
were reused from old roman buildings. The sanctuary was defined by the projection of
the semicircular apse & had the altar & the triumphal arch in front. The timber roof was
supported on wooden rafters & the patron saint was buried under the altar in a crypt.
The choir was enclosed by a low screen wall & was provided with an ambo or pulpit on
either side to read the gospel & the epistle. In the semicircular apse the bishop took the
center place with other members of the church council occupying the other seats. The
altar was emphasized by a canopy supported on marble columns. The interior owes
much of its effect to the use of glass mosaic on the semi dome of the apse containing
the figure of Christ in a golden background & the coffered & gilded ceiling. The
pavement flooring of patterns in marble was also taken from roman building. The early
christian buildings do not have the architectural value of a style produced by evolving
spaces to accommodate the function or the solution of constructive problems.
 BYZANTINE ARCHITECTURE EXAMPLE – ST.SOPHIA, CONSTANTINOPLE

Hagia Sophia is a former basilica,

basilica later a mosque & now a museum in Istanbul,
Istanbul Turkey.
Turkey
Famous in particular for its massive dome, it is considered as the epitome of Byzantine
architecture. It was built on order of Emperor Justinian by architects Anthemius &
Isadorus during 532 to 537 AD. The interior of the building is considered to be of great
artistic value as it is covered with polychrome marbles,
marbles gold mosaics & porphyry.
porphyry
Though it was converted to a mosque in 1453 by the Ottoman Turks & was used as the
principal mosque till 1935, when it was converted to a museum, it remained as the
largest cathedral for 1000 years until the Seville cathedral was constructed.
The Atrium that formed the approach to the church is in ruins now. The triple portal leads to the 
outer narthex, which itself leads to the imposing main narthex, 200’ x 30’ that serves as the 
, p g ,
entrance. It is a 2 floored space with the lower floor used by the penitents & the upper floor 
forming the gallery to the church that was used by women. The plan of the church comprises of 
a central space, 107’ square, with 4 massive stone piers supporting the 4 semicircular arches on 
which rests the dome at a height of 180’ above the ground To the east & west of this central
which rests the dome, at a height of 180’ above the ground. To the east & west of this central 
space are 2 half circles, crowned with semi domes that taken together with the exedras form a 
great oval nave, 225’ x 107’. To the north & south of this nave are 2 storied aisles with the upper 
storey forming the women’s gallery.
SEMI DOMES

The aisles to the north & south

make the main building into an
approximate square, which
excluding the apse & the narthex
measures 250’
250 x 220’
220 .

The 2 semi domes on the east &

west abut the arches & help to take
the thrust on that axis,
axis while towards
the north & south are 4 great
BUTTRESSES buttresses, 60’ x 25’ that serve to
take the lateral thrust in that
direction.

The dome is carried on pendentives

which are concave triangular
sections of masonry that solve the
problem of setting the circular base
of the dome on a square plan.
The pendentive had been never used
before & it not only achieved a
pleasing
l i aesthetic
h i quality
li but
b alsol
restrained the lateral forces of the
dome & allowed the weight of the
dome to flow downwards.
The monumental interior gives the impression of one vast domed space, with the dome
it lf appearing
itself i tot float
fl t over the
th centre
t due
d tot the
th lilighting
hti effect
ff t created
t dbby the
th series
i off
40 windows at the base of the dome. Scale is achieved by the gradation of various parts
from the 2 storied arcades in the aisles up to the dome itself. The dome rises to about
50’ from its springing
p g g & is constructed of bricks that are 2” thick with joints
j of the same
thickness. The apse contains the “Mihrab” that is oriented towards Mecca. Vaults &
domes are decorated with glass mosaics representing apostles, saints & angels on a
golden background.
 Walls & piers are sheathed with white, green, black & blue marbles fixed in
position by metal clips.
clips There are about 107 columns which support the
groined vaults under the galleries & they have bronze rings at the junction
where the shafts join the capitals & bases. Each of the 4 exedras have 2
columns of dark red porphyry.
porphyry The capitals are mostly of the cubiform type with
small ionic volutes on either side & the square molded abacus at the top. The
arches are fixed with tie- rods to counteract the outward thrust.
The exterior is less impressive than
the interior since the brick walls
have been plastered & painted
with red and white distemper.
The actual shape of the domes &
semi-domes are visible as there is
only a thin coat of lead that covers
them Though
them. Tho gh the enormo
enormouss
buttresses & recessed spandrel
walls form imposing features of
the elevation, the exterior depends
o effect
for e ect oon tthe
e massiveness
ass e ess &
symmetry of its proportions.
However, it lacks the dignity that
would have been achieved by the
addition of a drum to the base of
th d
the dome. The
Th minarets
i t were
added by the muslims when they
conquered Constantinople.
Like Parthenon of Greece &
Pantheon of Rome,
Rome S.Sophia
S Sophia will
remain as the masterpiece of
Byzantine architecture.
 BYZANTINE EXAMPLE – ST.MARKS, VENICE

S.Marks basilica reflects the Byzantine art & architecture which had greatly influenced
Venice, whose freedom loving people resented the domination of the popes of Rome.
This world famous edifice was built in 864 AD to receive the body of St.Mark, but got
b td
burnt down subsequently.
b tl Th
The presentt structure
t t was b
built
ilt from
f 1042 to
t 1071 AD bby
adopting the byzantine plan of a greek cross surmounted by domes. While the basic
structure of the building has not been altered, its decoration has changed greatly over
time. Gradually the exterior brickwork came to be covered with marbles & carvings. It
remains
i as a status
t t symbol b l off Venetian
V ti wealth
lth & power from
f the
th 11th century
t onwards
d
due to its opulent design with gilded façade, domes & byzantine mosaics. It is also
called the “Cheisa d’oro” or the church of gold.
PLAN OF S.MARKS
APSE
TRANSEPT

NAVE

NARTHEX

PLAN OF PIAZZA SAN MARCO (ST.MARKS SQUARE)
The glittering façade of S.Marks faces the Piazza San Marco, which is a vast open space
similar to the forum of Rome, enclosed by the Doges palace, the soaring campanile &
the stately arcades
arcades. The Piazza paved with marble has been the center of city life for
centuries & forms a great atrium to the church. The plan has a central dome 42’ in dia,
& a dome over each arm of the cross. The great square piers 28’ x 21’, which support
the dome are pierced at the ground & gallery level by arched openings. The addition of
the narthex & the baptistery makes the church approx. square in plan. There is a gallery
at the upper level which serves as a passage connecting the various parts of the church
at that level.
Interior: The marble flooringg is tessellated with g
geometric p
patterns & animal designs.
g
The walls & pillars of the lower floor are entirely covered with polychrome marble slabs.
The eastern arm of the plan has a raised altar with the crypt located beneath it. Beyond
the altar the relics of St.Mark is kept on a raised platform. Located on the right transept
are the Doges Ambo & Clement’s
Clement s chapel & on the left transept are the gospel Ambo &
the Peter’s chapel. The entire upper floor along with the vaults & domes is treated as
one continuous surface & is decorated with bright colored mosaics in golden
background representing various incidents from the old & new testament.
 FAÇADE DETAILS
FAÇADE DETAILS

The exterior of the basilica is divided into 3 registers: lower, upper & the domes. The
lower register has a façade of 5 arched portals decorated with polychrome marbles
which
hi h open onto
t th
the narthex
th th through
gh bronze
b doors.
d The
Th exterior
t i isi a blend
bl d off a variety
i t off
features. A crown of gold was given to the building by the use of timber domes in the
13th century & the façade was embellished by ogee arches, canopied niches &
pinnacles during the gothic period. Its beauty depends on the marble & gold work.