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Modeling critical-state shear strength behavior of compacted silty sand via

suction-controlled triaxial testing

Article  in  Engineering Geology · December 2017

DOI: 10.1016/j.enggeo.2017.10.011

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This manuscript is published in Engineering Geology (2017): Vol. 231, pp. 21-33 and available online.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enggeo.2017.10.011
Engineering Geology xxx (2017) xxx-xxx

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Modeling critical-state shear strength behavior of compacted silty sand via
suction-controlled triaxial testing
Ujwalkumar D. Patila⁠ ,⁠ ⁎⁠ , Anand J. Puppalab⁠ , Laureano R. Hoyosb⁠ , Aravind Pedarlac⁠

PR
a
University of Guam, School of Engineering, UOG Station, Mangilao 96923, Guam, United States
b
Department of Civil Engineering, University of Texas at Arlington, Arlington, TX 76019, United States
c
University of Texas at Arlington, TX 76019, United States

ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT

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Keywords: Most of the recently postulated unsaturated shear strength models have been calibrated only for a short vari-
Soil suction ety of soils. In addition, these models are yet to be extended and calibrated over a wider range of matric and
Suction-controlled triaxial testing total suction states. The present work focuses on further refinements of previously proposed shear strength equa-
Axis-translation tions in light of newly obtained experimental evidence of shear strength behavior of compacted silty sand at a
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Vapor-pressure
critical state from suction-controlled triaxial tests conducted between 0.05 MPa to 300 MPa suction range. A re-
Shear strength modeling
fined and rather simple equation comprising two independent functions, is introduced and validated, including
a thorough parametric investigation, to predict the unsaturated shear strength of compacted silty sand at a crit-
ical state for a wide range of matric and total suction states. The experimental program included a total of 21
consolidated drained (CD) triaxial tests conducted on statically-compacted specimens of silty sand under strain-
and suction-controlled conditions. Experimental results show that the angle of internal friction (ϕ′) remained
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virtually constant over the entire range of induced suction states; however, the shear strength increased while
the angle of internal friction with respect to suction (ϕb⁠ ) decreased with increasing suction, with both varying
non-linearly. Finally, a gradual increase in brittleness of the test soil at peak-failure condition, as well as an in-
creasingly marked strain-softening post-failure, was observed with increasing suction.

knowledge of shear strength of soil at residual suction. Although they

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1. Background and scope
The pioneering frameworks postulated by Bishop (1959) and
Fredlund and Morgenstern (1977) require expensive, time consuming
experimental studies to determine the shear strength parameters and
properties of unsaturated soils. In an effort to make the process more
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could predict shear strength for different soils with residual suction ψr⁠
varying between 0.1 MPa to 10 MPa, the method appears to be most
suitable for coarse- to medium-grained soils with relatively low residual
suction that can be easily attained in laboratory. The procedure is lim-
ited to soils whose increase in shear strength varies mostly between air
entry and residual suction, while remaining constant beyond residual

cost-effective, several researchers have attempted to use the soil-wa-
ter retention curve (SWRC) as an interpretative tool, along with the
saturated shear strength parameters, c′ and ϕ′, and thus develop rela-
tively simple and readily available shear strength equations or models
for unsaturated soils (for e.g., Vanapalli et al., 1996; Fredlund et al.,
1996; Oberg and Sallfors, 1997; Khalili and Khabbaz, 1998; Vilar, 2006;
Houston et al., 2008; Alonso et al., 2010; Sedano and Vanapalli, 2011;
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suction, which may not necessarily be the case, as manifested in experi-
mental test results from present research.
Nishimura and Fredlund (2003) used vapor equilibrium technique
to perform triaxial tests on silty soil at total suction ψ = 39 MPa and
five different net normal stresses; however, to the authors' best knowl-
edge, the results were not used to verify any of the shear strength
prediction models available in the literature. Blatz et al. (2002) per-

Han and Vanapalli, 2016). formed triaxial tests on compacted sand-bentonite specimens that were
Rassam and Cook (2002) presented a new model by adopting a meant to be used as buffer for nuclear waste by using salt solutions
power additive function to predict shear strength of unsaturated soils of different concentrations to induce high suction between 5.0 MPa
based on the assumption of ϕb⁠ = 0 at residual suction, and with to 42.4 MPa at high net confining cell pressures (0.5, 1.0, 2.0, and

⁎ Corresponding author.
Email addresses: patilu@triton.uog.edu (U.D. Patil); anand@uta.edu (A.J. Puppala); lhoyos@uta.edu (L.R. Hoyos); pedarla@uta.edu (A. Pedarla)

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enggeo.2017.10.011
Received 28 September 2016; Received in revised form 10 October 2017; Accepted 11 October 2017
Available online xxx
0013-7952/ © 2017.
U.D. Patil et al. Engineering Geology xxx (2017) xxx-xxx

3.0 MPa). They could best-fit three-dimensional surface that predicted

peak shear strength as a function of mean stress and suction.
More recently, Han and Vanapalli (2016) proposed a new methodol-
ogy to predict the non-linear stiffness-suction and shear strength-suction
relationship of unsaturated soils, within the lower suction range, using
a normalized function formulated with ‘suction times exponential de-
2.2. Specimen preparation for SWRC and triaxial tests
Dry test soil was hand mixed with distilled water at a water content
of 14.2% (+ 2% of optimum), sealed in airtight zip lock bags and kept
in a 100% humidity chamber for at least 24 h to attain moisture equilib-

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gree of saturation. In addition, they could account for various influenc- rium prior to static compaction. Specimens were statically compacted in
ing factors including external stress, soil structure, anisotropy, hydraulic nine equal lifts via stress-based approach by using a 50 kN load frame,
hysteresis, and testing techniques. Likewise, the effective degree of sat- at a constant rate of 1 mm/min, to a final vertical stress of 1600 kPa,

uration has been used in past to interpret and predict stiffness-suction
and shear strength-suction relationships for unsaturated soils (Fredlund
et al., 1996; Vanapalli et al., 1996; Alonso et al., 2010).
Recently, a novel suction-controlled triaxial system that can accom-
modate both axis-translation and relative-humidity techniques has been
implemented at the University of Texas at Arlington. The operational
functionality of this equipment and its capability to replicate test re-
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producing homogenous specimens with overconsolidation stress history
(Patil, 2014). The initial voids ratio for all specimen varied between
0.46 and 0.49.
Likewise, Identical SWRC specimens (2 cm diam. And 1 cm ht.) were
prepared using the same stress-based approach but compacted in a sin-
gle lift. Each specimen was compacted to a dry unit weight of 1.80 g/
cm3⁠ (112.4 lb./ft3⁠ ) with negative pore water pressure, and hence matric

sults using both axis-translation and relative-humidity techniques have
been thoroughly verified through a short series of tests conducted over
a wide range of controlled suction states, between 0.05 and 300 MPa
(Patil, 2014; Patil et al., 2015; Patil et al., 2016a, b). Test specimen
preparation, preconditioning, suction equalization, and unsaturated tri-
axial testing procedures via both the axis-translation and relative-hu-
midity technique has been thoroughly described by Patil et al. (2016b).
The chief objectives of the present work can be summarized as fol-
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suction, between 8 and 10 kPa at water content of 14.2%.
2.3. Soil water retention curve (SWRC)
Tempe Cell device was used to assess the soil-water retention curve
(SWRC) of the silty sand up to matric suction values of 500 kPa. A cus-
tom-designed relative humidity (RH) chamber, along with an in-house
fabricated Plexiglas chamber, was used to obtain remainder of SWRC

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lows: (1) To present a comprehensive set of experimental data from
densely compacted (overconsolidated) silty sand using the newly imple-
mented triaxial system, which is suitable for testing unsaturated soils
well beyond residual suction state; (2) To analyze these results to test
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the efficacy of previously postulated equations for unsaturated shear
strength over a wide range of suction states; and (3) To refine the exist-
ing equations in light of new experimental evidence from pertinent soil.
All the models analyzed in the present work were tested and parametri-
cally investigated by using experimental data at critical state failure.
Six different proposed models in their original form (i.e., Vanapalli
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data in the higher suction range (“Residual Zone”), beyond 10,000 kPa
suction (Patil, 2014). A new specimen was prepared with identical ini-
tial conditions and then used to determine water retention capacity at
each matric suction or total suction level by drying it; thus, each point
on the SWRC represents one test.
SWRC models by Fredlund and Xing (1994) and van Genuchten
(1980) were used to best fit the experimental points along drying path
in order to complete the characteristic curve over the entire range of
soil suction, from 0 to 10,000 Mpa, as shown in Fig. 1. The best fitting
parameters are summarized in Table 1. As has been extensively docu-

et al., 1996; Fredlund et al., 1996; Khalili and Khabbaz, 1998; Vilar,
2006; Houston et al., 2008; and Sedano and Vanapalli, 2011) were first
evaluated in the matric suction range (ψm ⁠ = 0 to 1500 kPa) by plotting
soil suction on natural scale, and then further extended to assess their
validity in the high total suction range (ψt⁠ = 20 and 300 MPa) by plot-
ting soil suction on logarithmic scale. Mainly, two unsaturated soil shear
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mented, an increase in matric suction causes the wetted area of contact
between soil particles to decrease and vice versa; hence, there exists a
non-linear relationship between the soil-water retention curves and the
shear strength of soil as it changes from saturated to unsaturated state
(Vanapalli et al., 1996).

strength parameters are analyzed: first, increase in cohesion intercept

(c″) i.e. suction-induced increase in shear strength with increase in suc-
tion; and second, decrease in angle of internal friction with respect to
suction (i.e. ϕb⁠ ).
In lieu of costly setups and time-consuming experimental proce-
dures, the availability of verified predictive models, with reasonable ac-
ceptability over wider suction states and soil types, could provide prac-
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ticing engineers with a quick preliminary estimate of the shear strength

of unsaturated soil: a practically viable tool that is much needed in im-
plementing the said subject in actual practice (Vilar, 2006; Houston et
al., 2008).

2. Test material and variables

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2.1. Soil properties

The test material used in this work consisted of 45:55 mixtures by

dry mass of fines (37% silt and 8% non-plastic clay) and coarse material
(fine sand), classifying as silty sand (SM) according to the Unified Soil
Classification System (USCS). Standard Proctor compaction tests indi-
cated a maximum dry density of 1.87 g/cm3⁠ , at an optimum water con-
tent of 12.2%.
Fig. 1. Soil-water retention curve (SWRC) along drying path for compacted silty sand test
soil.

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U.D. Patil et al.
Table 1
Best-fit parameters for selected SWCC functions.
van Genuchten (1980) Fredlund and Xing (1994)
α = 0.036 α = 55
n=1 n = 0.75
m = 0.5 m = 1.9
θr⁠ = 0.3 θs⁠ = 16.5
θs⁠ = 16.5 Ψr⁠ = 2000 kPa
In the present work, target values of matric suction, varying from
50 to 750 kPa, and target values of total suction, at 20,000 and
300,000 kPa, were induced on identically prepared specimens of com-
pacted silty sand prior to monotonic shearing.
2.4. Experimental variables
Unsaturated soil testing typically involves three essential tests. First,
SWRC tests that establish the relationship between water holding capac-
ity of soil with change in suction, i.e. explaining hydraulic behavior; sec-
ond, suction-controlled one dimensional or isotropic consolidation tests
that explain suction-controlled volumetric response; and thirdly, shear
strength tests, such as direct shear test or triaxial shear test modified
to impose and maintain suction within the specimen, that are used to
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quantify strength-deformation variation, i.e. explaining mechanical be-
havior.
In the present work, and as previously stated, tests were conducted
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using a fully-automated, double-walled triaxial test equipment that ac-
commodates the essential modifications for unsaturated soil testing, in-
cluding high-air-entry (HAE) ceramics in the bottom pedestal; pore-wa-
ter pressure control; pore-air pressure supply via the top cap; and dif-
fused-air flushing assembly (Patil, 2014). With the operational appara-
tus, a comprehensive series of saturated and unsaturated consolidated
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drained (CD) triaxial tests on statically compacted silty sand specimens
was performed.
The axis-translation technique was used to impose and control ma-
tric suction in the range of 0 to 750 kPa. Three confining pressures were
used: 100, 200 and 300 kPa. The same RH chamber used for SWRC test-
ing was integrated into the new triaxial testing system and a second se-
ries of CD tests, at higher values of total suction (20 MPa and 300 MPa),
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were performed under three different confining pressures: 100, 200 and
300 kPa.
The convention adopted to designate specimens for matric suc-
tion-controlled triaxial testing is “CDx⁠ -y” while specimens for total suc-
tion-controlled testing using relative humidity technique were desig-
nated as “CDRHx⁠ -y.” Here, “CD” denotes the consolidated drained test,
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“x” represents the net confining pressure (σ3⁠ − ua⁠ ), while “y” represents
the imposed constant matric suction (ψm ⁠ ) or total suction (ψt⁠ ). Further-
more, the terms “matric” or “total” suction essentially refer to the partic-
ular “technique” that was used to impose such suction, i.e., “axis-trans-
lation” or “relative humidity” based technique, respectively. It is also
worth noting that chemical analyses conducted on the silty sand soil
showed no presence of salts, hence the osmotic component of suction
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can be expected to be negligible.
3. Unsaturated test results
3.1. General shear strength response for 0–300 MPa suction range
Nuth and Laloui (2008) presented a detail review of the histori-
cal developments of the effective stresses with the objective of deter-
mining a proper stress framework for constitutive modeling of unsatu-
rated soils. Gallipoli et al. (2008) introduced the term capillary bond-
ing which is uniquely related to the voids ratio of unsaturated soil to
that of saturated soil. They demonstrated that capillary bonding can be
3
Engineering Geology xxx (2017) xxx-xxx
taken as a measure of openness of unsaturated soil fabric and influence
the critical deviator stress the unsaturated soil can sustain at a given
mean average skeleton stress.
Alonso et al. (2010) linked the relationship between effective stress
and soil microstructure in unsaturated soils via effective degree of sat-
uration, by conceptually differentiating between the volume of water
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existing in the soil for a given suction into two parts: the free water,
partially filling the macro-pores, and the ‘immobile’ water, closely at-
tached to the clay minerals. They were successful in interpreting ex-
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perimental data on the strength and stiffness changes with suction for
a variety of soils including granular and high-plasticity clays. More re-
cently, Alonso et al. (2013) incorporated microstructural information
within the conceptual framework to reproduce the compression behav-
ior of compacted soils.
Fredlund and Morgenstern (1977) treated net normal stress (σ − ua⁠ )
and matric suction (ua⁠ − uw ⁠ ) as two independent stress state variables
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in the assessment of their role in the mechanical response of unsaturated
soil. Such an approach separates the effect due to changes in net nor-
mal stress from those due to change in pore-water pressure, and enables
the independent assessment of the effect of suction and normal stress on
volume change. Shear strength is hence expressed as given in Eq. (1).
(1)
where τf⁠ = shear strength at failure; c′ = effective cohesion; ϕ′ = ef-
fective friction angle associated with net normal stress (σ − ua⁠ )f⁠ on the
failure plane at failure; and ϕb⁠ = friction angle that captures the contri-
bution of matric suction to shear strength. Eq. (1) can further be modi-
fied as Eq. (2).
(2)
where c″ = τu⁠ s is defined as the capillary cohesion describing shearing
resistance arising from capillarity effects given by Eq. (3).
(3)
Figs. 2–4 shows all the Mohr circles obtained at critical state under
net confining pressures of 100, 200 and 300 kPa, and constant matric
suctions of 50, 250, 500 and 750 kPa, as well as high total suctions of
20 and 300 MPa. Clearly, the angle of internal friction (ϕ′⁠ ), that is slope
of failure line, remains constant, irrespective of the applied suction and
confining pressure. However, there is an upward shift in failure lines at
critical state, with increasing suction and at same confining pressure, re-
sulting an increase in apparent cohesion (Figs. 2–4). The values of aver-
age apparent cohesion (c″), and the corresponding average values of the
angle of internal friction with respect to soil suction (ϕb⁠ ), as interpreted
from these Figs. 2–4 using Eq. (3), are summarized in Table 2, and will
be used henceforth in all further analysis to relate the rate of change in
shear strength with respect to change in matric suction.
Although, not shown here (and not used in further analysis), Mohr
circles were also drawn at critical state under different matric suctions
of 50, 250, 500, and 750 kPa as well as high total suctions of 20 and
300 MPa and under each of the constant net confining pressures 100,
200, and 300 kPa. The values of apparent cohesion (c″), and the cor-
responding values of the angle of internal friction with respect to soil
suction (ϕb⁠ ), as interpreted from these figures using Eq. (3), are summa-
rized in Table 3. It should be noted that the values of apparent cohesion
and “average apparent cohesion” are not exactly same, because the for-
mer has effect of net confining pressure which is not similar while the
latter is obtained by neutralizing this effect. Nonetheless, it can be ob-
served that the non-linear decrease in ϕb⁠ with increasing suction is in
accordance with previous findings (i.e., Escario and Saez, 1986; Gan et
al., 1988; and Houston et al., 2008).
U.D. Patil et al. Engineering Geology xxx (2017) xxx-xxx

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Fig. 2. Critical state Mohr circles under net confining pressures, (σ3⁠ − ua⁠ ) = 100, 200, and 300 kPa: (a) ψ = 50 kPa; (b) ψ = 250 kPa.

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Fig. 3. Critical state Mohr circles under net confining pressures, (σ3⁠ − ua⁠ ) = 100, 200, and 300 kPa: (a) ψ = 500 kPa; (b) ψ = 750 kPa.
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Fig. 4. Critical state Mohr circles under net confining pressures, (σ3 − ua) = 100, 200, and 300 kPa: (a) ψ = 20 MPa; (b) ψ = 300 MPa.

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U.D. Patil et al. Engineering Geology xxx (2017) xxx-xxx

Table 2
Experimentally obtained average values of apparent cohesion.

Net
Soil confining Average Average angle of friction
suction, pressure, apparent with respect to suction,
MPa kPa cohesion, kPa deg.

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(ψ) (σ3⁠ − ua⁠ ) (c″a⁠ vg) (ϕb⁠ )

0.05 100, 200 & 20 21.8

300

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0.25 100, 200 & 37 8.4
300
0.50 100, 200 & 64 7.3
300
0.75 100, 200 & 88 6.7
300
20 100, 200 & 120 0.3
300
300 100, 200 & 150 0.03

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300

Table 3
Experimental values of unsaturated shear strength parameters.

Soil Apparent
Net confining suction, cohesion, Angle of friction with

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pressure, kPa MPa kPa respect to suction, deg.
(σ3⁠ − ua⁠ ) (ψ) (c″) (ϕb⁠ )

100 0.05 19 20.8

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0.25 39 8.9
0.5 59 6.7
0.75 99 7.5
20 102 0.29
300 140 0.03
200 0.05 31 31.8
0.25 53 12
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0.5 80 9
0.75 131 9.9
20 140 0.4
300 208 0.0397
300 0.05 21 22.8
0.25 50 11.3
0.5 73 8.3
0.75 96 7.3
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20 162 0.46
300 180 0.03

Fig. 5(a) illustrates the nature of the increase in shear strength

of compacted silty sand with increasing suction between
50 and 300,000 kPa, and under net confining pressure of 300 kPa. The
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remaining stress-strain and volume change curves along with detailed Fig. 5. (a) Stress-strain response and (b) Variation of brittleness index of SM soil from suc-
discussion can be obtained in Patil et al. (2016a, b). It is worth clarify- tion-controlled CTC tests at different matric and total suctions.

ing that most suction-controlled, consolidated-drained (CD) triaxial tests

performed in this research were extremely time-consuming, with each
test taking at least a month to complete, after pore-fluid equalization;
hence, critical state was identified as soon as the deviator stress reached
an “apparent” critical state condition (i.e., further shearing of soil sam-
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The rate of increase in shear strength (i.e. c″) retards as total suc-
tion is increased between 20 and 300 MPa and under net confining pres-
sure of 300 kPa, as indicated in Tables 2 and 3. Beyond residual suction,
the specimen has adsorptive water that is mostly associated with mi-
cro-pores (Alonso et al. 2013) and hence remains ineffective in relaying

ple under virtually constant stress.

Increase in matric suction beyond air-entry suction, introduces air
in the pores and forms menisci around the solid grains that pulls the
particle together. This causes an apparent increase in normal forces at
grain point contact resulting in an increase in effective stress. Hence,
around 100 to 125 kPa of matric suction, there is a remarkable increase
in shear strength, irrespective of net confining pressure. However, be-
yond approximately 2000 kPa suction (which also happens to be resid-
ual suction for the test soil), this increase in shear strength becomes only
gradual with further increase in suction. In addition, there is an increase
in shear strength with increasing net confining pressure at constant suc-
tion.
suction to soil grains, thereby possibly retarding the rate of increase in
shear strength with any further increasing suction.
3.2. Effect of suction on post-peak strain softening and brittleness
The soil experiences strain softening when there is a reduction of
deviator stress from peak to critical stress during shearing. Further in-
sight on experimental stress-strain curves from this work strongly sug-
gests an increase in magnitude of strain-softening with increasing suc-
tion, as shown in Fig. 5(a). Irrespective of net confinement applied, an

5
U.D. Patil et al.
increase in suction is observed to have a more pronounced influence
on peak shear stress than on critical shear stress. One way to quantify
brittleness is to assess the “brittleness index” (IB⁠ ) as defined by Bishop
(1971):
(4)
where, qp⁠ eak = peak deviatoric stress and qr⁠ = residual deviatoric
stress.
Considering, qr⁠ as qc⁠ s = critical state deviatoric stress for experi-
ments in this paper, we can quantify IB⁠ and it varies between 0 and 1.
With decrease in value of brittleness index towards zero, the failure be-
havior becomes increasingly ductile. On the other hand, specimen fail-
ure will become increasingly brittle with increasing value of IB⁠ . For in-
stance, IB⁠ = 1 indicates very brittle behavior. Fig. 5(b) clearly indicate
that the brittleness index increases with increasing matric/total suction,
irrespective of net confining pressure with maximum brittleness index
value at highest total suction applied i.e. 300 MPa.
Under constant net confinement, continuous shearing beyond peak
shear stress drastically disturbs and destroys the air-water menisci im-
posed via axis-translation technique and formed around contact of solid
grains. Hence, the contribution of suction towards strength at peak
failure is often greater than at critical state; which is clearly illus-
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trated by Fig. 6(a), (b) and (c). Both the peak and critical deviator
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Fig. 6. Effect of suction on peak and critical deviator stress at different net confinements: (a) (σ3⁠ − ua⁠ ) = 100 kPa, (b) (σ3⁠ − ua⁠ ) = 200 kPa, and (c) (σ3⁠ − ua⁠ ) = 300 kPa.
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Engineering Geology xxx (2017) xxx-xxx
stress increase gradually up to ψm ⁠ = 500 kPa, with a dramatic increase
in both deviator stresses between ψm ⁠ = 500 to 750 kPa, and thereafter
the increase is gradual up to ψt⁠ = 300,000 kPa, but at comparatively
much higher rate for peak deviator stress than for critical stress; clearly
manifesting increase in strain softening response with increase in suc-
tion. In addition, the increase in net confinement from 100 to 300 kPa
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causes the difference between two deviator stresses to gradually in-
crease at constant suction.
The analysis of test results in p′-q plane, revealed the mobilized
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stress ratio at peak failure, ηp⁠ eak and at critical state, M equal to 1.60
and 1.42, respectively (Patil et al., 2016a, b). The stress ratio is use-
ful in identifying volumetric behavior during shearing. For instance,
when ηp⁠ eak > M, plastic softening (Fig. 5a) and volumetric dilation oc-
curs on yielding under shear (Patil et al., 2016a, b). The partially sat-
urated test soil showed post-peak softening stress-strain response (Fig.
5a) and initial compression followed by dilational volumetric response
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under shear (Patil et al., 2016a, b). Such a response may be attributed
to the relatively dense or overconsolidated stress history of the spec-
imens (as explained in section 2.2). Furthermore, the observed dila-
tancy forms the basis of additional energy manifested in terms of peak
strength (Schofield and Wroth, 1968; Atkinson, 2007).
It is observed from Table 2 that there is a gradual, nonlinear (hy-
perbolic) reduction in ϕb⁠ from 50 kPa to 750 kPa of matric soil suction,
while there is a sharp reduction in ϕb⁠ over the high suction range from
U.D. Patil et al. Engineering Geology xxx (2017) xxx-xxx

20 MPa to 300 MPa. The shear strength variation is primarily due to the
nonlinear change in cohesion intercept with suction.
3.3. Effect of suction on failure mode
It is well known that, in addition to the external loading, an increase
dried samples of Brazilian soils. The model was successfully used to pre-
dict the increase in shear strength/cohesion intercept, based on the fol-
lowing hyperbolic mathematical Eq. (5).
(5)

in suction tends to apply capillary force on the solid grains at their point
of contacts, thereby inducing extra bond among them, and thus render-
ing a stiffer soil structure that manifests brittleness during shearing. The
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where c″ = c(ψ) = the cohesion intercept function of the soil suction,
ψ = ua⁠ − uw ⁠ , c′ = effective soil cohesion (at ψ = 0). Parameters a and
b are curve-fitting parameters obtained from tests using saturated and

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growth of brittleness in specimen with increasing suction is clearly visu-
air-dried specimens. However, in the present work, similar to Reis et
alized from pictures taken at the end of the tests that indicate gradual
al. (2011), the parameters a and b were obtained from a best-fit analy-
transition in failure zones (i.e. ductile failure mode with barrel shape
sis, by plotting ψ/(c(ψ) − c′) versus ψ > 0 and fitting the experimental
or bulging at center under low to medium suctions and no barrel effect
points with a straight line given by the least square method.
under high suction) after shear failure, as illustrated in Figs. 7(a)–(d).
Although, Eq. (5) uses matric suction, attempt was made to apply
The specimen with highest value of total suction are expected to exhibit
the same equation and procedure to extend the experimental results
maximum brittle failure, which is precisely the case as visually manifest
up to total suction of 300,000 kPa by plotting soil suction on logarith-

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from Fig. 7(f).
mic scale. The average value of apparent increase in shear strength
Specimens sheared in the matric suction range ψm ⁠ = 50–750 kPa
(c″) was obtained by drawing a tangent at approximately ϕ′ = 35°.
show development of multiple shear failure planes with barreling effect
to Mohr's stress circles at critical state failure at net confinements of
in the shear zone, while those sheared at total suctions ψt⁠ = 20,000 and
(σ3⁠ − ua⁠ ) = 100, 200 and 300 kPa for each suction imposed (Table 3).
300,000 kPa developed distinct single shear failure plane. Also, the brit-
The parameters a and b are captioned in Fig. 8, along with reasonably
tleness increased the amplitude of post-peak softening which is evident
good correlation between the predicted and experimental results with
from increase in difference between magnitude of deviator stress at peak
R2⁠ = 0.99.
and critical state failure, as manifested from Figs. 6(a)–(c).
Vilar (2006) used direct shear test data from Escario and Juca (1989)

D
on Madrid gray clay and Guadalix red clay that was extended to suctions
4. Verification of shear strength models
of about 11,000 and 8000 kPa respectively, far above their respective
residual suction value, and then compared with these predictions from
TE
4.1. Vilar (2006) model - approach I
Eq. (5), with reasonable success. Apart from this exception, to the au-
thor's best knowledge, none of the existing models have been tested over
Vilar (2006) proposed an hyperbolic equation that considers matric
a wider range of suction (0.05 MPa to 300 MPa) as such used in this
suction contribution towards an increase in peak shear strength by an
research; thus, making the present virtually the first such attempt, espe-
increase in apparent cohesion to best fit experimental data from air-
cially with specimens prepared in an identical way (e.g., similar com-
paction method, initial water content and initial voids ratio) and vali-
EC

dated using unsaturated triaxial test data. It is worth noting that, when
results are plotted beyond residual suction value, the shape of the curve
resembles that of the SWRC (Fig. 8).
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Fig. 7. Typical specimen failure at different suction states: (a) CD300-50, (b) CD300-250, Fig. 8. Variation of cohesion intercept with matric suction (Vilar, 2006; approach I) from
(c) CD300-500, (d) CD300-750, (e) CDRH300-20 MPa, (f) CDRH300-300 MPa. average value of c″ at same suction but different confining pressures.

7
U.D. Patil et al.
4.2. Vilar (2006) model – approach II and proposed modification
Vilar (2006) also proposed a model that use maximum measured
suction and modified the parameter b as in equation below
(6)
Alternatively, the predictions at critical state are made through Eqs.
(2), (3), and (6) and shown in Fig. 9. For the sake of brevity, and to com-
pensate the effect of the net confining pressure, only one plot is shown
with average c″ value obtained by plotting Mohr's-stress circles at three
net confining pressures, i.e., (σ3⁠ − ua⁠ ) = 100, 200 and 300 kPa for each
suction level (Table 3). It was also cautioned that in granular soils the
model could yield conservative results. In agreement to the suggestion,
it can be observed that predictions from model were higher as compared
to experimental results with R2⁠ = 0.69. Therefore, the value of “a” can
be modified to a = 2.5/tanϕ′ instead of the one obtained from Eq. (2).
As seen in Fig. 9, a good agreement was obtained between the predicted
response and measured test response with R2⁠ = 0.96 using modified
value of parameter “a” in Vilar (2006), Eq. (6). It is worth mentioning
here that by coincidence, the Vilar (2006) approach I and approach II
D
with proposed slight modification yields almost similar predictions.
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4.3. Houston et al. (2008) model and proposed modification
Houston et al. (2008) proposed a hyperbolic function, as given by
Eq. (7), to predict the angle of friction with respect to suction, ϕb⁠ that
can be used along with the extended Mohr-Coulomb shear strength
equation proposed by Fredlund and Rahardjo (1993) to further pre-
EC
dict the increase in suction-induced peak shear strength, provided that
the air entry value (AEV) is known, along with the saturated effective
stress parameters. It should be noted that analysis is performed in this
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Fig. 9. Variation of cohesion intercept with matric suction using Vilar, 2006: approach II,
and approach II: modified.
8
Engineering Geology xxx (2017) xxx-xxx
paper at critical state.
(7)
F
The parameters “a” and “b” are determined by using transformed lin-
ear plot of ψ∗⁠ against ψ ∗⁠ /(ϕ′ − ϕb⁠ ). Experimental values of ϕb⁠ are first
OO
calculated. For instance, for ψ = 50 kPa, and σ3⁠ − ua⁠ = 100 kPa from
Fig. 2; ϕb⁠ = arctan (19/50) = 20.8°.
Houston et al. (2008) were able to use this model quite successfully
on triaxial shear strength experimental data from unsaturated CL-ML,
SM, CL and SP soils, as well as on data from previous researchers (e.g.,
Gan et al., 1988; Escario and Juca, 1989; Oloo and Fredlund, 1996; and
Thu et al., 2007). However, the data set was limited to a matric suction
PR
range < 1500 kPa. As such, the model remains to be validated for suc-
tion values beyond 1500 kPa.
Houston et al. (2008) also explained the physical significance of cor-
relating “b” with ϕ′ using a simple equation, b = 1/ϕ′. However, since
they lacked the data beyond residual suction range, caution was sug-
gested while using the Eq. (7) for dry soils or in high suction range.
From present work, when the parameter was evaluated using maximum
suction as 750 kPa, the value of ϕ′ obtained from reciprocal of b var-
ied between 29 and 40°. However, when maximum suction was taken
as 300,000 kPa, equation, b = 1/ϕ′, resulted in a value of ϕ′ = 35°. Re-
markably, as can be observed from Fig. 10, irrespective of the confining
pressure (σ3⁠ − ua⁠ = 100, 200 and 300 kPa), the value of the best fitting
parameter b, when fitted over the entire suction range (i.e. b = 0.0286)
remained virtually constant (see Table 4), and is in agreement with 1/
b = ϕ′ = 35°., as postulated by Houston et al. (2008).
To extend the results in high suction range, i.e. well beyond residual
suction, the soil suction was plotted on logarithmic scale to avoid ma-
tric suction data points getting concentrated in narrow range, thus pro-
viding a better visual representation of ϕb⁠ over the entire suction range,
as shown in Fig. 10. Good correlations are observed between predic-
tions and experimental results with R2⁠ = 0.98 over the entire suction
range of 50–300,000 kPa for net confinement of (σ3⁠ − ua⁠ ) = 300 kPa,
as shown in Fig. 10.
Fig. 11 shows the variation of gravimetric water content (w), angle
of friction with respect to suction (ϕb⁠ ), and apparent cohesion with in-
creasing suction based on model predictions as originally postulated by
Houston et al. (2008) and Vilar (2006). It can be observed that as the
suction increases, the value of ϕb⁠ and water holding capacity of soil de-
creases non-linearly. Striking reductions in both, ϕb⁠ and water holding
capacity of soil are observed beyond AEV of soil as expected for sandy
soil. However, beyond the residual suction, the further increase in suc-
tion has low impact on reduction in ϕb⁠ : an indication that soil had at-
tained its maximum strength.
In the present work, no reduction in strength was observed even
with imposed suction as high as 300,000 kPa (maximum total suction
that can be applied and maintained constant throughout testing using
relative humidity technique). For better visual comparison purposes, the
y-axis scales were adjusted so that, irrespective of their different individ-
ual range, all three plots could be accommodated within same plot size.
Again, the shape of shear strength curves resembles that of the SWRC.
4.4. Fredlund et al. (1996) model – approach I and proposed modification
Fredlund et al. (1996) and Vanapalli et al. (1996) proposed a non-
linear function for predicting the peak shear strength of unsaturated
soil, utilizing the entire soil-water retention curve with suction be-
tween 0 and 1000,000 kPa, along with saturated shear strength para
U.D. Patil et al. Engineering Geology xxx (2017) xxx-xxx

content = θw ⁠ /θs⁠ ; where, θw

⁠ = volumetric water content obtained using
Fredlund and Xing (1994) equation. Third term of the Eq. (8) represents
the shear strength contribution, τu⁠ s.

(9)

F
Fredlund et al. (1996) compared the experimental peak shear
strength test results on glacial till from a series of multistage tests us-
ing modified direct shear test apparatus with predictions from Eq. (9).

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A thorough parametric study yielded good correlations between experi-
mental and predicted peak shear strength with ĸ = 2.2.
In the present work, a new function is postulated based on previous
equations proposed by Fredlund et al. (1996), Vanapalli et al. (1996),
and Sedano and Vanapalli (2011), including critical modifications to ex-
tend their usefulness into the high suction range. Eq. (9) was used to
predict shear strength values at critical state, which were then compared
with experimental results from this work. For instance, for ψ = 50 kPa;

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Θ = θw ⁠ /θs⁠ = 18.5/30.2 = 0.61; τu⁠ s = [50 ∗ (18.5/30.2)1⁠ .21 ∗ tan
(35°)] = 19.34 kPa. However, using one value of ĸ, over the entire test
suction range, did not yield good correlations, especially beyond resid-
ual suction value. Therefore, function ĸ can be modified to be com-
prised of two different values when using this model: the first value
between the AEV (i.e. ψ = 10 kPa) and up to residual suction (i.e.
ψ = 2000 kPa), and the second value beyond residual suction, as fol-

D
TE lows:

(10)

As shown in Fig. 12, the experimental increase in shear strength was

reasonably well predicted with R2⁠ = 0.98 for the entire test range, i.e.
0–300,000 kPa. In previous research, “peak” shear strength values were
EC

used for comparison. In the present work, however, the increase in “crit-
ical state” shear strength is used for comparison, thus validating the
model at critical state.

4.5. Sedano and Vanapalli (2011) model – approach II and proposed

modification
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Fig. 10. (a) Calibration of best-fitting parameters, (b) Variation of cohesion intercept with
matric suction (Houston et al., 2008) from CD100-xx tests.
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Sedano and Vanapalli (2011) introduced Eq. (11), very similar to Eq.
(9), but using degree of saturation, S instead of normalized volumetric
water content (θ), and thus were able to correlate, with reasonable ac-
curacy, the critical state shear strength of glacial till obtained from mod-
ified ring shear apparatus using best-fit parameter, ĸ = 5.0, thus vali-
dating the model at critical state failure.

meters, c′ and ϕ′, as shown by Eq. (8). They also suggested the use
of Fredlund and Xing's (1994) equation to plot the best fitting SWRC
(11)
through experimental points.
Close observations of experimental test results indicate that the crit-
(8) ical state shear strength is fairly constant beyond 300 kPa while the tar-
get matric suction range was only up to 500 kPa; thus, the validation re-
mains to be addressed in the high suction range. In the present work, an
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where, κ = fitting parameter used for obtaining best-fit between the attempt is made to extend the critical state shear failure predictions at
measured and predicted values. Θ = normalized volumetric water critical state failure, and far beyond residual suction, thereby attempt-
ing to validate this model for high suction range.

Table 4
Calibrated parameters for compacted silty sand according to Houston et al. (2008) model.

σ3⁠ –ua⁠ Suction range b ϕ′ = 1/b Suction range b ϕ′ = 1/b

100 50–750 kPa 0.0342 29.2 50 kPa–300 MPa 0.0286 35

200 0.0252 39.7 0.0286 35
300 0.0333 30 0.0286 35

9
U.D. Patil et al.
Fig. 11. Variation of gravimetric water content, angle of friction with respect to suction
and increase in shear strength for test soil over 00–1000 MPa soil suction.
D
Good correlations were obtained only up to ψm
⁠ = 750 kPa. How-
ever, much higher and unrealistic predictions were obtained in the
TE
high suction range. It is clearly observed from the SWRC of the test
soil (Fig.1) that its water retention capacity changes drastically beyond
residual suction, and hence the value of the fitting parameter ĸ should
be adjusted to capture such dramatic change. Hence, a new value of
ĸ = 1.85 is suggested for suction states far beyond residual suction.
Parametric investigations of the proposed equation with varying
EC
values of ĸ, beyond residual suction, clearly indicate its sensitivity,
as shown in Fig. 13. Upon using ĸ = 1.2, up to residual suction, and
ĸ = 1.85, beyond residual suction, strong correlations (R2⁠ = 0.98) were
obtained between experimental values and predictions for the entire test
suction range (i.e. ψ = 0–300 MPa), as illustrated in Fig. 14. However,
the shear strength, particularly beyond residual suction drops with any
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further increases in value of ĸ, and vice-versa.
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Fig. 12. Experimental and predicted increase in shear strength with soil suction using Fredlund et al., 1996 model – approach I with modification.
10
Engineering Geology xxx (2017) xxx-xxx
4.6. Vanapalli et al. (1996) model - approach III
Vanapalli et al. (1996) proposed another predictive shear strength
(at peak failure) model by eliminating the use of a fitting parameter κ,
as given by Eq. (12) below:
F
(12)
OO
where, θw ⁠ = volumetric water content, θw⁠ = saturated volumetric wa-
ter content, and θr⁠ = residual volumetric water content that can be es-
timated from the SWRC. Similar results were obtained while using the
degree of saturation (S) or gravimetric water content instead of volu-
PR
metric water content in Eq. (12). Both Eq. (11) and (12) are consistent
with the stress-state variable approach and satisfy the continuum me-
chanics concept. However, it has limitations in that increase in shear
strength drops to zero at residual suction and might even become nega-
tive, i.e. decrease beyond residual suction. Vanapalli et al. (1996) tested
the equation within matric suction range of 0–500 kPa and obtained
good correlation between experimental results and predictions. Authors
made attempt to check the validity of this model for large suction range,
especially beyond residual suction.
Present paper explores suitability of applying above equations at
critical state failure. As shown in Fig. 15, good correlations were ob-
tained between experimental and predicted results for range of matric
suction up to ψ = 750 kPa. The nature of the Eq. (12) suggests its apt
suitability for predictions of decreasing shear strength beyond residual
suction. Although it was confirmed experimentally in this research that
the shear strength continued to increase with increase in suction be-
yond residual suction, the comparative predictions showed unrealistic
decrease in shear strength; thus, making this model inappropriate be-
yond residual suction for test soil under investigation.
4.7. Khalili and Khabbaz (1998) model and proposed modification
Khalili and Khabbaz (1998) extended Bishop (1959) equation by in-
troducing an empirical constant χ as expressed in Eq. (13).
U.D. Patil et al. Engineering Geology xxx (2017) xxx-xxx

However, when applied to results from present research at critical

state, the predictions from original equation, could be improved with
slight modification to the power function used in parameter χ as follows:

(15)

F
The modified equation holds good correlation (R2⁠ = 0.96) with

OO
results from experimental program from this research only up to
ψm⁠ = 750 kPa (0.75 MPa), as illustrated in Fig. 16. Beyond this level of
suction, however, the predictions are unrealistically high, thereby, lim-
iting its use below residual suction.

5. Summary and conclusions

Consolidated drained triaxial tests were conducted on identically

Fig. 13. Parametric performance of proposed equation with varying value of ĸ beyond
residual suction using Sedano and Vanapalli (2011) model – approach II with proposed
modification.
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prepared (i.e., similar initial voids ratio, water content and compaction
method (static), unsaturated silty sand specimens over a wide suction
range between 50 and 300,000 kPa and sheared along the CTC stress
path. Shear strength of soil increased dramatically with suction between
air entry value and residual suction. On the other hand, it increased at
dramatically slower rate beyond residual suction. The specimens under-
went post-peak strain-softening that increased with increase in soil suc-
tion.

D
Hyperbolic equation proposed by Houston et al. (2008), in its origi-
nal form was validated for first time for suction range beyond residual
suction. Slight modification was suggested to Vilar (2006) equation, and
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(13) Khalili and Khabbaz (1998) equation to get better predictions that led to
validation of former equation for silty sand test soil over selected wide
suction range. Although, good correlations were obtained using modi-
where, (ua⁠ − uw⁠ )f⁠ = matric suction in the specimen at failure condition, fied Khalili and Khabbaz (1998) equation up to ψm ⁠ = 750 kPa, unreal-
(ua⁠ − uw
⁠ )b
⁠ = air entry value suction of soil. Previously available data istically high predictions were obtained in high suction range; thus, lim-
from 13 different soils indicated that the value of − 0.55 best fits the iting its use in low-medium suction (0–750 kPa) range only for the test
EC

equation over a wider range of soil type. In addition, the air entry value soil.
is needed along with saturated strength parameters to predict the peak A new function is postulated based on previous equations proposed
shear strength using Eq. (14). by Fredlund et al. (1996), Vanapalli et al. (1996), and Sedano and
Vanapalli (2011) including critical modifications to extend their predic-
tions over high suction range. The modified equation uses two different
(14) values of best fitting parameter, ĸ; First, to improve original predictions
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up to residual suction and second, beyond residual suction, thereby ex-

tending it to high suction range up to 300 MPa.
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Fig. 14. Experimental and predicted suction-induced increase in shear strength up to Ψ = 300,000 kPa using Sedano and Vanapalli (2011) model – approach II with proposed modifica-
tion.

11
U.D. Patil et al.
Fig. 15. Experimental and predicted shear strength using Vanapalli et al. (1996) model – approach III.
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Fig. 16. Experimental and predicted shear strength (Khalili and Khabbaz, 1998).
Almost all the models, except the one by Sedano and Vanapalli
(2011), were previously validated to predict increase in peak shear
strength due to increase in suction; however, this research focusses on
validating them at critical state. Accurate assessments of unsaturated
strength parameters are of extreme importance in natural slopes in fis-
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sured rocks with unsaturated clayey and silty sand fills that can un-
dergo significant shear strength changes upon wetting, or shallow fis-
sured landslides that can also be activated by wetting. Additional ex-
perimental evidence of unsaturated soil shear strength on variety of
soils is needed in future to corroborate greater acceptance of proposed
semi-empirical equations in their proposed form or in modified form as
from this article or for their further future enhancement.
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Uncited reference
Patil et al., 2015
Acknowledgements
The experimental work described in this paper is part of an ongoing
research project funded by the National Science Foundation under MRI
12
Engineering Geology xxx (2017) xxx-xxx
F
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Award No. 1039956. This support is gratefully acknowledged. Any find-
ings, conclusions, or recommendations expressed in this material are
those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the Na-
tional Science Foundation.
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