Chapter 2

Mechanisms of heat transfer

Conduction
 Definition
• Conduction is the transfer of AIR
energy from the more energetic Heat
particles of a substance to the
adjacent less energetic ones as
a result of interaction between
𝑇2
particles. ∆𝑇 AIR
𝑇1

• Conduction can take place in Heat

solids, liquids or gases. ∆𝑥

Wall of
aluminum can
 Fourier’s law 𝑇 + 𝑑𝑇
𝑇
𝑛
𝑑𝑄 𝜕𝑇
𝑞= = −𝑘
𝑑𝐴𝑑𝜏 𝜕𝑛 𝑞
Where: isothermal
𝑞: heat flux 𝑊 Τ𝑚2 surface

𝑘: thermal conductivity 𝑊 Τ𝑚. 𝐾

𝜕𝑇
: temperature gradient in direction of heat flux 𝐾 Τ𝑚
𝜕𝑛

• Thermal conductivity 𝑘 is a measure of the ability of a

material to conduct heat. It indicates how fast heat flows
in a given material.
• Thermal conductivity strongly depends on temperature.
 Energy balance
𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑖𝑛𝑙𝑒𝑡 + 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑛 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
= 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 + 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑡
𝜕𝑇
• Fourier ‘s Law in the Cartesian coordinates: 𝑞𝑖 = −𝑘
𝑞𝑦+𝑑𝑦 𝜕𝑖
𝑞𝑧

• Energy generated: 𝑞𝑔𝑒𝑛 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧

𝑑𝑦

𝑞𝑥 𝑞𝑥+𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑥
• Elemental volume: 𝑑𝑣 = 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧
𝑞𝑧+𝑑𝑧
𝜕𝑇
𝑞𝑦 • Internal energy change: 𝜌𝑐𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧
𝜕𝜏
 Energy balance
𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑖𝑛𝑙𝑒𝑡 + 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑛 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
= 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 + 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑡

• Energy inlet • Energy outlet

𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝑇 𝜕 𝜕𝑇
𝑋 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠: −𝑘𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧 𝑋 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠: − 𝑘 + 𝑘 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝑇 𝜕 𝜕𝑇
𝑌 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠: −𝑘𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑧 𝑌 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠: − 𝑘 + 𝑘 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑧
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝑇 𝜕 𝜕𝑇
𝑍 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠: −𝑘𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦 𝑍 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠: − 𝑘 + 𝑘 𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦
𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧
 Fourier equation
𝜕 𝜕𝑇 𝜕 𝜕𝑇 𝜕 𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝑇
𝑘 + 𝑘 + 𝑘 + 𝑞𝑔𝑒𝑛 = 𝜌𝑐
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝜏

For constant thermal conductivity

𝑘 𝜕2𝑇 𝜕2𝑇 𝜕2𝑇 𝑞𝑔𝑒𝑛 𝜕𝑇 2

𝑞𝑔𝑒𝑛 𝜕𝑇
+ 2+ 2 + = 𝑎𝛻 𝑇 + =
𝜌𝑐 𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜌𝑐 𝜕𝜏 𝜌𝑐 𝜕𝜏

𝑎 thermal diffusivity

The larger the value of 𝑎, the faster

heat will diffuse through the material
 Fourier equation
𝑧

𝜙
𝑟 𝑑𝜙

Cylindrical coordinates
𝑑𝑧

𝑦
𝑥
𝑘 𝜕 2 𝑇 1 𝜕𝑇 1 𝜕 2 𝑇 𝜕 2 𝑇 𝑞𝑔𝑒𝑛 𝜕𝑇
2
+ + 2 2+ 2 + =
𝜌𝑐 𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝜙 𝜕𝑧 𝜌𝑐 𝜕𝜏
 Fourier equation
𝑧
𝜙
𝑑𝜙

Spherical coordinates
𝑟
𝜃 𝑑𝜃

𝑦
𝑥
𝑘 1 𝜕2 1 𝜕 𝜕𝑇 1 𝜕2𝑇 𝑞𝑔𝑒𝑛 𝜕𝑇
2
𝑟𝑇 + 2 sin 𝜃 + 2 2 2
+ =
𝜌𝑐 𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝑟 sin 𝜃 𝜕𝜃 𝜕𝜃 𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 𝜕𝜙 𝜌𝑐 𝜕𝜏
 Fourier equation
• For steady state one dimensional 𝜕2𝑇
heat flux without heat generation 2
=0
𝜕𝑥
• For steady state one dimensional 𝜕2𝑇
heat flux with heat generation 𝑘 2 + 𝑞𝑔𝑒𝑛 = 0
𝜕𝑥
• For unsteady state one dimensional 𝑘 𝜕 2 𝑇 𝑞𝑔𝑒𝑛 𝜕𝑇
+ =
heat flux with heat generation 𝜌𝑐 𝜕𝑥 2 𝜌𝑐 𝜕𝜏

• For steady state three dimensional 𝜕2𝑇 𝜕2𝑇 𝜕2𝑇

+ 2+ 2 =0
heat flux without heat generation 𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

Laplace equation: 𝛻 2 𝑇 = 0
 Conditions
• Initial condition: temperature distribution of the body in initial time
condition 𝜏 = 0

𝑇 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝜏 ≡ 𝑇 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 0

𝑇 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧
 Conditions
• The First boundary condition: temperature distribution at certain
position (point or surface) as a function of time (Dirichlet condition)

𝑇 𝑥𝑜 , 𝑦𝑜 , 𝑧𝑜 , 𝜏 = 𝑇 𝜏

𝑇 𝜏
 Conditions
• The Second boundary condition: heat flux at certain position (point
or surface) as a function of time (Neumann condition)

𝑞 𝑥𝑜 , 𝑦𝑜 , 𝑧𝑜 , 𝜏 = 𝑞𝑠 𝜏

𝑞𝑠 𝜏
𝑞𝑠 𝜏 = 0 (insulation)
 Conditions
• The Second boundary condition: heat flux at certain position (point
or surface) as a function of time (Neumann condition)

𝑞 𝑥𝑜 , 𝑦𝑜 , 𝑧𝑜 , 𝜏 = 𝑞𝑠 𝜏

𝑞𝑥 𝜏 = 0

𝑥
 Conditions
• The Third boundary condition: heat flux at contact surface between
solid and fluid as Newton’s law (convection) or Stefan–Boltzmann’s
law (radiation) (Robin condition)

𝑞𝑠 𝜏 = ℎ 𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇𝑓

𝑇𝑠
𝑞𝑠 𝜏
𝑇∞
 Conditions
• The Fourth boundary condition: heat flux at contact surface
between two solid bodies
𝜕𝑇1 𝜕𝑇2
𝑞𝑠 = −𝑘1 = −𝑘2
𝜕𝑛 𝜕𝑛
𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑 1 𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑 2

𝑞𝑠1
𝑞𝑠2
Steady state conduction
without heat generation
 Plane wall
𝑑𝑇
• Heat flux 𝑞 = −𝑘
𝑑𝑥
𝑇 0 = 𝑇1
𝑞𝑔𝑒𝑛 = 0 • Boundary condition ቊ
𝑇 𝛿 = 𝑇2
𝑇1
one layer 𝑇1 − 𝑇2
𝑞=
𝛿
𝑘
𝜕2𝑇
• Temperature profile 2
=0
𝑇2 𝜕𝑥
𝛿 𝑥
𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑇 𝑥 = 𝑇1 − 𝑇1 − 𝑇2
𝛿
𝑇1 − 𝑇 𝑥 𝑥
=
𝑇1 − 𝑇2 𝛿
 Plane wall
𝑞
multi layer 𝑅𝐴 𝑅𝐵 𝑅𝐶
Temperature
profile 𝑇1 𝑇2 𝑇3 𝑇4
𝑞 𝑇1 − 𝑇2 𝑇2 − 𝑇3 𝑇3 − 𝑇4
𝑞= = =
𝛿𝐴 𝛿𝐵 𝛿𝐶
𝑘𝐴 𝑘𝐵 𝑘𝐶
𝑇1 − 𝑇4 𝑇1 − 𝑇4
1 2 3 4 𝑞= =
𝛿𝐴 𝛿𝐵 𝛿𝐶 𝑅𝐴 + 𝑅𝐵 + 𝑅𝐶
+ +
𝑘𝐴 𝑘𝐵 𝑘𝐶 like Ohm’s law

𝑇𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 ∆𝑇𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙

𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 = =
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 σ𝑅
 Plane wall
1 1 1 1
= + +
𝑅𝐵𝐶𝐷 𝑅𝐵 𝑅𝐶 𝑅𝐷
𝑞
1 1 1
= +
𝑅𝐹𝐺 𝑅𝐹 𝑅𝐺

෍ 𝑅 = 𝑅𝐴 + 𝑅𝐵𝐶𝐷 + 𝑅𝐸 + 𝑅𝐹𝐺

𝑇1 − 𝑇5 𝑞 𝑅𝐵 𝑅𝐹
𝑞=
σ𝑅 𝑅𝐴 𝑅𝐶 𝑅𝐸
𝑇1 𝑅𝐷 𝑅𝐺
𝑇2 𝑇3 𝑇4 𝑇5
 Cylinder
𝑑𝑇
• Heat flux 𝑞 = − 2𝜋𝑟 𝑘
𝑑𝑟
𝑞: heat flux per cylinder length 𝑊 Τ𝑚
𝑇 𝑟1 = 𝑇1
• Boundary condition ቊ
𝑇 𝑟2 = 𝑇2
𝐿
𝑟2
𝑟1
𝑇1 − 𝑇2
𝑇2 𝑞=
𝑇1 1 𝑟2
ln
2𝜋𝑘 𝑟1
𝜕 2 𝑇 1 𝜕𝑇
• Temperature profile + =0
𝜕𝑟 2 𝑟 𝜕𝑟
ln 𝑟Τ𝑟1 𝑇1 − 𝑇 𝑟 ln 𝑟Τ𝑟1
𝑇 𝑟 = 𝑇1 − 𝑇1 − 𝑇2 =
ln 𝑟2 Τ𝑟1 𝑇1 − 𝑇2 ln 𝑟2 Τ𝑟1
 𝑞 Cylinder
𝑞
𝑅𝐴 𝑅𝐵 𝑅𝐶
𝑇1 𝑇2 𝑇3 𝑇4

𝑟4
𝑇4

𝑇1 − 𝑇2 𝑇2 − 𝑇3 𝑇3 − 𝑇4
𝑞= = =
1 𝑟2 1 𝑟3 1 𝑟
ln ln ln 4
2𝜋𝑘𝐴 𝑟1 2𝜋𝑘𝐵 𝑟2 2𝜋𝑘𝐶 𝑟3

𝑇1 − 𝑇4 𝑇1 − 𝑇4
𝑞= =
1 𝑟2 1 𝑟3 1 𝑟4 𝑅𝐴 + 𝑅𝐵 + 𝑅𝐶
ln + ln + ln
2𝜋𝑘𝐴 𝑟1 2𝜋𝑘𝐵 𝑟2 2𝜋𝑘𝐶 𝑟3
 Sphere
𝑑𝑇
𝑇1 • Heat flux 𝑞=− 4𝜋𝑟 2 𝑘
𝑞 𝑟1 𝑇2 𝑑𝑟
𝑟2 𝑞: heat flux per surface area 𝑊 Τ𝑚2
𝑟 𝑇 𝑟1 = 𝑇1
𝑑𝑟 • Boundary condition ቊ
𝑇 𝑟2 = 𝑇2
𝑇1 − 𝑇2
𝑞=
1 1 1
−
4𝜋𝑘 𝑟1 𝑟2

1 𝜕2 𝑇1 − 𝑇 𝑟 𝑟2 𝑟1 − 𝑟
• Temperature profile 2
𝑟𝑇 = 0 =
𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝑇1 − 𝑇2 𝑟 𝑟1 − 𝑟2
Steady state conduction
with heat generation
 Plane wall
𝑇 0 = 𝑇1
𝑥𝑜 ; 𝑇𝑚𝑎𝑥
• Boundary condition ቊ
𝑇 𝛿 = 𝑇2
𝑞𝑔𝑒𝑛
• Heat flux
𝑘 𝑞𝑔𝑒𝑛 𝛿 2 𝑥 1
𝑇1 𝑞 𝑥 = 𝑇1 − 𝑇2 1 + −
𝛿 𝑘 𝑇1 − 𝑇2 𝛿 2
𝑇2 𝜕 2 𝑇 𝑞𝑔𝑒𝑛
• Temperature profile + =0
𝜕𝑥 2 𝑘
𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝛿 𝑇1 − 𝑇 𝑥 𝑥 𝑞𝑔𝑒𝑛 𝛿 2 𝑥
= 1− 1−
𝑥𝑜 1 𝑘 𝑇1 − 𝑇2 𝑇1 − 𝑇2 𝛿 2𝑘 𝑇1 − 𝑇2 𝛿
= −
𝛿 2 𝑞𝑔𝑒𝑛 𝛿 2
𝑞𝑔𝑒𝑛 𝛿 2 𝑘 𝑇1 − 𝑇2 2 1
𝑇𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑇1 + + 2
− 𝑇1 − 𝑇2
8𝑘 2𝑞𝑔𝑒𝑛 𝛿 2
 Cylinder
𝑇 𝑟1 = 𝑇1
• Boundary condition ቊ
𝑇 𝑟2 = 𝑇2

1 𝑞𝑔𝑒𝑛 𝑟
• Heat flux 𝑞 𝑟 = 4𝑘 𝑇1 − 𝑇2 − 𝑞𝑔𝑒𝑛 𝑟22 − 𝑟12 +
𝑟2 2
4𝑟 ln
𝑟1

𝜕 2 𝑇 1 𝜕𝑇 𝑞𝑔𝑒𝑛
• Temperature profile 2
+ + =0
𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝑘

𝑇1 − 𝑇 𝑟 ln 𝑟Τ𝑟1 𝑞𝑔𝑒𝑛 ln 𝑟Τ𝑟1

= + 𝑟 2
− 𝑟12 − 𝑟22 − 𝑟12
𝑇1 − 𝑇2 Τ
ln 𝑟2 𝑟1 4𝑘 𝑇1 − 𝑇2 ln 𝑟2 Τ𝑟1
 Sphere
𝑇 𝑟1 = 𝑇1
• Boundary condition ቊ
𝑇 𝑟2 = 𝑇2

𝑞𝑔𝑒𝑛 𝑟 𝑟1 𝑟2 𝑘 𝑇1 − 𝑇2 𝑞𝑔𝑒𝑛
• Heat flux 𝑞 = + 2 − 𝑟1 + 𝑟2
3 𝑟 𝑟2 − 𝑟1 6

1 𝜕2 𝑞𝑔𝑒𝑛
• Temperature profile 2
𝑟𝑇 + =0
𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝑘

𝑇1 − 𝑇 𝑟 𝑟2 𝑟 − 𝑟1 𝑞𝑔𝑒𝑛
= + 𝑟 3 − 𝑟1 𝑟2 𝑟1 + 𝑟2 + 𝑟 𝑟22 + 𝑟1 𝑟2 + 𝑟12
𝑇1 − 𝑇2 𝑟 𝑟1 − 𝑟2 6𝑟𝑘 𝑇1 − 𝑇2