482 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER APPARATUS AND SYSTEMS
4 APRIL 1967
Rational Analysis
Live Line Working
H. C. BARNES, FELLOW, IEEE, A. J. McELROY, MEMBER, IEEE,
AND J. H. CHARKOW, MEMBER, IEEE
Abstract-As voltage of electrical transmission systems increases,
live line maintenance by the barehand method becomes increasingly
necessary to meet the requirements of system reliability. Of more
importance is its value to the workman in permitting him to use
power and hand tools without the strain which would be encoun-
tered with the long, heavy, hot line tools required at these voltages.
Protection of the workman from exposure to high-voltage gradients
and body currents is easily attained through Faraday cage-type
shielding, as has been proved by an extensive test program described
in this and companion papers. This paper develops a method of pre-
dicting voltage gradients and body currents utilizing both analytical
and numerical techniques in the solution of Laplace's equation. The
results are compared with field measurements and excellent agree-
ment is obtained. The method described can therefore be used to
predict both currents and gradients for new designs and voltage
levels as well as for existing designs and voltages.
INTRODUCTION
THE ELECTRIC utility industry is faced with a
manifold expansion of its HV transmission system to
meet the ever-increasing need for electricity. This expan-
sion will require an increase in facilities not only at the
present voltages up to 345 kV but also many miles of lines
at new voltage levels of 500 kV, 700 kV, and above. This
increase in facilities and the growing need to keep them in
service not only will require more widespread application
of present live line maintenance techniques but also will
foster further refinements of these techniques.
Live line tools have been used for many years to perform
maintenance work on energized transmission lines and
equipment, thus providing both greater continuity of
service because lines could remain energized, and in-
creased reliability of the power transmission networks
because maintenance was done which otherwise would not
have been possible. M\ore recently, the barehand method
for live line maintenance was developed.[1] This method
not only further extends the ability to maintain continuity
of service but also enhances safety and working comfort of
the workmen, and makes available to them the use of
power tools not possible with the conventional live line
(hot stick) method. In the barehand method, the workmen
are enclosed in a conductive shield bonded to the energized
conductor. The shield protects the workmen from electro-
Paper 31 TP 66-398, recommended and approved by the Trans-
mission and Distribution Committee of the IEEE Power Group for
presentation at the IEEE Summer Power Meetiing, New Orleans,
La., July 10-15, 1966. Manuscript submitted April 8, 1966; made
available for printing May 12, 1966.
The authors are with the American Electric Power Service Corpo-
ration, New York, N.Y.
VOL. PAS-86, NO.
of Electric Fields in
static fields in accordance with principles reported by
Michael Faraday in 1837.
Anticipating these needs, engineers of the American
Electric Power (AEP) Company launched a program in
1960 to study many of the important aspects of this work.
Some results have been reported previously. [2] An essen-
tial element in this program was a review of personnel
safety practices. In barehand work the workmen are in
physical contact with the energized conductor and there-
fore when exposed they are liable to maximum field
intensities. While our experience with the present Faraday
enclosures indicated working stresses even less than those
experienced with the live line tool method, it was thought
worthwhile to obtain data on the range of voltage gradi-
ents and induced currents which the workmen would en-
counter. A literature search indicated that very little
knowledge was available on body fields and currents and on
the response of living organisms to mild prolonged elec-
trical stresses. Therefore, the AEP Service Corporation
consulted Dr. Kouwenhoven of The Johns Hopkins
University, noted for his work in body electricity and
resuscitation, and inventor of the defibrillator, with
whom its engineers have had a long working relationship.
As a result, a research agreement was entered into by the
AEP Company with The Johns Hopkins Hospital to study
the effects of electric fields on human beings. This included
many measurements under actual field working conditions
in which doctors from Johns Hopkins made measurements
while in direct contact with conductors energized at 345
kV, using identical barehand methods employed by work-
men. In addition, a series of medical examinations were
carried out at Johns Hopkins with linemen who perform
live line maintenance. To obtain accelerated information,
extensive tests were made with a large group of mice
living in electric fields in excess of those encountered by
the workmen. All of the work to date is described in com-
panion papers. [3I, [4]
The use of a HV laboratory was indicated and, because
of the work done with H. L. Rorden of the AEP Service
Corporation in the development of the barehand method,
The Ohio Brass Company made available the services of
Dr. C. J. Miller, whose instrumentation and measurement
contributions have been of great value. This work is
described in another companion paper. [5]
In making the initial measurements of the electric
gradients and body currents and in establishing the voltage
level to be used with the experiment on mice, it became
apparent that a means of knowing the theoretical field
BARNES ET AL.: RATIONAL ANALYSIS OF ELECTRIC FIELDS 483

distributions both over and within a human or a mouse order of a milliampere, which is not sufficient to perturb
would be desirable, particularly since even the introduc- the line. Assuming a line current of 200 amperes, the
tion of a meter could distort the field. It was therefore currents induced in the object by the magnetic field may
decided to establish criteria for calculating these dis- be comparable to those caused by the electric field. How-
tributions and to prepare a digital computer program to ever, this requires additional study and in the paper
facilitate the calculations. This first paper of the group of attention is given to the electric field only.
four describes these criteria, analytical methods, and In the ensuing analysis, the assumed constants of the
program. human body will be: resistivity, p = 1 Q-m; permittivity,
e = 80Eo, where 60 = 8.85 X 10-2 F/m is the permittivity
BODY COMPOSITION of free space; permeability, A = ,po where po = 12.56 X
MSIan is a complex organism containing tissue, supporting 10- H/im is the permeability of free space. The relaxation
structure, and covering, varied in their properties. Pro- time, r = Ep is that period required for the free charge to
teins of large molecular weight and polarization, the distribute itself at the surface. For the assumed constants
crystalline lattice of bone, mobile organic and inorganic r = 708 ps which is negligibly small. For the epidermis
ions, and other components combine to form a mass (p = 104 5Mm), r = 708 ns which also is negligibly small.
which is less than the mass of water in the body. Within Consequently, the conventional quasi-static relations
the outer covering, resistivities of the body vary from a may be employed at the boundary of the object.
low of approximately 100 Q cm for most vascular tissue In Appendix I an analysis is carried out demonstrating
up to 900 Q cm for bone and as great as 5000 Q cm for fat. [6] that the ratio of free to polarized charge density greatly
Tissue devoid of blood can have a significant capacitive exceeds unity, and that the depth of penetration is much
phase angle yielding dielectric constants in the order of greater than the dimensions of the object. Therefore, the
several hundred thousand. Nevertheless, the live body object will behave external to its boundary as a perfect
with its pulsing blood and salty internal liquids can be conductor and internally as a pure resistance.
viewed as a relatively uniform mass with a resistivity of
approximately 100 Q cm and a dielectric constant of METHOD OF SOLUTION
eighty. Calculation of the electrostatically induced currents
The skin is usually considered to be comprised of two will be carried out in two independent steps: 1) the electric
intimately connected layers. By virtue of its vascularity field on the surface of the object is calculated assuming the
the dermis, or underlayer, is electrically very similar to object to be a perfect conductor; 2) the currents internal
the remainder of the body interior. The epidermis, or to the object are determined with the aid of the electric
upper layer, varies in thickness but usually is less than field distribution at the boundary as determined in step 1.
1 mm. It exhibits resistivities ranging up to 106 Q cm and When the workman is suspended between the line and
a dielectric constant no greater than eighty.[7] ground (as illustrated in Fig. 1 when using conventional
In comparing the effect of large electric fields on mice live line tools), an analytic solution utilizing a spheroidal
with that on humans it appears that the mouse can be geometry appears satisfactory. A more complex solution,
considered similar to man in the electrical properties of its requiring the aid of digital computers, is required for bare-
tissue. A notable difference, however, is the more complete hand maintenance, i.e., when the workman is at line
covering of hair on the mouse. Electrical data on hair is potential, as shown in Fig. 2. In this instance a 3-dimen-
sparse, but it can be expected that both the dielectric sional grid representation in Cartesian coordinates is used.
constant and resistivity are large. Nevertheless, it is
assumed here that the surface electric field will impinge Analytical Geometry
on the skin of the mouse with no significant change in Prolate spheroidal coordinates are a natural selection
intensity. for representing the exterior of a man. As illustrated in
Fig. 3, the prolate spheroid is generated by rotating an
AssUMPTIONS ellipse about its major axis. The relationship between
When maintaining an energized linie, both linemen and prolate spheroidal and Cartesian coordinates is contained
groundmen usually are within 100 feet of the conductor. in Appendix II, in addition to a brief description of
Electromagnetic radiation may therefore be neglected and pertinent vector relationships.
the quasi-static electric and magnetic fields may be When working with live line tools the workman is
represented by phasors depending solely upon line voltage several feet removed from an energized conductor. Under
and current, respectively. this circumstance it is both reasonable and conservative to
An object placed near the line will perturb these two assume that the workman is immersed in an otherwise
uncoupled fields to an extent, depending upon its relative uniform electric field whose magnitude is that of the largest
size and physical constants. Currents induced within an field intensity contained within the space he normally
object of the size and characteristics under study will not would occupy. The direction vector of this field may be
influence the primary energy source, i.e., the transmission made to pass through the origin 0 of the prolate spheroid
line. For example, the currents within the object that are representing the workman. The plane formed by this
induced by an electric field from a 345-kV line will be in the vector and the spheroid's axis of revolution, or major axis,
484 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER APPARATUS AND SYSTEMS APRIL 1967

SURFACE0ao.

-b - ~
r~~~~~~ Y
-.3~~~~~~~,

O 0 o; b I -c

Fig. 3. Prolate spheroidal relations illustrating surface described

by t = to.

TO 50.0
20 AT
h-l ,

Fig. 1. Workman suspended between conductor and ground dem-

onstrating live line method.
I 10 ________0_____ /b.I

./b .02

0 .2 .4 .6 .8 L.C

Fig. 4. Electric field at surface of a perfectly conducting prolate

spheroid in terms of unperturbed field, Eo, parallel to the major
axis.

Laplace's equation may be used to solve for a potential

Fig. 2. Demonstration of barehand maintenance technique.
then defines the X, Y coordinates of Fig. 3, wherein the X
axis is coincident with the major axis. An arbitrary,
uniform electric field may then be completely described in
terms of component fields parallel to the X and Y axes.
The solution for the electric field intensity at the surface
of the spheroid t = 40 is derived by conventional boundary
value analysis as reported in Appendix III. The absolute
magnitudes of the intenisities as a function of prolate
spheroidal coordinates is presented in Figs. 4 and 5 for a
practical range of parameters. In all cases the electric field
intensity vector is normal to the surface of the prolate
spheroid on which it impinges. It is evident from a study
of Figs. 4 and 5 that the electric field is intensified by the
presence of the spheroid. For the component parallel to
the major axis, the intensity at the poles q = 1 ap-
proaches 50 E&, for a/b 10. The component parallel to
=
whose negative divergence is the desired current density J
within the body. It is then only necessary that J10(X4) at
the boundary equal that current density required by
E1,(v,O. This derivation, leading to a solution for J, is
outlined in Appendix IV. An interesting observation is
that for any direction of applied field the current density
within the material is uniform and its vector is parallel to
the original, or unperturbed, electric field.
Total body current is readily obtained by a surface
integration at a midsection, as carried out in Appendix IV.
Table I gives the results, the application of which is
illustrated by the following example.
Let a = 36 inches and a/b = 4.5. The unperturbed
electric field is assumed to be parallel to the X axis, and
Et, at X = 1 is given as 11 kV/in. From Fig. 4, Et1/E0& =
15.5 at 1 = 1 whereby EOI = 0.71 kV/in. From column 2
of Table I, c = 36/1.025 = 35.1 inches; columns 3 and 4
of Table I may be used to determine the current density J
and total current I, respectively:
J = 1.31 X 10-6 X 0.71
= 9.30 X 10-7 A/in2 at any location within the body
I = 2.14 X 10-7 X 0.71 X (35.1)2

a minor axis E2, may in the limit be tripled (at 7 = 0)

= 187 ,uA through the body.
when the purely spheroidal shape is approached. For the same geometrical shape assume the unperturbed
It has been demonstrated that the material within the electric field to be parallel to the Y axis and EOV = 0.71
prolate spheroid behaves as a passive resistance. Therefore kV/in. Again, from column 2, c = 35.1 inches; columns 5
BARNES ET AL.: RATIONAL ANALYSIS OF ELECTRIC FIELDS 485

2.0 __-__

c w
w
w
ILIJ .0

1.0 .9 .8 .7 .6 .5 .4 .3 .2 .1 0

a/b=4.5 -- l/b=lC
q'=o
2.01 6= -in 2.0 ,1/
I20I _=o
.r fIn~~~~~~~~~~~T/6
0 w
w 1.5 - rTh1/24- 10 S71T/24
UX
'A?
L~J I.I

I.5
1.0
~~~~~~~~~~3T1/8-
0.5 _11/24-
.TT/. 1/2
1.0 .9 .8 .7 .6 .5 .4 .3 .2 I1 0 0. -
--.-.
.6
-

.5
-

.4
-

.2 0
-1.0 .9 .8 .7 .3 .1
aly +

Fig. 5. Electric field at surface of a perfectly conducting prolate spheroid in terms of unperturbed field, E0p parallel to the minor axis.

TABLE I
CURRENT DENSITY WITHIN AND TOTAL CURRENT THROUGH PROLATE SPHEROIDAL BODY IN TERMS OF
APPLIED ELECTRIC FIELD PARALLEL TO EITHER MAJOR OR MINOR AXIS

a/b a/c J/Eox I/Eozc2 J/Eo0 I/Eo,c2

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6)
1.10 2.400 2.746 X 10-7 4.110 X 10-6 2.448 X 10-7 4.028 X 10-6
1.50 1.341 3.635 X 10-7 9.134 X 10-7 2.208 X 10-7 8.324 X 10-7
1.60 1.281 3.871 X 10-7 7.795 X 10-7 2.167 X 10-7 6.982 X 10-7
1.80 1.202 4.364 X 10-7 6.119 X 10-7 2.101 X 10-7 5.304 X 10-7
2.00 1.154 4.879 X 10-7 5.108 X 10-i 2.049 X 10-7 4.290 X 10-i
2.20 1.122 5.415 X 10-7 4.430 X 10-7 2.007 X 10-7 3.612 X 10-7
2.40 1.100 5.977 X 10-7 3.945 X 10-7 1.973 X 10-7 3.124 X 10-7
2.60 1.083 6.558 X 10-7 3.576 X 10-7 1.944 X 10-7 2.758 X 10-7
2.80 1.070 7.163 X 10-7 3.289 X 10-7 1.920 X 10-7 2.470 X 10-7
3.00 1.060 7.788 X 10-7 3.058 X 10-7 1.900 X 10-7 2.238 X 10-7
3.20 1.052 8.435 X 10-v 2.868 X 10-7 1.882 X 10-7 2.048 X 10-7
3.40 1.046 9.103 X 10-7 2.708 X 10-7 1.867 X 10-7 1.888 X 10-7
3.60 1.040 9.792 X 10-7 2.573 X 10-7 1.854 X 10-7 1.753 X 10-7
3.80 1.036 1.050 X 10-6 2.454 X 10-7 1.842 X 10-7 1.636 X 10-7
4.00 1.032 1.123 X 10-6 2.352 X 10-7 1.831 X 10-7 1.534 X 10-7
4.50 1.025 1.314 X 10-6 2.144 X 10-' 1.810 X 10-7 1.329 X 10-7
5.00 1.020 1.517 X 10-6 1.986 X 10-7 1.793 X 10-7 1.174 X 10-'
5.50 1.016 1.732 X 10- 1.860 X 10-' 1.780 X 10-7 1.052 X 10-7
6.00 1.014 1.959 X 10-6 1.758 X 10-7 1.770 X 10-7 9.533 X 10-8
6.50 1.012 2.197 X 10- 1.673 X 10-7 1.761 X 10-7 8.720 X 10-8
7.00 1.010 2.447 X 10-6 1.601 X 10-7 1.754 X 10-7 8.037 X 10-8
7.50 1.009 2.708 X 10-6 1.539 X 10-7 1.748 X 10-7 7.455 X 10-8
8.00 1.007 2.979 X 10-6 1.485 X 10-7 1.744 X 10-7 6.952 X 10-8
9.00 1.006 3.556 X 10 6 1.396 X 10-7 1.735 X 10-7 6.132 X 10-8
10.00 1.005 4.173 X 10-6 1.324 X 10-7 1.728 X 10-7 5.484 X 10-8

and 6 provide solutions to J and I, respectively: Geometry for Digital Computation

J = 1.81 X 10-7 X 0.71 In the vicinity of a man-bucket system which is at line
potential, the electric fields cannot be analyzed with the
aid of simple geometrical forms alone. A description with
I = 1.33 X 10-7X 0.71 X (35.1)2 satisfactory detail requires a 3-dimensional grid system

= 116,uA through the body. similar to that of F g. 6. An accurate solution for the
486 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER APPARATUS AND SYSTEMS APRII, 1967

37

I/

,I 25
Fig. 7. Grid network to determine potential at point 0 as a function
25
of immediately surrounding potentials.

iL
K

satisfied because the electric field is expressed as the

gradient of a scalar potential.
Fig. 6. Volume enclosing the man-bucket system and the location The usual iterative calculations on adjoining locations
of the equivalent point charge.
in sequence are modified by applying the principle of over-
relaxation. Specifically, the potential at location 0 during
voltage gradients surrounding the workman requires that iteration i, Vo, is corrected by the formuila
over 20 000 grid points be utilized; this approaches the V oi = V'O(1.l) + [Voi -V O(i-1)] (2)
memory capability of an IBM 7094 digital computer.
For example, the configuration of Fig. 6 comprises 25 X where the subscript (i - 1) signifies the previous iteration
25 X 37 = 23 125 grid points. Assigning a 3-inch length to and the primed quantities signify corrected potentials. A
each cubic cell, the volume under study is a 72-inch square factor k = 1.6 has been applied without incurring insta-
with 108-inch height. This can enclose a practical man- bilities in the calculation.
bucket system with adequate margin (see Fig. 9) and it is
then necessary to state the potential distribution along the APPLICATION AND VERIFICATION
entire boundary of the rectangular parallelepiped. To The reactions of mice to long exposure in electric fields is
expedite this calculation, it is assumed that the man- reported in Knickerbocker et al.[41 The mice were placed
bucket system may be replaced by a sphere of radius R in a uniform field of 4 kV/in. Figure 8 illustrates the
located at height h above ground. These parameters are physical arrangement, in part comprised of two large
chosen to give a capacitance approximately equal to that plane electrodes a and b, made of 1/4-inch square mesh
of the man-bucket system. The capacitance of the high- metallic hardware cloth. The electrode spacing is 6 iinches.
voltage line is approximately 3 pF/ft and its effect is The mouse is in an acrylic cage (5- by 1 1-inch floor area and
small compared to that of the man-bucket system which 5-inch height) covered by a flat metal plate. The cage is
normally is in the order of 100 pF. A quantity of charge placed on a sheet of insulating material c, 1/8-inch thick,
corresponding to the man-bucket capacitance and poten- which in turn rests on the grounded electrode.
tial is placed at the center of the sphere and the same A 3.5- by 4.8-inch section of the grounded electrode was
quantity of charge, but of opposite sign, is placed at the electrically insulated from the remainder of the electrode
location corresponding to the mirror image below the and returned to ground through a microammeter. One end
earth's surface. This is a good approximation for a prac- of the acrylic cage rested over this section. With the mouse
tical range of height above ground. The boundary poten- at the other end of the cage the microammeter registered
tials of the parallelepiped are then determined analytically the normal charging, or displacement, current for that
in terms of these two points charges. area, which was measured as 6.1 ,LyA. The reading in-
The potential at an arbitrary location, 0 within the grid, creased to 7.4 AA when the entire body of the animal
(see Fig. 7) is determined by the following formula, which rested over the isolated area. The mouse used for these
satisfies Laplace's equation in three dimensions. measurements had a body length of 3.2 inches and an
Vi average width of 1.2 inches.
Vt
To verify these measurements the mouse is replaced by
= E
vt v

2,3 d (d, + di+3) -I- Z j-_4-,5 6 di(d1 + di_3)

=1i--1,2,3 an infinitely conducting prolate spheroid, with dimensions
Vo = 11 (1) 2a = 3.2 inches and 2b = 1.2 inches, immersed in an
zi=1,,
1,2,3 d1(d, + di+3) +I ZE i4,5,6
di(di + di_3) otherwise uniform electric field of Eoy = 4000V\/2 sin
377t V/in (Fig. 3). By the method of images this con-
This relation is more complex than those found in ordinary figuration is identical to that of half a prolate spheroid
references, for example, Scarborough, [8 in order to furnish resting on the surface of a grounded plane, which is a more
rapid convergence during the initial iterations, in which accurate description of the physical configuration. Since
locations either with known or calculated voltages gen- a = 1.6 inches and a/b = 2.67, from Table I, columns 2
erally are not equidistant from location 0. Equation (1) is and 4, the total current through the prolate spheroid is
derived from the integral form of the divergence theorem I = 2.34 rms ,uA. The plate area covered by the prolate
using difference quantities. The requirement for the curl is spheroid is rab = 3.01/irn2 whereby the charging current
BARNES ET AL.: RATIONAL ANALYSIS OF ELECTRIC FIELDS 487

,CONDUCTOR CONDUCTOR
37 37K1
A
B

1 7 13 19 25 1 7 13 19 25
- I J
I,J,K IN INTERVALS OF3 INCHES

Fig. 9. Computer grid representation of man-bucket configuration

for barehand voltage gradient calculation.

Fig. 8. Photograph of mouse housed within large intensity electric uniform field at infinity Eo0 is then obtained by using the
field.
factor 5.8 derived from Fig. 4 for a/b = 2 and q = 1. The
total current through the dipole is then calculated with
the aid of Table I, columns 2 and 6. The resulting values
which exists without the spheroid is 3.01 X 377eO Eov are shown in Table II and compare very well with the
= 1.02 rms uA. Thus, the presence of the spheroid will
cause the measured current to inerease by approximately
corresponding experimental data. The larger error at
greater distances is primarily due to the increasing effect
2.34 - 1.02 = 1.32 pA. This compares favorably with of the other two phase conductors.
the experimental value of (7.4 - 6.1) = 1.3 ,uA. The
charging current for the total plate area (3.5 X 4.8 = Barehand Method
16.8 in') is calculated as 5.7 juA, as compared to the A typical man-bucket configuration, represented for
measured 6.1 ,uA, the difference being caused in part by digital computer calculation, is illustrated in Fig. 9. For
the effect of the acrylic cage. the moment let the workman's arms be placed at his side.
Miller Dipole The conductor, workman, bucket, and shielding are at a
potential of 200 kV rms with respect to earth, which is 26
A special dipole probe was designed by Dr. C. J. Miller feet below the conductor. For this system the charging
to investigate body currents when the workman is sus- current between the conductor and bucket has been
pended between line and ground. The dipole consists of measured as approximately 5500 uA; the corresponding
two similar electrodes each with a 6-inch radius copper capacitance is 73 pF. If this information is not available,
hemisphere attached to a 6-inch radius copper cylinder. one may select a hypothetical conducting sphere of radius
During the field experiments the electric field vector was R and height h above ground, the capacitance of which is
parallel to the major axis of the dipole. Other details are
reported in a companion paper.[l]
The dipole is represented by a prolate spheroid with C, = 4rEoR I \2h +R + ±4h __- R2/±..z in mks units.
dimensions 2a = 24 inches and 2b = 12 inches. The field
at the head of the dipole was measured with the smaller For example, with h = 26 feet, a radius R of 25 inches is
of Dr. Miller's two electric gradient meters[5] and is required for C, = 73 pF. The electric charge corresponding
reported in Table II for several distances beneath an to 73 pF and 200 kV rms is placed at the center of the
outside phase conductor of a 345-kV line. In each case this hypothetical sphere, the location of which is chosen as
field strength is assumed to be Et, at 7 = 1 (Fig. 4). The (I, J, K) = (14,12,15) and the potentials at the boundaries
of the grid system are automatically computed, as previ-
ously described.
TABLE II With the aid of (1) and the known potentials, both of the
COMPARISON OF CURRENT MEASUREMENTS USING MILLER man-bucket system and at the boundaries, the potential
DIPOLE WITH CALCULATED CURRENTS THROUGH PROLATE at each location within the grid system was determined.
SPHEROIDAL BODY
Convergence was expedited by first solving for the ap-
proximate potentials at coordinates (I, J, K) = (4m, 4n,
Measured 4p) where m and n are integers from 1 to 6 and p is an
Electric
Distance Field at integer from 1 to 9. After obtaining approximate poten-
from Head of Measured Calculated tials at coordinates of intermediate spacing, the final
Conductor, Dipole, Current, Current,
inches V/in pA PA potentials were obtained to within 0.1 percent precision
33 6500 60 62.2 for all coordinates. The IBM 7094 computer on-line time
57 3800 36 36.4 was 15 minutes. This corresponds to a calculation time per
105 1500 18 14.4
129 1100 14 10.5 coordinate per iteration of approximately 2 ms.
153 800 11 7.7 The electric gradient at various locations on the work-
273 280 6 2.7
man is readily obtained by referring to the potential at a
488 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER APPARATUS AND SYSTEMS APRIL 1967

coordinate in juxtaposition to the pertinent body location. above constants C 41.4 pF, whereby for a line potential
=

This has been done for several bucket-shield arrangements
and a comparison with experimental data is contained in
Table III. The agreement between analytical and experi-
mental results is reasonable, considering the numerous
simplifying assumptions.
The total current emanating from the workman may be
determined from
I = COEf ifE surfacedS
if the electric field distribution over his body is known, as,
for example, from the previously described digital com-
putation.
In certain situations the analytical, digital computer,
and experimental solutions may be combined to good
advantage. For example, consider the current which
flows from a workman's body when he is in an aerial lift
bucket at line potential. Assume the workman to be 6 feet
in height, to weigh 180 pounds, and to have a specific
gravity of 1.0. The man's surface area S may be derived
from the following formula:[9]
S = 71.84W0o425HO.725 cm2
where
W-weight, kg
H-height, cm.
In the example S = 3160 in2. The man's volume may be
readily determined from the data and is found to be V =
5000 in3. Both the volume and surface area of a prolate
spheroid may be expressed in terms of the semimajor and
semiminor axes, a and b, respectively. ['ll Assuming a = 36
inches; b = 7.85 inches or a/b = 4.6 for correct surface
area; b = 5.74 inches or a/b = 6.3 for correct volume.
The man is here described by a prolate spheroid with
a = 36 inches and a/b = 5.5. The capacitance C for a
prolate spheroid is given by (26) of Appendix IV. For the
of 200 kV rms line-to-ground the man's 60-Hz charging
current is 3120 MA. However, calculating the electric
field of the unshielded spheroid from (17) of Appendix
III provides Et,, = 72.3 kV/in at the pole (q = 1) and
EE, = 12.8 kV/in at the midsection (I = 0). This is far in,
excess of either the digitally computed data or the experi-
mental data for an unshielded bucket, which is approxi-
mately 11 kV/in at the head and 2.5 kV/in at the chest..
(25) The significant shielding effect of the bucket is thereby
demonstrated and the man's charging current should be
reduced to approximately half of 3120 X 11/72.3 = 237
AA. The factor of 0.5 is used to account for complete
shielding of the lower half of the workman's body from
which essentially no charging current will flow. The
adjusted current is in good agreement with experimental
data of approximately 250 MA.
Applying the same analysis to the workman's arm,
assume a = 18 inches and a/b = 10. The capacitance is
then 16.8 pF and for a potential of 200 kV rms line-to--
ground at 60 Hz the charging current is 1260 AA and the
electric field intensity at the hand Eo(q = 1) = 370 kV/in.
This electric field is beyond the measured corona incipient
level of approximately 15 kV/in. The corrected discharge
current is then approximately 1260 (15/370) = 51 MA.
which is in reasonable agreement with field measurements
of approximately 100 AA for both arms extended in the
working position.
CONCLUSION
Several methods have been formulated to predict both
the electric field which impinges on a live line workman
and the current which passes through his body. In pre-
paring the foundation careful attention was given to body
composition and its effect on the unperturbed electric
field. It was found satisfactory to assume the human to be
a perfectly conducting medium when determining the
external fields and to behave as a distributed resistance
when calculating internal currents.

TABLE III
COMPARISON OF MEASURED ELECTRIC FIELDS IN BAREHAND MAINTENANCE WITH THOSE CALCULATED BY
DIGITAL COMPUTER FOR SEVERAL DEGREES OF BUCKET SHIELDING

Body Location
Arrangement Head Head
Number Top Back Face Shoulder Chest Back Groin Knee
1) Measured 0.4* 0.2 2.0 1.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
Calculated 0.8 0.1 3.5 2.4-3.0 1.9 0.0 0.0 0.0
2) Measured 7.2 0.8 6.6
Calculated 6.3 0.8 6.5 3.1-3.6 2.3 0.1 0.0 0.0
3) Measured 12.0 - 4.0 7.0 0.0 0.0
Calculated 13.3 8.7 7.7 5.3-5.7 2.7 5.3 0.0 0.0
4) Measured 11.0 7.5 5.5-7.0 2.5 5.0-7.0 0.5 2.5-4.0
Calculated 13.2 8.8 7.6 5.5-6.1 2.7 5.5 1.2 1.3-4.7

Degree of shielding for arrangement:

1) ABCD (see Fig. 7, complete shielding)
2) BCDE (no canopy)
3) CDE (no rear wall, no canopy)
4) CE (6-inch band on bucket rim).
* Values in kV/in.
BARNES ET AL.: RATIONAL ANALYSIS OF ELECTRIC FIELDS 489

In essentially unshielded applications, e.g., work with Substituting the assumed body constants
live line tools, the workman's body and limbs may be
represented by prolate spheroids. Solutions obtained IOrf 1 = 37 X 10>>»1.
with the analytical tools herein developed are in reason- qr 377 X (80 - 1) X 8.85 X 10-12
able agreement with field measurements. For the epidermis
Where shielding is required, as in barehand work,
Laplace's equation in three dimensions is best solved with - 370 >> 1.
the aid of a high-speed digital computer. An iterative OrP
routine, employing over-relaxation, based on certain For the described semi-infinite block the depth of pene-
simplifying assumptions crucial to developing a feasible tration is[11I
method, is described. Solutions with engineering accuracy
are obtained in reasonable time, and it appears that a a
= 2) (\112 =(( 2 X1 1/2 = meters.
65
convenient and economical method is now available for = y '377 X 12.56X 10)-7
examining shielding techniques on extra high-voltage lines
prior to full scale field experiments. The calculated depth is far in excess of practical body
The described analytical and numerical methods are lengths.
very flexible. Exercising proper judgment, the investigator
may utilize them individually or in combination to provide APPENDIX II
an approximate answer to a large category of electric field Prolate spheroidal coordinates are related to Cartesian
problems connected with live line work. coordinates by the following equations:
x =d
APPENDIX I
y = C [(2 - 1) -2) 11/2 COS 4& -

The classification of a material either as a good electrical

conductor or as a good dielectric may be established using Z = C [(2 - 1) -72) ]1/2 sin VI -

a simple 1-dimensional model. In particular, assume an where t > 1, -1 _ _ 1, 0 < 4t' . 2 r. A surface to, c is
electric field in air which is normally incident on a semi- defined by a and b where
infinite block of material with the same constants sup-
posed for the human body. At the boundary the field a = cto and b = C(tO2 - 1)1/2.
strength in air is defined as Eo and that within the body as In terms of Cartesian coordinates the prolate spheroidal
E. (The bar designates a phasor quantity.) Ignoring for unit vectors are
the moment the common factor ciwt, where w is the radian
frequency of the phasor quantities and t is a real time, the
governing equations are[")1
= Xt2
1t 1x + t COS + 2 2l +

,f + op = Eo(Eo-E) (3) Q sin

7f = E - -EE
pJt = E (5) 1,7 = _x-77COS lC -

where
rf - surface free charge density 7 sin ,6 ;2 l, 1,
p- surface polarization charge density.
1t = -sinkI6z, + cos t'lz.
The inward current density J is defined as the negat The solutions for the Laplacian and the gradient of a
time rate of change of the surface free charge density, i scalar are [21
J = JW07. (6) V2 1 F ( h2h34+ a 1h3h, (0 +
Equations (3)-(6) may be combined to obtain the ratio h1h2h3 Ld
at6 (-X h2 (h
hi 1

a6\1 h3bhb1j
of free-to-polarization charge density a+l (8)
h3 a+JP
07 -j ( 1 where
0P coP e - so/.
In terms of absolute magnitude hi = c V
I

Sf 1op e
=-( - so-e ) (7) h2 = ICi X
O-, CO4 E E 1-
490 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER APPARATUS AND SYSTEMS APRIL 1967

and where
h3 = c 1)(1- 2) AO = [Q02 1)1/2ln
(I t +

ci-2 n2 a +cle 2a 7
r+ 1/,2 r°O+ 1/l2
LSo -1 Lto -
1 (9)
B (o+ 1) - ]/2 [1( o+ 1)-3/2]
Bo to-
1)3/2 L (o1/2 +
APPENDIX III (t02 1)-1/2 In ( )][ (to2_ )12
A. In Fig. 1, when Eo, = 0, the potential at infinity is
C. Assume that both Eo. and Eo, are zero and that the
0o = -Eoxx = -Eoxct. (10) prolate spheroid is at a potential 4> with respect to infinity.
Only the terms P0o and Qo0 of the associated Legendre
To obtain a constant potential over the surface to and to polynomials satisfy the conditions [131 (e.g., at t =
satisfy the requirement at infinity, as expressed in (10), the q is independent of 77 and ^,6) and Laplace's equation, 401
homogeneous solution for potential is whereby
Oo = 07G(t). (11)
0 = (ln)0+ t) In \ )
(16)
Substituting (11) into (8), which is set equal to zero to-1 -1
(Laplace's equation), there results
At the surface t = 4o the electric field Fe=to = -VOt=O is
d2G + 24 dG _ 2 G = ° (12) normal and is thereby independent of tq and 1. Thus from
~2-_12 IG=(2
+. -
(9)
whose solution is G = t and G = 1 + t/2 ln ( - 1)/
(t + 1). The solution for C in the expression for total (17)
potential 4 = 45o + 0, is obtained from the additional I_
E X) 2).
boundary conditions -f = foEtO, where Et, = -VOA = t
and i f .dS = 0. The solution for potential is then APPENDIX IV
Applying Gauss' law at the surface of the prolate
-Eoc~, __o
__~o spheroid yields
=-R w + _21+ + 1
(18)
oln
EoEto afT=
where solutions for Et, are contained in Appendix III.
(13) The normal component of the inward conduction current
The solution for the electric field at 4o is then obtained density at the surface depends on af in accordance with
from (9) (6), here re-expressed in more general terms
J * l = to = -i( f. (19)
Eto_ qKo
Eox - - (14) Within the body, Laplace's equation applies since the
material is purely resistive. Thus, V24 = 0 where
where J= -V+.
A. When Eo, = 0 (14) is the solution Es,. Combining
1+ IIln (~o
+ 1)1 (14), (18), and the right-hand side of (19), and substi-
tuting the negative of the first term of (9) into the left-
KO = A42 1 L~ 1 +0In hand side of (19), there results
[2+l o 1
\/Ol - -jc)EoKoqEox
(20)
B. When Eox = 0, the method of solution for Ev0 re- C -\/o2 02 \/jo2 _ 772
84 t
mains unchanged; the appropriate analysis yields The solution for potential q follows directly upon in-
Ete,Eoy = tegrating (20)
(, /4Bo -jw eoKoc
(~~~~~~~
+/-4
CO /<o )t-A6
(2- 1) (15) , 1 qSEoX- (21)
BARNES ET AL.: RATIONAL ANALYSIS OF ELECTRIC FIELDS
The negative gradient of ) may then be obtained from
(9) to solve for the current density at any location within
the prolate spheroid
jI 2 (22
2 1 V
J C 2C0Eoxl + 2 1ClEOxt1 (22)
where
Ci
jiCOoKo
, [11]
= -1
V(o-
In Cartesian coordinates (refer to Appendix II)
J C= 1Eoxl. (23)
B. When E = 0 (15) is the solution to EA. and an
analysis identical to that of Section A. yields
el C2Eoyl (24)
where
C2 = JAo:[0
_ _B(2 -1)]
Equations (23) and (24) demonstrate that J is constant
throughout the body and is parallel to the direction of the
electric field at infinity.
C. When Eo. = Eo0O and the prolate spheroid
= It has been demonstrated by others that a shielded cage containing
assumes a potential c', (17) is then the solution to Et,.
The total current I emanating from the prolate spheroid
is then the closed surface integral of the normal component
of current density J -n for t = {o
I/t = to = CEJ __1 Ez,(h2drj) (h3d4l)
O would happen to a man situated as shown in the photographs
where, in re-expressing J, (18) has been substituted into
(19). The solution to (25) is expressed in terms of the
prolate spheroid capacitance C -I/loc
C- = (26)
4o ln (+ ) in the energized condition. But because such lines will be long for
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The authors wish to thank Dr. W. B. Kouwenhoven and
G. G. Knickerbocker of Johns Hopkins University, who
participated in discussions of body composition; Dr. H. H.
Woodson of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology,
who assisted in the development of Appendix I; and Dr.
P. Diament and S. L. Richter of Faculties Associated
Consultants, Inc., New York, N. Y., who developed
the computer program and associated analysis.
REFERENCES
[1] H. L. Rorden, "Barehand live line maintenance saves time with
increased safety," Elec. World, vol. 154, p. 76, December 19,
1960.
[2] W. B. Kouwenhoven et al., "Body currents in live line working,"
IEEE Trans. on Power Apparatus and Systems, vol. PAS-85,
pp. 403-411, April 1966.
[3] W. B. Kouwenhoven et al., "Medical evaluation of man work-
ing in ac electric fields,' this issue, pp. 506-511.
[4] G. G. Knickerbocker et al., "Exposure of inice to a strong
ac electric field," this issue, pp. 498-505.
491
[5] C. J. Miller, Jr., "The measurement of electric fields in live line
working," this issue, pp. 493-498.
[6] H. P. Schwan and D. F. Kay, "The conductivity of living
tissue," Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci., p. 1007, August 1957.
[7] W. G. S. Steffens, "The current-voltage relationship in human
skin," Med. Electronics Biol. Engrg., vol. 1, pp. 398-399, 1963.
[8] J. B. Scarborough, Numerical Mathematical Analysis, 2nd ed.
London: Oxford University Press, 1962.
[9] E. F. Dubois and D. Dubois, "A formula to estimate the
approximate surface area if height and weight be known,"
Arch. Internal Med., vol. 17, p. 863, 1916.
[10] G. A. Korn and T. M. Korn, Mathematical Handbook for
Scientist and Engineers. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1961, p. 749.
R. M. Fano et al., Electromagnetic Fields, Energy, and Forces.
New York: Wiley, 1960, pp. 189, 190, 198, 354.
[12] J. A. Stratton, Electro-Magnetic Theory. New York: McGraw-
Hill, 1941, p. 49.
[13] W. R. Smythe, Static and Dynamic Electricity. New York:
McGraw-Hill, 1950, p. 148.
Discussion
J. J. Mikos (S&C Electric Company, Chicago, Ill.): The authors of
this paper and those of the companion papers['] -1[I are to be
commended for bringing before the Institute and before the general
public such a wealth of information on the effect of EHV fields on
personnel working on energized lines. Safety is the main concern of
industry in this matter. This work is quite complete; such information
is very difficult to obtain, and its publication is welcomed.
a man can successfully protect the occupant from a direct impulse
stroke to the cage.
In Fig. 1 of the paper and in Fig. 2 of Kouwenhoven et al.l3] are
photographs of mien suspended between the tower and the live lines.
These men are not in shielded cages or buckets. Presumably they
could be wearing protective clothing to protect them from the
(25) electric field. Many power company workers have asked, "What
during a switching surge?" As the authors mention, the presence of
the man distorts the electric field. This investigator and others have
found that switching surges are sometimes prone to go to ground via
long devious paths, particularly indistortedelectrical fields. A shielded
cage would protect the man. Would protective clothing protect the
man being subjected to a direct switching surge stroke? We all
realize that higher voltage lines will be built, and will be worked on
econiomic reasons they can easily have switching surges started
downi the line toward a man on the line remote from the switching
surge source. This fact is being recognized by power companies.
A similar problem exists where personnel in EHV stations go
about their duties while switching surges are being made. So far,
shielded cages, shielded tunnels, shielded canopies, and shielded
vehicles have been proposed to protect men exposed to switching
surges. What are the authors' comments on this related aspect to
their studies?
Manuscript received July 28, 1966.
Paul H. Shoun (Tennessee Valley Authority, Chattanooga, Tenn.):
We should like to commend all the authors of this series for their
contribution to the industry in furthering the safe application of
barehand working techniques. This fundamental research and back-
ground work must be done; but from a practical matter of system
Manuscript received July 26, 1966.
492
operations and immediate use, we ask the following questions.
How can these data accumulated from 345-kV experience be extrap-
olated for 500-kV use?
Who is currently performing routine 500-kV barehand work?
(We shall be interested in the equipment being used and its speci-
fications, especially regarding switching surge withstand.)
What is your specification for conductive clothing recommended
for barehand use with 500 kV, and where can this clothing be ob-
tained?
H. C. Barnes, A. J. McElroy, and J. H. Charkow: We appreciate
Mr. Mikos' comments and agree that safety is of prime concern.
The men in the illustrations mentioned are in position for working
with live line tools. They are not shielded, but, rather, isolated
electrically in space. In these working positions they do not reduce
clearances below minimums established for safe practice, which are
premised on switching surges. Design clearances with I strings
are premised on a predetermined angle of swing, and clearances are
considerably greater when the string is at rest. When working from
insulated ladders on strings that are restrained from movement,
men are positioned so they will be in a safe area before the ladder
is moved to working position.
A convenient method for direct measurement of currents in a
workman's body when he is isolated in space is not known to the
authors; however, Dr. Miller's dipole,]6] developed for this pro-
gram, provides an excellent method of simulating the work-
man's body and provides the necessary information. Tests with the
dipole confirm the theory that when workmen are isolated in space,
their body currents are well within acceptable levels when working
with live line tools in accordance with established practices.
Anomalous flashovers do indeed follow devious paths, but are
not initiated by voltages less than the design voltage used in deter-
mirning the insulation and clearances of direct paths. Therefore, if a
safe margin is maintained for a direct path, there is no increased
danger from anomalous path flashover. While there is much to be
learned about anomalous flashovers, the true criteria continues to be
Manuscript received September 1, 1966.
IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER APPARATUS AND SYSTEMS APRIL 1967
good engineering design which gives full consideration to safety.
The purpose of shielded clothing is to minimize field intensities,
thereby eliminating induced body currents. While, theoretically
it could afford some protection during a flashover, it should never be
considered in any degree as a substitute for provision of properly
insulated boomis or tools. Minimum safe clearances and insulation
must be premised on an adequate margin above maximum switching
surge levels regardless of the type of shielding adopted. If margins
above this are desired for extra caution, gaps might be used to
provide a defined path clear of the workman; however, we have
never found this necessary and would want to investigate further
before recommending its use.
With reference to Mr. Shoun's questions, tests not reported in
the paper have been conducted with screen shields up to 800 kY and
with conductive clothing up to 500 kV rms line-to-ground. We find
no problerm in the use of the barehand method at the highest system
voltage presently proposed as long as adequate clearance, insulation,
and shielding are maintained.
At present, we have no 500 kV on our system nor do we have
knowledge of routine barehand maintenance being used on any 500-
kV system. However, 500 kV in this country is still in its infancy, as
is 765 kV, and development of the barehand method for these
voltage levels is in anticipation that it can be used to advantage in
many applications. Most of the testing on 500 kV and above has
been in the laboratory, but tests were also made jointly with the
Hydro Electric Power Commission of Ontario at 525 kV at their
Coldwater test site, using conductive clothing shielding. We also
worked on 765 kV at our Apple Grove test site using both aerial lifts
and conductive clothing. Further work is needed on the use of lad-
ders rather thani lifts because the heights at these voltages may
exceed the capabilities of available lifts. Some work was done with
platforms at Coldwater and with ladders at Apple Grove.
Clearances for high-voltage switching surges are currently beinig
considered by the Transmission and Distribution Committee of the
IEEE. Release of this information should be very helpftul in adopting
live line maintenance practices.
The conductive clothing used in these tests was specially made
for us by the Fyrepel Products Co., P. 0. Box 503, Newark, Ohio.
It is made of a fiber glass cloth with interwoven carbon threads.
Two types were used, one with 3/8-inch and another with 3/4-inch
spacing of the carbon threads. No difference could be detected in
their performance during these tests. Several types of cloth were
tried but this one is superior in continuity of conductivity with use.