Embryology full note

1. 1. GENERAL EMBRYOLOGY 1
2. 2. THE DEVELOPING HUMAN Introduction • Human development is a continuous process
that begins when an oocyte (ovum) from a female is fertilized by a sperm (spermatozoon)
from a male • Cell division, cell migration, programmed cell death, differentiation, growth, and
cell rearrangement transform the fertilized oocyte, a highly specialized, totipotent cell, a
zygote, into a multicellular human being • From a single cell to a baby in 9 months, the study
of the developmental processes that take place is called Embryology Note: • Development
does not stop at birth, • Although most developmental changes occur during the embryonic
and fetal periods, • important changes occur during later periods of development: infancy,
childhood, adolescence, and early adulthood 2
3. 3. Stages of prenatal development: • begins at fertilization and embryonic development ends
on day 56 (8th week ) • The fetal period begins on day 57 and ends when the fetus is
completely outside the mother 3 postnatal (after birth) period.  prenatal (before birth)  A
zygote or embryo is the beginning of a new human being Developmental Periods: can be
divided into Terminologies • Oocyte ( ovum /egg): refers to the female germ or sex cells
produced in the ovaries • Sperm (spermatozoon): refers to the male germ cell produced in
the testes (testicles) • Zygote: This cell results from the union of an oocyte and a sperm
during fertilization
4. 4. note : • The sequence of gametogenesis is the same, but the timing of events during
meiosis differs in the two sexes. 4 Sexual Reproduction • Sexual reproduction occurs when
female and male gametes (oocyte and spermatozoon, respectively) unite at fertilization. •
Gametes are direct descendants of primordial germ cells, which are first observed in the wall
of the yolk sac at 4th week of embryonic development and subsequently migrate into the
future gonad region where they arrive at the end of the 5th week • Gametes are produced by
a process called gametogenesis (formation of gamete) • In males, this process is called
spermatogenesis • In females, it is called oogenesis Prefertilization Events
5. 5. Primodial germ cells in wall of yolk sac Yolk sac 5
6. 6. Long arm/ q arm • These two arms are separated by a centromere • During meiosis I,
single chromosomes undergo DNA replication, which essentially duplicates the arms. • This
forms duplicated chromosomes, which consist of two sister chromatids attached at the
centromere. 6 Short arm/ p arm  Chromosomes • A single chromosome consists of TWO
characteristic regions called arms. These include:  and cytodifferentiation to complete their
maturation  meiosis, to reduce the number of chromosomes • In preparation for
fertilization, germ cells undergo gametogenesis. Which include:
7. 7. 7
8. 8. and one pair of sex chromosomes 8 22 pairs of matching chromosomes called
autosomes  The 23 homologous pairs of chromosomes is made up of:  The chromosomes
occur in 23 homologous pairs, of which one member (homologue) of each pair is of maternal
origin, and the other is of paternal origin to form the diploid number of 46 Note: The term
“diploid” is classically used to refer to a cell containing 46 single chromosomes  In humans,
somatic cells (cells of an organism other than the germ cells) contain 46 single
chromosomes 1) Ploidy and N number • Ploidy refers to the number of chromosomes in a
cell • The N number refers to the amount of DNA in a cell
9. 9. and meiosis II, to reduce the number of chromosomes to the haploid number of 23 9
meiosis I  Meiosis • is the cell division that takes place in the germ cells to generate male
and female gametes, sperm and egg cells, respectively • Meiosis requires two cell divisions:
• If the sex pair is XX, the individual is genetically female; if the pair is XY, the individual is
genetically male. • One chromosomes of each pair is derived from the maternal gamete, the
oocyte, and one from the paternal gamete, the sperm • Thus, each gamete contains a
 haploid number of 23 chromosomes, and the union of the gametes at fertilization restores
the diploid number of 46
10. 10. crossingover • Crossovers: this involve the interchange of chromatid segments between
paired homologous chromosomes • Segments of chromatids break and are exchanged as
homologous chromosomes separate. • As separation occurs, points of interchange are
temporarily united and form an X-like structure, a chiasma 10 synapsis • homologous
chromosomes align themselves in pairs, this process is called synapsis  Events that occur
during meiosis I include the following: Meiosis 1
11. 11. 11
12. 12. Stages A – D, prophase of 1st meiotic division Cells contain 23 doublestructured
chromosomes Metaphase of 2nd meiotic division Disjunction E – metaphase F - Anaphase G
- Telophase (of 1st meiotic division) Cells resulting from 1st meiotic division 2nd meiotic
division Cells resulting from 2nd meiotic division 12
13. 13. • Summary of Meiosis I Events that occur during meiosis I include the following:
Synapsis: pairing of 46 homologous duplicated chromosomes Crossing over: exchange of
large segments of DNA Alignment: alignment of 46 homologous duplicated chromosomes at
the metaphase plate Disjunction: separation of 46 homologous duplicated chromosomes
from each other; centromeres do not split. Cell division: formation of two secondary
gametocytes (23 duplicated chromosomes, 2N). Meiosis II Meiosis II. Events that occur
during meiosis II include the following: – Synapsis: absent. – Crossing over: absent. 13  

14. 14. • Summary of Meiosis I Events that occur during meiosis I include the following:
Synapsis: pairing of 46 homologous duplicated chromosomes Crossing over: exchange of
large segments of DNA Alignment: alignment of 46 homologous duplicated chromosomes at
the metaphase plate Disjunction: separation of 46 homologous duplicated chromosomes
from each other; centromeres do not split Cell division: formation of two secondary
gametocytes (23 duplicated chromosomes, 2N). Meiosis II Meiosis II. Events that occur
during meiosis II include the following: – Synapsis: absent. – Crossing over: absent. 14  

15. 15. Note: As a result of meiotic divisions, (a) genetic variability is enhanced through
crossover, which redistributes genetic material, and through random distribution of
homologous chromosomes to the daughter cells; and (b) (b) each germ cell contains a
haploid number of chromosomes, so that at fertilization the diploid number of 46 is restored
15 Cell division: formation of four gametes (23 single chromosomes, 1N).  Disjunction:
separation of 23 duplicated chromosomes to form 23 single chromosomes; centromeres split
 Alignment: alignment of 23 duplicated chromosomes at the metaphase plate. 
16. 16. SPERMATOGENESIS • Spermatogenesis is the sequence of events by which
spermatogonia are transformed into mature sperms. • This maturation process begins at
puberty • Spermatogonia, which have been dormant in the seminiferous tubules of the testes
since the fetal period, begin to increase in number at puberty • After several mitotic divisions,
the spermatogonia grow and undergo changes • Spermatogonia are transformed into
primary spermatocytes, the largest germ cells in the seminiferous tubules. • Each primary
spermatocyte subsequently undergoes 1st meiotic division (reduction division) to form two
haploid secondary spermatocytes, which are approximately half the size of primary
spermatocytes
17. 17. • Secondary spermatocytes then undergo a second meiotic division to form four haploid
spermatids • these haploid spermatids are approximately half the size of secondary
spermatocytes. • The spermatids are gradually transformed into four mature sperm by a
process known as spermiogenesis • The entire process of spermatogenesis, which includes
spermiogenesis, takes approximately 2 months • When spermiogenesis is complete, the
sperms enter the lumina of the seminiferous tubules • Sertoli cells lining the seminiferous
tubules support and nurture the germ cells and may be involved in the regulation of
spermatogenesis
18. 18. • Sperms are transported passively from the seminiferous tubules to the epididymis,
where they are stored and become functionally mature • The epididymis is the elongated
coiled duct along the posterior border of the testis • It is continuous with the ductus deferens
(vas deferens), which transports the sperms to the urethra • Mature sperms are free-
swimming, actively motile cells consisting of a head and a tail • The neck of the sperm is the
junction between the head and tail • The head of the sperm forms most of the bulk of the
sperm and contains the haploid nucleus. • The anterior two thirds of the nucleus is covered
by the acrosome, a caplike saccular organelle containing several enzymes
19. 19. and end piece • The tail provides the motility of the sperm that assists its transport to the
site of fertilization. • The middle piece of the tail contains mitochondria, which provide the
adenosine triphosphate necessary for activity principal piece  middle piece • When
released, these enzymes facilitate dispersion of the follicular cells of the corona radiata and
sperm penetration of the zona pellucida during fertilization • The tail of the sperm consists of
three segments:
20. 20. OOGENESIS • Oogenesis (ovogenesis) is the sequence of events by which oogonia are
transformed into mature oocytes • This maturation process begins before birth and is
completed after puberty • Oogenesis continues to menopause, which is permanent cessation
of the menses (bleeding associated with the menstrual cycles) Prenatal Maturation of
Oocytes • Primordial germ cells (46, 2N) migrate from the wall of the yolk sac and arrive in
the ovary at 5th week and differentiate into oogonia (46, 2N), which populate the ovary
through mitotic division. • A majority of oogonia continue to divide by mitosis but some of
them enter meiosis I and undergo DNA replication to form primary oocytes (46, 4N) • by the
5th month of prenatal development, the total number of germ cells in the ovary reaches its
maximum, which is estimated at 7 million
21. 21. Note: No oogonia are present at birth • All surviving primary oocytes have entered
prophase of meiosis I, and most of them are individually surrounded by a single layer of
flattened, follicular epithelial cells • The primary oocytes enclosed by this layer of cells
constitutes a primordial follicle • Primary oocytes begin the first meiotic division before birth,
but completion of prophase does not occur until puberty • The follicular cells surrounding the
primary oocyte are believed to secrete a substance, oocyte maturation inhibitor (OMI) which
keeps the meiotic process of the oocyte arrested Note: All primary oocytes are formed by
the 5th month of fetal life • At this time, cell death begins, and many oogonia as well as
primary oocytes become atretic • By the seventh month, the majority of oogonia have
degenerated except for a few near the surface 
22. 22. Postnatal Maturation of Oocytes • Beginning during puberty, usually one follicle matures
each month and ovulation occurs, except when oral contraceptives are used • The total
number of primary oocytes at birth is estimated to vary from 600,000 to 800,000 • only
approximately 40,000 are present by the beginning of puberty, and fewer than 500 will be
ovulated • As the primary oocyte enlarges during puberty, the follicular epithelial cells
become cuboidal in shape and then columnar, forming a primary follicle • The primary oocyte
soon becomes surrounded by a covering of amorphous acellular glycoprotein material, the
zona pellucida
23. 23. Note: No primary oocytes form after birth in females, in contrast to the continuous
production of primary spermatocytes in males • The primary oocytes remain dormant in the
ovarian follicles until puberty • As a follicle matures, the primary oocyte increases in size and,
shortly before ovulation, the first meiotic division is completed giving rise to a secondary
oocyte and the first polar body. • Unlike the corresponding stage of spermatogenesis, there
is formation 2 daughters of unequal size, this is because the division of cytoplasm is
unequal, each with 23 double structured chromosomes • The secondary oocyte receives
almost all the cytoplasm and the first polar body receives very little • The 1st polar body is a
small, nonfunctional cell that soon degenerates
24. 24. Note: The first polar may also undergoes a second division• The first polar body lies
between the zona pellucida and the cell membrane of the secondary oocyte in the
 perivitelline space • The cell then enters meiosis II but it is arrested at metaphase
approximately 3 hours before ovulation • If a sperm penetrates the secondary oocyte, the
second meiotic division is completed, and most cytoplasm is again retained by one cell, the
fertilized oocyte (zygote), while the 2nd polar body receive little cytoplasm • If not fertilized,
the cell degenerates approximately 24 hours after ovulation • The other cell, the 2nd polar
body, also a small nonfunctional cell, soon degenerates. • As soon as the polar body is
extruded, maturation of the oocyte is complete
25. 25. • Of these, only about 400-500 become secondary oocytes and are expelled at ovulation
during the reproductive period • Few of these oocytes, if any, are fertilized and become
mature • The number of oocytes that ovulate is greatly reduced in women who take oral
contraceptives because the hormones in them prevent ovulation from occurring
26. 26. A habitual abortion is the spontaneous expulsion of a dead or nonviable embryo or fetus
in three or more consecutive pregnancies A spontaneous abortion is one that occurs
naturally and is most common during the third week after fertilization • Approximately 15% of
recognized pregnancies end in spontaneous abortion, usually during the first 12 weeks  The
products of an abortion is called an abortus (i.e. the embryo/fetus and its membranes) There
are different types of abortion:  This is the premature stoppage of development and
expulsion of a conceptus from the uterus or expulsion of an embryo or fetus before it is
viable-capable of living outside the uterus Embryological terminologies Abortion
27. 27. Threatened abortion • This might take place before the 20th week of pregnancy • Some
pregnant women have some vaginal bleeding with or without abdominal cramps during the
first three months of pregnancy A miscarriage is the spontaneous abortion of a fetus and its
membranes before the middle of the second trimester (approximately 135 days)  A missed
abortion is the retention of a conceptus in the uterus after death of the embryo or fetus.  A
complete abortion is one in which all the products of conception are expelled from the uterus
 An induced abortion is a birth that is medically induced before 20 weeks (i.e., before the
fetus is viable) • This type of abortion refers to the expulsion of an embryo or fetus induced
intentionally by drugs or mechanical means 
28. 28. Trimester: A period of three calendar months during a pregnancy. • Obstetricians
commonly divide the 9-month period of gestation into three trimesters. The most critical
stages of development occur during the first trimester (13 weeks) when embryonic and early
fetal development is occurring• When the symptoms indicate a miscarriage is possible, the
condition is called a "threatened abortion." • (This refers to a naturally occurring event, not
medical abortions or surgical abortions
29. 29. note • The normal human somatic cell contains 46 chromosomes; the normal gamete
contains 23 • Normal somatic cells are diploid, or 2n; normal gametes are haploid, or n •
Euploid refers to any exact multiple of n, e.g. diploid or triploid structural  numerical C L I
N I C A L C O R R E LA T E S Birth Defects and Spontaneous Abortions Chromosomal
abnormalities May be:
30. 30. Numerical Abnormalities Polyploidy • Polyploidy is the addition of an extra haploid set or
sets of chromosomes (i.e., 23) to the normal diploid set of chromosomes (i.e., 46) A.
Triploidy • is a condition in which cells contain 69 chromosomes • The most common type of
polyploidy is triploidy • Triploid fetuses have severe intrauterine growth retardation with a
disproportionately small trunk • Triploidy could result from the second polar body failing to
separate from the oocyte during the second meiotic division; but more likely triploidy results
when an oocyte is fertilized by two sperms (dispermy) almost simultaneously
31. 31. • Triploidy occurs in approximately 2% of embryos, but most of them abort spontaneously
• Triploid fetuses account for approximately 20% of chromosomally abnormal miscarriages. •
Although triploid fetuses have been born alive, this is exceptional. • These infants all died
within a few days because of multiple anomalies and low birth weight B Tetraploidy: • is a
condition in which cells contain 92 chromosomes • Usually due to failure of first mitotic
division: chromosomes replicate and divide, but all end up in the same nucleus • Tetraploid
 embryos abort very early, and often all that is recovered is an empty chorionic sac, which
used to be referred to as a "blighted embryo."
32. 32. However, monosomy X chromosome (45,X; Turner syndrome) is found in the liveborn
population • Aneuploidy occurs as a result of non-disjunction during meiosis Monosomy
also results in spontaneous abortion of the conceptus  However, I. trisomy 13 (Patau
syndrome), II. trisomy 18 (Edwards syndrome), III. trisomy 21 (Down syndrome), IV. and
Klinefelter syndrome (47,XXY) are found in the liveborn population  Trisomy results in
spontaneous abortion of the conceptus. Aneuploidy • Aneuploidy is the addition of one
chromosome (trisomy) or loss of one chromosome (monosomy).
33. 33. • In meiosis, two members of a pair of homologous chromosomes normally separate
during the first meiotic division so that each daughter cell receives one member of each pair
• Sometimes, however, separation does not occur (nondisjunction), and both members of a
pair move into one cell • As a result of nondisjunction of the chromosomes, one cell receives
24 chromosomes, and the other receives 22 instead of the normal 23 • When, at fertilization,
a gamete having 23 chromosomes fuses with a gamete having 24 or 22 chromosomes, the
result is an individual with either 47 chromosomes(trisomy) or 45 chromosomes (monosomy)
34. 34. features of children with down syndrome include • Physical growth retardation • varying
degrees of mental retardation (Down syndrome IQ is around 50, compared to children
without the condition with an IQ of 100 (Mental retardation has historically been defined as
an IQ below 70) • craniofacial abnormalities, including upward slanting eyes, epicanthal folds
(extra skin folds at the medial corners of the eyes), flat facies, and small ears; • cardiac
defects; and hypotonia Trisomy 21 (Down syndrome) • Down syndrome is usually caused
by an extra copy of chromosome 21 (trisomy21)  Note: • In women, the incidence of
chromosomal abnormalities, including non-disjunction, increases with age, especially at 35
years and older 
35. 35. The incidence of Down syndrome is approximately • 1 in 2000 conceptuses for women
under age 25 • This risk increases with maternal age to 1 in 300 at age 35 • and 1 in 100 at
age 40• • • • • • • • Single simian crease high incidences of leukemia, infections, thyroid
dysfunction, Brachycephaly Clinodactyl of the fifth digit and premature aging nearly all
develop signs of Alzheimer’s disease (progressive mental deterioration manifested by loss of
memory) after age 35 Incidence rate
36. 36. A B (A) Child with Down syndrome, which is characterized by a flat broad face, oblique
palpebral fissures (B) broad hand with a single transverse (simian) crease
37. 37. Anterior view of the faces of dizygotic male twins that are discordant for Down syndrome
(trisomy 21). The one on the right is smaller and hypotonic compared with the unaffected
twin. The twin on the right developed from a zygote that contained an extra 21 chromosome.
Note the characteristic facial features of Down syndrome in this infant: upslanting palpebral
fissures, epicanthal folds, and flat nasal bridge
38. 38. Patients with trisomy 18 show the following features: • mental retardation, • growth
retardation • prominent occiput • congenital heart defects • low-set ears, • flexion of fingers
and hands • short sternum • Micrognathia • renal anomalies • Syndactyly( webbing or fusion
of fingers or toes) • and malformations of the skeletal system. incidence rate incidence rate
of this condition is approximately 1 in 5000 newborns. • 85% are lost between 10 weeks of
gestation • whereas those born alive usually die by age 2 months • Approximately 5% live
beyond 1 yearTrisomy 18 (Edwards syndrome)
39. 39. Child with trisomy 18. Note the low sets ears, small mouth, deficient mandible
(micrognathia) flexion of the hands, and absent/ or hypoplasia of thr radius and unla
40. 40. Photograph of child with trisomy 18. Note the prominent occiput, cleft lip, micrognathia,
low-set ears, and one or more flexed fingers
41. 41. eye defects, such as : • Microphthalmia • anophthalmia (congenital absence of tissue of
the eyes) Incidence rate • The incidence of this abnormality is approximately 1 in 20,000 live
births, • over 90% of the infants die in the first month after birth • Approximately 5% live
beyond 1 year The main abnormalities of trisomy 13 are • mental retardation • severe
 central nervous system malformations • congenital heart defects • sloping forehead;
malformed ears • scalp defects • bilateral cleft lip and/or palate; • Polydactyly (presence of
more than 5 digits on hand or foot) Trisomy 13(Patau syndrome)
42. 42. Child with trisomy 13, note the bilateral cleft lip, the sloping forehead, and anophthalmia
43. 43. Trisomy 13: The syndrome is commonly accompanied by polydactyly
44. 44. short stature • Webbed neck • lymphedema of the extremities, • skeletal deformities •
and a broad chest with widely spaced nipples the absence of ovaries (gonadal dysgenesis)
 Characteritics features are  Turner syndrome • Turner syndrome, with a 45,X karyotype,
is the only monosomy compatible with life • Even then, 98% of all fetuses with the syndrome
are spontaneously aborted • The few that survive are unmistakably female in appearance 
45. 45. A Patients with Turners syndrome (A) swelling in the hand
46. 46. B C Patients with Turners syndrome (B) prominient webbed neck and widely spaced
nipples with a broad chest (C) Caused by lymphedema
47. 47. Klinefelter's syndrome ( 47, XXY) • found only in males • The non disjucntion of XX
homologues is the most causative event features • small testes • hyalinization of
seminiferous tubules • sterility • often tall with disproportionately long lower limbs •
Intelligence is less than in normal siblings • Approximately 40% of these males have
gynecomastia Incidence rate: 1 in 500 males
48. 48. Adolescent male with Klinefelter syndrome (XXY trisomy) Note the presence of breasts;
approximately 40% of males with this syndrome have gynecomastia (development of
mammary glands) and small testes
49. 49. Cri-du-chat syndrome • caused by partial deletion of the short arm of chromosome 5 •
children have a catlike cry, microcephaly, mental retardation, and congenital heart disease
Environmental factors, such as viruses, radiation, and drugs • The result of breakage
depends on what happens to the broken pieces • In some cases, the broken piece of a
chromosome is lost, and the infant with partial deletion chromosome is abnormal • A well-
known syndrome, caused by partial deletion is the cridu-chat syndrome Structural
chromosome abnormalities • involve one or more chromosomes usually result from
chromosome breakage. Breaks are caused by:
50. 50. if the defect is inherited on the paternal chromosome, it is called Prader-Willi syndrome •
if the defect is inherited on the maternal chromosome , it is called Angelman syndrome
Examples of microdeletion include occurs on the long arm of chromosome 15  (high
resolution banding allows detection of very small terminal deletions in a number of disorders)
Microdeletions • This takes place in a few contiguous genes • This may result in
microdeletion syndrome or contiguous gene syndrome • They can be detected only by high
resolution banding
51. 51. Prader-Willi syndrome • affected individuals are characterized by hypotonia, obesity,
mental retardation, hypogonadism, and cryptorchidism (undescended testes) Angelman
syndrome • affected individuals are characterized by mentally retardation, inability to speak,
exhibition of poor motor development, and are prone to unprovoked and prolonged periods
of laughter
52. 52. Patient with Angelman syndrome resulting from a microdeletion on maternal
chromosome 15 Patient with prader willi syndrome resulting from a microdeletion on paternal
chromosome 15
53. 53. Note: the isthmus is the 1cm long constricted region between the body and cervix
Cervix, the cylindrical inferior 1/3 The body of the uterus • narrows from the fundus (the
rounded, superior part of the body) to the isthmus  Body, the expanded superior 2/3 
thickness= approx 2-3 cm parts • consists of two major parts  width = approx 5-7cm at its
superior part  Length = approx 7-8 cm Uterus ( womb) introduction • is a thick-walled,
pear-shaped muscular organ dimension
54. 54. Endometrium, the thin internal layer Myometrium, the thick smooth muscle layer 
Perimetrium, the thin external layer The cervix of the uterus • is its tapered vaginal end that
 is nearly cylindrical in shape • It has a lumen called the cervical canal • the cervical canal,
has constricted openings at each end • At the upper constricted end is the internal os, while
at the lower constricted end is the external os • The internal os communicates with the cavity
of the uterine body,while the external os communicates with the vagina The walls of the body
of the uterus • consist of three layers
55. 55. A thin deep layer called the basal layer • . The basal layer of the endometrium has its
own blood supply and is not sloughed off during menstruation • The compact and spongy
layers collectively are called the functional layer, • This functional layer disintegrate and are
shed during menstruation and after parturition (delivery of a baby) A thick middle layer
called the spongy layer  A thin superficial layer called the compact layer • The perimetrium
is firmly attached to the myometrium The layers of the endometrium • It has 3 layers
56. 56. conveys the cleaving zygote to the uterine cavity carries oocytes from the ovaries and
sperms entering from the uterus to reach the fertilization site in the ampulla of the uterine
tube  uterine part functions  isthmus  ampulla  infundibulum Uterine tubes intro The
uterine tubes extend laterally from the horns of the uterus Dimension approximately 10 cm
long and 1 cm in diameter Parts the uterine tube is divided into four parts:
57. 57. Estrogen and progesterone are hormones responsible for the development of secondary
sex characteristics and regulation of pregnancy Female reproductive cycles • females
undergo reproductive cycles (sexual cycles), involving activities of the hypothalamus of the
brain, pituitary gland (hypophysis), ovaries, uterus, uterine tubes, vagina, and mammary
glands and this commences at purberty • These monthly cycles prepare the reproductive
system for pregnancy They also produce estrogen and progesterone,  They produce
oocytes Ovaries Intro: • The ovaries are almond-shaped reproductive glands located close
to the lateral pelvic walls on each side of the uterus functions
58. 58. stimulates the follicular cells and corpus luteum to produce progesterone serves as the
"trigger" for ovulation (release of secondary oocyte)  Luteinizing hormone (LH)  and the
production of estrogen by the follicular cells.  the development of ovarian follicles  Follicle-
stimulating hormone (FSH) stimulates  Luteinizing hormone (LH) • These 2 hormones act
on the ovaries:  Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) • Gonadotropin-releasing hormone is
synthesized by neurosecretory cells in the hypothalamus and is carried by the hypophysial
portal system to the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland • Gonadotropin-releasing hormone
stimulates the release of 2 hormones namely:
59. 59. Development of follicles • Development of an ovarian follicle is characterized by: I.
Growth and differentiation of primary oocyte II. Proliferation of follicular cells III. Formation of
zona pellucida IV. Development of the theca folliculiOvarian cycle • These are cyclic
changes in the ovaries, and these changes are produced by FSH and LH • These changes
include: I. development of follicles II. ovulation, and III. Formation of the corpus luteum
60. 60. and an outer fibrous capsule,called the theca externa an inner layer of secretory cells,
called the theca interna • As primordial follicles begin to grow, surrounding follicular cells
change from flat to cuboidal in shape and then columnar, forming a primary follicle • Also,
follicular (granulosa) cells and the oocyte secrete a layer of glycoproteins on the surface of
the oocyte, forming the zona pellucida Development of theca folliculi • As the primary follicle
continues to grow, the adjacent (surounding) connective tissue organizes into a capsule,
called the theca folliculi • cells of the theca folliculi then differenciate into:
61. 61. • As development continues, fluid-filled spaces appear between follicular (granulosa)
cells • The fluid filled space is crescent-shaped, but with time, it enlarges which coalesce to
form a single large cavity, the antrum, which contains follicular fluid • After the antrum forms,
the ovarian follicle is called a vesicular or secondary follicle • The primary oocyte is pushed
to one side of the follicle, where it is surrounded by a mound of follicular cells, the cumulus
oophorus, that projects into the antrum • The secondary/ vesicular follicular continues to
grow and become matured having a diameter of about 25mm or more • At maturity, it is
 called the mature vesicular/ mature secondary or Graafian follicle • The early development of
ovarian follicles is induced by FSH, but final stages of maturation require LH as well
62. 62. In the meantime, the surface of the ovary begins to bulge locally, and at the apex, an
avascular spot, the stigma, appears Meiosis II is also initiated, but the oocyte is arrested in
metaphase approximately 3 hours before ovulation  Coincident with final development of
the vesicular follicle, there is an abrupt increase in LH that causes the primary oocyte to
complete meiosis I and the follicle to enter the preovulatory mature vesicular stage  This is
the release of an oocyte from the ovarian follicle • In a few before ovulation, under the
influence of FSH and LH, the secondary follicle grows rapidly to a diameter of about 25 mm
to become mature vesicular/ mature secondary or Graafian follicle • Growing follicles
produce estrogen, hormone that regulates development and function of the reproductive
organs Ovulation
63. 63. For the oocyte to be released, 2 events occur which are caused by LH surge: I. The high
concentration of LH increases collagenase activity, resulting in digestion of collagen fibers
(connective tissue) surrounding the follicle II. Prostaglandin levels also increase in response
to the LH surge and cause local muscular contractions in the ovarian wall • Those
contractions extrude the oocyte, which together with its surrounding follicular (granulosa)
cells from the region of the cumulus oophorus, • this causes ovulation in which oocyte floats
out of the ovary • Some of the cumulus oophorus cells then rearrange themselves around
the zona pellucida to form the corona radiata
64. 64. Some women fail to ovulate, this is called anovulation, because of a low concentration of
gonadotropins • In these cases, administration of an agent to stimulate gonadotropin release
and hence ovulation can be employed • Although such drugs are effective, they often
produce multiple ovulations, so that the risk of multiple pregnancies is 10 times higher in
these women than in the general population Mittelschmerz may be used as a symptom of
ovulation, but there are better symptoms, such as the slight drop in basal body temperature
 A variable amount of abdominal pain, mittelschmerz , accompanies ovulation in some
women. In these cases, ovulation results in slight bleeding into the peritoneal cavity, which
results in sudden constant pain in the lower abdomen.  During ovulation, some women feel
a slight pain called mittelschmerz also known as middle pain because it normally occurs near
the middle of the menstrual cycle Clinical correlates
65. 65. antrum Theca interna Luteal cells Blood vessels Theca externa A : PREOVULATORY
FOLLICLE B: OVULATION C: CORPUS LUTEUM fibrin
66. 66. Corpus Luteum • Shortly after ovulation, the walls of the ovarian follicle and theca folliculi
collapse and are thrown into folds are vascularized by surrounding vessels • Under LH
influence, they develop into a glandular structure, these cells develop a yellowish pigment
and change into lutein cells the corpus luteum, which secretes progesterone and some
estrogen • progesterone and estrogen, cause the endometrial glands to secrete and prepare
the endometrium for implantation of the blastocyst • If the oocyte is fertilized, the corpus
luteum enlarges to form a corpus luteum of pregnancy and increases its hormone
production. • Degeneration of the corpus luteum is prevented by human chorionic
gonadotropin • The corpus luteum of pregnancy remains functionally active throughout the
first 20 weeks of pregnancy
67. 67. • If the oocyte is not fertilized, the corpus luteum involutes and degenerates 10 to 12
days after ovulation • It is then called a corpus luteum of menstruation • The corpus luteum is
subsequently transformed into white scar tissue in the ovary, a corpus albicans • Except
during pregnancy, ovarian cycles normally persist throughout the reproductive life of women
and terminate at menopause, the permanent cessation of menstruation, usually between the
ages of 48 and 55