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Oracle Database 10g: SQL

Fundamentals I

Electronic Presentation

D17108GC20
Edition 2.0
May 2006
D46259
®
Authors Copyright © 2006, Oracle. All rights reserved.

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Introduction

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Lesson Objectives

After completing this lesson, you should be able to do


the following:
• List the features of Oracle10g
• Discuss the theoretical and physical aspects of a
relational database
• Describe the Oracle implementation of RDBMS and
ORDBMS
• Understand the goals of the course

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Goals of the Course

After completing this course, you should be able to do the


following:
• Identify the major structural components of
Oracle Database 10g
• Retrieve row and column data from tables with the
SELECT statement
• Create reports of sorted and restricted data
• Employ SQL functions to generate and retrieve
customized data
• Run data manipulation language (DML) statements to
update data in Oracle Database 10g
• Obtain metadata by querying the dictionary views

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Oracle10g

One
Scalability
vendor

Unified
Reliability
management

Single
Common
development
skillsets
model

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Oracle10g

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Oracle Database 10g

Object-relational data

Documents

Multimedia

Messages

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Oracle Application Server 10g

Portals

Transactional applications

Business intelligence

Integration

Application Application
development server
framework

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Oracle Enterprise Manager 10g
Grid Control

• Software provisioning
• Application service level monitoring

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Relational and Object Relational
Database Management Systems

• Relational model and object relational model


• User-defined data types and objects
• Fully compatible with relational database
• Support of multimedia and large objects
• High-quality database server features

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Oracle Internet Platform

Clients

Any Any Any


browser mail client FTP client

Development tools
Internet applications
System management

SQL
Business logic Presentation and
and data business logic
PL/SQL

Databases Application
servers Java

Network services

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System Development Life Cycle

Strategy
and
analysis
Design
Build
and
document
Transition

Production

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Data Storage on Different Media

Electronic Database
spreadsheet Filing cabinet

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Relational Database Concept

• Dr. E. F. Codd proposed the relational model for


database systems in 1970.
• It is the basis for the relational database
management system (RDBMS).
• The relational model consists of the following:
– Collection of objects or relations
– Set of operators to act on the relations
– Data integrity for accuracy and consistency

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Definition of a Relational Database

A relational database is a collection of relations or


two-dimensional tables.
Oracle
server

Table name: EMPLOYEES Table name: DEPARTMENTS

… …

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Data Models

Model of
system
Entity model of
in client’s
client’s model
mind
Table model
of entity model Oracle
server

Tables on disk

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Entity Relationship Model

• Create an entity relationship diagram from


business specifications or narratives:

EMPLOYEE DEPARTMENT
assigned to
#* number #* number
* name * name
o job title composed of o location

• Scenario
– “. . . Assign one or more employees to a
department . . .”
– “. . . Some departments do not yet have assigned
employees . . .”

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Entity Relationship
Modeling Conventions

Entity Attribute
• Singular, unique name • Singular name
• Uppercase • Lowercase
• Soft box • Mandatory marked with *
• Synonym in parentheses • Optional marked with “o”

EMPLOYEE DEPARTMENT
#* number assigned to
#* number
* name * name
o job title composed of o location

Unique identifier (UID)


Primary marked with “#”
Secondary marked with “(#)”

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Relating Multiple Tables

• Each row of data in a table is uniquely identified by a


primary key (PK).
• You can logically relate data from multiple tables using
foreign keys (FK).

Table name: DEPARTMENTS


Table name: EMPLOYEES


Primary key Foreign key Primary key

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Relational Database Terminology

3 4
2

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Relational Database Properties

A relational database:
• Can be accessed and modified by executing
structured query language (SQL) statements
• Contains a collection of tables with no physical
pointers
• Uses a set of operators

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Communicating with an RDBMS
Using SQL

SQL statement is entered. Statement is sent to


Oracle server.
SELECT department_name
FROM departments;
Oracle
server

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Oracle’s Relational Database Management
System

Oracle
server

User tables Data


dictionary

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SQL Statements

SELECT
INSERT
UPDATE Data manipulation language (DML)
DELETE
MERGE

CREATE
ALTER
DROP Data definition language (DDL)
RENAME
TRUNCATE
COMMENT

GRANT Data control language (DCL)


REVOKE

COMMIT
ROLLBACK Transaction control
SAVEPOINT

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Tables Used in the Course

EMPLOYEES

DEPARTMENTS JOB_GRADES

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Summary

• Oracle Database 10g is the database for grid


computing.
• The database is based on the object relational
database management system.
• Relational databases are composed of relations,
managed by relational operations, and governed by
data integrity constraints.
• With the Oracle server, you can store and manage
information by using the SQL language and
PL/SQL engine.

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Retrieving Data Using
the SQL SELECT Statement

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Objectives

After completing this lesson, you should be able to do


the following:
• List the capabilities of SQL SELECT statements
• Execute a basic SELECT statement
• Differentiate between SQL statements and
iSQL*Plus commands

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Capabilities of SQL SELECT Statements

Projection Selection

Table 1 Table 1

Join

Table 1 Table 2

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Basic SELECT Statement

SELECT *|{[DISTINCT] column|expression [alias],...}


FROM table;

• SELECT identifies the columns to be displayed.


• FROM identifies the table containing those columns.

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Selecting All Columns

SELECT *
FROM departments;

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Selecting Specific Columns

SELECT department_id, location_id


FROM departments;

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Writing SQL Statements

• SQL statements are not case sensitive.


• SQL statements can be on one or more lines.
• Keywords cannot be abbreviated or split
across lines.
• Clauses are usually placed on separate lines.
• Indents are used to enhance readability.
• In iSQL*Plus, SQL statements can optionally be
terminated by a semicolon (;). Semicolons are
required if you execute multiple SQL statements.
• In SQL*Plus, you are required to end each SQL
statement with a semicolon (;).

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Column Heading Defaults

• iSQL*Plus:
– Default heading alignment: Center
– Default heading display: Uppercase
• SQL*Plus:
– Character and Date column headings are left-aligned
– Number column headings are right-aligned
– Default heading display: Uppercase

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Arithmetic Expressions

Create expressions with number and date data by using


arithmetic operators.
Operator Description
+ Add
- Subtract
* Multiply
/ Divide

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Using Arithmetic Operators

SELECT last_name, salary, salary + 300


FROM employees;

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Operator Precedence

SELECT last_name, salary, 12*salary+100


FROM employees; 1


SELECT last_name, salary, 12*(salary+100)
FROM employees;
2

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Defining a Null Value

• A null is a value that is unavailable, unassigned,


unknown, or inapplicable.
• A null is not the same as a zero or a blank space.
SELECT last_name, job_id, salary, commission_pct
FROM employees;

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Null Values
in Arithmetic Expressions

Arithmetic expressions containing a null value evaluate to


null.
SELECT last_name, 12*salary*commission_pct
FROM employees;

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Defining a Column Alias

A column alias:
• Renames a column heading
• Is useful with calculations
• Immediately follows the column name (There can
also be the optional AS keyword between the
column name and alias.)
• Requires double quotation marks if it contains
spaces or special characters or if it is case
sensitive

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Using Column Aliases

SELECT last_name AS name, commission_pct comm


FROM employees;

SELECT last_name "Name" , salary*12 "Annual Salary"


FROM employees;

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Concatenation Operator

A concatenation operator:
• Links columns or character strings to other
columns
• Is represented by two vertical bars (||)
• Creates a resultant column that is a character
expression
SELECT last_name||job_id AS "Employees"
FROM employees;

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Literal Character Strings

• A literal is a character, a number, or a date that is


included in the SELECT statement.
• Date and character literal values must be enclosed
by single quotation marks.
• Each character string is output once for each
row returned.

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Using Literal Character Strings

SELECT last_name ||' is a '||job_id


AS "Employee Details"
FROM employees;

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Alternative Quote (q) Operator

• Specify your own quotation mark delimiter


• Choose any delimiter
• Increase readability and usability
SELECT department_name ||
q'[, it's assigned Manager Id: ]'
|| manager_id
AS "Department and Manager"
FROM departments;

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Duplicate Rows

The default display of queries is all rows, including


duplicate rows.
SELECT department_id
FROM employees; 1


SELECT DISTINCT department_id
FROM employees; 2

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SQL and iSQL*Plus Interaction

SQL statements
Oracle
server
Internet
browser

iSQL*Plus Query results


commands

Formatted report
Client

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SQL Statements Versus
iSQL*Plus Commands
SQL iSQL*Plus
• A language • An environment
• ANSI standard • Oracle-proprietary
• Keyword cannot be • Keywords can be
abbreviated abbreviated
• Statements manipulate • Commands do not allow
data and table definitions manipulation of values in
in the database the database
• Runs on a browser
• Centrally loaded; does not
have to be implemented
on each machine

SQL iSQL*Plus
statements commands

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Overview of iSQL*Plus

After you log in to iSQL*Plus, you can:


• Describe table structures
• Enter, execute, and edit SQL statements
• Save or append SQL statements to files
• Execute or edit statements that are stored in saved
script files

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Logging In to iSQL*Plus

From your browser environment:

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iSQL*Plus Environment
8 9

1
6

2 3 4 5

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Displaying Table Structure

Use the iSQL*Plus DESCRIBE command to display the


structure of a table:

DESC[RIBE] tablename

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Displaying Table Structure

DESCRIBE employees

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Interacting with Script Files

SELECT last_name, hire_date, salary


FROM employees; 1

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Interacting with Script Files

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Interacting with Script Files

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Interacting with Script Files

D:\TEMP\emp_data.sql

2
3

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iSQL*Plus History Page

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iSQL*Plus History Page

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Setting iSQL*Plus Preferences

2
3

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Setting the Output Location Preference

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Summary

In this lesson, you should have learned how to:


• Write a SELECT statement that:
– Returns all rows and columns from a table
– Returns specified columns from a table
– Uses column aliases to display more descriptive
column headings
• Use the iSQL*Plus environment to write, save, and
execute SQL statements and iSQL*Plus commands

SELECT *|{[DISTINCT] column|expression [alias],...}


FROM table;

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Practice 1: Overview

This practice covers the following topics:


• Selecting all data from different tables
• Describing the structure of tables
• Performing arithmetic calculations and specifying
column names
• Using iSQL*Plus

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Restricting and Sorting Data

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Objectives

After completing this lesson, you should be able to do


the following:
• Limit the rows that are retrieved by a query
• Sort the rows that are retrieved by a query
• Use ampersand substitution in iSQL*Plus to
restrict and sort output at run time

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Limiting Rows Using a Selection

EMPLOYEES

“retrieve all
employees in
department 90”

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Limiting the Rows That Are Selected

• Restrict the rows that are returned by using the


WHERE clause:
SELECT *|{[DISTINCT] column|expression [alias],...}
FROM table
[WHERE condition(s)];

• The WHERE clause follows the FROM clause.

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Using the WHERE Clause

SELECT employee_id, last_name, job_id, department_id


FROM employees
WHERE department_id = 90 ;

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Character Strings and Dates

• Character strings and date values are enclosed in


single quotation marks.
• Character values are case sensitive, and date values
are format sensitive.
• The default date format is DD-MON-RR.

SELECT last_name, job_id, department_id


FROM employees
WHERE last_name = 'Whalen' ;

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Comparison Conditions

Operator Meaning
= Equal to
> Greater than
>= Greater than or equal to
< Less than
<= Less than or equal to
<> Not equal to
BETWEEN Between two values
...AND... (inclusive)
IN(set) Match any of a list of values
LIKE Match a character pattern
IS NULL Is a null value

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Using Comparison Conditions

SELECT last_name, salary


FROM employees
WHERE salary <= 3000 ;

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Using the BETWEEN Condition

Use the BETWEEN condition to display rows based on a


range of values:
SELECT last_name, salary
FROM employees
WHERE salary BETWEEN 2500 AND 3500 ;

Lower limit Upper limit

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Using the IN Condition

Use the IN membership condition to test for values in a


list:
SELECT employee_id, last_name, salary, manager_id
FROM employees
WHERE manager_id IN (100, 101, 201) ;

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Using the LIKE Condition

• Use the LIKE condition to perform wildcard


searches of valid search string values.
• Search conditions can contain either literal
characters or numbers:
– % denotes zero or many characters.
– _ denotes one character.

SELECT first_name
FROM employees
WHERE first_name LIKE 'S%' ;

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Using the LIKE Condition

• You can combine pattern-matching characters:


SELECT last_name
FROM employees
WHERE last_name LIKE '_o%' ;

• You can use the ESCAPE identifier to search for the


actual % and _ symbols.

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Using the NULL Conditions

Test for nulls with the IS NULL operator.


SELECT last_name, manager_id
FROM employees
WHERE manager_id IS NULL ;

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Logical Conditions

Operator Meaning
AND Returns TRUE if both component
conditions are true
OR Returns TRUE if either component
condition is true
NOT Returns TRUE if the following
condition is false

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Using the AND Operator

AND requires both conditions to be true:


SELECT employee_id, last_name, job_id, salary
FROM employees
WHERE salary >=10000
AND job_id LIKE '%MAN%' ;

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Using the OR Operator

OR requires either condition to be true:


SELECT employee_id, last_name, job_id, salary
FROM employees
WHERE salary >= 10000
OR job_id LIKE '%MAN%' ;

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Using the NOT Operator

SELECT last_name, job_id


FROM employees
WHERE job_id
NOT IN ('IT_PROG', 'ST_CLERK', 'SA_REP') ;

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Rules of Precedence

Operator Meaning
1 Arithmetic operators
2 Concatenation operator
3 Comparison conditions
4 IS [NOT] NULL, LIKE, [NOT] IN
5 [NOT] BETWEEN
6 Not equal to
7 NOT logical condition
8 AND logical condition
9 OR logical condition

You can use parentheses to override rules of precedence.

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Rules of Precedence

SELECT last_name, job_id, salary


FROM employees
WHERE job_id = 'SA_REP' 1
OR job_id = 'AD_PRES'
AND salary > 15000;

SELECT last_name, job_id, salary


FROM employees
WHERE (job_id = 'SA_REP' 2
OR job_id = 'AD_PRES')
AND salary > 15000;

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Using the ORDER BY Clause

• Sort retrieved rows with the ORDER BY clause:


– ASC: ascending order, default
– DESC: descending order
• The ORDER BY clause comes last in the SELECT
statement:
SELECT last_name, job_id, department_id, hire_date
FROM employees
ORDER BY hire_date ;

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Sorting

• Sorting in descending order:


SELECT last_name, job_id, department_id, hire_date
FROM employees
ORDER BY hire_date DESC ; 1

• Sorting by column alias:


SELECT employee_id, last_name, salary*12 annsal
FROM employees 2
ORDER BY annsal ;

• Sorting by multiple columns:


SELECT last_name, department_id, salary
FROM employees 3
ORDER BY department_id, salary DESC;

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Substitution Variables

... salary = ? …
… department_id = ? …
... last_name = ? ...

I want
to query
different
values.

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Substitution Variables

• Use iSQL*Plus substitution variables to:


– Temporarily store values with single-ampersand (&)
and double-ampersand (&&) substitution
• Use substitution variables to supplement the
following:
– WHERE conditions
– ORDER BY clauses
– Column expressions
– Table names
– Entire SELECT statements

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Using the & Substitution Variable

Use a variable prefixed with an ampersand (&) to prompt


the user for a value:
SELECT employee_id, last_name, salary, department_id
FROM employees
WHERE employee_id = &employee_num ;

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Using the & Substitution Variable

101

1
2

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Character and Date Values
with Substitution Variables

Use single quotation marks for date and character values:

SELECT last_name, department_id, salary*12


FROM employees
WHERE job_id = '&job_title' ;

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Specifying Column Names,
Expressions, and Text

SELECT employee_id, last_name, job_id,&column_name


FROM employees
WHERE &condition
ORDER BY &order_column ;

salary

salary > 15000

last_name

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Using the && Substitution Variable

Use the double ampersand (&&) if you want to reuse the


variable value without prompting the user each time:

SELECT employee_id, last_name, job_id, &&column_name


FROM employees
ORDER BY &column_name ;

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Using the iSQL*Plus DEFINE Command

• Use the iSQL*Plus DEFINE command to create and


assign a value to a variable.
• Use the iSQL*Plus UNDEFINE command to remove a
variable.

DEFINE employee_num = 200

SELECT employee_id, last_name, salary, department_id


FROM employees
WHERE employee_id = &employee_num ;

UNDEFINE employee_num

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Using the VERIFY Command

Use the VERIFY command to toggle the display of the


substitution variable, both before and after iSQL*Plus
replaces substitution variables with values:

SET VERIFY ON
SELECT employee_id, last_name, salary, department_id
FROM employees
WHERE employee_id = &employee_num;

old 3: WHERE employee_id = &employee_num


new 3: WHERE employee_id = 200

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Summary

In this lesson, you should have learned how to:


• Use the WHERE clause to restrict rows of output:
– Use the comparison conditions
– Use the BETWEEN, IN, LIKE, and NULL conditions
– Apply the logical AND, OR, and NOT operators
• Use the ORDER BY clause to sort rows of output:
SELECT *|{[DISTINCT] column|expression [alias],...}
FROM table
[WHERE condition(s)]
[ORDER BY {column, expr, alias} [ASC|DESC]] ;

• Use ampersand substitution in iSQL*Plus to


restrict and sort output at run time

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Practice 2: Overview

This practice covers the following topics:


• Selecting data and changing the order of
the rows that are displayed
• Restricting rows by using the WHERE clause
• Sorting rows by using the ORDER BY clause
• Using substitution variables to add flexibility to
your SQL SELECT statements

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Using Single-Row Functions to
Customize Output

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Objectives

After completing this lesson, you should be able to do


the following:
• Describe various types of functions that are
available in SQL
• Use character, number, and date functions in
SELECT statements
• Describe the use of conversion functions

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SQL Functions

Input Output

Function

arg 1 Function performs


action
arg 2
Result
value

arg n

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Two Types of SQL Functions

Functions

Single-row Multiple-row
functions functions

Return one result Return one result


per row per set of rows

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Single-Row Functions

Single-row functions:
• Manipulate data items
• Accept arguments and return one value
• Act on each row that is returned
• Return one result per row
• May modify the data type
• Can be nested
• Accept arguments that can be a column or an
expression

function_name [(arg1, arg2,...)]

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Single-Row Functions

Character

Single-row
General Number
functions

Conversion Date

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Character Functions

Character
functions

Case-manipulation Character-manipulation
functions functions

LOWER CONCAT
UPPER SUBSTR
INITCAP LENGTH
INSTR
LPAD | RPAD
TRIM
REPLACE

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Case-Manipulation Functions

These functions convert case for character strings:


Function Result
LOWER('SQL Course') sql course
UPPER('SQL Course') SQL COURSE
INITCAP('SQL Course') Sql Course

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Using Case-Manipulation Functions

Display the employee number, name, and department


number for employee Higgins:
SELECT employee_id, last_name, department_id
FROM employees
WHERE last_name = 'higgins';
no rows selected

SELECT employee_id, last_name, department_id


FROM employees
WHERE LOWER(last_name) = 'higgins';

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Character-Manipulation Functions

These functions manipulate character strings:


Function Result
CONCAT('Hello', 'World') HelloWorld
SUBSTR('HelloWorld',1,5) Hello
LENGTH('HelloWorld') 10
INSTR('HelloWorld', 'W') 6
LPAD(salary,10,'*') *****24000
RPAD(salary, 10, '*') 24000*****
REPLACE BLACK and BLUE
('JACK and JUE','J','BL')
TRIM('H' FROM 'HelloWorld') elloWorld

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Using the Character-Manipulation Functions

1
SELECT employee_id, CONCAT(first_name, last_name) NAME,
job_id, LENGTH (last_name), 2
INSTR(last_name, 'a') "Contains 'a'?"
FROM employees 3
WHERE SUBSTR(job_id, 4) = 'REP';

1 2 3

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Number Functions

• ROUND: Rounds value to specified decimal


• TRUNC: Truncates value to specified decimal
• MOD: Returns remainder of division
Function Result
ROUND(45.926, 2) 45.93
TRUNC(45.926, 2) 45.92
MOD(1600, 300) 100

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Using the ROUND Function

1 2
SELECT ROUND(45.923,2), ROUND(45.923,0),
ROUND(45.923,-1) 3
FROM DUAL;

1 2 3
DUAL is a dummy table that you can use to view results
from functions and calculations.

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Using the TRUNC Function

1 2
SELECT TRUNC(45.923,2), TRUNC(45.923),
TRUNC(45.923,-1) 3
FROM DUAL;

1 2 3

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Using the MOD Function

For all employees with job title of Sales Representative,


calculate the remainder of the salary after it is divided by
5,000.
SELECT last_name, salary, MOD(salary, 5000)
FROM employees
WHERE job_id = 'SA_REP';

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Working with Dates

• The Oracle database stores dates in an internal numeric


format: century, year, month, day, hours, minutes, and
seconds.
• The default date display format is DD-MON-RR.
– Enables you to store 21st-century dates in the
20th century by specifying only the last two digits of
the year
– Enables you to store 20th-century dates in the
21st century in the same way
SELECT last_name, hire_date
FROM employees
WHERE hire_date < '01-FEB-88';

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Working with Dates

SYSDATE is a function that returns:


• Date
• Time

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Arithmetic with Dates

• Add or subtract a number to or from a date for a


resultant date value.
• Subtract two dates to find the number of days
between those dates.
• Add hours to a date by dividing the number of
hours by 24.

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Using Arithmetic Operators
with Dates

SELECT last_name, (SYSDATE-hire_date)/7 AS WEEKS


FROM employees
WHERE department_id = 90;

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Date Functions

Function Result
MONTHS_BETWEEN Number of months between two dates
ADD_MONTHS Add calendar months to date
NEXT_DAY Next day of the date specified
LAST_DAY Last day of the month
ROUND Round date
TRUNC Truncate date

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Using Date Functions

Function Result
MONTHS_BETWEEN 19.6774194
('01-SEP-95','11-JAN-94')
ADD_MONTHS ('11-JAN-94',6) '11-JUL-94'
NEXT_DAY ('01-SEP-95','FRIDAY') '08-SEP-95'
LAST_DAY ('01-FEB-95') '28-FEB-95'

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Using Date Functions

Assume SYSDATE = '25-JUL-03':


Function Result
ROUND(SYSDATE,'MONTH') 01-AUG-03
ROUND(SYSDATE ,'YEAR') 01-JAN-04
TRUNC(SYSDATE ,'MONTH') 01-JUL-03
TRUNC(SYSDATE ,'YEAR') 01-JAN-03

Copyright © 2006, Oracle. All rights reserved.


Practice 3: Overview of Part 1

This practice covers the following topics:


• Writing a query that displays the current date
• Creating queries that require the use of numeric,
character, and date functions
• Performing calculations of years and months of
service for an employee

Copyright © 2006, Oracle. All rights reserved.


Conversion Functions

Data type
conversion

Implicit data type Explicit data type


conversion conversion

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Implicit Data Type Conversion

For assignments, the Oracle server can automatically


convert the following:

From To
VARCHAR2 or CHAR NUMBER
VARCHAR2 or CHAR DATE
NUMBER VARCHAR2
DATE VARCHAR2

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Implicit Data Type Conversion

For expression evaluation, the Oracle Server can


automatically convert the following:

From To
VARCHAR2 or CHAR NUMBER
VARCHAR2 or CHAR DATE

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Explicit Data Type Conversion

TO_NUMBER TO_DATE

NUMBER CHARACTER DATE

TO_CHAR TO_CHAR

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Explicit Data Type Conversion

TO_NUMBER TO_DATE

NUMBER CHARACTER DATE

TO_CHAR TO_CHAR

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Using the TO_CHAR Function with Dates

TO_CHAR(date, 'format_model')

The format model:


• Must be enclosed by single quotation marks
• Is case sensitive
• Can include any valid date format element
• Has an fm element to remove padded blanks or
suppress leading zeros
• Is separated from the date value by a comma

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Elements of the Date Format Model

Element Result
YYYY Full year in numbers
YEAR Year spelled out (in English)
MM Two-digit value for month
MONTH Full name of the month
MON Three-letter abbreviation of the month
DY Three-letter abbreviation of the day of the
week
DAY Full name of the day of the week
DD Numeric day of the month

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Elements of the Date Format Model

• Time elements format the time portion of the date:


HH24:MI:SS AM 15:45:32 PM

• Add character strings by enclosing them in double


quotation marks:
DD "of" MONTH 12 of OCTOBER

• Number suffixes spell out numbers:


ddspth fourteenth

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Using the TO_CHAR Function with Dates

SELECT last_name,
TO_CHAR(hire_date, 'fmDD Month YYYY')
AS HIREDATE
FROM employees;

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Using the TO_CHAR Function with Numbers

TO_CHAR(number, 'format_model')

These are some of the format elements that you can use
with the TO_CHAR function to display a number value as a
character:
Element Result
9 Represents a number
0 Forces a zero to be displayed
$ Places a floating dollar sign
L Uses the floating local currency symbol
. Prints a decimal point
, Prints a comma as thousands indicator

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Using the TO_CHAR Function with Numbers

SELECT TO_CHAR(salary, '$99,999.00') SALARY


FROM employees
WHERE last_name = 'Ernst';

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Using the TO_NUMBER and TO_DATE Functions

• Convert a character string to a number format


using the TO_NUMBER function:

TO_NUMBER(char[, 'format_model'])

• Convert a character string to a date format using


the TO_DATE function:
TO_DATE(char[, 'format_model'])

• These functions have an fx modifier. This modifier


specifies the exact matching for the character
argument and date format model of a TO_DATE
function.

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RR Date Format

Current Year Specified Date RR Format YY Format


1995 27-OCT-95 1995 1995
1995 27-OCT-17 2017 1917
2001 27-OCT-17 2017 2017
2001 27-OCT-95 1995 2095

If the specified two-digit year is:

0–49 50–99
If two digits The return date is in The return date is in
of the 0–49 the current century the century before
current the current one
year are: The return date is in The return date is in
50–99 the century after the current century
the current one

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Example of RR Date Format

To find employees hired before 1990, use the RR date


format, which produces the same results whether the
command is run in 1999 or now:
SELECT last_name, TO_CHAR(hire_date, 'DD-Mon-YYYY')
FROM employees
WHERE hire_date < TO_DATE('01-Jan-90','DD-Mon-RR');

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Nesting Functions

• Single-row functions can be nested to any level.


• Nested functions are evaluated from the deepest level
to the least deep level.

F3(F2(F1(col,arg1),arg2),arg3)

Step 1 = Result 1
Step 2 = Result 2
Step 3 = Result 3

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Nesting Functions

SELECT last_name,
UPPER(CONCAT(SUBSTR (LAST_NAME, 1, 8), '_US'))
FROM employees
WHERE department_id = 60;

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General Functions

The following functions work with any data type and


pertain to using nulls:
• NVL (expr1, expr2)
• NVL2 (expr1, expr2, expr3)
• NULLIF (expr1, expr2)
• COALESCE (expr1, expr2, ..., exprn)

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NVL Function

Converts a null value to an actual value:


• Data types that can be used are date, character,
and number.
• Data types must match:
– NVL(commission_pct,0)
– NVL(hire_date,'01-JAN-97')
– NVL(job_id,'No Job Yet')

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Using the NVL Function

SELECT last_name, salary, NVL(commission_pct, 0), 1


(salary*12) + (salary*12*NVL(commission_pct, 0)) AN_SAL
FROM employees;
2

1 2

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Using the NVL2 Function

SELECT last_name, salary, commission_pct, 1


NVL2(commission_pct,
'SAL+COMM', 'SAL') income 2
FROM employees WHERE department_id IN (50, 80);

1 2

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Using the NULLIF Function

1
SELECT first_name, LENGTH(first_name) "expr1",
last_name, LENGTH(last_name) "expr2", 2
NULLIF(LENGTH(first_name), LENGTH(last_name)) result 3
FROM employees;


1 2 3

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Using the COALESCE Function

• The advantage of the COALESCE function over the


NVL function is that the COALESCE function can
take multiple alternate values.
• If the first expression is not null, the COALESCE
function returns that expression; otherwise, it does
a COALESCE of the remaining expressions.

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Using the COALESCE Function

SELECT last_name,
COALESCE(manager_id,commission_pct, -1) comm
FROM employees
ORDER BY commission_pct;

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Conditional Expressions

• Provide the use of IF-THEN-ELSE logic within a SQL


statement
• Use two methods:
– CASE expression
– DECODE function

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CASE Expression

Facilitates conditional inquiries by doing the work of an


IF-THEN-ELSE statement:

CASE expr WHEN comparison_expr1 THEN return_expr1


[WHEN comparison_expr2 THEN return_expr2
WHEN comparison_exprn THEN return_exprn
ELSE else_expr]
END

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Using the CASE Expression

Facilitates conditional inquiries by doing the work of an


IF-THEN-ELSE statement:
SELECT last_name, job_id, salary,
CASE job_id WHEN 'IT_PROG' THEN 1.10*salary
WHEN 'ST_CLERK' THEN 1.15*salary
WHEN 'SA_REP' THEN 1.20*salary
ELSE salary END "REVISED_SALARY"
FROM employees;

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DECODE Function

Facilitates conditional inquiries by doing the work of a


CASE expression or an IF-THEN-ELSE statement:
DECODE(col|expression, search1, result1
[, search2, result2,...,]
[, default])

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Using the DECODE Function

SELECT last_name, job_id, salary,


DECODE(job_id, 'IT_PROG', 1.10*salary,
'ST_CLERK', 1.15*salary,
'SA_REP', 1.20*salary,
salary)
REVISED_SALARY
FROM employees;

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Using the DECODE Function

Display the applicable tax rate for each employee in


department 80:
SELECT last_name, salary,
DECODE (TRUNC(salary/2000, 0),
0, 0.00,
1, 0.09,
2, 0.20,
3, 0.30,
4, 0.40,
5, 0.42,
6, 0.44,
0.45) TAX_RATE
FROM employees
WHERE department_id = 80;

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Summary

In this lesson, you should have learned how to:


• Perform calculations on data using functions
• Modify individual data items using functions
• Manipulate output for groups of rows using
functions
• Alter date formats for display using functions
• Convert column data types using functions
• Use NVL functions
• Use IF-THEN-ELSE logic

Copyright © 2006, Oracle. All rights reserved.


Practice 3: Overview of Part 2

This practice covers the following topics:


• Creating queries that require the use of numeric,
character, and date functions
• Using concatenation with functions
• Writing non-case-sensitive queries to test the
usefulness of character functions
• Performing calculations of years and months of
service for an employee
• Determining the review date for an employee

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Reporting Aggregated Data
Using the Group Functions

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Objectives

After completing this lesson, you should be able to do


the following:
• Identify the available group functions
• Describe the use of group functions
• Group data by using the GROUP BY clause
• Include or exclude grouped rows by using the
HAVING clause

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What Are Group Functions?

Group functions operate on sets of rows to give one


result per group.
EMPLOYEES

Maximum salary in
EMPLOYEES table

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Types of Group Functions

• AVG
• COUNT
• MAX
Group
• MIN functions
• STDDEV
• SUM
• VARIANCE

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Group Functions: Syntax

SELECT [column,] group_function(column), ...


FROM table
[WHERE condition]
[GROUP BY column]
[ORDER BY column];

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Using the AVG and SUM Functions

You can use AVG and SUM for numeric data.


SELECT AVG(salary), MAX(salary),
MIN(salary), SUM(salary)
FROM employees
WHERE job_id LIKE '%REP%';

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Using the MIN and MAX Functions

You can use MIN and MAX for numeric, character, and date
data types.
SELECT MIN(hire_date), MAX(hire_date)
FROM employees;

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Using the COUNT Function

COUNT(*) returns the number of rows in a table:


SELECT COUNT(*)
1 FROM employees
WHERE department_id = 50;

COUNT(expr) returns the number of rows with non-


null values for the expr:
SELECT COUNT(commission_pct)
2 FROM employees
WHERE department_id = 80;

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Using the DISTINCT Keyword

• COUNT(DISTINCT expr) returns the number of distinct


non-null values of the expr.
• To display the number of distinct department values in
the EMPLOYEES table:
SELECT COUNT(DISTINCT department_id)
FROM employees;

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Group Functions and Null Values

Group functions ignore null values in the column:


SELECT AVG(commission_pct)
1 FROM employees;

The NVL function forces group functions to include


null values:
SELECT AVG(NVL(commission_pct, 0))
2 FROM employees;

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Creating Groups of Data

EMPLOYEES
4400

9500

3500 Average
salary in
EMPLOYEES
6400 table for each
department
10033

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Creating Groups of Data:
GROUP BY Clause Syntax

SELECT column, group_function(column)


FROM table
[WHERE condition]
[GROUP BY group_by_expression]
[ORDER BY column];

You can divide rows in a table into smaller groups by


using the GROUP BY clause.

Copyright © 2006, Oracle. All rights reserved.


Using the GROUP BY Clause

All columns in the SELECT list that are not in group


functions must be in the GROUP BY clause.

SELECT department_id, AVG(salary)


FROM employees
GROUP BY department_id ;

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Using the GROUP BY Clause

The GROUP BY column does not have to be in the SELECT


list.
SELECT AVG(salary)
FROM employees
GROUP BY department_id ;

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Grouping by More Than One Column

EMPLOYEES

Add the
salaries in
the EMPLOYEES
table for
each job,
grouped by
department

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Using the GROUP BY Clause
on Multiple Columns

SELECT department_id dept_id, job_id, SUM(salary)


FROM employees
GROUP BY department_id, job_id ;

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Illegal Queries
Using Group Functions

Any column or expression in the SELECT list that is not an


aggregate function must be in the GROUP BY clause:
SELECT department_id, COUNT(last_name)
FROM employees;

SELECT department_id, COUNT(last_name)


*
ERROR at line 1:
ORA-00937: not a single-group group function

Column missing in the GROUP BY clause

Copyright © 2006, Oracle. All rights reserved.


Illegal Queries
Using Group Functions

• You cannot use the WHERE clause to restrict groups.


• You use the HAVING clause to restrict groups.
• You cannot use group functions in the WHERE clause.
SELECT department_id, AVG(salary)
FROM employees
WHERE AVG(salary) > 8000
GROUP BY department_id;

WHERE AVG(salary) > 8000


*
ERROR at line 3:
ORA-00934: group function is not allowed here
Cannot use the WHERE clause to restrict groups

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Restricting Group Results

EMPLOYEES

The maximum
salary
per department
when it is
greater than
$10,000

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Restricting Group Results
with the HAVING Clause

When you use the HAVING clause, the Oracle server


restricts groups as follows:
1. Rows are grouped.
2. The group function is applied.
3. Groups matching the HAVING clause are displayed.

SELECT column, group_function


FROM table
[WHERE condition]
[GROUP BY group_by_expression]
[HAVING group_condition]
[ORDER BY column];

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Using the HAVING Clause

SELECT department_id, MAX(salary)


FROM employees
GROUP BY department_id
HAVING MAX(salary)>10000 ;

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Using the HAVING Clause

SELECT job_id, SUM(salary) PAYROLL


FROM employees
WHERE job_id NOT LIKE '%REP%'
GROUP BY job_id
HAVING SUM(salary) > 13000
ORDER BY SUM(salary);

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Nesting Group Functions

Display the maximum average salary:


SELECT MAX(AVG(salary))
FROM employees
GROUP BY department_id;

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Summary

In this lesson, you should have learned how to:


• Use the group functions COUNT, MAX, MIN, and AVG
• Write queries that use the GROUP BY clause
• Write queries that use the HAVING clause

SELECT column, group_function


FROM table
[WHERE condition]
[GROUP BY group_by_expression]
[HAVING group_condition]
[ORDER BY column];

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Practice 4: Overview

This practice covers the following topics:


• Writing queries that use the group functions
• Grouping by rows to achieve more than one result
• Restricting groups by using the HAVING clause

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Displaying Data
from Multiple Tables

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Objectives

After completing this lesson, you should be able to do


the following:
• Write SELECT statements to access data from more
than one table using equijoins and nonequijoins
• Join a table to itself by using a self-join
• View data that generally does not meet a join
condition by using outer joins
• Generate a Cartesian product of all rows from two
or more tables

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Obtaining Data from Multiple Tables

EMPLOYEES DEPARTMENTS

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Types of Joins

Joins that are compliant with the SQL:1999 standard


include the following:
• Cross joins
• Natural joins
• USING clause
• Full (or two-sided) outer joins
• Arbitrary join conditions for outer joins

Copyright © 2006, Oracle. All rights reserved.


Joining Tables Using SQL:1999 Syntax

Use a join to query data from more than one table:


SELECT table1.column, table2.column
FROM table1
[NATURAL JOIN table2] |
[JOIN table2 USING (column_name)] |
[JOIN table2
ON (table1.column_name = table2.column_name)]|
[LEFT|RIGHT|FULL OUTER JOIN table2
ON (table1.column_name = table2.column_name)]|
[CROSS JOIN table2];

Copyright © 2006, Oracle. All rights reserved.


Creating Natural Joins

• The NATURAL JOIN clause is based on all columns


in the two tables that have the same name.
• It selects rows from the two tables that have equal
values in all matched columns.
• If the columns having the same names have
different data types, an error is returned.

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Retrieving Records with Natural Joins

SELECT department_id, department_name,


location_id, city
FROM departments
NATURAL JOIN locations ;

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Creating Joins with the USING Clause

• If several columns have the same names but the data


types do not match, the NATURAL JOIN clause can be
modified with the USING clause to specify the columns
that should be used for an equijoin.
• Use the USING clause to match only one column when
more than one column matches.
• Do not use a table name or alias in the referenced
columns.
• The NATURAL JOIN and USING clauses are mutually
exclusive.

Copyright © 2006, Oracle. All rights reserved.


Joining Column Names

EMPLOYEES DEPARTMENTS

… …
Foreign key Primary key

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Retrieving Records with the USING Clause

SELECT employees.employee_id, employees.last_name,


departments.location_id, department_id
FROM employees JOIN departments
USING (department_id) ;

Copyright © 2006, Oracle. All rights reserved.


Qualifying Ambiguous
Column Names

• Use table prefixes to qualify column names that are


in multiple tables.
• Use table prefixes to improve performance.
• Use column aliases to distinguish columns that
have identical names but reside in different tables.
• Do not use aliases on columns that are identified in
the USING clause and listed elsewhere in the SQL
statement.

Copyright © 2006, Oracle. All rights reserved.


Using Table Aliases

• Use table aliases to simplify queries.


• Use table aliases to improve performance.
SELECT e.employee_id, e.last_name,
d.location_id, department_id
FROM employees e JOIN departments d
USING (department_id) ;

Copyright © 2006, Oracle. All rights reserved.


Creating Joins with the ON Clause

• The join condition for the natural join is basically


an equijoin of all columns with the same name.
• Use the ON clause to specify arbitrary conditions or
specify columns to join.
• The join condition is separated from other search
conditions.
• The ON clause makes code easy to understand.

Copyright © 2006, Oracle. All rights reserved.


Retrieving Records with the ON Clause

SELECT e.employee_id, e.last_name, e.department_id,


d.department_id, d.location_id
FROM employees e JOIN departments d
ON (e.department_id = d.department_id);

Copyright © 2006, Oracle. All rights reserved.


Self-Joins Using the ON Clause

EMPLOYEES (WORKER) EMPLOYEES (MANAGER)

… …

MANAGER_ID in the WORKER table is equal to


EMPLOYEE_ID in the MANAGER table.

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Self-Joins Using the ON Clause

SELECT e.last_name emp, m.last_name mgr


FROM employees e JOIN employees m
ON (e.manager_id = m.employee_id);

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Applying Additional Conditions
to a Join

SELECT e.employee_id, e.last_name, e.department_id,


d.department_id, d.location_id
FROM employees e JOIN departments d
ON (e.department_id = d.department_id)
AND e.manager_id = 149 ;

Copyright © 2006, Oracle. All rights reserved.


Creating Three-Way Joins with the
ON Clause

SELECT employee_id, city, department_name


FROM employees e
JOIN departments d
ON d.department_id = e.department_id
JOIN locations l
ON d.location_id = l.location_id;

Copyright © 2006, Oracle. All rights reserved.


Nonequijoins

EMPLOYEES JOB_GRADES

Salary in the EMPLOYEES


table must be between
… lowest salary and highest
salary in the JOB_GRADES
table.

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Retrieving Records
with Nonequijoins

SELECT e.last_name, e.salary, j.grade_level


FROM employees e JOIN job_grades j
ON e.salary
BETWEEN j.lowest_sal AND j.highest_sal;

Copyright © 2006, Oracle. All rights reserved.


Outer Joins

DEPARTMENTS EMPLOYEES

There are no employees in


department 190.

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INNER Versus OUTER Joins

• In SQL:1999, the join of two tables returning only


matched rows is called an inner join.
• A join between two tables that returns the results
of the inner join as well as the unmatched rows
from the left (or right) tables is called a left (or
right) outer join.
• A join between two tables that returns the results
of an inner join as well as the results of a left and
right join is a full outer join.

Copyright © 2006, Oracle. All rights reserved.


LEFT OUTER JOIN

SELECT e.last_name, e.department_id, d.department_name


FROM employees e LEFT OUTER JOIN departments d
ON (e.department_id = d.department_id) ;

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RIGHT OUTER JOIN

SELECT e.last_name, e.department_id, d.department_name


FROM employees e RIGHT OUTER JOIN departments d
ON (e.department_id = d.department_id) ;

Copyright © 2006, Oracle. All rights reserved.


FULL OUTER JOIN

SELECT e.last_name, d.department_id, d.department_name


FROM employees e FULL OUTER JOIN departments d
ON (e.department_id = d.department_id) ;

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Cartesian Products

• A Cartesian product is formed when:


– A join condition is omitted
– A join condition is invalid
– All rows in the first table are joined to all rows in the
second table
• To avoid a Cartesian product, always include a
valid join condition.

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Generating a Cartesian Product

EMPLOYEES (20 rows) DEPARTMENTS (8 rows)

Cartesian product:
20 x 8 = 160 rows

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Creating Cross Joins

• The CROSS JOIN clause produces the cross-product of


two tables.
• This is also called a Cartesian product between the two
tables.

SELECT last_name, department_name


FROM employees
CROSS JOIN departments ;

Copyright © 2006, Oracle. All rights reserved.


Summary

In this lesson, you should have learned how to use


joins to display data from multiple tables by using:
• Equijoins
• Nonequijoins
• Outer joins
• Self-joins
• Cross joins
• Natural joins
• Full (or two-sided) outer joins

Copyright © 2006, Oracle. All rights reserved.


Practice 5: Overview

This practice covers the following topics:


• Joining tables using an equijoin
• Performing outer and self-joins
• Adding conditions

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Using Subqueries to Solve Queries

Copyright © 2006, Oracle. All rights reserved.


Objectives

After completing this lesson, you should be able to do the


following:
• Define subqueries
• Describe the types of problems that subqueries can
solve
• List the types of subqueries
• Write single-row and multiple-row subqueries

Copyright © 2006, Oracle. All rights reserved.


Using a Subquery
to Solve a Problem

Who has a salary greater than Abel’s?

Main query:

Which employees have salaries greater


than Abel’s salary?

Subquery:

What is Abel’s salary?

Copyright © 2006, Oracle. All rights reserved.


Subquery Syntax

SELECT select_list
FROM table
WHERE expr operator
(SELECT select_list
FROM table);

• The subquery (inner query) executes once before


the main query (outer query).
• The result of the subquery is used by the main
query.

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Using a Subquery

SELECT last_name, salary


FROM employees 11000
WHERE salary >
(SELECT salary
FROM employees
WHERE last_name = 'Abel');

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Guidelines for Using Subqueries

• Enclose subqueries in parentheses.


• Place subqueries on the right side of the
comparison condition.
• The ORDER BY clause in the subquery is not
needed unless you are performing Top-N analysis.
• Use single-row operators with single-row
subqueries, and use multiple-row operators with
multiple-row subqueries.

Copyright © 2006, Oracle. All rights reserved.


Types of Subqueries

• Single-row subquery
Main query
returns
Subquery ST_CLERK

• Multiple-row subquery
Main query
returns ST_CLERK
Subquery
SA_MAN

Copyright © 2006, Oracle. All rights reserved.


Single-Row Subqueries

• Return only one row


• Use single-row comparison operators
Operator Meaning
= Equal to
> Greater than
>= Greater than or equal to
< Less than
<= Less than or equal to
<> Not equal to

Copyright © 2006, Oracle. All rights reserved.


Executing Single-Row Subqueries

SELECT last_name, job_id, salary


FROM employees
WHERE job_id = ST_CLERK
(SELECT job_id
FROM employees
WHERE employee_id = 141)
AND salary > 2600
(SELECT salary
FROM employees
WHERE employee_id = 143);

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Using Group Functions in a Subquery

SELECT last_name, job_id, salary


FROM employees 2500
WHERE salary =
(SELECT MIN(salary)
FROM employees);

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The HAVING Clause with Subqueries

• The Oracle server executes subqueries first.


• The Oracle server returns results into the HAVING
clause of the main query.
SELECT department_id, MIN(salary)
FROM employees
GROUP BY department_id 2500
HAVING MIN(salary) >
(SELECT MIN(salary)
FROM employees
WHERE department_id = 50);

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What Is Wrong with This Statement?

SELECT employee_id, last_name


FROM employees
WHERE salary =
(SELECT MIN(salary)
FROM employees
GROUP BY department_id);

ERROR at line 4:
ORA-01427: single-row subquery returns more than
one row

Single-row operator with multiple-row subquery

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Will This Statement Return Rows?

SELECT last_name, job_id


FROM employees
WHERE job_id =
(SELECT job_id
FROM employees
WHERE last_name = 'Haas');

no rows selected

Subquery returns no values.

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Multiple-Row Subqueries

• Return more than one row


• Use multiple-row comparison operators

Operator Meaning
IN Equal to any member in the list
ANY Compare value to each value returned by the
subquery
ALL Compare value to every value returned by
the subquery

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Using the ANY Operator
in Multiple-Row Subqueries

SELECT employee_id, last_name, job_id, salary


FROM employees 9000, 6000, 4200
WHERE salary < ANY
(SELECT salary
FROM employees
WHERE job_id = 'IT_PROG')
AND job_id <> 'IT_PROG';

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Using the ALL Operator
in Multiple-Row Subqueries

SELECT employee_id, last_name, job_id, salary


FROM employees 9000, 6000, 4200
WHERE salary < ALL
(SELECT salary
FROM employees
WHERE job_id = 'IT_PROG')
AND job_id <> 'IT_PROG';

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Null Values in a Subquery

SELECT emp.last_name
FROM employees emp
WHERE emp.employee_id NOT IN
(SELECT mgr.manager_id
FROM employees mgr);

no rows selected

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Summary

In this lesson, you should have learned how to:


• Identify when a subquery can help solve a question
• Write subqueries when a query is based on unknown
values

SELECT select_list
FROM table
WHERE expr operator
(SELECT select_list
FROM table);

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Practice 6: Overview

This practice covers the following topics:


• Creating subqueries to query values based on
unknown criteria
• Using subqueries to find out which values exist in one
set of data and not in another

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Using the Set Operators

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Objectives

After completing this lesson, you should be able to do


the following:
• Describe set operators
• Use a set operator to combine multiple queries into
a single query
• Control the order of rows returned

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Set Operators
A B A B

UNION/UNION ALL

A B

INTERSECT

A B

MINUS

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Tables Used in This Lesson

The tables used in this lesson are:


• EMPLOYEES: Provides details regarding all
current employees
• JOB_HISTORY: Records the details of the start date
and end date of the former job, and the job
identification number and department when an
employee switches jobs

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UNION Operator

A B

The UNION operator returns results from both


queries after eliminating duplications.

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Using the UNION Operator

Display the current and previous job details of all


employees. Display each employee only once.
SELECT employee_id, job_id
FROM employees
UNION
SELECT employee_id, job_id
FROM job_history;


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UNION ALL Operator

A B

The UNION ALL operator returns results from both


queries, including all duplications.

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Using the UNION ALL Operator

Display the current and previous departments of all


employees.
SELECT employee_id, job_id, department_id
FROM employees
UNION ALL
SELECT employee_id, job_id, department_id
FROM job_history
ORDER BY employee_id;

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INTERSECT Operator

A B

The INTERSECT operator returns rows that are


common to both queries.

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Using the INTERSECT Operator

Display the employee IDs and job IDs of those employees


who currently have a job title that is the same as their job
title when they were initially hired (that is, they changed
jobs but have now gone back to doing their original job).

SELECT employee_id, job_id


FROM employees
INTERSECT
SELECT employee_id, job_id
FROM job_history;

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MINUS Operator

A B

The MINUS operator returns rows in the first query


that are not present in the second query.

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MINUS Operator

Display the employee IDs of those employees who


have not changed their jobs even once.
SELECT employee_id
FROM employees
MINUS
SELECT employee_id
FROM job_history;

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Set Operator Guidelines

• The expressions in the SELECT lists must match in


number and data type.
• Parentheses can be used to alter the sequence of
execution.
• The ORDER BY clause:
– Can appear only at the very end of the statement
– Will accept the column name, aliases from the first
SELECT statement, or the positional notation

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The Oracle Server and Set Operators

• Duplicate rows are automatically eliminated except


in UNION ALL.
• Column names from the first query appear in the
result.
• The output is sorted in ascending order by default
except in UNION ALL.

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Matching the SELECT Statements

Using the UNION operator, display the department ID,


location, and hire date for all employees.
SELECT department_id, TO_NUMBER(null)
location, hire_date
FROM employees
UNION
SELECT department_id, location_id, TO_DATE(null)
FROM departments;

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Matching the SELECT Statement:
Example

Using the UNION operator, display the employee ID, job ID,
and salary of all employees.

SELECT employee_id, job_id,salary


FROM employees
UNION
SELECT employee_id, job_id,0
FROM job_history;

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Controlling the Order of Rows

Produce an English sentence using two UNION operators.


COLUMN a_dummy NOPRINT
SELECT 'sing' AS "My dream", 3 a_dummy
FROM dual
UNION
SELECT 'I''d like to teach', 1 a_dummy
FROM dual
UNION
SELECT 'the world to', 2 a_dummy
FROM dual
ORDER BY a_dummy;

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Summary

In this lesson, you should have learned how to:


• Use UNION to return all distinct rows
• Use UNION ALL to return all rows, including
duplicates
• Use INTERSECT to return all rows that are shared
by both queries
• Use MINUS to return all distinct rows that are
selected by the first query but not by the second
• Use ORDER BY only at the very end of the statement

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Practice 7: Overview

In this practice, you use the set operators to create


reports:
• Using the UNION operator
• Using the INTERSECTION operator
• Using the MINUS operator

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Manipulating Data

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Objectives

After completing this lesson, you should be able to do


the following:
• Describe each data manipulation language (DML)
statement
• Insert rows into a table
• Update rows in a table
• Delete rows from a table
• Control transactions

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Data Manipulation Language

• A DML statement is executed when you:


– Add new rows to a table
– Modify existing rows in a table
– Remove existing rows from a table
• A transaction consists of a collection of DML
statements that form a logical unit of work.

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Adding a New Row to a Table

New
DEPARTMENTS row

Insert new row


into the
DEPARTMENTS table

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INSERT Statement Syntax

• Add new rows to a table by using the INSERT


statement:
INSERT INTO table [(column [, column...])]
VALUES (value [, value...]);

• With this syntax, only one row is inserted at a time.

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Inserting New Rows

• Insert a new row containing values for each


column.
• List values in the default order of the columns in
the table.
• Optionally, list the columns in the INSERT clause.
INSERT INTO departments(department_id,
department_name, manager_id, location_id)
VALUES (70, 'Public Relations', 100, 1700);
1 row created.

• Enclose character and date values in single


quotation marks.

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Inserting Rows with Null Values

• Implicit method: Omit the column from the


column list.
INSERT INTO departments (department_id,
department_name )
VALUES (30, 'Purchasing');
1 row created.

• Explicit method: Specify the NULL keyword in the


VALUES clause.
INSERT INTO departments
VALUES (100, 'Finance', NULL, NULL);
1 row created.

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Inserting Special Values

The SYSDATE function records the current date and time.

INSERT INTO employees (employee_id,


first_name, last_name,
email, phone_number,
hire_date, job_id, salary,
commission_pct, manager_id,
department_id)
VALUES (113,
'Louis', 'Popp',
'LPOPP', '515.124.4567',
SYSDATE, 'AC_ACCOUNT', 6900,
NULL, 205, 100);
1 row created.

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Inserting Specific Date Values

• Add a new employee.


INSERT INTO employees
VALUES (114,
'Den', 'Raphealy',
'DRAPHEAL', '515.127.4561',
TO_DATE('FEB 3, 1999', 'MON DD, YYYY'),
'AC_ACCOUNT', 11000, NULL, 100, 30);
1 row created.

• Verify your addition.

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Creating a Script

• Use & substitution in a SQL statement to prompt for


values.
• & is a placeholder for the variable value.
INSERT INTO departments
(department_id, department_name, location_id)
VALUES (&department_id, '&department_name',&location);

1 row created.

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Copying Rows
from Another Table

• Write your INSERT statement with a subquery:


INSERT INTO sales_reps(id, name, salary, commission_pct)
SELECT employee_id, last_name, salary, commission_pct
FROM employees
WHERE job_id LIKE '%REP%';

4 rows created.

• Do not use the VALUES clause.


• Match the number of columns in the INSERT clause
to those in the subquery.

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Changing Data in a Table

EMPLOYEES

Update rows in the EMPLOYEES table:

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UPDATE Statement Syntax

• Modify existing rows with the UPDATE statement:


UPDATE table
SET column = value [, column = value, ...]
[WHERE condition];

• Update more than one row at a time (if required).

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Updating Rows in a Table

• Specific row or rows are modified if you specify the


WHERE clause:
UPDATE employees
SET department_id = 70
WHERE employee_id = 113;
1 row updated.

• All rows in the table are modified if you omit the


WHERE clause:
UPDATE copy_emp
SET department_id = 110;
22 rows updated.

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Updating Two Columns with a Subquery

Update employee 114’s job and salary to match that of


employee 205.

UPDATE employees
SET job_id = (SELECT job_id
FROM employees
WHERE employee_id = 205),
salary = (SELECT salary
FROM employees
WHERE employee_id = 205)
WHERE employee_id = 114;
1 row updated.

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Updating Rows Based
on Another Table

Use subqueries in UPDATE statements to update rows in a


table based on values from another table:
UPDATE copy_emp
SET department_id = (SELECT department_id
FROM employees
WHERE employee_id = 100)
WHERE job_id = (SELECT job_id
FROM employees
WHERE employee_id = 200);
1 row updated.

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Removing a Row from a Table

DEPARTMENTS

Delete a row from the DEPARTMENTS table:

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DELETE Statement

You can remove existing rows from a table by using the


DELETE statement:

DELETE [FROM] table


[WHERE condition];

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Deleting Rows from a Table

• Specific rows are deleted if you specify the WHERE


clause:
DELETE FROM departments
WHERE department_name = 'Finance';
1 row deleted.

• All rows in the table are deleted if you omit the


WHERE clause:
DELETE FROM copy_emp;
22 rows deleted.

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Deleting Rows Based
on Another Table

Use subqueries in DELETE statements to remove rows


from a table based on values from another table:
DELETE FROM employees
WHERE department_id =
(SELECT department_id
FROM departments
WHERE department_name
LIKE '%Public%');
1 row deleted.

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TRUNCATE Statement

• Removes all rows from a table, leaving the table empty


and the table structure intact
• Is a data definition language (DDL) statement rather
than a DML statement; cannot easily be undone
• Syntax:

TRUNCATE TABLE table_name;

• Example:

TRUNCATE TABLE copy_emp;

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Using a Subquery in an INSERT Statement

INSERT INTO
(SELECT employee_id, last_name,
email, hire_date, job_id, salary,
department_id
FROM employees
WHERE department_id = 50)
VALUES (99999, 'Taylor', 'DTAYLOR',
TO_DATE('07-JUN-99', 'DD-MON-RR'),
'ST_CLERK', 5000, 50);

1 row created.

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Using a Subquery in an INSERT Statement

Verify the results:


SELECT employee_id, last_name, email, hire_date,
job_id, salary, department_id
FROM employees
WHERE department_id = 50;

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Database Transactions

A database transaction consists of one of the


following:
• DML statements that constitute one consistent
change to the data
• One DDL statement
• One data control language (DCL) statement

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Database Transactions

• Begin when the first DML SQL statement is


executed
• End with one of the following events:
– A COMMIT or ROLLBACK statement is issued.
– A DDL or DCL statement executes (automatic
commit).
– The user exits iSQL*Plus.
– The system crashes.

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Advantages of COMMIT
and ROLLBACK Statements

With COMMIT and ROLLBACK statements, you can:


• Ensure data consistency
• Preview data changes before making changes
permanent
• Group logically related operations

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Controlling Transactions

Time COMMIT

Transaction

DELETE

SAVEPOINT A

INSERT

UPDATE

SAVEPOINT B

INSERT
ROLLBACK ROLLBACK ROLLBACK
to SAVEPOINT B to SAVEPOINT A

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Rolling Back Changes to a Marker

• Create a marker in a current transaction by using the


SAVEPOINT statement.
• Roll back to that marker by using the ROLLBACK TO
SAVEPOINT statement.
UPDATE...
SAVEPOINT update_done;
Savepoint created.
INSERT...
ROLLBACK TO update_done;
Rollback complete.

Copyright © 2006, Oracle. All rights reserved.


Implicit Transaction Processing

• An automatic commit occurs under the following


circumstances:
– DDL statement is issued
– DCL statement is issued
– Normal exit from iSQL*Plus, without explicitly
issuing COMMIT or ROLLBACK statements
• An automatic rollback occurs under an abnormal
termination of iSQL*Plus or a system failure.

Copyright © 2006, Oracle. All rights reserved.


State of the Data
Before COMMIT or ROLLBACK

• The previous state of the data can be recovered.


• The current user can review the results of the DML
operations by using the SELECT statement.
• Other users cannot view the results of the DML
statements by the current user.
• The affected rows are locked; other users cannot
change the data in the affected rows.

Copyright © 2006, Oracle. All rights reserved.


State of the Data After COMMIT

• Data changes are made permanent in the database.


• The previous state of the data is permanently lost.
• All users can view the results.
• Locks on the affected rows are released; those
rows are available for other users to manipulate.
• All savepoints are erased.

Copyright © 2006, Oracle. All rights reserved.


Committing Data

• Make the changes:


DELETE FROM employees
WHERE employee_id = 99999;
1 row deleted.

INSERT INTO departments


VALUES (290, 'Corporate Tax', NULL, 1700);
1 row created.

• Commit the changes:


COMMIT;
Commit complete.

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State of the Data After ROLLBACK

Discard all pending changes by using the ROLLBACK


statement:
• Data changes are undone.
• Previous state of the data is restored.
• Locks on the affected rows are released.
DELETE FROM copy_emp;
20 rows deleted.
ROLLBACK ;
Rollback complete.

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State of the Data After ROLLBACK

DELETE FROM test;


25,000 rows deleted.

ROLLBACK;
Rollback complete.

DELETE FROM test WHERE id = 100;


1 row deleted.

SELECT * FROM test WHERE id = 100;


No rows selected.

COMMIT;
Commit complete.

Copyright © 2006, Oracle. All rights reserved.


Statement-Level Rollback

• If a single DML statement fails during execution,


only that statement is rolled back.
• The Oracle server implements an implicit
savepoint.
• All other changes are retained.
• The user should terminate transactions explicitly
by executing a COMMIT or ROLLBACK statement.

Copyright © 2006, Oracle. All rights reserved.


Read Consistency

• Read consistency guarantees a consistent view of


the data at all times.
• Changes made by one user do not conflict with
changes made by another user.
• Read consistency ensures that on the same data:
– Readers do not wait for writers
– Writers do not wait for readers

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Implementation of Read Consistency

User A
UPDATE employees Data
SET salary = 7000 blocks
WHERE last_name = 'Grant';

Undo
segments

Changed
SELECT * and
FROM userA.employees; Read- unchanged
consistent data
image Before
change
(“old” data)
User B

Copyright © 2006, Oracle. All rights reserved.


Summary

In this lesson, you should have learned how to use the


following statements:

Function Description
INSERT Adds a new row to the table
UPDATE Modifies existing rows in the table
DELETE Removes existing rows from the table
COMMIT Makes all pending changes permanent
SAVEPOINT Is used to roll back to the savepoint marker
ROLLBACK Discards all pending data changes

Copyright © 2006, Oracle. All rights reserved.


Practice 8: Overview

This practice covers the following topics:


• Inserting rows into the tables
• Updating and deleting rows in the table
• Controlling transactions

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Using DDL Statements
to Create and Manage Tables

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Objectives

After completing this lesson, you should be able to do


the following:
• Categorize the main database objects
• Review the table structure
• List the data types that are available for columns
• Create a simple table
• Explain how constraints are created at the time of
table creation
• Describe how schema objects work

Copyright © 2006, Oracle. All rights reserved.


Database Objects

Object Description
Table Basic unit of storage; composed of rows
View Logically represents subsets of data from
one or more tables
Sequence Generates numeric values
Index Improves the performance of some
queries
Synonym Gives alternative names to objects

Copyright © 2006, Oracle. All rights reserved.


Naming Rules

Table names and column names:


• Must begin with a letter
• Must be 1–30 characters long
• Must contain only A–Z, a–z, 0–9, _, $, and #
• Must not duplicate the name of another object
owned by the same user
• Must not be an Oracle server–reserved word

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CREATE TABLE Statement

• You must have:


– CREATE TABLE privilege
– A storage area
CREATE TABLE [schema.]table
(column datatype [DEFAULT expr][, ...]);

• You specify:
– Table name
– Column name, column data type, and column size

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Referencing Another User’s Tables

• Tables belonging to other users are not in the user’s


schema.
• You should use the owner’s name as a prefix to those
tables.

USERA USERB
SELECT * SELECT *
FROM userB.employees; FROM userA.employees;

Copyright © 2006, Oracle. All rights reserved.


DEFAULT Option

• Specify a default value for a column during an


insert.
... hire_date DATE DEFAULT SYSDATE, ...

• Literal values, expressions, or SQL functions are


legal values.
• Another column’s name or a pseudocolumn are
illegal values.
• The default data type must match the column data
type.
CREATE TABLE hire_dates
(id NUMBER(8),
hire_date DATE DEFAULT SYSDATE);
Table created.

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Creating Tables

• Create the table.


CREATE TABLE dept
(deptno NUMBER(2),
dname VARCHAR2(14),
loc VARCHAR2(13),
create_date DATE DEFAULT SYSDATE);
Table created.

• Confirm table creation.


DESCRIBE dept

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Data Types

Data Type Description


VARCHAR2(size) Variable-length character data
CHAR(size) Fixed-length character data
NUMBER(p,s) Variable-length numeric data
DATE Date and time values
LONG Variable-length character data (up to 2 GB)
CLOB Character data (up to 4 GB)
RAW and LONG Raw binary data
RAW
BLOB Binary data (up to 4 GB)
BFILE Binary data stored in an external file (up to 4 GB)
ROWID A base-64 number system representing the unique
address of a row in its table

Copyright © 2006, Oracle. All rights reserved.


Datetime Data Types

You can use several datetime data types:

Data Type Description


TIMESTAMP Date with fractional seconds
INTERVAL YEAR TO Stored as an interval of years
MONTH and months
INTERVAL DAY TO Stored as an interval of days, hours,
SECOND minutes, and seconds

Copyright © 2006, Oracle. All rights reserved.


Datetime Data Types

• The TIMESTAMP data type is an extension of the


DATE data type.
• It stores the year, month, and day of the DATE data
type plus hour, minute, and second values as well
as the fractional second value.
• You can optionally specify the time zone.
TIMESTAMP[(fractional_seconds_precision)]

TIMESTAMP[(fractional_seconds_precision)]
WITH TIME ZONE

TIMESTAMP[(fractional_seconds_precision)]
WITH LOCAL TIME ZONE

Copyright © 2006, Oracle. All rights reserved.


Datetime Data Types

• The INTERVAL YEAR TO MONTH data type stores a


period of time using the YEAR and MONTH datetime
fields:
INTERVAL YEAR [(year_precision)] TO MONTH

• The INTERVAL DAY TO SECOND data type stores a


period of time in terms of days, hours, minutes,
and seconds:
INTERVAL DAY [(day_precision)]
TO SECOND [(fractional_seconds_precision)]

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Including Constraints

• Constraints enforce rules at the table level.


• Constraints prevent the deletion of a table if there
are dependencies.
• The following constraint types are valid:
– NOT NULL
– UNIQUE
– PRIMARY KEY
– FOREIGN KEY
– CHECK

Copyright © 2006, Oracle. All rights reserved.


Constraint Guidelines

• You can name a constraint, or the Oracle server


generates a name by using the SYS_Cn format.
• Create a constraint at either of the following times:
– At the same time as the table is created
– After the table has been created
• Define a constraint at the column or table level.
• View a constraint in the data dictionary.

Copyright © 2006, Oracle. All rights reserved.


Defining Constraints

• Syntax:
CREATE TABLE [schema.]table
(column datatype [DEFAULT expr]
[column_constraint],
...
[table_constraint][,...]);
• Column-level constraint:
column [CONSTRAINT constraint_name] constraint_type,

• Table-level constraint:
column,...
[CONSTRAINT constraint_name] constraint_type
(column, ...),

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Defining Constraints

• Column-level constraint:
CREATE TABLE employees(
employee_id NUMBER(6)
CONSTRAINT emp_emp_id_pk PRIMARY KEY, 1
first_name VARCHAR2(20),
...);

• Table-level constraint:
CREATE TABLE employees(
employee_id NUMBER(6),
first_name VARCHAR2(20),
...
job_id VARCHAR2(10) NOT NULL,
2
CONSTRAINT emp_emp_id_pk
PRIMARY KEY (EMPLOYEE_ID));

Copyright © 2006, Oracle. All rights reserved.


NOT NULL Constraint

Ensures that null values are not permitted for the column:

NOT NULL constraint NOT NULL Absence of NOT NULL


(No row can contain constraint constraint
a null value for (Any row can contain
this column.) a null value for this
column.)

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UNIQUE Constraint

UNIQUE constraint
EMPLOYEES


INSERT INTO

Allowed
Not allowed:
already exists

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UNIQUE Constraint

Defined at either the table level or the column level:

CREATE TABLE employees(


employee_id NUMBER(6),
last_name VARCHAR2(25) NOT NULL,
email VARCHAR2(25),
salary NUMBER(8,2),
commission_pct NUMBER(2,2),
hire_date DATE NOT NULL,
...
CONSTRAINT emp_email_uk UNIQUE(email));

Copyright © 2006, Oracle. All rights reserved.


PRIMARY KEY Constraint

DEPARTMENTS
PRIMARY KEY


Not allowed INSERT INTO
(null value)

Not allowed
(50 already exists)

Copyright © 2006, Oracle. All rights reserved.


FOREIGN KEY Constraint
DEPARTMENTS

PRIMARY
KEY

EMPLOYEES
FOREIGN
KEY

… Not allowed
INSERT INTO (9 does not
exist)
Allowed

Copyright © 2006, Oracle. All rights reserved.


FOREIGN KEY Constraint

Defined at either the table level or the column level:

CREATE TABLE employees(


employee_id NUMBER(6),
last_name VARCHAR2(25) NOT NULL,
email VARCHAR2(25),
salary NUMBER(8,2),
commission_pct NUMBER(2,2),
hire_date DATE NOT NULL,
...
department_id NUMBER(4),
CONSTRAINT emp_dept_fk FOREIGN KEY (department_id)
REFERENCES departments(department_id),
CONSTRAINT emp_email_uk UNIQUE(email));

Copyright © 2006, Oracle. All rights reserved.


FOREIGN KEY Constraint:
Keywords

• FOREIGN KEY: Defines the column in the child


table at the table-constraint level
• REFERENCES: Identifies the table and column in
the parent table
• ON DELETE CASCADE: Deletes the dependent
rows in the child table when a row in the parent
table is deleted
• ON DELETE SET NULL: Converts dependent
foreign key values to null

Copyright © 2006, Oracle. All rights reserved.


CHECK Constraint

• Defines a condition that each row must satisfy


• The following expressions are not allowed:
– References to CURRVAL, NEXTVAL, LEVEL, and
ROWNUM pseudocolumns
– Calls to SYSDATE, UID, USER, and USERENV functions
– Queries that refer to other values in other rows

..., salary NUMBER(2)


CONSTRAINT emp_salary_min
CHECK (salary > 0),...

Copyright © 2006, Oracle. All rights reserved.


CREATE TABLE: Example
CREATE TABLE employees
( employee_id NUMBER(6)
CONSTRAINT emp_employee_id PRIMARY KEY
, first_name VARCHAR2(20)
, last_name VARCHAR2(25)
CONSTRAINT emp_last_name_nn NOT NULL
, email VARCHAR2(25)
CONSTRAINT emp_email_nn NOT NULL
CONSTRAINT emp_email_uk UNIQUE
, phone_number VARCHAR2(20)
, hire_date DATE
CONSTRAINT emp_hire_date_nn NOT NULL
, job_id VARCHAR2(10)
CONSTRAINT emp_job_nn NOT NULL
, salary NUMBER(8,2)
CONSTRAINT emp_salary_ck CHECK (salary>0)
, commission_pct NUMBER(2,2)
, manager_id NUMBER(6)
, department_id NUMBER(4)
CONSTRAINT emp_dept_fk REFERENCES
departments (department_id));

Copyright © 2006, Oracle. All rights reserved.


Violating Constraints

UPDATE employees
SET department_id = 55
WHERE department_id = 110;

UPDATE employees
*
ERROR at line 1:
ORA-02291: integrity constraint (HR.EMP_DEPT_FK)
violated - parent key not found

Department 55 does not exist.

Copyright © 2006, Oracle. All rights reserved.


Violating Constraints

You cannot delete a row that contains a primary key that is


used as a foreign key in another table.

DELETE FROM departments


WHERE department_id = 60;

DELETE FROM departments


*
ERROR at line 1:
ORA-02292: integrity constraint (HR.EMP_DEPT_FK)
violated - child record found

Copyright © 2006, Oracle. All rights reserved.


Creating a Table
by Using a Subquery

• Create a table and insert rows by combining the


CREATE TABLE statement and the AS subquery
option.
CREATE TABLE table
[(column, column...)]
AS subquery;

• Match the number of specified columns to the


number of subquery columns.
• Define columns with column names and
default values.

Copyright © 2006, Oracle. All rights reserved.


Creating a Table
by Using a Subquery

CREATE TABLE dept80


AS
SELECT employee_id, last_name,
salary*12 ANNSAL,
hire_date
FROM employees
WHERE department_id = 80;
Table created.

DESCRIBE dept80

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ALTER TABLE Statement

Use the ALTER TABLE statement to:


• Add a new column
• Modify an existing column
• Define a default value for the new column
• Drop a column

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Dropping a Table

• All data and structure in the table are deleted.


• Any pending transactions are committed.
• All indexes are dropped.
• All constraints are dropped.
• You cannot roll back the DROP TABLE statement.
DROP TABLE dept80;
Table dropped.

Copyright © 2006, Oracle. All rights reserved.


Summary

In this lesson, you should have learned how to use the


CREATE TABLE statement to create a table and include
constraints.
• Categorize the main database objects
• Review the table structure
• List the data types that are available for columns
• Create a simple table
• Explain how constraints are created at the time of
table creation
• Describe how schema objects work

Copyright © 2006, Oracle. All rights reserved.


Practice 9: Overview

This practice covers the following topics:


• Creating new tables
• Creating a new table by using the CREATE TABLE
AS syntax
• Verifying that tables exist
• Dropping tables

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Creating Other Schema Objects

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Objectives

After completing this lesson, you should be able to do


the following:
• Create simple and complex views
• Retrieve data from views
• Create, maintain, and use sequences
• Create and maintain indexes
• Create private and public synonyms

Copyright © 2006, Oracle. All rights reserved.


Database Objects

Object Description

Table Basic unit of storage; composed of rows


View Logically represents subsets of data from
one or more tables
Sequence Generates numeric values
Index Improves the performance of some
queries
Synonym Gives alternative names to objects

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What Is a View?

EMPLOYEES table

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Advantages of Views

To restrict To make complex


data access queries easy

To provide To present
data different views of
independence the same data

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Simple Views and Complex Views

Feature Simple Views Complex Views


Number of tables One One or more
Contain functions No Yes
Contain groups of data No Yes
DML operations Yes Not always
through a view

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Creating a View

• You embed a subquery in the CREATE VIEW


statement:
CREATE [OR REPLACE] [FORCE|NOFORCE] VIEW view
[(alias[, alias]...)]
AS subquery
[WITH CHECK OPTION [CONSTRAINT constraint]]
[WITH READ ONLY [CONSTRAINT constraint]];

• The subquery can contain complex SELECT syntax.

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Creating a View

• Create the EMPVU80 view, which contains details of


employees in department 80:
CREATE VIEW empvu80
AS SELECT employee_id, last_name, salary
FROM employees
WHERE department_id = 80;
View created.
• Describe the structure of the view by using the
iSQL*Plus DESCRIBE command:

DESCRIBE empvu80

Copyright © 2006, Oracle. All rights reserved.


Creating a View

• Create a view by using column aliases in the


subquery:
CREATE VIEW salvu50
AS SELECT employee_id ID_NUMBER, last_name NAME,
salary*12 ANN_SALARY
FROM employees
WHERE department_id = 50;
View created.

• Select the columns from this view by the given


alias names:

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Retrieving Data from a View

SELECT *
FROM salvu50;

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Modifying a View

• Modify the EMPVU80 view by using a CREATE OR


REPLACE VIEW clause. Add an alias for each
column name:
CREATE OR REPLACE VIEW empvu80
(id_number, name, sal, department_id)
AS SELECT employee_id, first_name || ' '
|| last_name, salary, department_id
FROM employees
WHERE department_id = 80;
View created.
• Column aliases in the CREATE OR REPLACE VIEW
clause are listed in the same order as the columns
in the subquery.

Copyright © 2006, Oracle. All rights reserved.


Creating a Complex View

Create a complex view that contains group functions to


display values from two tables:
CREATE OR REPLACE VIEW dept_sum_vu
(name, minsal, maxsal, avgsal)
AS SELECT d.department_name, MIN(e.salary),
MAX(e.salary),AVG(e.salary)
FROM employees e JOIN departments d
ON (e.department_id = d.department_id)
GROUP BY d.department_name;
View created.

Copyright © 2006, Oracle. All rights reserved.


Rules for Performing
DML Operations on a View

• You can usually perform DML operations


on simple views.
• You cannot remove a row if the view contains the
following:
– Group functions
– A GROUP BY clause
– The DISTINCT keyword
– The pseudocolumn ROWNUM keyword

Copyright © 2006, Oracle. All rights reserved.


Rules for Performing
DML Operations on a View

You cannot modify data in a view if it contains:


• Group functions
• A GROUP BY clause
• The DISTINCT keyword
• The pseudocolumn ROWNUM keyword
• Columns defined by expressions

Copyright © 2006, Oracle. All rights reserved.


Rules for Performing
DML Operations on a View

You cannot add data through a view if the view


includes:
• Group functions
• A GROUP BY clause
• The DISTINCT keyword
• The pseudocolumn ROWNUM keyword
• Columns defined by expressions
• NOT NULL columns in the base tables that are not
selected by the view

Copyright © 2006, Oracle. All rights reserved.


Using the WITH CHECK OPTION Clause

• You can ensure that DML operations performed on


the view stay in the domain of the view by using
the WITH CHECK OPTION clause:
CREATE OR REPLACE VIEW empvu20
AS SELECT *
FROM employees
WHERE department_id = 20
WITH CHECK OPTION CONSTRAINT empvu20_ck ;
View created.

• Any attempt to change the department number for


any row in the view fails because it violates the
WITH CHECK OPTION constraint.

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Denying DML Operations

• You can ensure that no DML operations occur by


adding the WITH READ ONLY option to your view
definition.
• Any attempt to perform a DML operation on any row in
the view results in an Oracle server error.

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Denying DML Operations

CREATE OR REPLACE VIEW empvu10


(employee_number, employee_name, job_title)
AS SELECT employee_id, last_name, job_id
FROM employees
WHERE department_id = 10
WITH READ ONLY ;
View created.

Copyright © 2006, Oracle. All rights reserved.


Removing a View

You can remove a view without losing data because a view


is based on underlying tables in the database.
DROP VIEW view;

DROP VIEW empvu80;


View dropped.

Copyright © 2006, Oracle. All rights reserved.


Practice 10: Overview of Part 1

This practice covers the following topics:


• Creating a simple view
• Creating a complex view
• Creating a view with a check constraint
• Attempting to modify data in the view
• Removing views

Copyright © 2006, Oracle. All rights reserved.


Sequences

Object Description

Table Basic unit of storage; composed of rows


View Logically represents subsets of data from
one or more tables
Sequence Generates numeric values
Index Improves the performance of some
queries
Synonym Gives alternative names to objects

Copyright © 2006, Oracle. All rights reserved.


Sequences

A sequence:
• Can automatically generate unique numbers
• Is a sharable object
• Can be used to create a primary key value
• Replaces application code
• Speeds up the efficiency of accessing sequence
values when cached in memory

2 4 6 8 10
1 3 5 7 9

Copyright © 2006, Oracle. All rights reserved.


CREATE SEQUENCE Statement:
Syntax

Define a sequence to generate sequential numbers


automatically:
CREATE SEQUENCE sequence
[INCREMENT BY n]
[START WITH n]
[{MAXVALUE n | NOMAXVALUE}]
[{MINVALUE n | NOMINVALUE}]
[{CYCLE | NOCYCLE}]
[{CACHE n | NOCACHE}];

Copyright © 2006, Oracle. All rights reserved.


Creating a Sequence

• Create a sequence named DEPT_DEPTID_SEQ to be


used for the primary key of the DEPARTMENTS table.
• Do not use the CYCLE option.

CREATE SEQUENCE dept_deptid_seq


INCREMENT BY 10
START WITH 120
MAXVALUE 9999
NOCACHE
NOCYCLE;
Sequence created.

Copyright © 2006, Oracle. All rights reserved.


NEXTVAL and CURRVAL Pseudocolumns

• NEXTVAL returns the next available sequence value.


It returns a unique value every time it is referenced,
even for different users.
• CURRVAL obtains the current sequence value.
• NEXTVAL must be issued for that sequence before
CURRVAL contains a value.

Copyright © 2006, Oracle. All rights reserved.


Using a Sequence

• Insert a new department named “Support” in


location ID 2500:
INSERT INTO departments(department_id,
department_name, location_id)
VALUES (dept_deptid_seq.NEXTVAL,
'Support', 2500);
1 row created.

• View the current value for the DEPT_DEPTID_SEQ


sequence:
SELECT dept_deptid_seq.CURRVAL
FROM dual;

Copyright © 2006, Oracle. All rights reserved.


Caching Sequence Values

• Caching sequence values in memory gives faster


access to those values.
• Gaps in sequence values can occur when:
– A rollback occurs
– The system crashes
– A sequence is used in another table

Copyright © 2006, Oracle. All rights reserved.


Modifying a Sequence

Change the increment value, maximum value, minimum


value, cycle option, or cache option:

ALTER SEQUENCE dept_deptid_seq


INCREMENT BY 20
MAXVALUE 999999
NOCACHE
NOCYCLE;
Sequence altered.

Copyright © 2006, Oracle. All rights reserved.


Guidelines for Modifying
a Sequence

• You must be the owner or have the ALTER privilege


for the sequence.
• Only future sequence numbers are affected.
• The sequence must be dropped and
re-created to restart the sequence at a different
number.
• Some validation is performed.
• To remove a sequence, use the DROP statement:

DROP SEQUENCE dept_deptid_seq;


Sequence dropped.

Copyright © 2006, Oracle. All rights reserved.


Indexes

Object Description

Table Basic unit of storage; composed of rows


View Logically represents subsets of data from
one or more tables
Sequence Generates numeric values
Index Improves the performance of some
queries
Synonym Gives alternative names to objects

Copyright © 2006, Oracle. All rights reserved.


Indexes

An index:
• Is a schema object
• Can be used by the Oracle server to speed up the
retrieval of rows by using a pointer
• Can reduce disk I/O by using a rapid path access
method to locate data quickly
• Is independent of the table that it indexes
• Is used and maintained automatically by the Oracle
server

Copyright © 2006, Oracle. All rights reserved.


How Are Indexes Created?

• Automatically: A unique index is created


automatically when you define a PRIMARY KEY or
UNIQUE constraint in a table definition.

• Manually: Users can create nonunique indexes on


columns to speed up access to the rows.

Copyright © 2006, Oracle. All rights reserved.


Creating an Index

• Create an index on one or more columns:

CREATE INDEX index


ON table (column[, column]...);

• Improve the speed of query access to the


LAST_NAME column in the EMPLOYEES table:

CREATE INDEX emp_last_name_idx


ON employees(last_name);
Index created.

Copyright © 2006, Oracle. All rights reserved.


Index Creation Guidelines

Create an index when:


A column contains a wide range of values
A column contains a large number of null values
One or more columns are frequently used together in a WHERE
clause or a join condition
The table is large and most queries are expected to retrieve less
than 2% to 4% of the rows in the table
Do not create an index when:
The columns are not often used as a condition in the query
The table is small or most queries are expected to retrieve more
than 2% to 4% of the rows in the table
The table is updated frequently
The indexed columns are referenced as part of an expression

Copyright © 2006, Oracle. All rights reserved.


Removing an Index

• Remove an index from the data dictionary by using


the DROP INDEX command:

DROP INDEX index;

• Remove the UPPER_LAST_NAME_IDX index from the


data dictionary:
DROP INDEX emp_last_name_idx;
Index dropped.
• To drop an index, you must be the owner of the
index or have the DROP ANY INDEX privilege.

Copyright © 2006, Oracle. All rights reserved.


Synonyms

Object Description

Table Basic unit of storage; composed of rows


View Logically represents subsets of data from
one or more tables
Sequence Generates numeric values
Index Improves the performance of some
queries
Synonym Gives alternative names to objects

Copyright © 2006, Oracle. All rights reserved.


Synonyms

Simplify access to objects by creating a synonym (another


name for an object). With synonyms, you can:
• Create an easier reference to a table that is owned by
another user
• Shorten lengthy object names
CREATE [PUBLIC] SYNONYM synonym
FOR object;

Copyright © 2006, Oracle. All rights reserved.


Creating and Removing Synonyms

• Create a shortened name for the DEPT_SUM_VU


view:
CREATE SYNONYM d_sum
FOR dept_sum_vu;
Synonym Created.

• Drop a synonym:
DROP SYNONYM d_sum;
Synonym dropped.

Copyright © 2006, Oracle. All rights reserved.


Summary

In this lesson, you should have learned how to:


• Create, use, and remove views
• Automatically generate sequence numbers by using a
sequence generator
• Create indexes to improve query retrieval speed
• Use synonyms to provide alternative names for objects

Copyright © 2006, Oracle. All rights reserved.


Practice 10: Overview of Part 2

This practice covers the following topics:


• Creating sequences
• Using sequences
• Creating nonunique indexes
• Creating synonyms

Copyright © 2006, Oracle. All rights reserved.


Managing Objects
with Data Dictionary Views

Copyright © 2006, Oracle. All rights reserved.


Objectives

After completing this lesson, you should be able to do the


following:
• Use the data dictionary views to research data on your
objects
• Query various data dictionary views

Copyright © 2006, Oracle. All rights reserved.


The Data Dictionary

Oracle server

Tables containing Data dictionary


business data: views:
EMPLOYEES DICTIONARY
DEPARTMENTS USER_OBJECTS
LOCATIONS USER_TABLES
JOB_HISTORY USER_TAB_COLUMNS
... ...

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Data Dictionary Structure

Oracle server

Consists of:
– Base tables
– User-accessible views

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Data Dictionary Structure

View naming convention:

View Prefix Purpose


USER User’s view (what is in your schema;
what you own)
ALL Expanded user’s view (what you can
access)
DBA Database administrator’s view (what is in
everyone’s schemas)
V$ Performance-related data

Copyright © 2006, Oracle. All rights reserved.


How to Use the Dictionary Views

Start with DICTIONARY. It contains the names and


descriptions of the dictionary tables and views.
DESCRIBE DICTIONARY

SELECT *
FROM dictionary
WHERE table_name = 'USER_OBJECTS';

Copyright © 2006, Oracle. All rights reserved.


USER_OBJECTS and ALL_OBJECTS Views

USER_OBJECTS:
• Query USER_OBJECTS to see all of the objects that
are owned by you
• Is a useful way to obtain a listing of all object
names and types in your schema, plus the
following information:
– Date created
– Date of last modification
– Status (valid or invalid)
ALL_OBJECTS:
• Query ALL_OBJECTS to see all objects to which you
have access

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USER_OBJECTS View

SELECT object_name, object_type, created, status


FROM user_objects
ORDER BY object_type;

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Table Information

USER_TABLES:
DESCRIBE user_tables

SELECT table_name
FROM user_tables;


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Column Information

USER_TAB_COLUMNS:
DESCRIBE user_tab_columns

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Column Information

SELECT column_name, data_type, data_length,


data_precision, data_scale, nullable
FROM user_tab_columns
WHERE table_name = 'EMPLOYEES';

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Constraint Information

• USER_CONSTRAINTS describes the constraint


definitions on your tables.
• USER_CONS_COLUMNS describes columns that are
owned by you and that are specified in constraints.
DESCRIBE user_constraints


Copyright © 2006, Oracle. All rights reserved.
Constraint Information

SELECT constraint_name, constraint_type,


search_condition, r_constraint_name,
delete_rule, status
FROM user_constraints
WHERE table_name = 'EMPLOYEES';

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Constraint Information

DESCRIBE user_cons_columns

SELECT constraint_name, column_name


FROM user_cons_columns
WHERE table_name = 'EMPLOYEES';


Copyright © 2006, Oracle. All rights reserved.
View Information

1 DESCRIBE user_views

2 SELECT DISTINCT view_name FROM user_views;

SELECT text FROM user_views


3 WHERE view_name = 'EMP_DETAILS_VIEW';

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Sequence Information

DESCRIBE user_sequences

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Sequence Information

• Verify your sequence values in the


USER_SEQUENCES data dictionary table.
SELECT sequence_name, min_value, max_value,
increment_by, last_number
FROM user_sequences;

• The LAST_NUMBER column displays the next


available sequence number if NOCACHE is specified.

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Synonym Information

DESCRIBE user_synonyms

SELECT *
FROM user_synonyms;

Copyright © 2006, Oracle. All rights reserved.


Adding Comments to a Table

• You can add comments to a table or column by


using the COMMENT statement:
COMMENT ON TABLE employees
IS 'Employee Information';
Comment created.

• Comments can be viewed through the data


dictionary views:
– ALL_COL_COMMENTS
– USER_COL_COMMENTS
– ALL_TAB_COMMENTS
– USER_TAB_COMMENTS

Copyright © 2006, Oracle. All rights reserved.


Summary

In this lesson, you should have learned how to find


information about your objects through the following
dictionary views:
• DICTIONARY
• USER_OBJECTS
• USER_TABLES
• USER_TAB_COLUMNS
• USER_CONSTRAINTS
• USER_CONS_COLUMNS
• USER_VIEWS
• USER_SEQUENCES
• USER_TAB_SYNONYMS

Copyright © 2006, Oracle. All rights reserved.


Practice 11: Overview

This practice covers the following topics:


• Querying the dictionary views for table and column
information
• Querying the dictionary views for constraint
information
• Querying the dictionary views for view information
• Querying the dictionary views for sequence
information
• Querying the dictionary views for synonym
information
• Adding a comment to a table and querying the
dictionary views for comment information

Copyright © 2006, Oracle. All rights reserved.


Oracle Join Syntax

Copyright © 2006, Oracle. All rights reserved.


Objectives

After completing this lesson, you should be able to do


the following:
• Write SELECT statements to access data from more
than one table using equijoins and nonequijoins
• Use outer joins to view data that generally does not
meet a join condition
• Join a table to itself by using a self-join

Copyright © 2006, Oracle. All rights reserved.


Obtaining Data from Multiple Tables

EMPLOYEES DEPARTMENTS

Copyright © 2006, Oracle. All rights reserved.


Cartesian Products

• A Cartesian product is formed when:


– A join condition is omitted
– A join condition is invalid
– All rows in the first table are joined to all rows in the
second table
• To avoid a Cartesian product, always include a
valid join condition in a WHERE clause.

Copyright © 2006, Oracle. All rights reserved.


Generating a Cartesian Product

EMPLOYEES (20 rows) DEPARTMENTS (8 rows)

Cartesian product:
20 x 8 = 160 rows

Copyright © 2006, Oracle. All rights reserved.


Types of Joins

Oracle-proprietary joins SQL:1999–compliant joins


(8i and earlier releases)

• Equijoin • Cross join


• Nonequijoin • Natural join
• Outer join • Using clause
• Self-join • Full (or two-sided)
outer join
• Arbitrary join
condition for outer
join

Copyright © 2006, Oracle. All rights reserved.


Joining Tables Using Oracle Syntax

Use a join to query data from more than one table:

SELECT table1.column, table2.column


FROM table1, table2
WHERE table1.column1 = table2.column2;

• Write the join condition in the WHERE clause.


• Prefix the column name with the table name when
the same column name appears in more than one
table.

Copyright © 2006, Oracle. All rights reserved.


Equijoins

EMPLOYEES DEPARTMENTS

… …
Foreign key Primary key

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Retrieving Records
with Equijoins

SELECT employees.employee_id, employees.last_name,


employees.department_id, departments.department_id,
departments.location_id
FROM employees, departments
WHERE employees.department_id = departments.department_id;

Copyright © 2006, Oracle. All rights reserved.


Additional Search Conditions
Using the AND Operator

EMPLOYEES DEPARTMENTS

… …

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Qualifying Ambiguous Column Names

• Use table prefixes to qualify column names that are in


multiple tables.
• Use table prefixes to improve performance.
• Use column aliases to distinguish columns that have
identical names but reside in different tables.

Copyright © 2006, Oracle. All rights reserved.


Using Table Aliases

• Use table aliases to simplify queries.


• Use table prefixes to improve performance.

SELECT e.employee_id, e.last_name, e.department_id,


d.department_id, d.location_id
FROM employees e , departments d
WHERE e.department_id = d.department_id;

Copyright © 2006, Oracle. All rights reserved.


Joining More Than Two Tables

EMPLOYEES DEPARTMENTS LOCATIONS


To join n tables together, you need a minimum of n–1
join conditions. For example, to join three tables, a
minimum of two joins is required.

Copyright © 2006, Oracle. All rights reserved.


Nonequijoins

EMPLOYEES JOB_GRADES

Salary in the EMPLOYEES


table must be between
… lowest salary and highest
salary in the JOB_GRADES
table.

Copyright © 2006, Oracle. All rights reserved.


Retrieving Records
with Nonequijoins

SELECT e.last_name, e.salary, j.grade_level


FROM employees e, job_grades j
WHERE e.salary
BETWEEN j.lowest_sal AND j.highest_sal;

Copyright © 2006, Oracle. All rights reserved.


Outer Joins

DEPARTMENTS EMPLOYEES


There are no employees
in department 190.

Copyright © 2006, Oracle. All rights reserved.


Outer Joins Syntax

• You use an outer join to see rows that do not meet the
join condition.
• The outer join operator is the plus sign (+).

SELECT table1.column, table2.column


FROM table1, table2
WHERE table1.column(+) = table2.column;

SELECT table1.column, table2.column


FROM table1, table2
WHERE table1.column = table2.column(+);

Copyright © 2006, Oracle. All rights reserved.


Using Outer Joins

SELECT e.last_name, e.department_id, d.department_name


FROM employees e, departments d
WHERE e.department_id(+) = d.department_id ;

Copyright © 2006, Oracle. All rights reserved.


Self-Joins

EMPLOYEES (WORKER) EMPLOYEES (MANAGER)

… …

MANAGER_ID in the WORKER table is equal to


EMPLOYEE_ID in the MANAGER table.

Copyright © 2006, Oracle. All rights reserved.


Joining a Table to Itself

SELECT worker.last_name || ' works for '


|| manager.last_name
FROM employees worker, employees manager
WHERE worker.manager_id = manager.employee_id ;

Copyright © 2006, Oracle. All rights reserved.


Summary

In this appendix, you should have learned how to use joins


to display data from multiple tables by using Oracle-
proprietary syntax for versions 8i and earlier.

Copyright © 2006, Oracle. All rights reserved.


Practice C: Overview

This practice covers writing queries to join tables using


Oracle syntax.

Copyright © 2006, Oracle. All rights reserved.


Using SQL*Plus

Copyright © 2006, Oracle. All rights reserved.


Objectives

After completing this appendix, you should be able to


do the following:
• Log in to SQL*Plus
• Edit SQL commands
• Format output using SQL*Plus commands
• Interact with script files

Copyright © 2006, Oracle. All rights reserved.


SQL and SQL*Plus Interaction

SQL statements
Server
SQL*Plus

Query results

Buffer

SQL
scripts

Copyright © 2006, Oracle. All rights reserved.


SQL Statements Versus
SQL*Plus Commands

SQL SQL*Plus
• A language • An environment
• ANSI-standard • Oracle-proprietary
• Keywords cannot be • Keywords can be
abbreviated abbreviated
• Statements manipulate • Commands do not
data and table allow manipulation of
definitions in the values in the database
database

SQL SQL SQL*Plus SQL*Plus


statements buffer commands buffer

Copyright © 2006, Oracle. All rights reserved.


Overview of SQL*Plus

• Log in to SQL*Plus
• Describe the table structure
• Edit your SQL statement
• Execute SQL from SQL*Plus
• Save SQL statements to files and append SQL
statements to files
• Execute saved files
• Load commands from file to buffer to edit

Copyright © 2006, Oracle. All rights reserved.


Logging In to SQL*Plus

• From a Windows environment:

• From a command line:


sqlplus [username[/password
[@database]]]

Copyright © 2006, Oracle. All rights reserved.


Displaying Table Structure

Use the SQL*Plus DESCRIBE command to display the


structure of a table:

DESC[RIBE] tablename

Copyright © 2006, Oracle. All rights reserved.


Displaying Table Structure

SQL> DESCRIBE departments

Name Null? Type


----------------------- -------- ------------
DEPARTMENT_ID NOT NULL NUMBER(4)
DEPARTMENT_NAME NOT NULL VARCHAR2(30)
MANAGER_ID NUMBER(6)
LOCATION_ID NUMBER(4)

Copyright © 2006, Oracle. All rights reserved.


SQL*Plus Editing Commands

• A[PPEND] text
• C[HANGE] / old / new
• C[HANGE] / text /
• CL[EAR] BUFF[ER]
• DEL
• DEL n
• DEL m n

Copyright © 2006, Oracle. All rights reserved.


SQL*Plus Editing Commands

• I[NPUT]
• I[NPUT] text
• L[IST]
• L[IST] n
• L[IST] m n
• R[UN]
• n
• n text
• 0 text

Copyright © 2006, Oracle. All rights reserved.


Using LIST, n, and APPEND

SQL> LIST

1 SELECT last_name
2* FROM employees

SQL> 1

1* SELECT last_name

SQL> A , job_id

1* SELECT last_name, job_id

SQL> L

1 SELECT last_name, job_id


2* FROM employees

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Using the CHANGE Command

SQL> L

1* SELECT * from employees

SQL> c/employees/departments

1* SELECT * from departments

SQL> L

1* SELECT * from departments

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SQL*Plus File Commands

• SAVE filename
• GET filename
• START filename
• @ filename
• EDIT filename
• SPOOL filename
• EXIT

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Using the SAVE and START Commands

SQL> L
1 SELECT last_name, manager_id, department_id
2* FROM employees
SQL> SAVE my_query

Created file my_query

SQL> START my_query


LAST_NAME MANAGER_ID DEPARTMENT_ID
------------------------- ---------- -------------
King 90
Kochhar 100 90
...
20 rows selected.

Copyright © 2006, Oracle. All rights reserved.


Summary

In this appendix, you should have learned how to use


SQL*Plus as an environment to do the following:
• Execute SQL statements
• Edit SQL statements
• Format output
• Interact with script files

Copyright © 2006, Oracle. All rights reserved.


Using SQL Developer

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Objectives

After completing this appendix, you should be able to do


the following:
• List the key features of Oracle SQL Developer
• Install Oracle SQL Developer
• Identify menu items of Oracle SQL Developer
• Create a database connection
• Manage database objects
• Use SQL Worksheet
• Execute SQL statements and SQL scripts
• Create and save reports

Copyright © 2006, Oracle. All rights reserved.


What Is Oracle SQL Developer?

• Oracle SQL Developer is a graphical tool that enhances


productivity and simplifies database development
tasks.
• You can connect to any target Oracle database schema
using standard Oracle database authentication.

Copyright © 2006, Oracle. All rights reserved.


Key Features

• Developed in Java
• Supports Windows, Linux, and Mac OS X platforms
• Default connectivity by using the JDBC Thin driver
• Does not require an installer
• Connects to any Oracle Database version 9.2.0.1 and
later
• Bundled with JRE 1.5

Copyright © 2006, Oracle. All rights reserved.


Installing SQL Developer

Download the Oracle SQL Developer kit and unzip into any
directory on your machine.

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Menus for SQL Developer

2 4 6

1 3 5

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Creating a Database Connection

• You must have at least one database connection to use


SQL Developer.
• You can create and test connections:
– For multiple databases
– For multiple schemas
• SQL Developer automatically imports any connections
defined in the tnsnames.ora file on your system.
• You can export connections to an XML file.
• Each additional database connection created is listed
in the connections navigator hierarchy.

Copyright © 2006, Oracle. All rights reserved.


Creating a Database Connection

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Browsing Database Objects

Use the Database Navigator to:


• Browse through many objects in a database schema
• Do a quick review of the definitions of objects

Copyright © 2006, Oracle. All rights reserved.


Creating a Schema Object

• SQL Developer supports the creation of any schema


object by:
– Executing a SQL statement in SQL Worksheet
– Using the context menu
• Edit the objects by using an edit dialog or one of many
context-sensitive menus.
• View the DDL for adjustments such as creating a new
object or editing an existing schema object.

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Creating a New Table: Example

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Using SQL Worksheet

• Use SQL Worksheet to enter and execute SQL, PL/SQL,


and SQL *Plus statements.
• Specify any actions that can be processed by the
database connection associated with the worksheet.

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Using SQL Worksheet

2 4 6

1 8
5 7
3

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Executing SQL Statements

Use the Enter SQL Statement box to enter single or


multiple SQL statements.

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Viewing the Execution Plan

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Formatting the SQL Code

Before
Formatting

After
Formatting

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Using Snippets

Snippets are code fragments that may be just syntax or


examples.

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Using Snippets: Example

Inserting a
snippet

Editing the
snippet

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Using SQL*Plus

• SQL Worksheet does not support all SQL*Plus


statements.
• You can invoke the SQL*Plus command-line interface
from SQL Developer.

Copyright © 2006, Oracle. All rights reserved.


Database Reporting

SQL Developer provides a number of predefined reports


about the database and its objects.

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Creating a User-Defined Report

Create and save user-defined reports for repeated use.

Copyright © 2006, Oracle. All rights reserved.


Summary

In this appendix, you should have learned how to use SQL


Developer to do the following:
• Browse, create, and edit database objects
• Execute SQL statements and scripts in SQL Worksheet
• Create and save custom reports

Copyright © 2006, Oracle. All rights reserved.

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