Definition of Load Sensing

LOAD SENSING (CLOSED CENTER SYSTEM)

By using a flow control (dump) valve or a variable displacement pump with a

pump control valve to regulate the system flow to meet the pressure needs of
the system provides us with a feature known as “Load Sensing.”

Definition of Load Sensing

Load Sensing is a control system that maintains a pump supply pressure at a
fixed value above the highest system pressure requirement.
A signal network is used in both systems that sends the highest work port
pressure (senses the load) back to either the flow control (dump) valve or to a
pump control valve.
Within this signal network are several double check valves that are called
“resolvers” or “shuttle” valves.
Definition of Pressure Compensation

We are now ready to give you a definition for "Pressure Compensation".

It is a control system which results in a constant implement speed for a given
lever displacement.

This is done by maintaining a constant pressure differential across the main

control spool by a spring in the pressure reducing valve (which we use to
control flow).

With pressure compensation, as we are describing here, there are actually

two pressure differentials occurring.
1. One is the pressure differential across the pressure reducing valve
itself. This pressure differential varies depending on the difference
between pump supply pressure and work port pressure (plus the spring
value).
2. Two is the differential across the main control spool, which is limited or
controlled by the spring in the pressure reducing valve.

Note: None of the following slides show values for flow rates or pressures.

This was done to provide the instructor with increased flexibility in developing
his own teaching scenarios.

Let’s work through an example:

An implement requires 5 gpm (19 l/m) and develops 1000 psi (6900 kPa) at
the work port. The fixed displacement pump is capable of supplying 30 gpm
(114 l/m). The spring in the pressure reducing valve is equal to 50 psi (345
kPa), so the spring plus the work port pressure limits the downstream
pressure to the main control stem to 1050 psi (7245 kPa). Since we don’t
need full flow to the implement the pump supply pressure increases to 2700
psi (18630 kPa) and the excess flow is dumped to tank across the main relief
valve.

The first pressure differential across the pressure reducing valve will be 2700
psi (18630 kPa) minus 1050 psi (7245 kPa) which equals 1650 psi (11385
kPa) and the second pressure differential is 1050 psi (7245 kPa) minus 1000
psi (6900 kPa)which equals 50 psi (345 kPa) or the value of the spring.

When slow cylinder movement is required, the operator will just crack the
closed center control spool, allowing only a small part of total pump flow to go
to the cylinder. With a fixed displacement pump, the pump supply pressure
increases and excess pump flow returns to tank. This high rate of flow at high
pressure through the relief valve is going to rapidly build up a lot of heat which
can shorten component life.

We mentioned earlier that we could add an oil cooler to reduce heat in the
system. We also have at least two other options:
1. We could add a flow control or dump valve to the system, or
2. we could replace the fixed displacement pump with a variable
displacement pump.
 Load Sensing Pressure Compensating

Getting back to the basic diagram we've moved the function of the flow control
(dump) valve and the main relief valve to the pump control valve. As we said
one of the spools in the pump control valve is called a "flow compensator or
margin spool" which controls flow while the other is our "pressure
compensator or pressure cut-off" spool which limits maximum system
pressure.
 Load Sensing Pressure Compensating

Flow Control "Dump" Valve

A flow control "dump" valve has now been added to the system.

Let’s work through an example using it:

The implement requires 5 gpm (19 l/m) and develops 1000 psi (6900 kPa) at
the work port. The fixed displacement pump is capable of supplying 30 gpm
(114 l/m). The spring in the flow control valve or dump valve is equal to 200
psi (1380 kPa), so the spring plus the work port pressure equaling 1200 psi
(8280 kPa) is acting against pump supply pressure limiting it also to 1200 psi
(8280 kPa). The excess flow not needed by the implement is dumped to tank
at a pressure a set value higher than what is needed at the work port. This
difference is equal to the spring or 200 psi (1380 kPa). This value is the
“margin” pressure which ensures good implement response.

What if the implement is in “hold” and we don’t need any flow to it? Since
we’re using a closed center control valve you’d expect the system supply
pressure to build up and go over the main relief; however, by using the flow
control valve, system supply pressure will act against the 200 psi (1380 kPa)
spring (which has 0 psi or 0 kPa work port pressure acting with it) and dump
all 30 gpm (114 l/m) to tank at a pump supply pressure of 200 psi (1380 kPa).

In both cases we are returning supply oil back to tank at a pressure lower than
the main relief valve setting. The flow control valve will minimize heat buildup
and increase component life.

Now the biggest concern is wasted hydraulic horsepower. With this system
the pump is always supplying maximum flow regardless of what the
implement needs. Excess flow goes back to tank. This is wasted energy.
 Load Sensing Two Valve Operation 2

Load Sensing Only (Variable Displacement Pump)

To get all of the benefits of load sensing we need to use a variable

displacement pump, which will reduce the amount of energy wasted.

The effect on the individual control valves which are “load sensing” will be the
same as per our discussion with the flow control (dump) valve.
 Load Sensing Two Valve Operation 3

Load Sensing/Pressure Compensation (Variable Displacement Pump)

The effect on the individual control valves which are “load sensing and
pressure compensating” will be the same as per our discussion with the flow
control (dump) valve.

We have now discussed some of the basics of “load sensing” and of

“pressure compensation” as they relate to Caterpillar implement hydraulics.
This presentation should make it easier to understand material presented in
other Service Training Meeting Guides on Load Sensing/Pressure
Compensated Hydraulic Systems.
 Load Sensing Two Valve Operation 1

LSPC HYDRAULIC SYSTEMS - TWO VALVE OPERATION

In this schematic we also have two implement control valves. Both of them
now have a pressure reducing valve in their circuits. There is a double check
valve located between the rod and head end of each cylinder. If either one or
both implements are operated, another double check valve will send the
higher of the two work port signals from the two valve bodies back to the the
flow control valve.

We will treat these two implement valves as being “load sensing and pressure
compensating". We are going to operate both valves at the same time.

Valve “A” has a work port pressure of 2000 psi (13800 kPa), while valve”B”
has a work port pressure of 500 psi (3450 kPa). The higher of the two work
port pressures, which is 2000 psi (13800 kPa), will end up at the flow control
valve through the “signal network”. This pressure will work along with the 200
psi (1380 kPa) spring in the flow control valve. This will limit system supply
pressure to 2200 psi (15180 kPa). Both implements will have 2200 psi
(15180) felt on the supply side of their main control spools. Both pressure
reducing valves use a 50 psi (345 kPa) spring.

From the schematic we can see that the pressure reducing valve will sense
“work port” pressure. This pressure works with the pressure reducing valve
spring. The resultant pressure downstream of the pressure reducing valve is
equal to work port pressure plus spring pressure. In valve “A” this pressure is
2000 psi (13800)work port pressure plus 50 psi (345 kPa) for the spring, or
2050 psi (14145) at the supply side of the main control spool. We can now
calculate the pressure differentials. Pump supply pressure of 2200 psi (15180
kPa) less 2050 psi (14145 kPa) equals 150 psi (1035 kPa) across the
pressure reducing valve. The second pressure differential, which occurs
across the main control spool, is 2050 psi (14145) less the work port pressure
of 2000 psi (13800 kPa) is equal to 50 psi (345 kPa) which also happens to be
the value of the spring in the pressure reducing valve.

Now lets see what happens with valve “B”. Work port pressure of 500 psi
(3450 kPa) plus the spring value of 50 psi (345 kPa) in the pressure reducing
valve limits the supply pressure at the main control stem to 550 psi (3795
kPa). We can now calculate the pressure differentials. Pump supply pressure
of 2200 psi (15180 kPa) less 550 psi (3795 kPa) equals 1650 psi (11385 kPa)
across the pressure reducing valve. The second pressure differential is 550
psi (3795 kPa), less the work port pressure of 500 psi (3450 kPa), is equal to
50 psi (345 kPa), which also happens to be the value of the spring in the
pressure reducing valve.

We have a maximum controlled pressure differential of 50 psi (345 kPa)

across each main control spool due to the 50 psi (345 kPa) spring in the
pressure reducing valves (even with varying loads). The pressure reducing
valves minimize flow forces at the main control spools, regardless of what the
system supply pressure is, and allows us to reduce the centering spring size,
which reduces lever efforts and operator fatigue.
 Load Sensing with Signal Network

LS HYDRAULIC SYSTEMS - TWO VALVE OPERATION

Load Sensing Only (Fixed Displacement Pump)

We have already seen how pressure compensation works and have

discussed how load sensing works.

Now let’s put them together and show why we desire pressure compensation
in a load sensing system.

In this schematic we have two implement control valves labeled "A" and "B".
Neither one of them has a pressure reducing valve in it’s circuit. There is a
double check valve located between the rod and head end of each cylinder. If
either one or both implements are operated, another double check valve will
send the higher of the two work port signals from the two valve bodies back to
the the flow control (dump) valve.
These two implement valves we will treat as being “load sensing” only. We are
going to operate both valves at the same time.

Valve “A” has a work port pressure of 2000 psi (13800 kPa), while valve”B”
has a work port pressure of 500 psi (3450 kPa). The higher of the two work
port pressures, which is 2000 psi (13800 kPa), will end up at the flow control
valve through the “signal network”. This pressure will work along with the 200
psi (1380 kPa) spring in the flow control valve. This will limit system supply
pressure to 2200 psi (15180 kPa). Both implements will have 2200 psi (15180
kPa) felt on the supply side of their main control spools.

Let’s now calculate the pressure differential across each control spool.

At valve “A” we need 2000 psi (13800 kPa) at the work port. Pump supply is
2200 psi (15180 kPa).

The difference between the two pressures is 200 psi (1380 kPa). This relative
small pressure differential across the main control spool will not induce
operator fatigue due to high lever efforts.

At valve “B” we need 500 psi (3450 kPa) at the work port. Pump supply is
2200 psi (15180 kPa). The pressure differential across the main control spool
is 1700 psi (11700 kPa). This higher pressure differential will try to open the
orifice at the main control spool even more to allow more flow than what we
need, due to the fact that this is the path of least resistance in the circuit. Flow
across the orifice (created at the main control spool) will not remain constant
as the load requirement varies (even if the main spool control is held in a fixed
position). The operator will be required to constantly adjust the main valve
spool if he is to maintain constant speed. The higher pressure differential
across this type of valve will require heavier centering springs to prevent spool
sticking. This will result in higher lever efforts and operator fatigue.
 Open Center Hyd Sys

BASIC SYSTEM (OPEN CENTER)

Introduction
With an open center system full pump flow is going through the control valve
at all times, whether going straight to tank or to the cylinder. This constant
flow of a large volume of oil has the potential of creating large amounts of
heat if there are any restrictions in the flow path (i.e., valves). Heat reduces
component life. By using large control valves to minimize the restriction or an
oil cooler to remove heat, we can reduce the effects of heat; however, this
may not always be practical due to extra cost or components too large for the
machine.

Relief Valve
With this simple system we can create high system pressures if we stall out
the cylinder, whether due to bottoming out the cylinder or due to an extremely
large load. To protect the system we should add another component — a
main relief valve.

One drawback to this is, we unload the system at high pressure, resulting in
high heat buildup. The higher pressure can also reduce component life.

There are two other problems with this hydraulic system:

1. "Sticky" control spool movement, and
2. the cylinder speed varies with engine speed or changes in work port
load (this causes the flow rate to change).

FLOW FORCES
“Sticky" Control Spool
A “sticky” control valve is caused by something commonly known as “flow
forces.”
Flow forces are those forces acting on a control spool. In this case, we will
assume that they tend to keep the spool in the open position as long as there
is flow passing through the orifice created by the open spool. These flow
forces are directly proportional to the amount of flow and the pressure
differential across the spool land. In other words, as the flow and/or the
pressure differential increases, the forces trying to keep the spool open
increase.
The force vector, acting parallel (vertical) to the centerline of the control valve
is the force trying to keep the stem in the open position. In our simple valve,
the closer the spool comes to closing off the supply oil (decreasing the orifice
size), the greater is the difference in pressure between the supply oil and the
work port oil, and the greater is the force trying to keep the spool open.
To illustrate, think of closing a door against a strong wind. As you pushed on
the door you created a restriction to the air flow. The closer you got to shutting
the door, the resistance or forces working against you became stronger. What
you felt was the effect of flow and pressure across an orifice known as flow
forces.
Centering Spring
With hydraulic control valves it is helpful if the control spool centers itself. We
can easily do this by adding a centering spring below the spool to close off the
orifice when the operator releases the lever.
Remember; however, the greater the flow and/or greater the system pressure,
the greater the “flow forces,” therefore the heavier the centering spring
becomes. What is the result? Higher lever efforts!
This results in quicker operator fatigue!
How do we best solve this problem? Flow forces are related to both flow and
pressure differential. If we can minimize one or both of these factors, we can
then minimize the flow forces and less the centering spring force will be
required, reducing lever effort.

VARYING CYLINDER SPEED

In a simple circuit like this, the cylinder speed is determined by the amount of
flow across the control spool. This can be affected by engine speed, work port
load, lever displacement and pump output.
If the operator tried to maintain a constant cylinder speed as the engine
changed speed or the work port load changed, he would have to continually
change his lever displacement (vary the orifice size) to maintain the same
pressure differential across the control spool. We know from basic hydraulic
theory that when a pressure differential is constant across an orifice the flow
rate through the orifice stays the same. This is not easy to do because it adds
to operator fatigue and requires constant lever movement by the operator to
maintain constant implement speed.
Couple this constant lever movement with high lever effort and the operator
will quickly become fatigued.
 Open Center Pressure Compensating

PRESSURE COMPENSATION (CLOSED CENTER SYSTEM)

Wouldn’t it be great to solve both of these problems at the same time? We

can, by adding a pressure reducing valve to control flow. We are also going to
use a closed center control valves now.

A “double” check valve has been added which will sense work port pressure in
either the head end or rod end of the cylinder and send this work port
pressure to the pressure reducing valve. This pressure is called “signal”
pressure and is always equal to the work port pressure.

NOTE: This pressure reducing valve is sometimes called a “pressure

compensator”, “flow control valve” or “flow compensator”, while the double
check valve is sometimes called “shuttle valve”, or “ball resolver”.

NOTE: Some LS/PC implement valves communicate the work port pressure
by means of three crossed drilled passages and one axial drilled passage in
the main directional control stem instead of by means of a double check valve
or ball resolver.

How will adding a pressure reducing valve to control flow reduce lever efforts?
If you recall from our discussion of flow forces and their effect on lever efforts,
the only way to reduce flow forces is to reduce flow and/or the pressure
differential across the control spool. Since the flow is determined by the (fixed-
displacement) pump and the work port requirements, which we can cannot
change, the only remaining variable is the pressure differential across the
spool.

From the schematic we can see that the pressure reducing valve senses
“work port” pressure. This pressure works with the pressure reducing valve
spring to control downstream pressure. The downstream pressure is equal to
work port pressure plus spring pressure. From the pressure reducing valve,
this downstream pressure feeds the directional (main control) spool. If the
pressure to the main control spool equals work port pressure plus the value of
the spring in the spring chamber, then it is obvious that the pressure
differential (difference between supply pressure to the main control spool and
work port pressure) across the main control spool is equal to the value of the
spring. If the spring has a force of 50 psi (345 kPa), we see that this 50 psi
(345 kPa) controlled maximum pressure differential across the main control
spool will minimize flow forces, and allow us to reduce the centering spring
size, reducing lever efforts.

This same pressure reducing valve also acts to negate the effect of varying
engine speed on cylinder speed. As engine speed increases pump flow
increases, increasing pump supply pressure. The pressure reducing valve will
react to this increase in pump supply pressure and restrict input flow to
maintain the same pressure differential across the main control spool. By
doing so, we maintain a constant flow to the cylinder. The opposite action will
occur if the engine speed decreases.
This valve will also negate the effect of changing work port loads. Varying
work loads will also not affect implement speed. Implement speed will be
constant.

Let's work through some examples:

Let's assume work port pressure equals 500 psi (3450 kPa). This pressure
works with the 50 psi (345 kPa) spring in our pressure reducing valve
resulting in 550 psi (3795 kPa) at the main control spool.
Our pressure differential across our main control spool is 50 psi (345 kPa)
which is the value of our spring.
If the work port pressure increases to 1000 psi (6900 kPa). This pressure
works once again with the 50 psi (345 kPa) spring in our pressure reducing
valve resulting in 1050 psi (7245 kPa) at the main control spool. Our pressure
differential across our main control spool once again is 50 psi (345 kPa) which
is the value of our spring. Even though the load changed the pressure
differential across the main control spool stayed the same which results in
constant flow.

NOTE: This holds true unless the load is higher than what the system is
designed for or the pump can’t produce adequate flow to meet flow
requirements.
 Variable Displacement Pump

Variable Displacement Pump

We can reduce this energy wasted by the fixed displacement pump by

replacing it with a variable displacement pump.

The pump uses a control valve to control pump flow by changing the angle of
the swashplate. The work port or signal pressure will act with the flow
compensator spring in the pump control valve to give us a pump supply
pressure at a fixed value called “margin pressure” that is above the work port
pressure.

The flow compensator spool will be able to sense pump supply pressure and
work port pressure just like the flow control valve did with the fixed
displacement pump. As flow requirements change because of changing
control lever movements, the difference in pressure between work port
pressure and pump supply pressure will change in reaction to those lever
movements. This will cause the position of the flow compensator spool to
change. It will either send more or less flow to the large actuator piston in the
pump. This will change the pump swashplate angle, which changes pump
output.

We usually have a secondary control stem in the pump control valve that also
reacts to pump supply pressure and is set to open at a given maximum
pressure. This allows us to destroke the pump (reduce pump flow) to maintain
maximum system pressure without the use of a main relief valve. It called a
pressure compensator or pressure cut-off spool.

By setting the pump and its control valve to give exactly the flow needed to
meet system work port pressure demands, the system is going to work much
more efficiently (as compared to a system with a fixed displacement pump).

For example, the formula for hydraulic horsepower is:

(gpm x psi)/1714 = hp = gpm x psi x .000583

(l/m x kPa)/60240 = hkw = l/m x kPa x .0000166

If we use a 30 gpm (114 l/m) fixed displacement pump and a 1000 psi (6900
kPa) work port pressure, a flow control (dump) valve that senses work port
pressure and acts with a 200 psi (1380 kPa) spring (margin), the hydraulic
horsepower (hydraulic kilowatts) being pulled from the engine is :

30 gpm x (1000 psi + 200 psi) x .000583 = 21 hp

114 l/m x (6900 kPa + 1380 kPa) x .0000166 = 15.67 hkw

However, if we are metering flow to the cylinder, only using 5 gpm (19l/m) of
flow, we are actually using only:
5 gpm x (1000 psi + 200 psi) x .000583 = 3.5 hp

19 l/m x (6900 + 1380) x .0000166 = 2.61 hkw

What happened to that other 17.5 hp (13.06 hkw) being pulled from the
engine? It is wasted and dumped back to the tank in the form of heat.

By using a variable displacement pump how much wasted energy do we

have? Practically none! The pump will give exactly the flow needed at a
slightly higher pressure than is required. What the pump gives us is:

5 gpm x 200 psi x .000583 = .58 hp wasted, which was used for the margin
pressure.

19 l/m x 1380 x .0000166 = .44 hkw

Two advantages of using a variable displacement pump are:

1. Less heat is generated, giving longer component life, and
2. less horsepower is wasted from the engine, which results in using less
fuel.