Emotional Labor

 Emotional labor: An employee’s expression of

organizationally desired emotions during interpersonal
transactions at work.

Flight Attendants

Funeral Directors
Emotional
Labor And many more……
Customer Service
Officers

Salespersons

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 Challenges of Emotional Labor

Inconsistencies between the emotions

Emotional
people feel and they project.
dissonance

An individual’s actual emotions.

Felt emotions
Emotional
Labor
Displayed Organizations require workers to show
emotions In a given job.

Surface Hiding inner

Acting feelings

Modify our true

Deep Acting
Inner feelings

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 Affective Events Theory (AET)

 Affective events theory (AET): Employees react emotionally

to things that happen to them at work and this influences
job performance and satisfaction.

 Affective Events Theory offers 2 important messages:

1. Emotions provide valuable insights into how workplace

hassles and events influence employee performance and
satisfaction.
2. Employees and managers should not ignore emotions or
the events that cause them, even when they appear minor,
because they accumulate.
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 Affective Events Theory (AET)

Work
Environment

Emotional Job satisfaction

reactions
Work Events
• Positive
•Negative
Job performance

Personal dispositions
• Personality
• Mood

Source: N.M. Ashkanasy (2002)

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 Emotional Intelligence

 Emotional Intelligence (EI) is a person’s ability to:

1. Perceive emotions in the self and others.
2. Understand the meaning of these emotions.
3. Regulate one’s emotions accordingly.

A low emotional intelligence (EI) manager does not generate

interest in his/her employees. Does not understand why
employees get upset and over-reacts to problems.

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Cascading Model of Emotional Intelligence

Source: Based on D. L. Joseph and D. A. Newman, “Emotional Intelligence: An Integrative Meta-Analysis and
Cascading Model,” Journal of Applied Psychology 95, no. 1 (2010): 54–78.

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 Personality Traits

 Early research tried to identify and label enduring

personality characteristics. Shy, aggressive, submissive,
lazy, ambitious, loyal, and timid. These are personality
traits.

 The Five Factor Model (FFM) represents the five

dimensions of the personality traits after using
sophisticated techniques to group many clusters of the
traits into 5 dimensions.

 The Five Factor Model (FFM) is also known as the “Big

Five” and represented by the handy acronym “OCEAN”
Personality 7
 Five Factor Model

Openness to
O Experience
Sensitive, Flexible, creative, curious

C Conscientiousness Careful, dependable, self-discipline

E Extraversion Outgoing, talkative, sociable, assertive

A Agreeableness Courteous, good-natured, emphatic, caring

N Neuroticism Anxious, hostile, depressed

Individual Level Analysis 8

 What Determines an Individual’s Personality

 Nature refers to genetic or hereditary origins – the genes

that we inherit from our parents.

 Genetic code not only determines our eye color, skin tone
and physical shape but also has a significant effect on our
attitudes, decisions and behavior.

 Nurture is the person’s socialization, life experiences and

other form of interaction experience with the environment.

 Personality becomes more stable over time as self-concept

becomes clearer with the increase of age.
Individual Level Analysis 9
 Measuring Personality

 Managers need to know how to measure personality.

 Personality tests are useful in hiring decisions and help

managers forecast who is best for a job.

 The most common means of measuring personality is

through self-report surveys.

 Learn more about your personality. Go to

http://www.41q.com/

Individual Level Analysis 10

 How Big Five Traits Influence OB?
BIG FIVE Traits Why is it relevant?
Openness to Experience • Increased learning
• More creative
• More flexible & autonomous
Conscientiousness • Greater effort & persistent
• More drive and discipline
• Better organized & planning
Extraversion • Better interpersonal skills
• Greater social dominance
• More emotionally expressive
Agreeableness • Better liked
• More compliant and
conforming
Emotional Stability • Less negative thinking and
(Neuroticism) fewer negative emotions
What does it affect?
• Training performance
• Enhanced leadership
• More adaptable to change
• Higher performance
• Enhanced leadership
• Greater longevity
• Higher performance
• Enhanced leadership
• Higher job & life satisfaction
• Higher performance
• Lower levels of deviant
behavior
• Higher job & life satisfaction
• Lower stress levels
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 Personality and Congruent Occupations
Type
Realistic: Prefers physical
activities that require skill,
strength and coordination
Investigative: Prefers activities
that involve thinking, organizing
and understanding
Social: Prefers activities that
involve helping and developing
others
Conventional: Prefers rule-
regulated, orderly and
unambiguous activities
Enterprising: Prefers verbal
activities where they can
influence others and attain power
Artistic: Prefers ambiguous and
unsystematic activities that allow
creative expressions.
Holland’s Typology of Personality and Congruent Occupations
Personality Characteristics
Shy, genuine, persistent, stable,
conforming, practical
Analytical, original, curious,
independent
Sociable, friendly, cooperative,
understanding
Conforming, efficient, practical,
unimaginative, inflexible
Self-confident, ambitious,
energetic, domineering
Imaginative, disorderly,
idealistic, emotional, impractical
Congruent Occupations
Mechanic, operator, assembly-
line worker, farmer
Biologist, economist,
mathematician, news reporter
Social worker, teacher, counselor,
clinical psychologist
Accountant, corporate manager,
bank teller, file clerk
Lawyer, real estate agent, public
relation specialist, small business
manager
Painter, musician, writer, interior
decorator
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 Values

 Values are basic convictions about what is right, good, or

desirable.

 Some examples of values are freedom, pleasure, self-

respect, honesty, obedience and equality.

 Values lay the foundation for understanding of attitudes

and motivation.

 They have content and intensity attributes and influence

our attitudes and behavior.

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 Terminal and Instrumental Values

Instrumental Values
Terminal Values
• Refer to preferable modes
• Refer to desirable end-
of behavior or means of
states. The goals a person
achieving the terminal
would like to achieve during
values.
his or her lifetime.
• Examples: Self-
• Examples: Prosperity and
improvement, autonomy
economic success, freedom,
and self-reliance, personal
health, well-being, world
discipline, kindness,
peace, social recognition.
ambition and goal-
orientation.

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 Generational Values

Entered
the Approximate
Cohort Workforce Current Age Dominant Work Values
Boomers 1965–1985 50s to 70s Success, achievement, ambition,
dislike of authority; loyalty to
career
Xers 1985–2000 Mid-30s to 50s Work-life balance, team-oriented,
dislike of rules; loyalty to
relationships
Millennials 2000 to To mid-30s Confident, financial success, self-
present reliant but team-oriented; loyalty
to both self and relationships

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 Perception

 What is perception?

Individuals
organize and
interpret their
Perception sensory
impressions in
order to give
meaning to their
environment

People’s behavior is based on their perception of what reality is,

not on reality itself.

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 Factors that Influence Perception

Factors in the perceiver

• Attitudes
• Motives
• Interests
• Experience
• Expectations
Factors in the
situation
• Time Perception
• Work Setting
• Social Setting

Factors in the target

• Novelty
• Motion
•Sounds
• Background
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 Attribution Theory

 Attribution theory suggests that when we observe an

individual’s behavior, we attempt to determine whether it
was internally or externally caused.

 Determination depends on three factors:

 Distinctiveness: Whether an individual displays different
behaviors in different situations.
 Consensus: Everyone faces a similar situation responds in the
same way.
 Consistency: Does the person respond the same way over
time?

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 Attribution Theory Framework

Observation Interpretation Attribution of course

External
H
Distinctiveness
L
Internal

External
H
Individual behavior Consensus
L
Internal

Internal
H
Consistency
L
External

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 Discussion

 Why we have the tendency to blame a sales manager for his

or her poor performance due to laziness, poor management
rather than innovative products and lower cost introduced
by competitors.

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 Fundamental Attribution Error

 The tendency to underestimate the influence of external

factors and overestimate the influence of internal factors
when making judgments about the behavior of others.

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 Self-Serving Bias

 The tendency for individuals to attribute their own

successes to internal factors and put the blame for failures
on the external factors such as unproductive co-workers.

 However, Asian managers more likely to blame

organizations for group failure. But, Western managers
believe individual managers should get blame or praise.

It’s OUR success but THEIR failure!

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 Shortcuts in Judging Others
Shortcuts Explanation
Selective Perception We interpret information in a
way that is congruent with our
existing values and beliefs.
Halo Effect The tendency to draw a general
impression about an individual
on a basis of a single
characteristic.
Contrast Effects Evaluation of person’s
characteristics that is affected by
comparisons with other people
recently encountered who rank
higher or lower.
Stereotyping Judging someone on the basis of
one’s perception of the group to
which that person belongs.
Examples
Someone considering buying a
certain brand of car is more likely
to notice ads about that car. A
smoker might filter out a photo of
a diseased lung.
A chef is famous for making one
particular dish, the halo effect
allows people to think to that he
can cook anything with equal
proficiency.
A candidate is likely to receive
amore favorable evaluation if
preceded by weak applicants and
vice versa.
Men are not interested in child
care, older workers cannot learn
new things, foreign workers are
hardworking.
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 Rational Decision-Making vs. Bounded Rationality
and Intuition

 Most decisions are made by judgment, rather than by a

defined prescriptive model. People are remarkably unaware
of making suboptimal decisions.

Rational Decision-Making Model

1. Define the problem

2. Identify the decision criteria
3. Allocate weights to the criteria
4. Develop the alternatives
5. Evaluate the alternatives
6. Select the best alternative

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 Bounded Rationality

 Most people respond to a complex problem by reducing it

to a level at which it can be readily understood.

 So, people satisfice (accept an available option as

satisfactory), they seek solutions that are satisfactory and
sufficient.

 How does bounded rationality work?

 Once a problem is identified, the search for criteria and options begins.
 A limited list of the more conspicuous choices is identified.
 The decision maker then reviews the list, looking for a solution that is
“good enough.”

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 Intuitive Decision-Making

 Intuitive decision-making is using “six sense” and gut

feeling to assist in decision-making. It is the opposite of
rational decision-making.

 Intuitive decision-making is needed when:

1. The problem is poorly constructed.
2. There is no precedent.
3. You have to deal with incomplete and conflicting
information.
4. The circumstances leave you no time to go through
complete rational analysis.

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 Biases in Decision Making

Biases and Errors

Overconfidence Anchoring Bias Confirmation Availability Bias

Bias Bias
• Our mind • People make
• People think appear to • A type of bias judgments
they know focus on the that involves based on
more than first favouring information
they do. information it information that is readily
appears. that confirms available and
existing more recent to
beliefs. them.

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 Biases in Decision Making

Biases and Errors

Escalation of Randomness Bias Risk Aversion Hindsight Bias

Commitment
• People think • Prefer a sure • People
• Staying with a that they can gain of a overestimate
decision even have control moderate their ability to
where there is over the world amount over a have predicted
clear evidence and destiny. riskier an outcome
it’s wrong. They believe outcome. that could not
they can possibly have
predict the been
outcome. predicted.

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 Motivation: The Job Characteristic Model

 We can describe any job in terms of five core job dimensions.

1. Skill variety: The degree to which a job requires a variety of

different activities.
2. Task identity: The degree to which a job requires completion of
a whole and identifiable piece of work.
3. Task significance: The degree to which a job affects the lives or
work of other people.
4. Autonomy: The degree to which a job provides the worker
freedom.
5. Feedback: The degree to which carrying out work activities can
result the effectiveness of his or her performance.

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 The Job Characteristics Model

Source: Based on J. L. Pierce, I. Jussila, and A. Cummings, “Psychological Ownership within the Job Design Context:
Revision of the Job Characteristics Model,” Journal of Organizational Behavior 30, no. 4 (2009): 477–96.

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 Job Practices that Motivate

 Repetitive jobs provide little variety, autonomy, or

motivation.

 Job Rotation
 Referred to as cross-training.
 Periodic shifting from one task to another.
 Strengths: reduces boredom, increases motivation, and helps
employees better understand their work contributions.
 Weaknesses: creates disruptions, requires extra time for
supervisors addressing questions and training time, and
reduced efficiencies.

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 Job Practices that Motivate

 Job Enrichment
 Increasing a job’s high-level responsibilities to increase
intrinsic motivation.
 Involves adding another layer of responsibility and meaning.
 Can be effective at reducing turnover.
Traditional news team
Video journalist
Employee 1
Operates camera
• Operates camera
Employee 2 • Operates sound
Operates sound • Reports story

Employee 3
Reports story

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 Alternative Work Arrangements

1. Possible Flexitime
Schedule 1
Percent Time: 100% = 40 hours per week
Core Hours: 9:00 A.M.–5:00 P.M., Monday through Friday
(1 hour lunch)
Work Start Time: Between 8:00 A.M. and 9:00 A.M.
Work End Time: Between 5:00 P.M. and 6:00 P.M.
Blank Schedule 2
Percent Time: 100% = 40 hours per week
Work Hours: 8:00 A.M.–6:30 P.M., Monday through Thursday
(1/2 hour lunch)
Friday off

Work Start Time: 8:00 A.M.

Work End Time: 6:30 P.M.

33
 Alternative Work Arrangements

Schedule 3
Percent Time: 90% = 36 hours per week
Work Hours: 8:30 A.M.–5:00 P.M., Monday through Thursday
(1/2 hour lunch)
8:00 A.M.–Noon Friday (no lunch)
Work Start Time: 8:30 A.M. (Monday–Thursday); 8:00 A.M. (Friday)
Work End Time: 5:00 P.M. (Monday–Thursday); Noon (Friday)
Blank Schedule 4
Percent Time: 80% = 32 hours per week
Work Hours: 8:00 A.M.–6:00 P.M., Monday through Wednesday
(1/2 hour lunch)
8:00 A.M.–11:30 A.M. Thursday (no lunch)
Friday off
Work Start Time: Between 8:00 A.M. and 9:00 A.M.
Work End Time: Between 5:00 P.M. and 6:00 P.M.

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 Alternative Work Arrangements

2. Job Sharing
 Allows two or more individuals to split a traditional work schedule.

 Either splitting the time of work (4 + 4 hours) or alternate days

working in full hours.
 Declining in use

 Difficult to find compatible pairs of employees.

3. Telecommuting
 Working from home.
 The advantages of telecommuting include less turnover, improved
morale, reduce office space cost.
 The major downside for management is less direct supervision of
employees.
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