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Stratigraphy of Pakistan

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 Government of Pakistan
Ministry of Petroleum & Natural Resource
Geological Survey of Pakistan

GSP Memoir Vol. 24

STRATIGRAPHY OF PAKISTAN
By
M. Sadiq Malkani
Zafar Mahmood

Issued by Director General, Geological Survey of Pakistan

2017
 CONTENTS

Page
Executive Summary 01
Introduction 02
Materials and Methods 03
Results and Discussion 03
Stratigraphy of Balochistan basin (a part of Tethys), Pakistan 03
Revised Stratigraphy of Chagai-Raskoh Magmatic Arc 03
Revised Stratigraphy of Wazhdad Magmatic Arc 06
Revised Stratigraphy of Kakar-Khurasan (Back Arc) Basin 06
Revised Stratigraphy of Makran-Siahan Basin (Arc-Trench Gap), Wazhdad Arc And 08
Mashkel/Kharan (Inter Arc) Basin
Revised Stratigraphy of Makran Offshore 12
Depositional Environments, Geological History and Geoevents of Makran-Siahan Sub- 12
Basin
Sedimentary Structures and Paleocurrent Direction in Eocene-Oligocene strata of 14
Makran-Siahan Ranges
Stratigraphy of Karakoram-Hindukush basin (a southern extremity of Laurasian plate), 14
Pakistan
Stratigraphy of Kohistan-Ladakh magmatic arc (an arc of Tethys), Pakistan 23
Stratigraphy of northern Indus suture (suture between Indus Basin of Indo-Pak 26
continental plate) and Kohistan-Ladakh magmatic arc-Tethys part)
Stratigraphy of western Indus suture (Indo-Pak plate sutured west by Balochistan basin 27
(part of Tethys)
Stratigraphy of Khyber-Hazara-Kashmir (uppermost Indus) basin (Gondwana 28
fragment), Pakistan
Rocks of Kirana Group (A Geo-Heritage of Indo-Pak Shield-a basement rock of 37
Precambrian age)
Stratigraphy of Kohat-Potwar (upper Indus) basin (Gondwana fragment), Pakistan 38
Stratigraphy of Sulaiman (Middle Indus) basin (Gondwana fragment), Pakistan 47
Revised Stratigraphy of Kirthar Basin (Lower Indus Basin), Pakistan 70
Revised Stratigraphy of Western Kirthar Basin (Kirthar Range and Surroundings), 70
Balochistan Province
Revised Stratigraphy of Eastern Kirthar Basin (Laki Range and Surroundings), Sindh 85
Province
Stratigraphy of Indus Offshore (Gondwana Fragment) 90
Rocks of Nager Parker Igneous Complex (A Geo-Heritage of Indo-Pak Shield) 90
Correlation of the Kirthar Basin (Part of Gondwana) with Adjoining Balochistan Basin 90
(Part of Tethys), Pakistan
Correlation of the Cainozoic strata of Sulaiman Basin (part of Gondwana) with 91

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adjoining northern Balochistan Basin (part of Tethys), Pakistan
Correlation of Revised Stratigraphic Set Up (At Group and Formation Level) of 91
Lower, Middle and Upper Indus Basins
Greenhouse (warm) and Icehouse (cold) Paleoclimates of Pakistan; 95
Closure of Tethys from Pakistan
Paleoenvironmental and Sea level changes-Land-Ocean Linkages 95
Geoheritage and paleobioheritage of Pakistan; museums, national and Global 99
geoparks-a media for public education
Major bioevents, extinction of land vertebrates, Cretaceous-Tertiary and other major 102
boundaries in Indo-Pakistan subcontinent (South Asia)
Geodynamic and tectonic evolution of Indo-Pakistan peninsula (South Asia): evidences 103
from Sulaiman basin
Geobiological evolution of Indo-Pak peninsula (South Asia) 105
References 116

iii
 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

Pakistan has three main/supper basins like Indus (part of Gondwana), Balochistan-Kohistan-Ladakh
(part of Tethys) and Hindukush-Karakoram (southern slope of Asia plunged into Tethys-a part of Laurasia).
Indus super basin is further subdivided into Uppermost/ northern most/ Khyber-Hazara-Kashmir, upper/
north/ Kohat-Potwar, middle/ central/ Sulaiman and lower/ south/ Kirthar basins.
The Uppermost/ northernmost/ Khyber-Hazara-Kashmir basin shows marine to terrestrial deposition
during Precambrian evidenced by thick gypsum beds and coal (in high metamorphic zone metamorphosed to
graphite), greenish grey shale (now metamorphosed to phylite/ slate/ schist, etc of Hazara Formation) and
some sandstone (now metamorphosed as Tanawal quartzite), and during Cambrian the thick marine
Abbottabad limestone and dolomite with some sandstone and negligible shale, and iron-manganese bearing
Formation were deposited. In the Khyber and Hazara areas (western and middle part of basin) the continental
Hazira, the Jurassic marine Samanasuk limestone, Cretaceous marine Chichali, Kawagarh and Paleocene
Hangu (synonym Patala), Eocene Nammal, Sakaser (synonym Margala hill) and Chorgali formations were
deposited under marine conditions while the Early-Middle Eocene Kuldana formation was deposited under
continental and marine environments. After that the area uplifted and shows no deposition up to Late
Oligocene. During Miocene-Pliocene Murree formation (synonym Kamlial and also Potwar group) was
deposited under the mollasse conditions, which are continuing so far. In the Azad Kashmir area (eastern part
of basin) the Ordovician to Latest Cretaceous continental Indus Formation (bauxite and laterite in Kotli area-
southern part of Kashmir while northern part close to Muzaffarabad partly remained marine) and during
Paleocene Hangu (synonym Patala; shale, sandstone and coal) and Lockhart (fine rubbly limestone), Eocene
Nammal (shale/muds and subordinate marl), Sakaser (synonym Margala hill limestone,coarse rubbly) and
Chorgali (shale and limestone) formations were deposited under marine conditions. The Early Eocene
Kuldana Formation (red shale just above the Chorgali green shale and just below the Murree sandstones)
shows alternations of marine and continental environments. After that the area uplifted and shows no
deposition up to Late Oligocene. During Miocene-Pliocene Murree formation were deposited under the
mollasse conditions, which are continuing so far.
The upper/north/Kohat-Potwar basin shows alternation of marine and terrestrial strata up to Eocene.
During Oligocene the Tethys permanently closed from upper Indus basin. The upper Indus basin remained
elevated during Oligocene and there is no record of deposition. Later on Miocene-Pliocene Potwar Group and
Pleistocene-Holocene Soan Group were deposited under continental alluvial environments which are
continuing so far.
The middle/central/Sulaiman basin shows mostly marine stratigraphy from Triassic to Latest
Cretaceous and then Latest Cretaceous Vitakri Formation which is the host of dinosaurs and associated
vertebrates deposited in terrestrial meandering river (Paleo Vitakri river-source from east/Indo-Pak shield)
and flood overbank deposits. Again in the start of Paleocene transgression occurred which deposited the
Paleocene marine strata. At the Early Eocene the Tethys regressed and the Chamalang (Ghazij) Group
deposited under the deltaic, evaporitic and terrestrial environments deposited by Paleo Indus River systems
(source from north i.e. Tethys and Asian plate). Again in the Middle Eocene the transgression of Tethys
deposited the marine Kahan group. The Eocene strata are the host of walking whale and basilosauridae-the
king of basal whale. At the Latest Eocene the Tethys permanently closed from the middle Indus basin and
terrestrial environment started which deposited the Oligocene-Pliocene Vihowa Group and Pleistocene-
Holocene Sakhi Sarwar Group which is the host of largest land mammals and other vertebrates.
The lower/south/Kirthar basin shows mostly marine stratigraphy from Triassic to Oligocene and then
at the start of Miocene the Tethys permanently closed and terrestrial or continental strata came into existence,
however the Jurassic-Cretaceous and Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary show mostly marine nature however at
places continental disconformity are found.

1
INTRODUCTION

The Hindukush-Karakoram basin is located in the northernmost part of Pakistan and

represents mostly pre Cenozoic rocks belongs to Laurasia (Asian continental plate deposited by
Tethys Sea with some terrestrial strata). The Kohistan-Ladakh magmatic arc is located just north of
Northern Indus Suture and south of Karakoram suture (Hindukush-Karakoram belt) and consists of
mostly Cretaceous and Tertiary rocks. The Balochistan basin is located in the west of Western Indus
suture (western part of Pakistan) and represents arc-trench gap mostly Cenozoic accretionary wedge
complex and island arc with some Cretaceous rocks belongs to Tethys. Kohistan-Ladakh area
consists of mostly Cretaceous-Early Tertiary magmatic arc geology but the Chagai arc also started
with this but continue so far. Kohistan-Ladakh magmatic arc is mostly deposited in Tethys Sea under
the compressional pressure of Indo-Pak plate collision with Asia. Indus Basin is located in the south
of Northern Indus suture and east of Western Indus suture (centre and eastern part of Pakistan).
Khyber-Hazara-Kashmir mostly includes Precambrian to recent stratigraphy with igneous and
metamorphic complex. The Kohat-Potwar includes Precambrian to recent sedimentary rocks with
some Igneous and metamorphic rocks of Kirana hills. The Sulaiman and Kirthar basins include
Mesozoic and Cenozoic stratigraphy with some Igneous and metamorphic rocks of Nagar Parker.
The stratigraphy of Pakistan as well as Balochistan is documented in 1977, 2002, 2008 and
also 2009. Recently the revised and updated stratigraphy of Sulaiman/middle Indus (Malkani
2009a,2010a,b,2011a,2012h), Kirthar/lower Indus (Malkani 2011,2012h) and Balochistan basin
(Malkani 2011a,2014f) have been documented along with some new findings of gypsum (Malkani
2000,2010a,2011a; Alizai et al. 2000), celestite (Malkani 2010a,2011a) coal (Malkani 2010a,2011a,
2012a), barite (Malkani and Tariq 2000,2004), fluorite (Malkani 2002,2004f,2011a,2012i), ochre,
iron, antimony-gold-silver (Malkani 2004c,e,2011a), mercury, marbles, limestone, cement raw
materials, construction and building materials, aggregate resources (Malkani 2002a,b,c, etc), etc
from Sulaiman, Kirthar and Balochistan basins. Geological Survey of Pakistan carried the
geological mapping and mineral investigations of Balochistan, Sulaiman and Kirthar basins. Malkani
(2010a, 2011a) presented the mineral potential of Sulaiman foldbelt and Balochistan provinces
respectively. Recently many discoveries of fluorite (Malkani 2002,2004b,2012b,2015a; Malkani and
Mahmood 2016d,g; Malkani et al. 2007,2016), gypsum (Malkani 2000,2010a,2011a,2013a),
celestite (Malkani 2012c,2015a; Malkani and Mahmood 2016d; Malkani et al. 2016), coal (Malkani
2004c,2012a,2013b,2016a; Malkani and Mahmood 2016c,f; Malkani and Shah 2014,2016),
construction materials (Malkani 2016b), clay and ceramic (Malkani and Mahmood 2016e), gold-
silver associated with antimony (Malkani 2004a,c, 2011a), cement resources (Malkani
2010a,2011a,2013a), marble (Malkani 2004a,2010a,2011a), barite (Malkani and Tariq 2000,2004),
gemstones (Khan and Kausar 1996,2004,2010a), K-T boundary minerals (Malkani 2010b), copper,
REE, etc are made. Further recently the abstracts on minerals of provinces (except Balochistan detail
report by Malkani 2011a), like Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (Malkani 2012d,2013a,b; Malkani et al. 2013;
Malkani and Mahmood 2016g), Sindh (Malkani 2014a), Punjab (Malkani 2012e), Gilgit-Baltistan
and Azad Kashmir (Malkani 2012d,2014b; Malkani and Mahmood 2016g), and areas like Sulaiman
(Malkani 2004a), Siahan-Makran (Malkani 2004a,d), etc are presented but detailed reports are
lacking. Ahmad (1975) and Malkani (2011a) reported the mineral resources of Balochistan Province
but other provinces were ignored previously but presently Malkani et al. (2017a,b,c,d,e,f,g,h,i) and
Malkani and Mahmood (2017) reported the mineral resources of each province and basin. Many

2
reports on 15’ quadrangles were published but unfortunately most of the maps remained unpublished
(like Malkani et al. 1996,2007 Kingri,2007 Toi/Chitarwata, 2007a,b,c,2002,2010a,b,c,d, etc) so far.
Malkani-the first author of reports completed and submitted more than 30 geological maps but most
of these can not be seen as published. Due to this reason the Malkani tried to preserved data in the
form of published papers as national and international publications. Further no more compilation
reports on the stratigraphy and also on mineral potential of these areas were published (except the
present author) including the new data, however the Kazmi and Abbass 2001 on minerals included
most of the data but some also remained to include and on the stratigraphy Kazmi and Abbasi 2008
and Shah 2009 left blank most of the new works especially Makran and Sulaiman basin, etc. These
are reason here the revised stratigraphy is presented mostly on the observation of author (Malkani) in
the fields of various basins of Pakistan from during 1988 to 2015. The stratigraphy of Hindukush-
Karakoram basin of Laurasia and Kohistan-Ladakh magmatic arc and Khyber-Hazara are complex
because most workers used local names. However the remaining areas are revised and updated.
Previously the Balochistan, Sulaiman and Kirthar basins show missing link and also received little
attention, but this report will add insights on basin wise with revised and updated stratigraphy along
with paleobiogeography.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The materials belong to compiled data from previous work and also new field data collected
by author during many field seasons about lithology, structure, stratigraphy, mineral commodities,
geological history, sea level changes, marine non-marine correlations, Tethys sea closure, variations,
and paleobiogeography (Fig.1,2,3,4,5,6,7). The methods applied here are many discipline of purely
geological description.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

REVISED STRATIGRAPHY OF BALOCHISTAN BASIN, PAKISTAN

The Balochistan super basin is subdivided into many basin like Chagai-Raskoh magmatic arc,
Wazhdad magmatic arc, Mashkel (Inter arcs basin), Kakar Khurasan (back arc marginal flysch and
molasses basin) and Makran-Siahan (arc-trench gap) basin.

REVISED STRATIGRAPHY OF CHAGAI-RASKOH MAGMATIC ARC

Malkani (2014c) presented revised stratigraphy of Balochistan basin for researchers. The Chagai-
Raskoh-Wazhdad magmatic arc shows the Cretaceous Chagai intrusions which is invaded by
Sinjrani Volcanic Group (=Kuchaki), Cretaceous-Paleocene Nisai Group includes Akhtar Nika and
Jabrai formations (Synonyms; Humai and Rakhshani formations and Nisai Limestone (Synonyms;
Robat/Kharan/Wakai limestones); Late Paleocene-Early Eocene Shagala Group includes Murgha
Faqirzai and Mina formations (synonyms; Khojak/Saindak/Washap/Amalaf formation), Late Eocene
Shorkoh intrusions, Washuk Intrusions (granite exposed in the southern part of western Washuk
range), Wazhdad Volcaniclastics Group and Washuk ophiolite, Oligocene-Pliocene Pishi Group
(=Vihowa group), Middle Miocene Buze Mashi Koh volcanic group, Late Pliocene to Pleistocene

3
Koh-i-Sultan Volcanic Group and Pleistocene-Holocene Sakhi Sarwar (Kamerod/Boston/Kech)
Group, Subrecent and Recent fluvial, eolian and colluvial deposits. The Chagai-Raskoh arc shows
the Cretaceous to recent deposition.

Sinjrani Volcanic group was introduced by HSC (1961) after Sinjrani tribe of Chagai. It consists of
agglomerate, volcanic conglomerate, tuff and lava with subordinate shale, sandstone and limestone.
It includes Basaltic-andesitic lava flows and volcaniclastics, with minor shale, sandstone, siltstone,
lenticular bodies of limestone and mudstone. It is Middle to Late Cretaceous (Aptian to Santonian).
This group was invaded during Late Cretaceous to Pleistocene by Chagai intrusions, represented by
several phases including granite, adamellite, granodiorite, tonalite, diorite and gabbro. Its thickness
is 900-1200m. Kuchaki volcanic group (equivalent of Sinjrani volcanic group) is named for the
village of Kuchaki (34 G/8) about 63 km southwest of Ahmad Wal (HSC, 1961). It consists of
volcanic agglomerate, lava, tuff, with subordinate inpersistent limestone, tuffaceous shale and
sandstone near the top of the assemblage. The upper contact with Humai formation is generally
conformable and lower contact is not exposed. This formation has yielded algae, foraminifera and
corals (Mesophyllum). Its age is Cretaceous (HSC, 1961).

Bunap complex includes the obducted ophiolite mélange which includes gabbro, diorite and
serpentinite. The basic type contains pyroxene and amphibole. Its age is Late Cretaceous.

Chagai intrusions include quartz hornblende diorite, normal diorite and biotite granite.
Micropegmatitic quartz diorite is reported from Koh Naro. It is large batholiths that are invaded by
Sinjrani volcanic group. The age is Late Cretaceous and later (HSC, 1961).

Humai formation was introduced by HSC (1961) from Koh Humai (hill of Kohi Sultan) in the
eruptive zone for mixed lithology which included the ‘Hippuritic limestone” of Vredenburg (1901).
Conglomerate at the base, intercalations of shale, sandstone, siltstone and limestone in the middle
and thick bedded to massive limestone at the top. The formation overlies unconformably the Chagai
intrusion/Sinjrani volcanic group along the southern margin of the Chagai hills but in other areas has
also a disconfirmable contact through the presence of basal conglomerate. It has yielded algae,
foraminifers, coelenterates, gastropods and bivalves. The bivalves include Hipurities sp., H. loftusi,
Lapeirousia sp., and Monopleuridea gen., (Cox in HSC 1961). The foraminifers include
Lepidorbitoides socialis, Orbitella media, Orbitoides sp., Omphalocyclus sp. and Baculogypsinoides
(=Siderolites) sp. These fossils indicate Maastrichtian age (HSC, 1961). It is correlated with Akhtar
Nika Formation of Nisai Group (Malkani 2011a).

Rakhshani formation is derived from the tribal belt of Rakhshani at the eastern end of Dalbandin
valley (HSC, 1961). It also includes the Juzzak formation, lower half of Gidar Dhor group and basal
part of Pishi group of HSC (1961). It consists of intercalations of sandstone, shale, mudstone and
limestone representing a turbidite sequence, and andesitic lava flows and volcaniclastics. This
formation yielded foraminifers, bivalves, gastropods, algae and rare coelenterates (HSC 1961).
Hunting Survey Corporation (1961) reported foraminifers like Alveolina vredenburgi, Flosculina
globosa, Miscellanea miscella, Saudia labyrinthica, etc. Cox in Hunting Survey Corporation (1961)
reported in the lower beds the Danian fossils like Venericardia sp., cf. V. (Cardia) beaumonti,

4
Pyrazus sp., cf. P. Buddha, Pseudoglauconia lissani, etc. Its age is Late Cretaceous-Paleocene. It is
correlated with Jabrai Formation of Nisai Group.

Nisai (Kharan/Robat) Limestone is named by (HSC, 1961) after Nisai village near Qila Saif Ullah.
It consists of medium to thick bedded foraminiferal and argillaceous limestone. Tanki sills consisting
of mainly pyroxene diorite are located in the Robat limestone. Its age seems o be Paleocene. Kharan
limestone/Robat limestone is considered as synonym with Nisai formation. This formation shows
foraminifers with some algae. HSC (1961) reported Misscellanea miscella from Wakabi area
showing Paleocene age.

Saindak formation name is derived from Saindak Fort (a large syncline) which has been designated
as the type locality (HSC, 1961). Its synonyms are Washap formation at Gwalishtap near the
Pakistan-Iran boarder and the Amalaf formation. It consists of shale, siltstone, sandstone, marl and
limestone with andesitic lava flows and volcaniclastics in the lower part. The fossils include
foraminifers, coelenterates, gastropods, bivalves and echinoderms. The formainifers are Assilina
dandotica, A. exponens, Fasciolites oblonga, Linderina brugesi, Opertorbitolites douvellei and
others Echinolampas nummulitica (echinoid) and Velates perversus (gastropod) (HSC 1961). It is
Early to Late Eocene. It is correlated wit Murgha Faqirzai shale of Khojak Group.

Shorkoh intrusions are dykes or sills but a few small lenticular stocks have been found in the
region of Robat and Saindak. These are hypabyssal and intermediate composition. The rocks are
mainly diorite. The age is Late Eocene or later (HSC, 1961).

Pishi group (synonym of Dalbandin formation) is named after the Pishi Rud lies in the Ras Koh
Range south of Dalbandin. These rocks are found in between Gaukoh Hamun (30P/15) and Bunap
(34H/5). The rocks of the group are thought to be also present in the Dalbandin synclinorium named
as Dalbandin assemblage (HSC, 1961). It consists of shale, mudstone, soft sandstone and
conglomerate. The clay is white, green, ochre and brown. A small amount of limestone in the lower
part of assemblage contains Paleocene fossils. The Pishi and Dalbandin group are similar to Urak
and Multana formations. The succession of sandstone and shale is similar to Nauroz formation but
the limestone resembles the Kharan Limestone. The sandstone of the Pishi area is more gritty and
thick than Dalbandin and Makran flysh indicating close to source and further does not show two fold
subdivision like Murgha Faqirzai and Mina in the north (Kaker-Khurasan), and Hoshab and Panjgur
in the south (Makran). It is Early Miocene to middle Pliocene.

Buze Mashi Koh volcanic group consists of intercalations of andesitic-basaltic lava flows and
volcaniclastics. It is Middle Miocene.

Koh-i-Sultan volcanic group shows intercalations of dacitic-andesitic lava flows and

volcaniclastics. It is Late Pliocene to Pleistocene.

Kamerod formation is derived from Kamerod on the northern margin of the Siahan range
(31M/10). The lithology and description is same as Kech formation.
Subrecent and Recent deposits consist of unconsolidated gravel, sand, silt and clay.

5
REVISED STRATIGRAPHY OF WAZHDAD MAGMATIC ARC

The Wazhdad magmatic arc shows the Eocene Wakai limestone, Siahan shale, Wazhdad
Volcaniclastic group, Zurati Formation, Washuk ophiolitic mélange, Hoshab shale, Panjgur and
Kamerod formations. The detail is provided in the Makran and Siahan ranges.

REVISED STRATIGRAPHY OF KAKAR-KHURASAN (BACK ARC) BASIN

Malkani (2014c) reviewed the stratigraphy of Balochistan basin for present and future research and
studies. The revised Stratigraphy of Kakar Khorasan basin includes Cretaceous-Paleocene Nisai
Group (=2000m thick) comprises of Akhtar Nika Formation (alternated limestone and shale;
1000-1500m thick), Jabrai Formation (mudstone/shale with alternation of thin marl/limestone
beds; 500-1000m thick) and Nisai Formation (mainly two massive limestone unit separated by
shale unit; 100m thick), Paleocene-Eocene Shagala Group consists of Murgha Faqirzai
Formation (shale, 2000m thick), Mina Formation (alternation of green shale unit and sandstone
unit; 3000m thick) and Shagala Formation (=Shagalu; alternation of terrestrial red shale unit and
sandstone unit; 3000m thick), Oligocene-Pliocene Vihowa Group (synonyms; Malthanai/Dasht
Murgha group) represents Chitarwata, Vihowa, Litra and Chaudhwan formations and
Pleistocene-Holocene Sakhi Sarwar Group (Boston formation) represents Dada and Sakhi
Sarwar formations (mud and sandstone with poorly developed conglomerate, while in centre of
valleys the mud is dominant) concealed at places especially in the valleys and plain areas by the
Subrecent and Recent mud flows, fluvial, eolian and colluvial deposits. The Nisai Group is
correlated with Early Cretaceous Parh Group, Late Cretaceous Fort Munro Group and Paleocene
Sangiali Group (Sangiali, Rakhi Gaj and Dungan formations) of Sulaiman basin. The Shagala Group
is correlated with Chamalang (Ghazij) Group and Kahan Group of Sulaiman basin. The southern
part of Kakar Khorasan basin shows flysch deposition like Murgha Faqirzai Shale and Mina
Formation (green shale and sandstone) while the northern part of Kakar-Khorasan basin shows both
these formations as flysch deposition while the middle-Late Eocene Shagala (Shaigalu) Formation
(sandstone and red to maroon, brown shale and sandstone) as terrestrial/molase deposits which is
supported by continental rhinoceros-baluchithere mammal fauna.

Nisai Group: Hunting Survey Corporation (1961) proposed the name Nisai group for the black
nummulitic limestone, conglomerate, etc but the Cheema et al. 1977 redefined as Nisai formation for
Nisai group, Nimargh limestone, Wad limestone, Wakabi limestone, Wakai limestone, Khude
limestone, Kasria group, and upper parts of Jakker and Jhamburo groups of HSC (1961) of similar
lithology. The section is exposed 12 km north of the Nisai Railway station and traversed by the road
leading north from the Railway station, was designated as type section (39B/1) by HSC (1961). In
the type section it consists of limestone, marl and shale with subordinate sandstone and
conglomerate. HSC (1961) subdivided in two units like thin (few lithologies) and thick (more
diverse lithology) assemblages. The thick sequence is further subdivided in to three parts like lower
dark limestone and pale grey shale, the middle largely shale with some limestone, marl and
sandstone, the upper part contain thick member of limestone and sandstone with thin layer of shale
and conglomerate. Thick assemblages are only found in the northern Balochistan Basin. The thin

6
assemblages have a few exposures in northern and southern Balochistan basins and it is exposed
mainly in the western Indus Suture (Axial Belt) areas. Malkani (2014c) reported the Cretaceous-
Paleocene Nisai Group comprises of Akhtar Nika Formation (alternated limestone and shale),
Jabrai Formation (mudstone/shale with alternation of thin marl/limestone beds) and Nisai
Formation (mainly two massive limestone unit separated by shale unit) (Malkani 2014c).

Akhtar Nika Formation named by Aminullah and Kansi (2012). It consists of alternated limestone
and shale. Its thickness is 1000-1500m in the Qila Saifullah-Sharin Jogezai section. Its age is
considered Cretaceous by Malkani (2014c).

Jabrai Formation named by Aminullah and Kansi (2012). It consists of mudstone/shale with
alternation of thin marl/limestone beds. Its thickness is 500-1000m exposed in the Qila Saifullah-
Sharin Jogezai section. Malkani (2014c) assumed as Cretaceous by law of super position and also
correlation with Parh and Fort Munro groups and Chamalang (Ghazij) Group of Sulaiman basin.

Nisai Formation consists of mainly two massive limestone unit separated by shale unit. Its
thickness is 100m. It is correlated with Dungan Limestone. This formation shows foraminifers with
some algae. HSC (1961) reported Misscellanea miscella from Wakabi area showing Paleocene age.
Malkani alos assumed its age as Paleocene, deduced from correlation with Dungan limestone of
adjoining Western Indus Suture and Sulaiman Basin (Malkani 2014c).

Shagala Group was named by (Malkani 2014c). It includes the Murgha Faqirzai, Mina and Shagala
formations (Malkani 2014c).

Murgha Faqirzai Formation is named after the village of Murgha Faqirzai about 25 km north of
Muslimbagh (34M/16; HSC, 1961). It is mapped by HSC (1961) in the northern and southern
Balochistan Basin and also in Indus Suture. It comprises shale with minor sandstone and shelly
limestone. The shale is pale greenish grey and calcareous. Pencil cleavage is the typical feature of
this shale observed in the metamorphosed area. The sandstone is green to grey, calcareous and ripple
marked. Thin shelly limestone beds are found in the base and top for fossil collection source. The
source of this formation is mostly Hinterland and partially Indus Suture. The tentative thickness
ranges from 400-1200m. The lower contact with the Nisai formation and upper contact with Shagala
formation seems to transitional and conformable. HSC (1961) reported Paleocene-Eocene
assemblage like lower part of Siahan shale represents Discocyclina cf. D. ranikoti, Nummulites
globules, N. irregularis and middle Eocene assemblage (lowewr part of Nauroz formation includes
Nummulites atacicus, Assilina granulose and Dictyoconoides cooki. According to fossils and
stratigraphic position, its age is supposed to be Late Paleocene-Early Eocene.

Mina Formation (previous Panjgur formation and lower part of Shagala formation in northern
Balochistan) is named by Malkani (2014c) after the Mina village on the Shagala-Zhob road which is
about 30Km southwest of Zhob. It consists of marine alternating green shale and sandstone. The
sandstone is fine to coarse grained, gritty, thin to thick bedded, grey to greenish grey and weathers
light grey and at places black desert varnish on its surface. It is about 2000m thick in the northern
Balochistan Basin and 1000-2000m thick in the area between the Khwaja Amran Range and Jangal.

7
This formation shows the marine conditions in all Balochistan basins. Its upper contact with
Continental Shagala formation is disconfirmable while lower contact with Murgha Faqirzai shale is
confirmable. Its age is Early Eocene.

Shagala Formation is named after the militia post of Shagala about 50Km southwest of Zhob
(39A/16). It consists of sandstone and shale but at places conglomerate and limestone. The sandstone
is fine to coarse grained, gritty, thin to thick bedded, grey to greenish grey, brown and weathers light
grey, brown, rusty with patches of black desert varnish on its surface. In the central and eastern part
of Kaker Khurasan range the sandstone is more coarsely grained and thick bedded than western part.
It shows the source from the Indus Suture, however the western part may have northern and
northwestern source. Some sandstone is pebbly, red and maroon. Cross bedded and ripple marks are
common. The shale is maroon, red ochre type, grey, greenish grey and calcareous. The red and
maroon color is dominant in the Kaker Khurasan area while grey to greenish grey shale color is
dominate in the southern Balochistan basin. It is 3000m thick and only exposed in the northern
Balochistan Basin (Kakar-Khorasan range). This formation shows the continental (Molasse)
conditions in the Kaker Khurasan range. Continental vertebrate bones of rhinoceros, horses,
crocodiles, wood fossils, etc (Malkani et al. 2013; Malkani 2014f) are also found in the Kaker
Khurasan areas. Recently Malkani et al. (2013) found a baluchithere Pakitherium shagalai with his
baby. Pakitherium shagalai Malkani et al. 2013 --a baluchithere reported first time in Balochistan
basin. . Its age is Early Eocene.

Vihowa Group is first used by Malkani (2009a) after Vihowa rud. Oligocene-Pliocene Vihowa
group represents Chitarwata, Vihowa, Litra and Chaudhwan formations. It consists of Chitarwata,
Vihowa, Litra and Chaudhwan formations. Vihowa Group is correlated with Multana formation
(named by HSC (1961) after Multana/Multanai Kili (39E/4) west of Mina Bazar railway station. It
consists of conglomerate with subordinate shale and sandstone. Its age is Oligocene-Pliocene.

Sakhi Sarwar Group is first used by Malkani (2012k) after Sakhi Sarwar area of D.G.Khan. It is
synonymous with Boston formation. It represents Dada (mainly conglomerate) and Sakhi Sarwar
Formation named by Malkani (2012k) (mud and sandstone with poorly developed conglomerate,
while in centre of valleys the mud is dominant) concealed at places especially in the valleys and
plain areas by the Subrecent and Recent fluvial, eolian and colluvial deposits. Bostan Formation is
named after the Village Bostan, 20km east of Kuchlak (HSC, 1961). It consists of clay, silt,
sandstone and conglomerate. The clay and silt are red to maroon and brown. The sandstone and
conglomerate are medium to thick bedded and mostly friable, and show uplift of the area. It belongs
to Sakhi Sarwar group (Malkani 2014c) and Pleistocene-Holocene Sakhi Sarwar Group (Boston
formation) represents Dada and Sakhi Sarwar Formation (mud and sandstone with poorly developed
conglomerate, while in centre of valleys the mud is dominant) concealed at places especially in the
valleys and plain areas by the Subrecent and Recent fluvial, eolian and colluvial deposits.

REVISED STRATIGRAPHY OF MAKRAN-SIAHAN BASIN (ARC-TRENCH GAP),

WAZHDAD ARC AND MASHKEL/KHARAN (INTER ARC) BASIN

8
Malkani (2014c) presented revised stratigraphy of Balochistan basin. The Makran basin show the
Cretaceous-Paleocene Nisai Group includes Akhtar Nika and Jabrai formations (Parh like limestone
near Mand) and Nisai Limestone (Wakai limestone), Late Paleocene-Early Eocene Shagala Group
includes Murgha Faqirzai Shale (Siahan shale, Zurati shale and sandstone; Hoshab shale), and Mina
Formation (Panjgur sandstone and shale), Oligocene-Pliocene Talar (=Vihowa) Group (Parkani
mudstone, Talar sandstone and Chatti mudstone), and Pleistocene-Holocene Sakhi Sarwar Group
(Malkani 2014c) .
It represents Paleocene Ispikan, Paleocene Nisai/Wakai, Eocene Siahan group (Siahan,
Wazhdad volcaniclastic and Zurati formations), Eocene-Oligocene Makran group (Hoshab and
Panjgur formations), Washuk ophiolite complex, Miocene-Pliocene Talar group (Parkini, Talar and
Chatti formations), Pliocene-Pleistocene Ormara, Jiwani and Kech formations, Subrecent to Recent
Makran extrusive muds and surficial and coastal deposits.

Ispikan conglomerate is named after the village of Ispikan about 12 miles northeast of Mand (31
J/4; HSC, 1961). Conglomerate consists of pebbles of quartz, granite, andesite, and other igneous
rocks. Matrix of conglomerate is chloritic (green). Its lower contact with the thin bedded marl
assigned to Parh series seems to be unconformable. Its upper contact is not clear but some remnants
of Wakai limestone are found at the eastern end of the hill near Ispikan which show contact with
Wakai formation. HSC (1961) reported Orbitolina sp., Discocyclina sp., Nummulies sp.,
Archaeolitho-thamnium sp., and Distichoplax biserialis. Age of Ispikan conglomerate is Paleocene
determined by stratigraphic position between the Cretaceous marl and Eocene rocks and some
diagnostic fossils (HSC 1961).

Wakai limestone is named after Koh-i-Wakai in the valley of Tagrana Kaur (31 J/11; HSC, 1961).
It consists of limestone, marl and shale. The age of formation is interpreted as Paleocene. The
formation is important for petroleum prospecting and source, if it has large subsurface extension.

Siahan group is named by the Malkani (2011a). It represents Siahan shale, Wazhdad volcaniclastic,
Zurati and Washuk formations.

Siahan formation is named after the Siahan Ranges (31 M/8; HSC, 1961). It comprises shale,
slates, with siltstone and sandstone. The lower contact is with Wakai limestone and the upper contact
is with the Zurati formation and Wazhdad volcaniclastic group which are conformable. According to
(HSC1961) megafossils are rare in the shale and can not be thoroughly tested for microforaminifers,
however some thin limestone beds yielded fossils which may be equivalent to Wakai limestone.
According to HSC (1961) and stratigraphic position the age is Late Paleocene-Early Eocene.

Wazhdad volcaniclastic group is named after the Wazhdad Mountain (35 A/6) by the Malkani, et
al. 1995 for Wazhdad volcaniclastic group. The Wazhdad Range is located just west of Washuk and
east of Palantak. These rocks are exposed in the Wazhdad Mountain (35 A/6) and may be extending
upto 35 A/10. It consists of tuff, agglomerate, tuff breccias, tuffaceous sandstone and shale. These
rocks are dark green colour and weather in to dark grey to black colour, hard and resistant, forming
high peaks. The estimated thickness of this formation is 1200 to 1500m in the Wazhdad Range, the
actual measurement is also difficult due to intense faultings and foldings. Their lower and upper

9
contacts are faulted but seem to be conformable with the lower Siahan shale and upper Zurati
formation. According to law of superposition the age of Wazhdad volcaniclastic group may be Early
to Late Eocene.

Zurati formation is named after the Zurati Koh and Tank e Zurati 31 M/11 by Hafez et al, 1995.
Hunting Survey Corporation 1961 gave the composite name as Panjgur and Siahan shale. Hafeez et
al 1992 separated the Siahan shale and Panjgur formation, but one unit arises complication exist in
between these two formation. So it was named as Zurati formation. It comprises sandstone, shale,
slates, and minor siltstone. The lower contact with the Wazhdad volcaniclastic formation and upper
contact with the Hoshab shale is gradational and confirmable. Fossils are not observed but according
to law of superposition, it seems to be middle to late Eocene age.

Washuk ophiolite complex is named by the Malkani et al 1995. These ophiolite (part of complete
sequence) is exposed in the thrusted plane of Wazhdad mountain range. It is exposed on the southern
side of Wazhdad mountain range at Mazargati (35 A/6), Jhal Kaur (35 A/7), and Toekoh (35 A/10)
and also in Zurati quadrangle 31 M/11 areas. The observed rocks are granite, peridotite, bronze
dunite, asbestos, (serpentine), soapstone (talc), and chromite. Its exposures are small, however in the
southern vicinity, there is a wide alluvium cover which may yield more ophiolitic rocks in
subsurface. The contact with the Zurati formation is faulted. Some phylite/schist is observed near the
contact zone. The age may be Late Eocene or Early Oligocene.

Hoshab formation is named after the village of Hoshab in the Kech valley (31 N/16; HSC, 1961).
HSC 1961 correlated it with the upper part of Murgha Faqirzai shale of north Zhob district. It
comprises shale with minor siltstone and sandstone. The lower contact with the Zurati formation and
upper contact with the Panjgur formation which are conformable. According to HSC (1961) the
Hoshab formation has no age guide fossils tested only one sample. Further (HSC 1961) correlated
the Hoshab shale with the Murgha Faqirzai shale and upper part of Siahan formation. According to
stratigraphic position, its age is supposed to be Early Eocene. It is correlated with Siahan shale of
Siahan range and Murgha Faqirzai shale of north Balochistan. But Siahan is more metamorphosed
due to close occurrence of Washuk ophiolitic thrust and Wazhdad volcaniclastic group.

Panjgur formation is named after the Panjgur town (35 B/1; HSC, 1961). It consists of alternated
sandstone and shale. Sandstone is light green to light grey to grey, fine to medium grained, thin to
thick bedded, hard and calcareous. It is correlated with the Mina Formation of north Zhob (Kakar
Khurasan). Panjgur formation is devoid of fossils in the Panjgur area, however on the west of
Panjgur near Iran Boarder, this formation has yielded Oligocene age diagnostic foraminifers. Further
the stratigraphic position tells Early to Late Oligocene. In the Eocene-Oligocene strata, the
undersurface sedimentary structure commonly observed are groove marks, and load casts, and rarely
observed are flute casts, upper surface sedimentary structures are ripple beddings. A general
paleocurrent direction of Eocene-Oligocene strata of northwestern part of Makran basin was
northwest to southeast, deduced from the vector sedimentary structures such as flute casts, and scalar
sedimentary structures such as ripple and groove marks. However the source of the northeastern part
of Makran basin seems to be both from northwestern and also from east/Indus Suture due to its close
vicinity.

10
Talar Group: It is named by Malkani (2011a). It represents marine Parkini mudstone, Talar
sandstone and Chatti mudstone. The Hinglaj series of Vredenburg is considered here in this group.
Talar group is well exposed in the South Makran.

Parkini Formation is named after the Parkini Kaur, a tributary of the Hingol River (35 G/6; HSC
1961). It consists of mostly poorly bedded mudstone with minor intercalations of siltstone or fine
sandstone. The lower contact with the Panjgur formation is abrupt and gradational and upper contact
with the Talar formation is transitional. Large fossils are rare while Miocene microforams are
prolifically abundant and can be obtained relatively easily from the mudstone, most of which
disintegrates readily in warm water. According to microforms and stratigraphic position its age is
Late Miocene.

Talar Formation is named after the Talar gorge (31 K/10; HSC, 1961). It is considered equilent to
Hinglaj group of HSC (1961). It consists of sandstone, shale, mudstone and shelly limestone. Its
lower contact with Parkini and Chatti formations is transitional but at places sharp. The fossils like
gastropods (Mollusks) and lamellibranches are common. The microforms are Miocene age
diagnostic (HSC 1961). The age of the formation is Late Miocene to Early Pliocene.

Chatti Formation is after the locality of Chatti (31 K/3) about 17 miles north west of Gawader
(HSC, 1961). These rocks were also included in the “Upper Mudstone” of Khan (1951). It is a part
of Makran series paleontologically defined by Vredenburg (1909; p. 299-300). It consists of mostly
mudstone which is interbedded with siltstone or fine grained sandstone and marl. The Ormara is the
synonym of Chatti because Ormara is mapped in the eastern part of southern Makran coastal areas
where Chatti formation is not mapped and distinction between Ormara and Chatti mudstone is also
difficult in the western part also (HSC, 1961). Its age is Pliocene.

Kech formation is named by HSC (1961) after the Kech valley near Gish Kaur (Map 9; 31N/8) and
Kech Valley generally existed from Hoshab area to Turbat. It is also correlated with Kamerod/
partly Ormara formation. It consists of conglomerate, mudstone and sandstone facies. It also has
upper angular contact with Subrecent to Recent surficial deposits. The age of the formation is
Pleistocene.

Jiwani formation is named after the coastal village of Jiwani (31 G/12), where it is best exposed. It
is synonymous with the “Sub-Recent shelly limestone” (Directory, p.12) and “littoral concrete”
(Blanford, 1872a, p.45). The formation is restricted to the South Makran division of the arenaceous
zone and has a thickness upto 100 feet in the type area of Jiwani headland (HSC, 1961). The
formation is composed mainly of shelly limestone, sandstone, and conglomerate. The lower contact
with Ormara formation is gradational and placed at the base of lower persistent bed of shelly
conglomerate, and at places angular unconformable with Ormara, Parkini and Chatti formations. Its
upper contact with the recent deposits or extrusive mud may be angular. The age may be Late
Pleistocene to Subrecent (HSC, 1961).

11
Makran Mudvolcanoes are common in coastal areas of Makran but also found in the Pishin Zhob
basin particularly near the Qilla Saif Ullah area (HSC 1961). It consists of solidified silty and gritty
muds. It is soft and friable. In general the mud appears in two forms like cones and ridges. The cones
formed by one or more ventral vents. It involves series of eruption and cone is formed from the
drying of muds. The ridge type of mud accumulation seems to have no connection with ventral
vents or discrete points of eruption but appear as high, broad hill with steep sides and long and
parallel with the regional structures. Rutile is also present in these volcanoes. Its age is Pleistocene to
Recent

Subrecent and Recent deposits: These are represented by Terrace gravel deposits, Fan gravel
deposits, sand, silt and clay deposits (cultivated and noncultivated lands), Hamun deposits like Sand
dunes (Seif/longitudinal and Barchann), and present channel deposits.

Revised stratigraphy of Mashkel (inter arc) basin represents the Hamun-e-Mashkel. It represents
mostly eolian sand dunes covering the fluvial Pleistocene Kamerod formation (conglomerate,
sandstone and clays) and sub recent alluvium deposits. The older rocks may be like Siahan and
northern Makran range.

REVISED STRATIGRAPHY OF MAKRAN OFFSHORE

The offshore areas are significant for petroleum exploration. The Makran offshore areas located in
the west of Indus Suture line and show the Balochistan basin stratigraphy and further the trench is
also located in the near offshore area. The Indus offshore area located in the east of Indus Suture line
and shows the Kirthar basin stratigraphy.

DEPOSITIONAL ENVIRONMENTS, GEOLOGICAL HISTORY AND GEOEVENTS OF

MAKRAN-SIAHAN SUB-BASIN

Makran-Siahan (arc-trench gap) basin shows structural features like complex (close) folds, imbricate
(reverse) faults, strike slip faults, cuesta and hog back topography. General axes of folds and
imbricate/reverse faults are E-W and NE-SW. The dips of synclines and anticlines of the Tertiary
strata are greater than 500 in the north and less than 500 in the south. The major anticlines are located
in the high area and synclines in the low area. The trends of the strike slip faults are mostly oblique
to the bedding. The Pleistocene strata show dips less than 30 o which form open folds in and around
the valleys. During Late Cretaceous Indo-Pakistan plate started journey, and connected with
Balochistan basin, represented as Indus Suture. Due to northward movements of Indo-Pakistan
subcontinent resulted as Chaman-Nal transform fault boundary just close to western belt of Indus
Suture. Convergence of Indo-Pakistan plate with Asian plate affected the Arabian plate. In this way
Arabian plate convergence and subduction in the Tethys came into existence and resulted in the form
of Bazman volcanics in Iran, and Chagai, Raskoh and Wazhdad volcanics in Pakistan termed as
Island arc. At present the convergence trench is located in off shore areas. The Kaker-Khurasan
(back arc) basin show early flysch condition of Murgha Faqirzai shale and later molasse condition of
Shaigalu formation with source in the east from Indus Suture. Makran and Siahan basin are located
in the arc-trench gap, which represents accretionary wedge complex. The oldest formation Paleocene

12
Ispikan conglomerate shows unstable marine conditions. The Paleocene Wakai limestone show the
reef marine condition, and Early Eocene Siahan (slates; metamorphic product of Hoshab shale) and
Hoshab shale facies show the marine condition, limestone lenses show the calcareous and reef and
shallow marine environments for short time, thick sequences of sandstone show the turbidities
current marine environments, and slates and quartzite are the post depositional dynamically
metamorphosed products of shale and sandstone respectively. In the beginning of Late Eocene, the
Wazhdad volcaniclastic group are deposited and it consist of tuff, agglomerate, breccias, tuffaceous
sandstone and shale which show the volcaniclastic/pyroclastic marine sedimentary environments.
During Late Eocene to Oligocene the sandstone, shale and siltstones sequence of Panjgur formations
and Zurati (metamorphic product of Panjgur sandstone and shale) are deposited in marine
environment. Slates and quartzite of Zurati formation are dynamically metamorphosed by the
convergence of Arabian plate and Iran-Afghan block of Eurasian plate. The Late Eocene to
Oligocene Washuk ophiolitic rocks are observed in the faulted and thrusted zone of Washuk-
Wazhdad-Zurati range (Wazhdad magmatic arc). Wazhdad magmatic arc is the third magmatic arc
after Chagai and Raskoh in Balochistan. Washuk ophiolites have also faulted contact with Zurati
formation of Late Eocene age and show the unstable obduction condition. During Miocene and
Pliocene the northern Makran and Siahan ranges have no evidence of deposition which show the
uplift by tectonism and convergence of Arabian plate, however the southern Makran continue the
deposition like Miocene Parkani mudstone and Talar sandstone, Pliocene Chatti mudstone. This
uplift is confirmed by the angular unconformity between Pleistocene Kamerod formation and older
formations. During Pleistocene the Kech/Kamerod/Gawader formation are deposited which show the
lithology as mudstone, sandstone, and conglomerate of fluvial and lacustrine origin. Conglomerate
deposited near the source, while the mudstone far from the source and sandstone in transitional
stage. Existence of gypsum gives clue to the lacustrine evaporation or lagoonal environments. The
Pleistocene Jiwani formation shows the coastal environments as by shelly lithology. After the
deposition of Kech/Kamerod formation, further uplift took place and this evidence is confirmed by
the angular unconformity in between the Kech/Kamerod formation and surficial subrecent and recent
deposits. Subrecent and Recent deposits show the continental fluviatile, eolian seif and barchan sand
dunes (wind action), and hamun (lacustrine playa) deposits. Active mud volcanoes are also common
due to overburden pressure and temperature in old muddy formations. As a whole four main
geoevents of subduction of Arabian plate in Tethys are interpreted. First episode of tectonic activity
occurred at the end of Paleocene which changes the calcareous limy conditions (Wakai limestone)
into flysch shale and sandstone conditions (Siahan/Hoshab shale, Panjgur/Zurati formation). This
episode is also responsible for deposition of volcaniclastic rocks of Wazhdad volcaniclastic group.
The second episode of tectonic activity happened at the end of Oligocene and obduction of Washuk
ophiolite occurred. By this phase the Siahan and northern Makran were uplifted. This is confirmed
by the non deposition during Miocene and Pliocene period in this area. Third episode happened at
the Late Pliocene or Early Pleistocene and areas uplifted further which is confirmed by the
deposition of conglomerate in Pleistocene deposits and also angular unconformity between the older
strata (Eocene/Oligocene) and Pleistocene Kech/Kamerod formation. This phase is responsible for
the foldings and faultings of older strata. Fourth phase of tectonic orogeny occurred at the end of
Pleistocene which is confirmed by the angular unconformity between Kech/Kamerod (Pleistocene)
and surficial Holocene, Subrecent and Recent deposits. This phase is responsible for the open
folding of Miocene-Pleistocene strata and intense (complex) foldings, and imbricate and strike slip

13
faultings of Oligocene, Eocene and older strata. In some places the Subrecent and Recent surficial
deposits show the fault alignment in aerial photographs and give some dip and other features show
the rising and continuous movement of convergence plates.

SEDIMENTARY STRUCTURES AND PALEOCURRENT DIRECTION IN EOCENE-

OLIGOCENE STRATA OF MAKRAN-SIAHAN RANGES

In the Eocene-Oligocene strata, the undersurface sedimentary structure commonly observed are
groove marks, and load casts, and rarely observed are flute casts, upper surface sedimentary
structures are ripple beddings. A general paleocurrent direction of Eocene-Oligocene strata of
northwestern part of Makran basin was northwest to southeast, deduced from the vector sedimentary
structures such as flute casts, and scalar sedimentary structures such as ripple and groove marks.
However the source of the northeastern part of Makran basin seems to be both from northwestern
and also from east/Western Indus Suture due to its close vicinity.

STRATIGRAPHY OF KARAKORAM-HINDUKUSH BASIN (A SOUTHERN EXTREMITY

OF LAURASIAN PLATE), PAKISTAN

This tectonostratigraphic basin belonging to southern end of Asian plate prior to collision of
Indo-Pakistan subcontinent is subdivided into northern sedimentary, Central Karakoram batholiths
and southern metamorphic belts (Shah, 2009).

Central Karakoram batholith

Central Karakoram batholith represents granite, granodiorite, tonalite, diorite, granite-

gneiss, hornblende rich amphibolite and diorite, intruded by late stage aplitic monzogranite and
pegmatitic leucogranite. It forms the tallest peaks of the region including K2. It forms large parallel
or en echelon plutons. Tirich Mir zone is separated from Karakoram by Tirich Mir fault. From west
to east these are Kafiristan, Garam Chashma, Tirich Mir, Buni Zam, Zargar-Umalist-Ghamu Bar,
Dobargar-Darkot, Hunza and Baltoro plutons. The age range is Jurassic-Miocene (Searle 1991).
Along the northern margin of Karakoram batholith near Baroghil Pass, there are small outcrops of
Pre Ordovician granites (Kazmi and Abbasi, 2008).
Chikar formation named after the Chikar village by Kazmi and Jan (1997) in the upper reaches of
Yarkhun valley south of Darkot pass, contains siltstones and quartzites intruded by several granitic
dykes, southward schist and hornfels and migmatites. Its age is Late Proterozoic to Early Cambrian
(Le Fort et al. 1994).
Karakoram metamorphic complex show unsorted Darkot group, Dumordo formation, Chalt
formation, Ganchen formation, Ashkore/Ashkole amphibolite, Panmah ultramafics, Hushi complex
and Dassu gneiss. Due to no age control and insufficient information, the Searle (1991) named as
Karakoram Metamorphic complex.
Dassu gneiss is named after the Dassu village, the upper Shigar valley in the southern metamorphic
Karakoram belt, consists of domed shape batholith intrusion of massive, felsic-gneiss which is criss-
crossed by gem bearing pegmatite dykes (Kazmi et al. 1985). Hanson (1989) has reported a U-Pb
age of at least 1Ga (109; Precambrian) in zircons from Dassu gneiss.

14
Bauma Harel formation is named after the Bauma Harel locality by Kazmi and Abbasi (2008) for
the sequence of amphibolites, marbles and metapelites bear a minimum Ar-Ar age of 650Ma, in the
Askole-Skoro Lungma, Bauma Harel and Thalle village areas in the NE of Skardu. These rocks form
the Late Proterozoic basements and also in the Baroghil area of western Karakoram, they are
overlain by platform type sedimentary sequence with lower Ordovician fossils (crinoids and
graptolites). Bauma-Harel formation consists of volcanic metasediments metamorphosed to chlorite-
epidote greenschists interbedded with slate, phyllite, minor carbonate layers and conglomerate.
Ishkarwaz granite is named by Le Fort et al. (1994) after a small village in the western part of
Karakorams in the upper Yarkhun valley and south of Baroghil pass. Its outcrops are in the form of
small stock or bosses of Late Proterozoic to Cambrian (most likely Cambrian) in age.
Baroghil group was named by Tahirkheli (1982) after the Baroghil pass, exposed in the Yarkhun
valley, and south of Baroghil pass in Chitral district. Talent et al. (1999) have divided it into lower
Yarkhun formation and upper Vidiakot formation.
Yarkhun formation consists of 170m arkosic sandstone interbedded with siltstone and black slate.
It is Silurian age.
Vidiakot formation consists of fine grained slates and siltstone with fine sandstone intercalations.
Its age Lower Ordovician.
Thalle limestone is named after the Thalle valley, NE of Khapalu.
Karakoram metamorphic complex of Searle (1991) show a number of marble horizons from
Shigar, Hunza and westward and one of these horizons is named as Thalle limestone after Thalle
valley, NE of Khaplu. It extends from Thalle to northwestward up to Bauma Harel and Skoro La
valleys. Paleozoic fossils (gastropods, crinoids and lower Ordovician graptolites) have been found
(Rolland et al. 2000). The Ordovician age is also mentioned by LeFort and Pecher 2001). Verchere
(1867) reported echinoderms possibily of Silurian age.
Devonian Charun quartzite named after the Charun village about 11.5km NE of Reshun, consists
of 100m white quartzite at the base of Devonian succession (Stauffer 1975). According to Tahirkheli
(1982) the Charun quartzite is unconformably overlain by the remaining Devonian sequence. Talent
et al. (1999) reported the quartzite passes gradationally upward into the overlying Shogram
formation. According to Talent et al. (1999) the uppermost beds transitional to the Shogram
formation may be Middle Devonian.
Chilmarabad formation consists of Devonian slates, dolomitic limestone and dolomites
unconformably overlies the Baroghil group in the Baroghil pass region (LeFort et al., 1994). It is
overlain by Late Devonian Shogram formation (Gaetani et al. 1995).
Shogram formation is named after the Shogram mount and village in Yarkhun valley (Desio,
1966), consists of dolomite, limestone and thin shales in the lower part and quartzite and limestone
in the upper part. The Sewakht formation (Leake et al. 1989) and Sarikole shale (Hayden 1915;
Calkins et al. 1981) are synonyms. Talent et al. (1999) reported conodonts of Middle to Late
Devonian age.
Lasht unit named after Lasht village in Yarkhun valley by Gaetani et al. (1995,96). It consists of
three main thrust sheets overlying the Reshun fault. The lowest sheet consists of Chilmarabad and
Shogram formations. Owir is also its synonym. It is overthrusted by sandstone of Gircha formation
and fusulinolid limestones and upper thrust consists of marl and massive limestone. It is
unconformably overlain by the Tas Kupruk unit containing Early Carboniferous limestones.

15
Lun shales is named after Lun village by Desio (1966), consists of paper and needle shale, quartzite
and limestone overlies the Devonian Shogram formation. It may be synonymous with the Sarikol
shale. However with the inclusions of green grey and black shales of Lutkho and Arkari beds of
Leak et al. (1989) the age of the Lun shale may be Permian to Jurassic (Shah, 2009). On the left
bank of Mastuj valley between Gol and Zait, a thick massive black dolomitic limestone with 6m
thick pisolitic ironstone containing lower Triassic conodonts named as Zail limestone (Tahirkheli
1982). Perri et al. (2004) has also reported conodonts of Early Triassic. This limestone has been
named as Ailak formation farther north in Yarkhun valley. It overlies a sandstone sequence which
may be a part of Lun shales (Kazmi and Abbasi 2008).
Shah Jinali phyllite is named after the Shah Jinali Pass by Zanchi et al. (1997) consists of dark
green phyllites with quartzites. The Lun shale where crop out and this formation occupies, so it may
be a metamorphosed version of Lun shale.

Northern Sedimentary belt

Margach formation is named after the Margach cattle shelter on the north side of the Ribat River
along Zoe glacier by Gaetani et al. (2004), consists of 200m slates, siltstone, sandstone and
limestone. It overlies the Shogram formation and its age is Late Devonian to Early Carboniferous by
Gaetani et al. (2004).
Ribat formation is named after the Ribat River by Gaetani et al. (2004), consists of fossiliferous
limestone and marl overlying the Margach formation. It is Early Carboniferous (Gaetani et al. 2004).
Lupsuk formation is named after the Lupsuk glacier north of Karambar Pass by Gaetani et al.
(2004), consists of quartzarenites, microconglomerates, sandstone, siltstone and limestone. The
upper part of this formation is cliff forming carbonate with sharp lateral variations, so named as
Twin Valley member after the Twin valleys at the head of Karambar River by Gaetani et al. (2004).
According to Angiolinin et al. (1999) the Twin valley member is Late Carboniferous in age, as it
overlies Moscovian brachiopod fauna.
Tas Kupruk unit is named by Kafarskyi and Abdullah (1976) after the east of Sarhad village in the
Ab-i-Wakhan river valley of Afghanistan to the Morich valley in Chitral and beyond, consists of
metabasites, tuffs, volcaniclastics and limestone with fossils of Early Carboniferous (Tournaisian)
(Gaetani et al. (1996).It overlies Late Devonian limestones with an angular unconformity of about
150.
Gircha formation is named after Gircha village in upper Hunza valley by Desio (1963), consists of
sandstone and slate intercalations of earliest Permian. Gaetani et al. (1995) consider Pasu slates as
being a local facies of the Gircha formation and also include in it the Shimsal slates of Casnedi et al.
(1985) and Kilik formation of Desio (1963).
Chapursan group is named by Gaetani et al. (1990a) for the Lupghar and Panjshah formations in
upper Hunza region and Lashkargaz formation in the Baroghil region of Shimshal and Chapursan
Valleys of the upper Hunza.
Lashkargaz formation is named after the Lashkargaz village in the upper Yarkhun valley 10km
ESE of Baroghil Pass by Gaetani et al. (1995) and he presented members of siltites, packstone,
wackstone, shales and marls of Early Permian age.

16
Lupghar formation is named after Lupghar valley, a tributary of Chapursan by Gaetani et al.
(1995) and he presented lower member includes shale, muds and sandstone with phosphatic nodules,
and upper member bioclastic and oolitic limestone and dolomite of Early Permian.
Panjshah formation is named after Panjshah village in the lower part of Chapursan valley by
Gaetani et al. (1995), presented lower member include shales, siltstone and feldspathic quartzites and
upper member include limestone and marl of Late Permian age.
Kundil formation is named after Kundil valley, south of Darband post about 10km NW of Sost
(Shimshal and Chapursan Valleys of upper Hunza) by Gaetani et al. (1990a), presented 3 members
of marl, limestone and fine tuffs of Late Permian age.
Wirokhun formation is named after Wirokhun nala between Kundil and Borom in the Chapursan
valley by Gaetani et al. (1995), and consists of lower dark shales and marls with mudstone, thin
bedded cherty limestone and upper shale and marl of Late Permian to Early Triassic.
Gharil formation is named after the Gharil village in upper Yarkhun valley, 5km east of Baroghil
pass by Gaetani et al. (1995), and consists of siltstone, sandstone and marl of Late Permian to Late
Triassic age.
Ailak formation is named after Baroghil Alak by Gaetani et al. (1995), and consists of dolomite and
limestones of Late Permian to Late Triassic age.
Misghar slate is named after Misghar village in upper Hunza by Desio (1963) and consists of slates
and phyllite of Paleocene age intruded by sills and dykes of dolerite, gabbro, pegmatite, aplite and
quartz syenite (Tahirkheli, 1982).
Pasu slate is named after the Pasu village in the upper Hunza valley. North of the Karakoram
granodiorite a thick sequence of dark grey and black slates with intercalation of grey limestone and
yellowish grey quartzite of Permian to Carboniferous age has been named as Passu slate by Desio
(1963). It is correlated with Gircha formation.
Guhjal dolomite is named by Gaetani et al. (1995) for the limestone, dolomite, slates and quartzite
of Middle to Late Permian age to Triassic age.
Singhie shales (Baltoro formation) is named after the Singhie glacier in the upper Shaksgam valley
between Karakoram and Aghil ranges by Desio (1963), consists of black shales (like Pasu slates). It
is exposed north of Karakoram Batholith in Shaksgam-Baltoro region of eastern Karakoram. Various
names like Shimshal shale, Baltoro shale, Rimo shale, Sarpo Laggo slates, Doksam sequence are
adapted by different authors at different places.
Shaksgam formation is named after the Shaksgam valley north of K2 between Karakoram and
Aghil ranges by Auden (1938), represents 600-1000m thick limestone, marl, siltstone and sandstone
of Lower to Permian age.
Staghar Cherty limestone is named by Gaetani et al. (1995) for the upper cherty limestone of
Shaksgam formation. Its age is Late Permian.
Following Triassic rocks have been reported;
Zait limestone is named by Talent et al. (1979) exposed in the Chitral area and consists of
fossiliferous limestone. Tahirkheli (1982) mentioned Triassic age on the base of fossils.
Dark limestone is named by Gaetani et al. (1996a) and consists of 150m thick limestone and its age
is Liassic (Pliensbachian).
Wirokhun formation is named after the Wirokhun gorge, a tributary of Kundil valley (a tributary of
Chapursan) by Gaetani et al. (1995) and consists of shale, mudstone, marl and limestone of Late
Permian to Early Triassic.

17
Urdok conglomerate is named after the Urdok glacier north of the Gasherbrum ridge by Desio
(1963). Desio (1964, 1969) mapped this conglomerate broadly from western Karakoram to eastern
Karakoram like Baltoro Kangri peak (7312m), Abruzzi glacier and western margin of South
Gasherbrum glacier, surrounding the Gasherbrum I, II and III peaks, and in the ridge west of Urdok
glacier. Fluvial and Late Cretaceous in age (Gaetani 1990b).
Chikchi-ri shale is named after Chikchi-ri Range by Desio (1963), exposed in the type area and
Singhie glacier, large area of eastern Karakoram from Shaksgam valley and Karakoram pass to
Shyok valley. It consists of black, green, brown and red shales with thin beds of limestone, tuff and
lava flows.
Borom formation (300m) is named after the Borom valley, 3.5km NW of Sost (Chapursan valley of
Upper Hunza) by Gaetani (1990a) and consists of limestone and chert of Early to Middle Triassic
age.
Aghil limestone is named after the Aghil pass (Baltoro) by Desio (1964), consists of grey and white
limestone and dolomite, exposed in upper Hunza and Shaksgam-Baltoro region i.e. above the
Baltaro and Abruzzi glaciers, this limestone forms highest peaks of the Karakoram like Hidden peak
(8068m), and Gasherbrum peaks II (8035m), III (7925m) and IV (7925m) and also exposed in the
Sost (upper Hunza). Age middle Triassic to Early Jurassic.
Jurassic Chitral slate is named after the Chitral town by Desio (1959) and consists of shale with
some ash and fine sandstone. Pudsey et al. (1985) considered it to be a Jurassic in age.
Koghozi greenshicht is named after the Koghozi village near the confluence of Yarkhun and
Lutkho rivers by Pudsey et al. (1985) and consists of greenschists include chlorite quartz schist with
thin acidic layers with abundant quartz.
Gahirat limestone is named after Gahirat village 10km N of Drosh by Desio (1958) for limestone,
phyllite and 3km thick marbles.
Ashtigar formation is named after the Ashtigar village by Gaetani et al. (1993) and comprised of
shale and fine grain sandstone (turbidites) of Liassic age.
Yashkuk formation is named after Yashkuk village at the confluence of Chapursan River and
Yashkuk Yaz glacier by Gaetani et al. (1990a) for reddish sandstone with many sedimentary
structures. It is middle to upper Liassic. The Mesozoic terrestrial strata of Karakoram (for example
Fig.6) are significant for the exploration of Mesozoic vertebrates for Paleobiogeographic link.
Pakistan is lucky to include both Laurasian and Gondwanan blocks along with Tethyan deposits.
Reshit formation is named after the Reshit village in Chapursan valley by Gaetani et al. (1990a) for
the mudstone and wackestones of late Middle Jurassic age.
Tekri formation is named by Gaetani et al. (1990b) for oncolitic limestone and bioclastic
packstones of middle Jurassic age, exposed in the Shaksgam region of eastern Karakorams.
Marpo sandstone is named by Gaetani et al. (1990b) and consists of 20-100m sandstone and
siltstones and exposed in the Aghil pass and Shaksgam valley and age is middle Jurassic.
Bdongo-La formation is named by Desio and Fantini (1960), exposed in the Shaksgam valley,
comprised of marly sandstone and dark coloured limestones of upper Jurassic age.
Krinj limestone is named after Krinj village in Lutkho Valley East of Shigar by Desio (1959) for
platform type limestone about 2.5km thick.
Reshun formation is named after Reshun in Mastuj valley by Hayden (1915) of Cretaceous or early
Tertiary. Tahirkheli (1982) divided this formation into lower psammites as Awi conglomerate and
upper micritic limestone and maroon shales as Reshun shales.

18
Tupop conglomerate is named by Gaetani et al. (1993) for Cretaceous conglomerate exposed in the
Kundil and Borom tributaries of lower Chapursan valley in upper Hunza.
Darband formation is named after the Darband post in Chapursan valley by Gaetani et al. (1993)
for red to grey nodular limestone with conglomerate at the top Late Cretaceous age.
Sarpo Lago slate is named after the Sarpo Lago valley on the northern slope of Karakoram by
Desio (1963) mainly slates with intercalations of gneiss of upper Paleozoic.
Savoia formation is named after the Savoia glacier, a tributary of Godwin Austin glacier in the
Baltoro basin by Desio (1963) for 1000m schist, marl and conglomerate.
Khalkal formation is named after the Khalkhal glacier, a tributary of Godwin Austin glacier in the
Baltoro basin by Desio (1963) for 800m slaty calcareous sandstone, phyllite and conglomerate.
K2 gneiss (200m thick) is named after the highest peak in the Karakoram Range by Desio (1936) as
K2 series, and Desio (1963) named as K2 gneiss. It contains porphyroblastic biotite muscovite
gneiss with medium sized plagioclase gneiss striking out dark grey and greenish grey base prevailing
associated with amphibole gneiss, augengneiss, and dark fine grained gneiss.
Falchan Kangri gneiss is named after the Falchan Kangri or a Broad peak in the Baltaro region by
Desio (1963) for 1000 m black to dark gray phyllitic paragneiss alternated with light quartz
arenaceous gneiss.
Yellow conglomerate is named by Gaetani et al. (1996b) for yellow polymict conglomerate covered
the Shaksgam sedimentary belt in the north of K2 and Karakoram fault.

Tirich Mir Zone shows also following strata.

Arkari formation is named by Leake et al. (1989) for the west of Tirich Mir fault is largely
represents metasediments metamorphosed up to lower amphibolite facies. It consists of schist,
phyllite and quartzite and extensive deposits of marble. Considering metamorphosed facies of Lun
shales with Permian to Jurassic age.
Sewakht formation is named by Leake et al. (1989) for greenschist limestomes, dolomitis carbonate
and sandstone may correlate with westen continuation of Owir formation.
Owir formation is is named after Owir An and named by Shah (2009) following the Sedimentary
series of Owir by Hayden (1915). It consists of shale with conglomerate and limestone. This
formation consists of fossil Receptaculites neptuni (Difrance). It is first collected in Iran by Flugel
(1961) and second time from Chitral collected by Diemberger and described by Vogelanz (1969).
According to fossil collecter Diemberger, it was collected from the western end of series which
covers the Tirich Mir (granite) Pluton with vertical dipping. It is correlated with Sewakht formation.
Conaghan (in Talent et al. 1981) collected blocks of red oolitic limestone with Receptaculites from
Ojehor Gol about 1km above its confluence with Lutkhu rive. Since Vogelanz’s loca;ity is within
Ojehor Gol watershed. The blocks have also yielded diverse conodonts. The age is determined as
Late Devonian.
Wakhan slates are named by Hayden (1915) for black slate, siltite and sandstone containing fossils
of Permian to Triassic age. It forms a continuous belt from Tirich Mir in the west to the Chapursan
valley in upper Hunza in the east. From south (Arkari) to north the metamorphism is being decreased
and represented by Wakhan slates instead of Arkari formation. Its lateral facies extends to
Chapursan as Misgar slates.

19
Atark Formation is named by Buchroithner (1978). It consists of dolomite, limestone, shale,
sandstone and marbles. It is Sakmarian to Midian in age (Gaetani and Leven 1993).
Rich Gol Metamorphic Complex is named after the Rich Gol stream (from Tirich Gol to Shahjinali
Pass) for the high grade metabasites, metapellites, staurolite mica schist and amphibolite. Zanchi et
al. (1997) pointed out the sharp jump in metamorphism with respect to surroundings. It is intruded
by Mid Cretaceous Tirich Mir Pluton which suggests and Early to Pre Cretaceous age.

Southern Metamorphic belt

The Carboniferous to Permian age rocks are found. The southern metamorphic zone is more
than 400km arcuate type long, and bounded by Karakoram Axial Batholith to the north, and
Karakoram Suture (KS; =Shyok suture zone/belt).
Karakoram metamorphic complex consists of Paleozoic metasediments which are intruded by the
Karakoram axial batholith and smaller plutons. This sequence is thrusted southward over Ladakh-
Kohistan magmatic arc along the Karakoram suture. The region from Hunza to Skardu is
complicated due to intense tectonism and various new names of formations are used. So Searle
(1991) used this group instead of Darkot group.
Darkot group is named after the Darkot village in the upper Yasin valley by Ivanac et al. (1956) for
thick sequence of slates, limestones, quartzites and garnet mica schist. Le Fort and Gaetani (1998)
designated the 5 formations. White marble and Rawat formations belongs to Northern Stack while
Gum formation, Barum formation and Basal shales belong to Southern Stack. Both stacks are
bordered by a fault.
White marble (150m) is exposed as high cliffs between Qalander Gum and Kerun Bar glaciers. It is
intercalated with slates and quartzite of Rawat formation.
Rawat formation is named after the Rawat village. It consists of slates, limestones, siltstone and
quartzites. The Permian fossils are reported by Hayden (1915).
Gum formation (1000m) is named after Qalandar Gum glacier and consists of limestone and slates.
Gaetani (2004) mentioned the Permian to Triassic or up to Cretaceous.
Barum formation (300-500m) is named after the Barum glacier north of Ramach and consists of
sandstone, siltstone, slates, microconglomerates and thin limestone.
Basal shales consist of black shales, slates, siltstone and lenses of white dolomitic marbles up to
50m thick.
Ghamubar crystalline mass is named by Le Fort and Gaetani (1998) for the Aghost quartzite and
migmatitic gneiss, Ramach granodiorite, Ghamubar granite and Nialthi metasediments.
Aghost quartzite and migmatitic gneiss is named after the Aghost glaciers and consists of
quartzites, gneisses and migmatites. Casnedi et al. (1978) mentioned the K-Ar age of one sample as
Late Cretaceous to Eocene. Southward Aghost sequence is intruded by Ramach granodiorite and
Ghamubar granite and further south by Nialthi metasediments.
Nialthi metasediments is named after Nialthi village in Thui valley about 24km SW of Darkot and
consists of slates, sandstone and mudsupported conglomerate (may be mudflows), and limestone.
According to Searle (1991) these units can be easily included in the Karakoram metamorphic
complex.
Dumordo formation is named after a Dumordo tributary of Biaho River in upper Braldu valley by
Desio (1963) and it consists of garnet-staurolite schist, garnet mica schist, garnet amphibole, marble

20
and limestone. Staufer (1968c) named the rocks south of Karakoram granodiorite in Hunza valley as
Baltit group of Permo-carboniferous age whereas Tahirkheli (1982) correlated with his Chitral
slates of Precambrian to Lower Paleozoic age.
Chalt formation is named after the Chalt village about 40km N of Gilgit by Desio (1964) for quartz
biotite schist, quartzite, marble and conglomerate. Ivanac et al. (1956) assigned Permo-carboniferous
age based on fossils.
Ganchen formation is named after the Ganchen peak (6462m) by Desio (1963) exposed in the
Shigar valley (Skardu district) and consists of metapelites, gneisses, amphibolites, limestone and
dolomite. Metamorphic grade is increasing NW and slates are converted into garnet biotite schists.
Hanson (1989) named this sequence as Daltumbore formation while Desio (1963) included the
Lugma slates, Daltumbore mica schist and Askore amphibolite in this sequence. The age is assigned
from Devonian to Permian by Brookfield and Gupta (1984) and Hanson (1989).
Shittinbar formation is named after Le Fort and Pechner (2001) for the terrigenous sandy and
pelitic alternation. The area covered by this formation is overlapped by Darkot group and Chalt
formation.
Khusomik schist is named by Le Fort and Pechner (2001) in the upper Skoro and Bauma Harel
valleys and consists of pelitic schists interlayered with limestone and arenite. It linked with upper
Cretaceous Bauma Harel limestone, and also schists and limestone in Thalle valley where dated
Lower Paleozoic by Rolland (2001a).
Marble units: Many formations include crystalline limestone or marble like Dumordo and Ganchen
formations. Further Le Fort and Pechner (2001) reported 4 main limestone or marble horizons which
they refer to as Chutrun limestone, Chogo Lugma group, Baintha group and Hispar Sar group.
Chutrun limestone is exposed in the west of Basha River near the contact of Karakoram
metamorphic complex, Pakora and Niamur valley and right bank of Chogo Lungma glacier. This
limestone splits into hectometric lenses of marble wrapped in schist. It joins with the Chog Lungma
group of limestone.
Chogo Lungma group of limestone is exposed in the confluence of Bolocho and Chogo Lungma
glaciers, near Sost in Hunza valley, Sumayar pluton, Kero Lungma, Berelter and Hoh Lumba valleys
and near the mouth of Biofo glacier. It consists of white to grayish blue intensely folded marble,
interbedded with amphibolite horizons. The impure marble contains diopside, phlogopite and
grossularite garnet and it is interbedded with calc- silicate layers. At places marble shows acid green
color due to presence of tremolite (Le Fort and Pechner 2001).
Baintha group is named after Baintha Brak Peak above the Biofo glacier, (and also the name of a
summer pasture on the right bank of Biafo) and consists of massive beds of marble along the contact
of Karakoram axial batholith with the metamorphic complex. At places it is intruded by granites.
This group crops out near the middle part of Biafo glacier and may be traced towards the marble
peak of Baltoro and farter westward to Chogo Lungma, Nagar and Hunza.
Hispar Sar group is named after the right bank of Hispar glacier and may be traced northwestward
into the Hunza valley. It consists of massive marbles with aluminous schists and quartzites with dark
coloured amphibolite. It has tectonic contact with Hunza granodiorite and at places this contact is
intrusive. This unit hosts the famous Hunza rubies and other gemstones (Kazmi and Jan 1997, Le
Fort and Pechner 2001). Earlier this unit was named as Ganesh marble by Tahirkheli (1996).

Karakoram Suture Zone (KS zone) (=Shyok suture)

21
Karakoram Suture zone is structurally called as Main Karakoram Thrust (MKT). Cretaceous
Karakoram (Shyok) suture with Kohistan-Ladakh magmatic arc is interpreted on many isolated
bodies of ophiolites and other rocks and their age variations, mentioned west to east are as below.
This is the 1st older suture in northern areas of Pakistan, represented by ophiolitic bodies which
marked the suture between Asian continental plate and Kohistan-Ladakh island arc (Tethyan block).
In northern areas there are two suture belts, first older is the Karakoram suture obducted earlier than
the second younger Indus suture. When (early Late Cretaceous) Indo-Pak plate came close to Asian
plate, the stress created subduction of Tethys plate (at the line of Karakoram Suture) under
Hindukush- Karakoram resulted in the form of Karakoram magmatic arc. Further stress at later
created subduction of Tethys sea plate (at the line of Northern Indus Suture) under Kohistan-Ladakh
belt resulted in the form of Kohistan-Ladakh magmatic arc. The Indo-Pak collided first time with
Afghan block at Latest Cretaceous about 67 Ma. The Indo-Pak plate docked with Kohistan-Ladakh
Tethyan belt during latest Cretaceous/Early Paleocene.
Mirkani Ophiolite is reported between Lowari Pass and Mirkani as chlorite schists contains
boundins of hornblende and amphibolite and a zone of diabases and gabbros (Zulfiqar Ahmed 1990).
Gansser (1979) reported these as indications of a rudimentary ophiolite zone without ultramafic
rocks. Desio (1975) reported Cretaceous-Eocene gabbro-diorite complex with frequent norites on
north and south slopes of Lowari Pass and amphibolites and hornblendite dipping NW.
Drosh Melange is reported in Sisikoh stream near Drosh as crushed flysch rocks with pockets of
serpentinite, basic volcanics, ophicalcite and cherty breccia (Zulfiqar Ahmed 1990).
Sor-Laspur Valley Melange is reported near Rehman and also SW of Shandoor Pass as bodies of
serpentinite, basic volcanics and ophicalcite (Zulfiqar Ahmed 1990).
Yasin Melange is reported in the upper reaches of Sondhi stream as pockets of squeezed melange
(Zulfiqar Ahmed 1990).
Chatorkhand Melange is reported in Ishkuman valley along the north edge of the stream east of
Chatorkhand village (Zulfiqar Ahmed 1990).
Chalt Melange is reported near Chalt (Hunza valley) as best exposures of serpentinite, basic
volcanics and altered peridotite in two isolated tectonic slivers like a northern and southern slivers
sandwiched a flysch sequence of phyllites, schists, slates, thin argillaceous limestone and silty
intercalations. Near melange talc schists, calc-schists and serpentine schists also occur (Zulfiqar
Ahmed 1990).
Hispar Valley Melange is reported on the south side of Hispar Valley with trends E-W (Zulfiqar
Ahmed 1990).
Panmah ultramaphic is named after the Panmah (Panah) glacier in upper Mudordo valley near the
head water of Shigar River by Searle (1991) and it consists of gabbro, metabasalt, chert, and
ultramafics in shaly matrix. The tectonic ultramafic and mafic mélanges occur in discontinuous
bands in a narrow zone south of Karakoram Batholith bounded by thrust and shear zones within
Dumordo and Ganchen formations. According to Searle (1991) it may represent a Mesozoic suture
zone with an ophiolite complex which has been oblitered by post collision ductile shearing and
folding.
Shigar Valley Melange is reported in the vicinity of Tissar and in the upper reaches of Shigar
stream, east of Shigar village (Zulfiqar Ahmed 1990).
Hushe complex is named after the Hushe valley (north of Khapalu village) along the hanging wall
of MKT, east and north of Shigar town in Skardu district and named by Searle (1991) and consists of

22
hornblendite, hornblende diorite, amphibolite and biotite granodiorite-monzogranite with U-Pb
zircon age of 145-150Ma and K-Ar hornblende ages of about 200-156Ma. Desio (1964) mapped
earlier Hushe complex as Bauma Herel schist, Ashkore amphibolite and Ganchen formation.
Machelu Melange is reported north of Machelu village in Hushe valley. This zone may join the
Shyok valley melange zone further east (Zulfiqar Ahmed 1990).

STRATIGRAPHY OF KOHISTAN-LADAKH MAGMATIC ARC (AN ARC OF TETHYS),

PAKISTAN

This arc belongs to Tethyan Sea which extends from the Northern Indus Suture to Karakoram
Suture. This arc is divided into parts separated by Nanga Parbat Harmosh Massif. The western part is
represented by Kohistan magmatic arc and eastern part is represented as Ladakh magmatic arc.

Kohistan magmatic arc

The Kohistan arc is divided into Northern greenstone belt consists of Late Cretaceous to
Paleocene volcanics and sedimentary rocks along with amphibolite, central Kohistan batholiths
consists of early (110-85Ma) suite of Gabbro and diorite, followed by extensive intrusions of gabbro,
diorite and granodiorite which are intruded by much younger dykes and sills of leucogranite
(Tahirkheli et al., 1980), and Southern greenstone belt (Kamila amphibolite belt).

Central Kohistan batholith

Central Kohistan batholith (Mid Cretaceous to Oligocene) comprises of plutons of calc-

alkaline composition which intrude the Chalt volcanic group, Thelichi formation and Chilas
complex. Peterson and Windley (1985) divided the Kohistan batholith in thee groups. It records into
70Ma of magmatism from 102-29Ma (Peterson and Windley, 1985).

Northern greenstone (amphibolites) belt

Jaglot group (Middle Jurassic-Middle Cretaceous) is named by Khan T. et al. (1994) for
the Gilgit formation, Gashu-confluence volcanics and Thelichi formation.
Gilgit formation is named by Khan T. et al. (1996) and consists of interlayered sequence of schists,
paragneisses and amphibolites may be of Jurassic age. LeFort and Pecher (2001) have included this
formation in their Gilgit-Katchura gneisses.
Gashu-confluence volcanics is named by Khan T. et al. (1994) and consists of tuffs, volcanoclastic
sediments and pillow basalt metamorphosed into amphibolites probably of Early Cretaceous age. It
is correlated with Chalt volcanics in Hunza valley.
Thelichi formation is named by Tahirkheli (1982) and consists of slates, marbles, metavolcanics
and laminated sandstone of Middle Cretaceous to Lower Late Cretaceous. It is correlated with Yasin
group of Hunza valley.

23
Kalam group (Cretaceous) metasedimentary vast sequence named by Matsushita (1965) after
Kalam area. Tahirkheli (1979) divided this group into Karandoki slates, Besham Banda limestone
and Shou quartzites.
Karandoki slates named after the Karandoki stream 2 km south of Kalam (Tahirkheli 1979),
consists of 120m grey, green and maroon slates contains layers of para-amphibole. At places the
Kalam group units are intruded by 75-78Ma Deshai diorites (Jan and Mian 1971). Besham Banda
limestone named after the Deshan Banda locality in upper Swat (Tahirkheli 1979), consists of 35m
crystalline and fossiliferous limestone.
Shou quartzites named after Shou stream in Kalam town vicinity area, consists of 600m thick
quartzites (Tahirkheli 1979). Total thickness of Kalam group is more than 800m.
Yasin group (Chalt volcanics; Cretaceous) is named by Ivanac et al. (1956) consists of
lavas, tuffs and agglomerates with beds of shelly limestone. The volcanics underlying and
interbedded with Yasin group have various names like Greenstone complex, Turmilk formation,
Rakaposhi volcanic group, Chalt volcanic group and Sharman volcanic group. Pudsey et al. (1985)
has mapped the Yasin group as Shamran volcanic group (Latest Cretaceous-Paleocene) which
consists of porphyritic andesites and tuff intercalated with shale with some pillow lavas, chert bands,
volcanic breccia and agglomerates. Shamran volcanics are overlain by 500m of volcanic-lithic
sandstone, shale and micritic limestone with orbitolina and rudistid. The Greenstone complex of
Ivanac et al. (1956) and Sharman volcanic group of Pudsey et al. (1985) is renamed as Rakaposhi
volcanic complex by Tahirkheli (1982). Tahirkheli (1982) extended this complex from Skardu to
Chitral south of MKT, which includes Bauma-Harel formation (now incorporated in Karakoran
block) of Desio (1963), and Purit and Drosh formations of Pudsey et al. (1985).
Kalam-Utror-Yasin groups were mapped by Pudsey et al. (1985) between Drosh and Shamran
south of MKT and he divided into three units like Drosh formation, Purit formation and Gawuch
formation.
Gawuch formation (2km thick) with Gawuch Gol type section consists of green phyllites and
limestone. Toward the base phyllite is intruded by diorite. It is overlain by Purit formation.
Purit formation (1km thick) with Drosh Gol, SE of Kawash type section, consists of dominantly
red shales with subordinate sandstones and conglomerates. It is underlain by Gawuch formation and
overlain by Drosh formation. According to Pudsey et al. (1985), this formation was mapped as part
of the Reshun formation by Calkins et al. (1981), who failed to recognized the Naz Bar fault as an
important suture. This formation is 1000m thick in the southeast and wedges out half way through
the Shishi valley. The age of the formation on the basis of presence of Orbitolina is Early
Cretaceous.
Drosh formation (1.5km thick) is named after Drosh and it consists of epidotised beds, vesicular
andesite and interbedded thin red shales.
Dir group (Latest Cretaceous-Paleocene) named by Tahirkheli (1979) which include the
Baraul Banda slate and Ultor volcanic formation.
Baraul Banda slate contains shale, wakes, calcareous beds and some volcanics.
Ultror volcanic formation contains basaltic-andesitic flows, dacitic ignimbrites and pyroclastic
rocks.

Southern greenstone (amphibole) belt

24
 It is represented by mostly Kamila amphibolite consists of amphibolite and subordinate
hornblende, diorite and plagiogranite.

Ladakh magmatic arc

It is also represented b Northern greenstone belt, Central Ladakh batholiths and Southern greenstone
belt.
Central Ladakh batholith (Late Cretaceous to Oligocene) is correlative to Central Kohistan
batholith.
Bauma Harel schist named by Desio (1963) after the name of valley, left confluent of Shigar
valley. It was earlier named as green shales or Shigar shales by Lydekker (1883).According to Desio
(1963) its lateral facies are Skoro slate, Hashupa limestone Tsordas labradorite-gneiss. The last unit
at places underlies the Bauma Harel schist. The greenschist are interbedded with slates, phyllites and
minor carbonate layers, multicoloured conglomerates containing clasts of red and black shales, white
marbles and green schist exposed in the Bauma Harel and Skoro Lungma. It is many hundred meters
thick. This formation is bound on the north by Karakoram Suture. It is correlated with Rakaposhi
volcanic of Tahirkheli (1982) and the Gawuch formation of Pudsey et al. (1985). On the basis of
Torricelli fossils its age is considered as Cretaceous by Warren Allmon in Hanson (1988).
Tsordas gneiss is named after the Tsordas locality consists of labradorite, biotite garnetiferous
gneiss, at places sillimanite bearing, with quartz and amphibolite lenses. Laterally it passes into
Bauma-Harel schists.
Askore amphibolite (may belongs to southern Laddakh; may be coeval to Kamila amphibolites of
Kohistan) named by Desio (1963), after the Askore tributary of the Indus NW of Rando. It consists
of garnetiferous and epidote amphibolite extends between Shigar valley and Harmosh range. It also
comprises of amphibole gneiss, amphibole epidote gneiss, amphibole biotite gneiss interbedded with
thick limestone/marbles and schists. Its synonym Askole amphibolite is named after the Askole
village by Searle (1991) and it is exposed in Askore (Askole), Mango Gusar, Panmah/Panah and
Braldu valleys. According to Le Fort et al. (1995) the Askore and Turmik formations, both are same
and synonymous and consists of metasedimentary sequence interbedded with metavolcanics and at
places minor ultrabasic. Earlier Desio (1963) mapped the Askore amphibolite on the eastern and
western margins of Nanga Parbat Haramosh Massif and Shigar valley, located in the Kohistan-
Ladakh magmatic arc sequence.
Skardu group: The Tsordas, Katzarah, Skoyo, Burji and Deosai formations are considered under
Skardu group (Malkani and Mahmood 2016a). But here the Katzarah, Skoyo, Burji and Deosai
formations are considered under Skardu group.
Katzarah formation (Cretaceous-Eocene) is named by Desio (1978) as Katzarah schists earlier
named by him as Shigar group for the sequence of siltstones, schists, slates and phylites with
quartzitic sandstone intercalations, exposed this high grade metasediments between Shigar river and
Indus near Skardu. Desio (1963) named Tsordas gneiss, Skoyo gneiss and Askore amphibolite, and
Desio (1964) also included Daltambore mica schist, Nang Brok quartzite, Skoro Lumba slate and
Hashupa limestone in the Shigar group, actually which lies across the Karakoram suture in the
Karakoram basin.
Skoyo gneiss is named after the small village Skoyo in the Indus gorge east of Rondu, consists of
plagioclase gneiss composed of biotite and epidote with larger crystal of feldspar and quartz.

25
Burji formation (Burji La or Burjila formation) named by Desio (1978) consists of several km thick
phyllites, shales, limestone and chlorite-epidote greenschists exposed south of Indus River, is the
eastward extension of upper metasedimentary, volcanic and detritial sequence of Kohistan magmatic
arc (Bard et al. 1980) just south of Karakoram Suture.
Deosai (Dras) volcanics (Cretaceous) named as Dras by Wadia (1937) after Dras town exposed
along southern margin of Deosai Plateau from Dras to Kargil up to Indus valley near Khalsi, consists
of volcanics like ash beds, tuffs, agglomerates, bedded basaltic lava flows interlayered with
limestone intruded by granitic and other plutonic rocks. Tahirkheli (1982) introduces the name as
Deosai volcanics. South of Burzil, along the northern Indus Suture (NIS) zone these volcanics
thrusted on Precambrian Salkhala formation (Gansser 1964, Desio 1978).

STRATIGRAPHY OF NORTHERN INDUS SUTURE (SUTURE BETWEEN INDUS BASIN

OF INDO-PAK CONTINENTAL PLATE) AND KOHISTAN-LADAKH MAGMATIC ARC-
TETHYS PART)

There are four main belts of ophiolitic bodies in Pakistan. The 1 st belt of ophiolitic bodies
(Indus Suture) indicate suture between Indo-Pak sub continental plate and Kohistan-Ladakh island
arc (namely Northern Indus Suture) in the north, and Indo-Pak plate with Balochistan basin (namely
western Indus Suture) in the west. The 2nd belt of ophiolitic bodies’ indicate suture between
Kohistan-Ladakh island arc and Hindukush-Karakoram basin. The other two belts are found within
Balochistan basin namely Raskoh ophiolite belt and Washuk ophiolite belt. The western Indus
Suture is suturing between the Indo-Pak plate in the east and Balochistan Basin in the west. This
suture holds widest and long ophiolitic bodies. The northern Indus Suture is suturing between Indo-
Pak plate in the south and Kohistan-Ladakh magmatic arc in the north. The Karakoram suture (also
called Karakoram thrust) is suturing between Hindukush-Karakoram basin in the north and
Kohistan-Ladakh magmatic arc in the south.
Bajaur-Utmankhel tectonic mélange (In Bajaur District, near Afghan Boarder, Badshah
1979)
Tora Tigga complex in southern are of Dir District are emplaced with amphibolite of Kohistan arc.
This complex represents ultramaphic rocks dominantly hornblendite (coarse-grained to pegmatitic,
cut by felsic dykes, quartzo-feldspathic and epidote veins which are not found in other complexes)
with subordinate pyroxenites, peridotites and dunites (Jan et al. 1983)
Mohmand ophiolite complex consists of mainly serpentinized ultrabasic rocks that include
saxonite, dunite and pyroxenite. It also consists of dolerite, gabbro, and Kot Pranghar mélange in
Mohmand agency (Hussain et al. 1984)
Dargai (Malakand) ophiolite complex consists of mainly serpentinized ultrabasic rocks that
include saxoniter, dunite and pyroxenite. It also consists of dolerite, gabbro, and Sachiko-Qila
ophiolitic complex in Malakand District (Rossman and Abbas 1970, Ahmed 1984,88) Mingora-
Shangla ophiolitic mélange, Charbagh greenschist mélange, and Shangla blue schist mélange in
Swat (Kazmi et al. 1984; Jan and Jabeen 1990). Allai ophiolitic mélange in Indus Kohistan region,
NE of Shangla (Baig 1989)
Besham (Jijal) ophiolite complex consists of mainly serpentinized ultrabasic rocks that include
saxoniter, dunite and pyroxenite. It also consists of dolerite, gabbro, and with radiometric dates of
91+_ 6.3 to 114+-39Ma (Jan and Howie 1981; Coward et al 1986; Miller et al. 1991)

26
Chilas ophiolite complex consists of mainly serpentinized ultrabasic rocks that include saxoniter,
dunite and pyroxenite. It also consists of dolerite, gabbro, and
Babusar Pass mélange (Chamberlain et al. 1991; Ghazanfar et al. 1991)
Sapat complex between Kaghan and Kohistan; Peridot bearing ultramaphic rocks in the NE of
Naran, consists of dominantly gabbroic and less dominant ultramaphic rocks. The ultramaphic rocks
are exposed at the base and contain dunite and peridotite and pyroxenite with layer of chromite. The
ultramaphic cumulates directly in contact with metasediments and gneisses of Indo-Pakistan plate
(Khan et al. 1995). This complex is overlying the southern amphibole unit which is synonymous
with Bard (1993) Metanoritic (granulitic) unit. Burzil Pass-Dras ophiolitic mélange exposed east of
Nanga Parbat (Desio 1978; Honegger et al. 1982).

STRATIGRAPHY OF WESTERN INDUS SUTURE (INDO-PAK PLATE SUTURED WEST

BY BALOCHISTAN BASIN-PART OF TETHYS)

Long and 30km wide, the Indus Suture is a sinuous sigmoid belt consists of northern and
western Indus Suture. The western Indus Suture generally trends north-south represents the abducted
ophiolitic complex (Bela-Muslimbagh-Zhob-Waziristan), with flysch deposition in the west
represented by Balochistan basin, and mostly marine carbonate facies in the east represented by
Sulaiman and Kirthar basins. The northern Indus Suture generally trending east –west represents the
obducted ophiolite complex (Mohmand-Dargai-Besham-Chilas).
Bela volcanic group is 190km long and 20km wide, extending from Ornach in the north to Windar
in the south. Volcanic rocks are subordinate in the north of Ornach and dominate in the south. It
consists of intermixed volcanic and sedimentary rocks. The volcanic rocks are mainly basalt, lava,
coarse grained agglomerate and bedded tuff. The lava flows are commonly pillowed and spilitic.
Most of the weather reddish brown or green, but the more massive types weather black and are
difficult to distinguish from intrusions (HSC, 1961). Rocks are altered and fractured filled with
epidote and carbonate. Phenocrysts of augite with rims of chlorite are common, amygdules of calcite
and microlites of feldspar are abundant. Interlayered sediments are shale, marl, limestone,
conglomerate, and radiolarian chert. This group overlies the Windar group conformably (west of
Mor range), and is overlain unconformably by the Oligocene Nal limestone (Northwest of Bela). The
age is Cretaceous (HSC, 1961).
Bela ophiolite complex consists of mainly ultrabasic, basic, and intermediate compositions. Granitic
rocks are rare. The true granite is in the form of conglomerate pebbles. The ultrabasic rocks are
altered pyroxenite, serpentinized peridotite and amorphous and sheared serpentinite. The rocks of
intermediate compositions are diorite and gabbro. The gabbro is dark green rock spotted with large
crystals of white feldspar which is kaolinized. Some types are pegmatitic and exhibit crystals upto 4
inches across of biotite and pyroxene. A small body of the granodiorite located in the west of Porali
River, 10km south of Wad. Concordant and discordant intrusions are found.
Iridescent soapstone has been reported from Nal area.
Muslimbagh ophiolite complex consists of mainly serpentinized ultrabasic rocks that include
saxoniter, dunite and pyroxenite. It also consists of dolerite, gabbro, and diorite but these seem
slightly later phase. The age is Late Cretaceous-Early Paleocene (Ahmed and Abbas, 79; HSC,
1961). Kaimura et al. (1992) named it’s also Bagh complex after the Muslimbagh town.

27
Geological formations associated with igneous rocks: The geological formations (Permian-
Mesozoic) associated with igneous rocks are widely (10km) exposed in the Indus Suture zone as
pericratonic shelf carbonates, neritic shales and volcanics occasionally intruded by magmatic rocks
and tectonically emplaced ophiolites and mélanges (Kazmi and Abbasi, 2001) like Bela volcanics
(Bela volcanic group/Porali agglomerates/Porali volcanic conglomerate), Bela ophiolite, Mor
intrusives, Konar mélange, Zhob ophiolite, Zhob mélange, Bagh complex, Waziristan ophiolite
mélange, Twin sister soda dolerite and Pir Umar basalts, and Triassic Khanozai group (Gwal and
Wulgai formations, Jurassic Shirinab, Cretaceous Parh group (Sembar, Goru and Parh formations),
Fort Munro group (Mughalkot or Bibai formation), and Paleocene Thar formation, Bad Kachu
formation and Gidar Dhor group.
Waziristan ophiolite complex consists of mainly serpentinized ultrabasic rocks that include
saxoniter, dunite and pyroxenite. It also consists of dolerite, gabbro, and

STRATIGRAPHY OF KHYBER-HAZARA-KASHMIR (UPPERMOST INDUS) BASIN-

GONDWANA FRAGMENT), PAKISTAN

The Super Indus Basin is subdivided into uppermost/northernmost Indus (Khyber-Hazara-

Kashmir), upper /north Indus (Kohat and Potwar) and middle/central Indus (Sulaiman) and
lower/south Indus (Kirthar) basins. Khyber-Hazara-Kashmir/uppermost Indus basin is located in the
northern part of Pakistan, on the west it is bounded by Western Indus Suture belt, on the east by
India, on the south by Khyber-Hazara-Kashmir basin and on the north by northern Indus Suture and
then Kohistan-Ladakh magmatic arc. This tectonostratigraphic basin show lower basement may
belong to Indo-Pakistan shield and upper cover. This tectonostratigraphic basin (NW Himalayan)
show high crystalline and metamorphic belt in the northern half close to northern Indus Suture, and
less metamorphic and crystalline belt in the south, both are tentatively separated by MCT (main
crystalline thrust). This area includes the Khyber-Hazara-Kashmir (Nosehri and Lipa valley areas
close to MBT (main boundary thrust) areas as southern belt (Lesser Himalaya) and Malakand-Saidu-
Kaghan-Naran-Kel-Taubut) areas as northern belt (Higher Himalaya) separated by a tentative MCT.
The Higher Himalaya includes the area north of Malakand Pass, Girarai in Swat, Besham Block,
Batal and Naran (Kaghan valley) and Luat in Neelam Valley to the Northern Indus Suture (NIS).
The Lesser Himalaya includes the area south of Malakand Pass, Girarai in Swat, Besham Block,
Batal and Naran (Kaghan valley) and Luat in Neelam Valley to the MBT/Panjal-Khairabad thrust
fault.

Khyber Sub-basin and adjoining northern Indus suture

Spinghar (Sufaid Koh) crystalline unit extending from Parachinar to Khyber agency about
100km. Badshah et al. (2000) reported that this mountain consists of Indo-Pakistan basement
crystallines, Paleozoic metasediments and Mesozoic sediments, thrusted southward as nappe over
younger Indo-Pakistan shelf sediments. Sufaid Koh includes the Sikaram series, Spinghar quartzite,
Daradar dolomite and Spinghar crystalline unit.
Landikotal formation is originally named by Stauffer (1968) as Landikotal slates while Shah
(1969) renamed as Landikotal formation due to heterogeneous lithology like slate, phylite,
limestone, quartzite, sandstone and in places dolomite, intruded by basic dykes and sills.

28
Shagai formation is named after the Shagai Fort in the Khyber Pass by Stauffer (1968) for the 30m
unfossiliferous limestone (lower 15m dolomite and upper 15m brown limestone). Khan et al (1989)
included the Ali Masjid formation and Landikotal slates in this formation and show the lithology
as shale, slate, limestone and dolomite.
Darwaza Formation is named by Hussain et al. (1990) for the cream coloured limestone with
dolomite overlain by maroon argillite. Pogue et al. (1999b) inferred it as Late Proterozoic based on
Sr87 / Sr86 ratios of Inzari limestone which is lying on top of this sequence.
Hisartang Formation is named after Hisartang village by Hussain at al. (1990) for quartzite and
argillite. Late Proterozoic sequence.
Inzari Limestone is named after Inzari village by Hussain et al. (1990) for thin bedded, yellow to
greenish grey limestone.
Shahkot formation consists of limestone and phyllite of Lower Paleozoic age (Tahirkheli, 1970).
Hussain et al. (1989) declared as Precambrian.
Uch Khattak formation consists of rubbly limestone with minor shales (Tahirkheli, 1970). Hussain
et al. (1989) declared as Precambrian.
Shekhai formation consists of dolomitic limestone with quartzite and slaty shales with igneous
intrusions (Tahirkheli, 1970). Hussain et al. (1989) declared as Precambrian. Dolerite dykes and sills
are commonly found in this block.
Sobrah formation is named after Sobrah village 5km SSW of Tarbela dam by Pogue et al. (1999)
for arenaceous and dolomitic marble and calcareous and dolomitic quartzite. It is considered as
Sobrah member of Shekhai formation because of location between Manki and Tanawal formations.
Ambar formation is named after the Ambar village along Swabi Jehangira road by Pogue and
Hussain (1986) for dolomite, dolomitic limestone, quartzite and argillite.
Bampokha group is named by Chaudhry et al. (1992) for the Girarai and Tursak formations
exposed in the south of MCT in the Lesser Himalaya and consists of low-grade clac schist and
marble and graphitic schist. According to Chaudhry et al. (1992) this group is different from Alpurai
schist group in its tectonostratigraphic position and age.
Girarai formation is named by Chaudhry et al. (1992) for the calc schist, graphitic schist and
intercalated thin marble horizons. Its upper contact is with Tursak formation. In Mangora-Daggar
area, this formation overlies high grade metamorphic rocks of Tilgram formation with a major
MCT.
Tursak formation is named by Chaudhry et al. (1992) for the white to black marble with
subordinate calc and graphitic schist. Lower to middle Paleozoic in age.
Daradar dolomite is named by Badshah et al. (2000) for dolomite with common dolerite intrusions.
Soapstone occurs along fractures with mafic intrusions. In the western part of Spinghar at Neemtota,
it includes silver rich lead copper mineralization. It overlies Spinghar crystalline unit as Spinghar
quartzite. Silurian-Devonian age as correlated with rocks described by Khan A.B. et al. (1970).
Spinghar quartzite is named by Badshah et al. (2000) for quartzite. It is correlated with Silurian-
Devonian Spinrag quartzite of Khan A.B. et al. (1970). Its lower contact with Daradar and upper
contact with Sikaram series are tectonic.
Ali Masjid group of Khan, M.A. (1970) include the Spin Rag quartzite, Oosi Nala limestone,
Kandar phyllite, Nowshera formation, Misri Banda quartzite and Warran Ghundai formation.
Ghundai Sar formation of Khan et al. (1989) is the synonym of this group.
Khyber limestone of Stauffer (1968) is included in this group also.

29
Spin Rag quartzite consists of 30-36m thick quartzite. It rests over Landikotal slate along thrust
fault and overlain by Oosi Nala limestone. Its age is Middle to upper Silurian (Khan, M.A. 1970)
Owsi Nala limestone consists of limestone and shale intercalations. Mafic intrusions produced
soapstone lenses. On the basis of superposition age is Middle to upper Silurian age (Khan, M.A.
1970).
Kandar phyllite consists of phyllite, phyllitic schists interbedded with limestone and mafic sills
which have produced soapstone. Middle to upper Silurian (Khan, M.A. 1970).
Nowshera formation is named by Stauffer (1968a) for the fossiliferous limestone and dolomite. Its
synonym Jobra formation is named by DiPietro (1990) in the Swat area, 5km SE of Ilam for calc-
silicate marble and he now suggested to be a synonym of Nowshehra formation. It occurs in between
the Swat granite gneiss and Alpurai indicate a Paleozoic age Early Devonian. Its lower contact with
Kandar phylite and upper contact with Misri Banda quartzite are conformable revealing Late
Silurian to early Devonian.
Misri Banda quartzite is named after Misri Banda village by Satuffer (1968a) for quartzite,
limestone and argillite exposed in the Nowshera hills in the northern fault block of Attock-Cherat
range and in Swabi area. Early to middle Ordovician (Pogue et al. 1992). It rests unconformably on
the Cambrian? Amber formation. It rests on Nowshera formation in the Khyber area and aged as
Middle Devonian to Carboniferous (Khan, M.A. 1970).
Warran Ghundai formation consists of slates, phyllites, quartzite and dolomitic limestone and age
is inferred as Carboniferous on the basis of superposition (Khan, M.A. 1970). Lowara Mena
formation of Khan et al. (1989) is its synonym.
Panjpir limestone is named after the Panjpir village in Mardan district by Pogue and Hussain
(1986) for slate, phylite, limestone and quartzite. Middle Ordovician to Late Silurian by Pogue and
Hussain (1986)
Pir Sabak formation of Shah, 1977 include dolomite/limestone. Pre late Devonian age by Shah
(1977).
Zone of Crystalline nappes
Malakand
Pinjkora complex is named after the Pinjkora River by Di Pietro et al. (2001), consists of meta
sediments, granitic rocks, orthogneisses and metabasalts exposed in the core of Pinjkora anticline. It
is exposed in the Malakand-Swat area.
Swat
Manglour formation is named after the Manglaur village, 6km ENE of Mingora by Kazmi et al.
(1984c). It is exposed Afghan border to Swat and Besham areas. It consists of crystalline schists,
quartzite and marble (DiPeitro 1990).
Jobra formation is named after the Jobra village by DiPietro (1990). It is restricted to Loe Sar dome
west of Pacha. It consists of schist, quartzite and amphibolite.
Besham
Besham basement complex and cover sequence. East of Swat, near Alpurai area, the Swat nappe
is structurally underlain by the Besham nappe and furthers eastward the Hazara nappe. It is result of
thrusting of Indo-Pakistan basement. Tahirkheli (1979) named this as Besham group with Chali and
Banna formations. Some other names like Lahor granite, Thakot metamorphic rocks, Pazang
group and Karora group and formation were also used. Karora formation is named after the
Karora village near Besham by Fletcher (1986).

30
Kishar formation is named by Dipietro et al. (1999) for darkgrey non schistose biotite quartz
plagioclase rocks which were earlier included in the Besham group.
Amlo conglomerate is named after the Amlo village north of Besham by Baig (1990). It consists of
mainly conglomerate.
Gandaf formation is named after the Gandaf village in Tarbela Lake area by Pouge et al. (1995)
and consists of schist, slate, phyllite and marble.
Dipietro and others (1999, 2001) on the basis of igneous rocks in the vicinity of Besham arranged
under 3 groups namely Besham complex, Kotla complex and Black mountain complex.
Swat granitic gneiss is named by Martin et al. (1962) for the discontinuous bodies at Chakdara,
Dopialo, Ilam, Loe Sar, Choga. This intrudes the Proterozoic Manglaur, Gandaf and Tanawal
formations in Swat area.
Mansehra granitic gneiss is a vast pluton west of Hazara Kashmir syntaxis to Indus River (Shams
1969) but also exposed in the Khyber and Neelum Azad Kashmir. It intrudes the Proterozoic Gandaf
and Tanawal formations. In some literature its age is mentioned as Cretaceous to Early Tertiary.
Sikaram series is named after Sikaram Sar (4755m) peak of Sufaid Koh by Badshah et al. (2000)
for the EW trending argillaceous rocks like claystone and carbonaceous shales in the lower part and
slates and graphitic schists in the upper part. Badshah et al. (2000) mentioned the similarity between
this and Landikotal slates of Khyber agency.
Lwarani Mela limestone is named after the Lwarai Mela village, 4Km NE of Baraghat by
Tahirkheli et al. (1975) for the limestone with some slates.
Baraghat slates is named after the Baraghat village by Tahirkheli et al. (1975) for slates and
phyllites.
Barai quartzite is named after the Barai village about 2.4km NE of Baraghat village by Tahirkheli
et al. (1975) for the quartzites.
Spinkai formation is named after the Spinkai village in the upper part of Baraghat nala by
Tahirkheli et al. (1975). It is exposed in the north of Bara valley, extending eastward from Spinkai to
Mughabagh Kandao and Chora Hoda valley. It consists of limestone and shale.
Jafar Kandao formation is named after the Jafar Kandao village, 25km NE of Mardan by Pogue
and Hussain (1986) for the argillite, limestone, quartzite and conglomerate. Its lower contact with
Devonian Nowshera formation and upper contact with Malandrai greenschist member of Duma
formation. Pogue (1992a) found conodonts of Late Devonian to Middle Carboniferous age.
Duma formation is named after Duma village (on the right side of Indus gorge) 46km ENE of
Rustam by Dipietro et al. (1995). Kazmi and Abbasi (2008) have organized the following 3 members
of this formation. Karapa greenschist is named by Dipietro et al. (1999) is the lower member,
Duma marble member (Duma formation of Dipietro et al. 1999) is the middle member and
Malandrai member (greenschist, named after the Malandrai Kandao locality 12km NE of Rustam)
is upper member.
Mekhband formation is named by DiPietro and Isachsen (2001). It is exposed as allochthonous
slices on the flanks of Pinjkora anticline in Malakand area. It is similar to Marghazar formation in
Malakand areas. It conformably overlies the Proterozic Pinjkora complex and intruded by 278Ma
Chakdarra orthogneiss, showing earliest Permian or older.
Alpurai group is renamed by DiPietro (1990) after the Alpurai schist of Kazmi et al. (1984). Di
Pietro (1990) mentioned the Marghazar, Kashala, Nakanai Ghar and Saidu formations in this group.

31
Marghazar formation is named after the Marghazar locality near Saidu, in Swat for the biotite
schist, psammitic schist, calcite –phlogopite marble and minor garnet schist and amphibolite,
exposed in the flanks of Loe Sar dome in Swat and extends from near Manglaur southward up to
Jawar, westward up to 7km east of Chakdarra. Its age is constrained by the underlying Cambrian
Swat granite gneiss and overlying Triassic Kashala formation.
Kashala formation consists of calcareous schist and schistose marble with massive white to grey
marble of about 4000m thick, sharp contact with underlying amphibolites of Marghazar formation.
Pogue et al. (1992) reported upper Triassic (Carnian) conodonts from the marble in the mid of
formation.
Nakanai Ghar formation is named after Nikanai Ghar range in southern swat by Palmer-Rosenberg
(1985) for marble, dolomitic marble, schist and quartzite. It has faulted contact with underlying
Kashala formation and tentatively assigned a Late Triassic to Jurassic age (Pogue et al. 1962).
Saidu formation is named by Kazmi et al. (1986) for thick sequence of grey to dark grey calcareous
and pelitic schist (graphitic and chloritic) exposed in the south of MMT in the vicinity of Saidu and
elsewhere in Swat area with thrusted contact with mélanges of Indus Suture zone. About 30km south
of Saidu, the Saidu schist is replaced by Nikanai Ghar formation which overlies the Kashala
formation representing Late Triassic to Jurassic age.
Landai formation is named by DiPietro et al. (1999) for amphibolite, garnetiferous schistose
marble and white to grey marble occurs east of Indus river, SE of Besham. Sharp contact with
Mansehra granite and an unconformable or faulted contact with underlying Tanawal formation,
eastward in contact with Banna formation. DiPietro et al. (1999) mentioned the similarity with
Kashala and Duma formations and may be Late Paleozoic to Triassic in age.
Banna formation is named after the Banna village east of Besham by Tahirkheli (1979) for the
marble, slate, graphitic schist and chloritic schist. DiPietro et al. (1999) mentioned its exposure in a
small syncline along the east side of Indus syntaxis in Allai Kohistan. It has thrust contact with Indus
Mélange on the north, in the south the Banna thrust separate it from the underlying sillimanite
gneisses of the Hazara nappe. It is correlated with Precambrian Salkhala formation (Kazmi and
Abbasi, 2008). Treloar et al. (1989d) correlated it with Paleozoic tom Early Mesozoic Alpurai group
and DiPietro et al. (1999) correlated with Triassic or younger Saidu formation.
Magmatic rocks in the form of stocks or batholiths of Carboniferous to Permian are exposed
in the Khyber Hazara metamorphic belt and in the zone of crystalline nappes. Shewa-Shahbazgarhi
intrusives are in the form of acidic porphyrites/microgranites with mafic rocks exposed in the south
of Rustam near Shahbazgarhi. Ahmad et al. (1990) reported continental flood basalts along with
alkaline and peralkaline acidic rocks emplaced during continental rifting. Khan et al. (1990) and
Pogue et al. (1992) reported igneous rocks intercalated with Carboniferous sediments of Jafar
Kandao formation.
Ambela granitic complex consists of granites, alkaline granites, syenites, ijolite and carbonatite
intruded by dolerite and lamprophyre dykes (Rafiq and Jan 1988,89) with Rb-Sr isochron ages of
297-315 Ma for alkaline rocks near Koga(LeBas et al. 1987) and 280Ma U-Pb zircon age for the
synite (Smith et al. 1994).
Tarbela alkaline complex consists of gabbros, dolerites, albitites, granites and carbonatites exposed
in the form of small elongated body near Tarbela Dam (Jan et al. 1981a) and aged as 350 Ma K-Ar
date on hornblende from albitite which is close in age to Ambela granitic complex. Swat flaser
granitic gneisses consists of porphyroblastic granite gneiss, massive biotite granite gneiss,

32
tourmaline garnet granite gneiss, rapakivi type biotites and sphene bearing granites (Humayun 1985;
Chaudhrey et al. 1992) and referred by DiPietro et al. (2001) as Chakdara, Dopialo Sar and Ilam
granitic gneisses with 265Ma zircon Pb/U age for the gneisses while Sith et al. (1994) reported
271Ma Pb/U (zircon) age for the granitic rocks of Malakand area.
Mafic intrusions occurs as sills and dykes with rarely plugs or irregular bodies in Khyber Agency
(Shah et al. 1980), Cherat-Attock ranges (Karim and Sufyan 1986) and Hazara (Calkins et al. 1975).
At places they show lamprophyres, norites and gabbros. They intrude late Paleozoic or earlier rocks
but not in Mesozoic or later rocks (Kazmi and Jan, 1997, showing late carboniferous to early
Triassic. Baig (1990) has reported Ar/Ar plateau dates of 284-262Ma for mafic dykes intruding the
Mansehra granite.
Carbonatite in Peshawar Plain Alkaline Igneous Province: Carbonatite in Peshawar Plain
Alkaline Igneous Province is 150 km from Tarbela in the east up to Loe-Shilman near Pakistan-
Afghanistan boarder in the west consists mainly of granites, syenites, gabbros, ijolites and
carbonatite. The name of the carbonatites are Loe-Shilman, Sillai-Patti, Jawar, Jambil, Koga and
Tarbela. The age determined by many radiometric methods founds to be Oligocene about 30-35Ma
suggests alkaline magmatic episode (Khattak, et al. 2004).

Revised Stratigraphy of Hazara Sub-basin

The uppermost Indus basin is the lateral extension of Upper Indus basin in the downward
slopes. In the upper Indus basin the alternating terrestrial and marine conditions were dominant
while in the uppermost Indus basin the marine conditions were common. For example the in the case
of terrestrial Datta Formation is terrestrial in upper Indus and marine in uppermost Indus. The
comprehensive and revised stratigraphic setup of Khyber-Hazara-Kashmir (uppermost Indus) basin
represents Precambrian Hazara Formation, Tanawal Quartzite; Cambrian Abbottabad and Hazira
formations; Triassic Chalk Jabbi; Jurassic Datta and Samanasuk formations; Cretaceous Chichali
and Kawagarh formations in southern part while in northern part the Panjal Formation including
volcanics; Infra Tertiary boundary represented as Indus Formation (bauxite and laterite); Latest
Cretaceous to Late Paleocene Hangu (Patala is a synonym and lateral facies of Hangu Formation)
and Lockhart formations; Eocene Nammal, Sakesar, Chorgali and Kuldana formations; Miocene-
Pliocene Murree formation; Pleistocene-Holocene Soan Group represents Lei Formation (mainly
conglomerate-coarse clastic facies; previous lower Soan) and Holocene Soan Formation (clay,
sandstone and subordinate conglomerate-relatively fine clastic facies; previous upper Soan). The
Patala Formation is the lateral facies of Hangu Formation within the same basin, same stratigraphic
horizon, same lithologies and same depositional environments. So Hangu Formation name is
considered as first name and Patala will be junior synonym. Further its age is Latest Cretaceous to
Early Paleocene because it is well correlated with the Vitakri coal of Kingri area of Sulaiman basin.
In this way the Hangu Group consists of Latest Cretaceous to Early Paleocene Hangu formation and
middle to Late Paleocene Lockhart Limestone. Further there are problems in correlating Murree,
Kamlial, Chinji, Nagri, Dhok Pathan especially in Azad Kashmir and northern Potwar. So Murree
Formation is the senior synonym of Kamlial. So revised sequence is Murree formation and Soan
Formation in the Khyber-Hazara-Kashmir and in the Potwar the Murree, Chinji, Nagri and Dhok
Pathan will be considered under Potwar Group. The Pleistocene Coarse clastic (Lei conglomerate

33
and then Holocene mixed fine and coarse clastic may be Soan Formation can be grouped as
Lei/Mirpur/Soan Group.
Hazara Formation is named by Calkins et al. (1969) for the slate, phyllite, shale, limestone and
graphitic layers. It is widely exposed east to west. Its synonyms are Salkhala Formation, Attock
slates, Dhakhner, Shekhai formation and Manki formations,etc. Its age is Late Precambrian based on
correlation with Dogra slates. Salkhala Formation was first named as Salkhala series by Wadia (in
Pascoe, 1953) for a sequence of schist, phylite, quartzite and carbonaceous material after the
Salkhala village on Kishanganga River, Kashmir. Offield and Abdullah in Calkins eta l. (1969)
adopted as Salkhala Formation. Gandaf and Kundal are its units. Hazara group is named by Latif
(1970). Langrial limestone and Miranjani limestone are also named.
Tanawal (Tanol) Formation was first named as Tanol group after the Tanol village by Wynne
(1879) in the north and east of Tarbela. Calkins et al. (1975) adapted the new spelling by Survey of
Pakistan for the same village as Tanawal. It consists of quartzite and schists. It is intruded by
Cambrian Mansehra granite (Pogue et al. 1999a) and so this formation is considered as Late
Proterozoic.
Abbottabad Formation: Abbotabad group is named initially as formations by Marks and Ali (1962)
and elevated as group by Gardezi and Ghazanfar (1965). This group is well exposed from Tarbela to
Kashmir. The Tanaki (conglomerate), Sangargali (sandstone and shale), Mahamdagali (sandstone
and dolomite) and Mirpur (sandstone, shale and dolomite) members (Latif, 1970) are elevated as
formations under the Abbotabad group by the suggestions of Butt (Kazmi and Abbasi, 2008). Its
synonym Sirban formation is named after Sirban Hill near Abbotabad and Kakul formation after
Kakul area near Abbottabad by Latif (1970) for the dolomite, sandstone, shale, limestone, quartzite,
chert and phosphate beds. According to present author the best applied name is Abbottabad
Formation due to its wide lateral and vertical exposures.
Hazira Formation was named after Hazira village by Gardezi and Ghazanfar (1965) for the shale,
siltstone and quartzite. It overlies Abbotabad formation and underlies Mesozoic arenite (may be Data
for correlation). Hazira Formation shows glauconitic facies near base. Gardezi and Ghazanfar (1965)
named Hematitic formation (Galdanian formation). Hyolithids, Cambrian age.
Chak Jabbi Limestone: Some evidence of Chak Jabbi limestone may be found in Southern Hazara.
It is synonym of Kingriali Formation. Age Triassic.
Indus Formation is named by Malkani and Zafar (2015). Some boundaries like Jurassic-Cretaceous
boundary in the northern Kirthar named as Dilband Formation, the Cretaceous –Tertiary boundary
along with Latest Cretaceous continental strata named as Vitakri formation in middle Indus basin.
Like these in upper Indus and uppermost Indus basins the infra Tertiary boundary is named as Indus
formation because it is well exposed in the Indus basin. It consists of lateritic and bauxitic beds. Its
upper contact is with the Hangu Formation/Patala Formation and lower contacts vary for different
older ages (please see further detail in Kohat-Potwar basin).
Shinawari Formation: The marine shale and some sandstone are found in southern Hazara. Age
Middle Jurassic.
Samanasuk Formation: The name Samanasuk Limestone was derived from Samana Range by
Davies (1930). It consists of mainly limestone with minor shale. Age Middle Jurassic.
Chichali Formation was named after the Chichali Pass in Surghar Range by Danilchik (1961). It
consists of dark greenish grey glauconitic sandstone and glauconitic shale in the lower part. It is
correlated with Spiti shale of Hazara area. Its age is Early Cretaceous.

34
Kawagarh Formation was named as Kawagarh marl was named after the Kawagarh hills north of
Kala Chitta Range by Day (in unpublished Attock Oil Company’ report-1945) and later Kawagarh
Formation was amended due to different lithological extension by Fatmi (1977). It consists of marl
and limestone and shale. Its age is Late Cretaceous.
Panjal Group was named by Chaudhry et al. (1986) for the lower agglomerate slate as Chushal
Formation and Panjal Formation for the upper volcanosedimentary unit of Calkin et al. (1969).
Panjal group is exposed in the northern and eastern margins of Hazara Kashmir Syntaxis wedged in
between Murree and Panjal faults. It is further exposed in the Nosehri area of lower Neelum and
Lamnian area of upper Jhelum and some kms east of Forward Kahota, Azad Kashmir. Panjal
formation seems to be coeval to Parh group especially Mughalkot/Bibai Formation of western
Sulaiman basin because both formations have a lot of volcanics.
Hangu Group consists of Hangu and Lockhart formations of Latest Cretaceous to Paleocene. Shah
(1980) considered the Makarwal Group for Hangu, Lockhart and Patala formations. But now Patala
is considered lateral variation of Hangu, so Malkani and Mahmood (2016a) considered it as Hangu
Group. Further it is easy because of Hangu formation and type section.
Hangu Formation was named as Hangu shale and Hangu sandstone after the section south of Fort
Lockhart in Samana Range of Kohat area by Davies (1930a) and later Hangu Formation was
amended by Cheema et al. (1977). It consists of sandstone with grey shale and coal probably latest
Cretaceous age deduced from the correlation with Vitakri formation of Sulaiman basin. The Patala
Formation is being considered as synonym of Hangu Formation because of lateral extension of
Hangu Formation and mostly same lithology and almost same horizon. Age Latest Cretaceous to
Early Paleocene.
Patala Formation was named as Patala shale after the Patala nala in Salt Range by Davies and
Pinfold (1937) and later Patala Formation was amended by Cheema et al. (1977). It consists of
shale, marl, limestone and sandstone of Latest Cretaceous to Late Paleocene. Now it is being
considered as junior synonym of Hangu formation because it is the lateral facies of Hangu and also
in one basin only one name is suitable.
Lockhart Limestone was named after Fort Lockhart in Samana Range by Davies (1930a). It
consists of rubbly limestone of Middle-Late Paleocene age.
Nammal Group was named by Malkani and Mahmood (2016a) for the Nammal and Sakesar
formations.
Nammal Formation was named as Nammal limestone and shale of Gee (in Fermor, 1935) was
named after the Nammal gorge in western Salt Range. It consists of shale, marl and limestone of
Early Eocene.
Sakesar Formation was named after the Sakesar peak in the Salt Range by Gee (in Fermor, 1935).
It consists of dominant limestone with subordinate marl of Early Eocene age. Its synonym Margala
Hill limestone is named by Latif (1970a) for dominantly limestone with subordinate marl and shale
of Early Eocene age. Margala Hill limestone is being considered as synonym of Sakesar
formation/limestone due to its lateral facies and same basin and also same age.
Kuldana Group was named by Malkani and Mahmood (2016a) for the Chorgali and Kuldana
formations.
Chorgali Formation was named after the Chorgali pass in Khaire Murat range as Chorgali beds by
Pascoe (1920) and as formation by Cheema et al. (1977). It consists of shale and limestone of Early
Eocene age. It is exposed in the eastern Salt range, Kala-Chitta range, Khaire Murat range, and in

35
Hazara area. Its lower contact with Sakesar limestone is conformable and upper contact with
Kuldana in the Murree, Hazara and Kohat areas is conformable while its upper contact in some part
of Salt Range with Murree formation is disconfirmable. Age late Early-Middle Eocene.
Kuldana Formation was named after the Kuldana village north of Murree Hill station in Hazara
area as Kuldana beds by Wynne (1874), Lower Cherat series of Eames (1952) and Mami Khel clay
of Meissner et al. (1968). It consists of shale and marl with minor sandstone, limestone,
conglomerate and bleached dolomite. Its lower contact in the Hazara, Kala-Chita and Potwar area
with Chorgali formation, in Kohat area with Jatta gypsum, and the upper contact in western part of
Kohat-Potwar basin with Kohat formation and eastern part of Kohat-Potwar basin with Murree
formation. Age late Early-Middle Eocene.
Murree Formation: Among Potwar Group only Murree Formation is exposed in Hazara area. Mari
group of Wynne (1874), Murree beds of Lydekker (1876) and Murree series of Pilgrim (1910) has
been accepted by SCP as Murree Formation (Cheema et al, 1977). It consists of monotonous
sequence of dark red and purple clay and purple grey to greenish grey sandstone of fluvial origin. Its
age seems to be Miocene. It is correlated with Vihowa Group of Sulaiman basin and Potwar Group
of Kohat-Potwar basin.

Upper Naran (Hazara) and Upper Neelam (Azad Kashmir) areas

Sharda group is described by Chaudhry et al. (1986) for the gneisses, marble, granites and
amphibolites. It is exposed from Kunhar valley NE of Batal to Babusar pass. It is exposed between
the MMT and north dipping Batal thrust (Treloar et al. 1989b). This group is similar to Alpurai
group in Swat. This group consists of Basal di Khari granite gneiss (Cambrian and older), Naran
formation, Dadar granite migmatite complex and Burawai formation. Naran formation is named
after Naran village in Kaghan valley by Greco et al. (1989, 1993) for the metapelitic-metagreywake
gneisses. Burawai formation is named after the Burawai village in Kaghan valley by Chaudhry and
Ghazanfar (1987) for the schists, marbles and paragneisses of Paleomesozoic age.
Kaghan group is described by Ghazanfar et al. (1985) for the metapellites, schists, quartzites,
marbles, metaconglomerates, pegmatite and amphibolites up to garnet grade. It is exposed between
Mahandri and Batal. Chaudhry et al. (1986) divided it into following 3 formations. Rajawal
formation consists of Batal quartzites, Paludaran graphitic schist and Rajwal quartzites, quartz mica
schist, gneisses, pegmatites, aplites and granite gneiss.
Kaghan pelites consist of greenish grey garnetiferous schist, quartz mica schist, graphite schist,
marble and gypsum.
Mahandri formation consists of Kamalban quartz mica schist, quartzite, calc schist and marble.
Jared quartzite is named after the Jared village near Mahandri by Chaudhry et al. (1986) for the
earlier Jured series of Wadia (1930).

Nanga-Parbat-Harmosh Massif (Gilgit-Baltistan Province)

Iskere gneiss is named after the Iskere village. It is biotite gneiss with subordinate biotite schist,
amphibolite and calc-silicate gneiss with a minimum thickness of 8km. It is thrusted on older
Shingus gneiss and overlain by Harmosh schist. Its U-Pb isochron age is about 1850Ma (Early
Proterozoic).

36
Harmosh formation named after the Harmosh Range and consists of amphibolite,-grade biotite
schist and gneiss, marble, calc-silicate gneiss and amphibolite. The age is Late Proterozoic (Madin
et al. 1989).
Shingus gneiss is named after Shingus village in the Indus gorge and consists of amphibolite-grade
biotite gneiss, amphibolite, calc-silicate gneiss, biotite schist and marble (Madin et al. 1989). .
2600-2200 Ma Proterozoic

Hazara-Kashmir Syntaxis, Kaghan Nappe and Nosehri area of lower Neelum and Lamnian
area of upper Jhelum, Azad Kashmir

Panjal Group is being named by Chaudhry et al. (1986) after the Panjal. This group consists of
thick sequence of Chushal and Panjal formations.
Chushal Formation (Chushal agglomeratic slate) is named by Chaudhry et al. (1986) after the
metavolcanics and sediments of Panjal system of Lydekker (1878), Panjal volcanic series of Wadia
(1931), lower agglomerate slate and upper volcanosedimentary unit of Calkin et al. (1969).
Chaudhry et al. (1986) named the lower agglomerate slate as Chushal formation and Panjal
Formation for the upper volcanosedimentary unit of Calkin et al. (1969). Panjal group is exposed in
the northern and eastern margins of Hazara Kashmir Syntaxis wedged in between Murree and Panjal
faults. It is further exposed in the Nosehri area of lower Neelum and Lamnian area of upper Jhelum
and some kms east of Forward Kahota, Azad Kashmir
Panjal intrusives consists of dolerite dykes intrude the pretrappean sequences in the NW
Himalayas. Pascoe (1959) mentioned the genetic connection between the dolerite dykes and Panjal
formation (trap). The laccolithic bosses of coarse gabbro and norite have intruded in the Chushal
agglomerate slate in the Panjal range. Near Hurapor the sills in Agglomerate slates have been traced
into lavas of the Panjal trap. These dolerite dykes intrude the Hazara, Tanawal and some other
Proterozoic sequences in the Khyber-Hazara metamorphic belt.
Surgun group is named after Surgan village in the Neelam valley of Azad Kashmir by Malik et al.
(1996) for thick cover metasediments like mica schists, paragneisses, marble, quartzites and
metaconglomerates unconformably overlying the Precambrian basement and Pre Himalayan cover
sequence. This group is divided into units A,B and C age range from Late Proterozoic to Mesozoic.
Unit A resembles to Tanawal formation (Malik et al. (1996).

Upper Neelam valley (Azad Kashmir)

Ghazanfar and Chaudhry (1986) extended their map of Kaghan to cover the Neelam valley also.
They identified the Sharda group in the north of MCT, and Neelam valley group (further
subdivided in to Tithwal formation and Kundalshahi formation) in the south of MCT. Naril group is
named after the Naril village north of Kel by Malik et al. (1996) for the granulitic gneisses.
Kundalshahi group (Salkhala Formation) is named after Kundalshahi village in Neelam valley by
Malik et al. (1996) which was originally proposed as Kundalshahi formation by which is the by
Ghazanfar and Chaudhry (1986).

STRATIGRAPHY OF INDO-PAKISTAN SHIELD (A BASEMENT ROCK OF

PRECAMBRIAN AGE)
37
The Archean rocks are confined only in the Indian Peninsular Shield, however the Proterozoic rocks
are exposed in the Kirana, Nagar Parker and NW Himalayan (separately described), Pakistan as part
of Indo-Pakistan shield basement.
Nager Parker area; Nager Parker Igneous complex is named by Jan et al. (1997) for acidic and
basic igneous rocks. Kazmi and Khan (1973) named as Nagar Igneous Complex, Nagar Parker
granite by Shah (1077) and Nagar Parker Massif by Muslim and Akhtar (1995). According to Jan et
al. (1997) reported six major magmatic episodes of intrusive and extrusive activities like
amphibolites and related dykes, riebeckite-aegirine grey granite, biotite-hornblende pink granite,
acid dykes, rhyolite plugs and basic dykes. These rocks may be the extension of Proterozoic
granitoids of the Indian Rajasthan.
Kirana area; Kirana complex is named after the Kirana hills. It is exposed near the towns of
Sargodha, Chiniot, Shahkot and Shangla hills. Hachi group is named by Shah (2009) after the Hachi
volcanic (Alam, 1987) after the Hachi hill north of Sikhanwali Railway Station. In general this group
consists of quartzite, slates, phyllite, tuffs and lava flows.
Kirana group is introduced by Kazmi (1964) for which Rb/Sr date of 870 Ma has been obtained by
Davies and Crawford (1971). Alam et al. (1992) divided the Kirana complex into Kirana and
Sharban groups.
Taguwali formation is named after the Taguwali village by Alam et al. (1992) and it consists of
cross bedded quartzites, phyllite and slates in the lower part, slates in the middle part and phyllites
and slates in the upper part.
Asianwala quartzite is named after Asianwala canal rest house by Alam et al. (1992). It consists of
quartzite with subordinate intercalations of slate. It has gradational contact with the underlying
Taguwali formation. No fossils are reported.
Sharban group is named by Alam et al. (1992). Hadda quartzite is named after Hadda canal rest
house and it consists of quartzites, slates, conglomerates and lava flows. Sharban formation is
named after Sharaban hill about 18km SE of Sargodha and it consists of dominant conglomerates
with minor lenses of fine grained quartzite.

STRATIGRAPHY OF KOHAT-POTWAR (UPPER INDUS) BASIN (GONDWANA

FRAGMENT), PAKISTAN

Kohat-Potwar basin/upper Indus basin is located in the central part of Pakistan, on the west it
is bounded by Sulaiman basin and Western Indus Suture belt, on the east by Indo-Pak shield, on the
south by Sulaiman basin and on the north by Khyber-Hazara-Kashmir basin/uppermost Indus basin.
Kohat-Potwar basin represents Precambrian, Paleozoic, Mesozoic and Cenozoic rocks. The exposed
stratigraphic sequences in the Kohat-Potwar basin are being described as follows.

Salt Range Formation: It was named after the Salt Range (Asrarullah, 1967). It consists of Sahwal
Marl Member, Bandar Kas Gypsum Member and Billianwala Salt Member. Its age is Late
Precambrian (Gee, 1945) deduced from the overlying Early Cambrian Kussak formation.
Khewra group consists of Khewra, Kussak, Jutana, Baghanwala and Khisor formations. Further
Khisor Formation is added in this group because it is lateral variation of Baghanwala Formation.

38
Khewra Sandstone: Khewra group was named after the Khewra Gorge near Khewra town
(Noetling, 1894) and Khewra Sandstone was formalized by Stratigraphic Committee of Pakistan
(Shah, 1977). It consists of purple sandstone. Schindewolf and Seilacher (1955) mentioned some
tace fossils interpreted as trilobite trails (not any particular age). Its age is Early Cambrian (Gee,
1945) deduced from the overlying Kussak formations.
Kussak Formation; Kussak group was named after the Kussak Fort in eastern Salt Range
(Noetling, 1894) and Kussak Formation was formalized by Stratigraphic Committee of Pakistan
(Shah, 1977). It consists of glauconitic and micaceous sandstone and siltstone interbedded with
dolomite. The formation contains 5 to 25 cm long thin lenses of fossil asphalt (gilsonite) (Shah
2009). The formation is fossiliferous and yielded the fauna such as Neobolus warthi, Botsfordia
granulata, Lingulella wannieki, L. fuchsia, Hyolithes wynnei, Redlichia noetlingi. Schindewolf and
Seilacher (1955) mentioned Early Cambrian age while Teichert (1964) mentioned early Middle
Cambrian on the correlation of Redlichta Noetlingi of this formation with the R. forresti of Australia
in beds of early Middle Cambrian age.
Jutana Formation: Jutana stage was named after the Jutana village in the eastern Salt Range
(Noetling, 1894) and Jutana Formation was formalized by Stratigraphic Committee of Pakistan
(Shah, 1977). It consists of dolomite and shale. It is fossiliferous. Schindewolf and Seilacher (1955;
in Teichert 1964) mentioned some fossils from shale unit like Lingulella fuchsia, Botsfordia
granulata, Redlichia noetlingi and also a gastropod Pseudothecca cf. subrugosa. So its age is late
Early Cambrian to early Middle Cambrian.
Baghanwala Formation: Baghanwala group was named after the Baghanwakla village in the
eastern Salt Range (Noetling, 1894) and Baghanwala Formation was formalized by Stratigraphic
Committee of Pakistan (Shah, 1977). It consists of red shale alternated with flaggy sandstone. It
contains trace fossils. The age is early Middle Cambrian deduced from underlying Jutana formation
(Shah, 1977).
Khisor Formation: Khisor gypsiferous beds were named after the Khisor Range (Hussain, 1960)
and Khisor formation was formalized by Stratigraphic Committee of Pakistan (Shah, 1977). It
consists of thick gypsum in the base and shale in the upper part. On correlation with Baghanwala
Formation it is considered as early Middle Cambrian age (Shah, 1977).
Nilawahan Group was proposed by Gee (in Pascoe 1959). It consists of following 3 formations.
Tobra Formation: It was named after the Tobra village in the eastern Salt Range (Shah, 1977) for
the Talchir boulder bed of Gee (in Pascoe, 1959). It consists of Tillitic facies in eastern Salt Range,
fresh water facies of siltstone and shale with pollen and spore flora, and a complex facies of
diamictite, sandstone and boulder beds increase in westernsalt range and Khisor range. The lower
part of the formation in Zaluch Nala contains pollen and spores such as Punctatisporites cf. P.
gretensis, Leiotriletes spp., Acanthotriletes cf. A. tereteangulatus, Apicnlatisporites sp.,
Protohaploxypinus sp., Striatopodocarpitrs sp., Potonieisporites sp. Kraeuselisporites sp.,
Nuskoisporites sp. On the basis of Protohaploxypinus sp. and Striatopodocarpitrs sp., the age is
considered to be Early Permian deduced by Balme (in Teichert 1967).
Warcha Sandstone: Warcha group was named after the Warcha gorge in the Salt Range by
Noetling (1901) and Warcha Formation was named by Hussain (1967). It consists of speckled
sandstone with some shale. It is lateral variation of Dandot formation exposed only in limited areas
of eastern Salt Range while Warcha has vast exposure, so Warcha name is adopted here for Dandot
Formation. Now Dandot is being considered junior synonym of Warcha formation. The basal part of

39
Warcha/Dandot formation of eastern Salt Range yielded brachiopods including Discina sp.,
Martiniopsis sp., and Chonetes sp., bivalves include a rich fauna of Eurydesma and several species
of Conularia. Many species of Bryozoa and Ostracoda have also described. These fossils and its
position tell its age as Early Permian (Shah, 1977).
Sardhi Formation: It was named after the Sardhi gorge in the eastern Salt Range by Gee (written
communication, 1964). It consists of greenish grey clay with some sandstone, siltstone and
limestone. Some plant remains and fish scales are reported. The limestone beds yielded brachiopods
and bryozoans. Hussain (1967) reported fossils from Saiyiduwali in Khisor Range like
Anastomopora sp., Fenestella sp., Athyris sp., Spirijer sp. The age is Early Permian (Hussain, 1967;
Shah, 1977).
Zaluch Group of Teichert (1966) after the Zaluch nala includes the Amb, Wargal and Chidru
formations which are previously known as lower, middle and upper productus limestone
respectively. The age of the group ranges from Early Permian to Late Permian on the basis of
Monodiexodina kattaensis in the lower part and Cyclolobus oldhami in the upper part (Shah 2009).
Amb Formation: Amb sandstone beds was named after the Amb village in the central Salt Range
(Waagen, 1891) and Amb Formation was named by Tiechert (1966). It consists of sandstone,
limestone and shale. The calcareous beds contain abundant fusilinids. The limestone contains large
productus such as Derbyia and Neospirifer. The shale contains some flora like Glossopteris and
Gangamopteris. Kummel and Teichert (1970) reported Ostracods and detailed biostratigraphy.
Balmi reported abundant pollen and spores. Pascoe (1959) reported fusilinids, bryozoans,
brachiopods, bivalves and gastropods. The brachiopods include Orthotichia spp., Derbyia spp.,
Dictyoclostus spp., Marginifera spp., Neospirifer spp., Strophalosia spp. Dielasma spp., etc. The
index fossil is Monodiexodina kattaensis which indicates Artinskian age (Dunbar 1933, Teicher
1966, Douglas 1968). The age is equivalent to Darvasion stage of southern USSR (Miklukho 1958).
Wargal Limestone: Wargal group was named after the Wargal Village in the central Salt Range
(Noetling, 1894) and Wargal Limestone was introduced by Teichert (1966).It consists of mainly
limestone and dolomite. The formation contains abundant bryozoans, brachiopods, bivalves,
gastropods, nautiloids, ammonoids, trilobites and crinoids. Kummel and Teichert (1970) reported
pollen and spores, ostracods and conodonts. The brachiopods like Enteletes, Derbyia,
Waagenoconcha, Richthofenia, Oldhaminia, Linoproductus, spirigeralla and other trilobites (Grant
1966) occur in upper nodular beds and include Kathwaia capitorosa and Ditomopyge fatmii. The
Xenodiscus and Pseudogastrioceras suggest Late Permian age. The Leela, Condonofusiella and
Nipponites in Nammal gorge suggest Late Permian (Rao and Verma 1953). Ustritsky (1962)
suggested Late Permian age based on brachiopods. The Wargal limestone correlates with Guadalupe
series of western Texas and Murgabian stage of southern USSR (Miklukho-Maklai 1958). (Shah
2009).
Chidru Formation: The name Chidru beds was named after the Chidru Nala by Waagen (1891) and
Chidru Formation was named by Dunbar (1932). It consists of shale, quartzose sandstone with minor
limestone. The formation contains brachiopods, bellerophontids and Plagioglypta-a Scaphopoda.
Kummel and Teichert (1970) reported brachiopods like Austeges sp., Callispirina sp., chonetella sp.,
Cleiothridina cf. C. capillata, Derbyia cf. D. plicatella, Dielasmatids sp., enteleles sp., Hemiptychina
sp., Hustedia sp., Kiangsiella sp., Linoproductus sp., Lyttonia sp., Martinia sp., Neospirifer sp.,
Orthotichia sp., Richthofenia sp., Spiriferalla sp., Spirigeralla sp., Waagenoconcha sp., and
Whitspakia sp. and ammonoids like Stacheoceras antiquum, Cyclolobus oldhami (restricted to this

40
formation only), Eumedlicottia primas, Episageceras wynne, Xenodiscus carbonarius, X. plicatus
and others. The age on the basis of ammonoids is considered to be Chidruan stage (Late Permian).
The formation is correlated with Permian stage of southern USSR (Miklukho 1958). Grant (in
Kummel and Teichert 1970) concluded the brachiopods are found throughout formation and
assigned the age Guadalupian fauna.
Musakhel group was named by Shah (2009) after the Nammmal gorge near the Musakhel. It
consists of Mianwali, Tredian and Kingriali formations of Triassic age. This group is
paraconformable to the Zaluch Group and disconformable to the Surghar Group.
Mianwali Formation: The name Mianwali Series was used by Gee (in Pascoe, 1959) and Mianwali
Formation by Kummel (1966). It consists of marl, limestone, sandstone, siltstone and dolomite.
Kummel (1966) described three members like lower Kathwai, middle Mittiwali and upper Narmia.
Kathwai member consists of dolomite in the lower and limestone in the upper part. The most
common ammonite species of earliest Scythian age are Ophiceras connectens, Glyptophiceras cf. G.
himalayanum. The fauna includes forminifers Lingula borealis, rhynchonellids, pectineds,
ostracodes, crinoids, ophiuroid fragments, echinoids (miocidaris pakistanensis), conodonts, fish teeth
and arich palynological assemblage of pollens, spores, and acritarchs (Kummel and Tiechert 1970,
Balme 1970, Sarjeant 1970). Schindewolf (1954) marked the Permo-Triassic boundary in the middle
of white sandstone unit which is the highest beds of Chidru formation. Kummel and Tiechert (1966)
shifted the boundary to the base of dolomite unit of Kathwai member on the ground that it contains
Ophiceras. They were of the view that the Permian-Triassic boundary is a paraconformity equivalent
in magnitude at least a stratigraphic stage. Kummel and Teichert (1970) described fauna of Lower
Kathwai members like bryozoans, brachiopods, cephalopods, bivalves, ostracodes, crinoidal stems,
conodonts, fish, palynomorphs, acritarchs, algae and trace fossils. The Grant (1970), Sweet (1970)
and Balme discus fauna and permo-triassic boundary. Kummel and Teichert (1970) favour Furnish
and Glenister (in Kummel and Teichert 1970) for a smaller break (absence of uppermost Permian
stage “Changhsingian stage” near the boundary) than a large break as contended by Grant (1970).
Fatmi (1977) described the Mittiwali members (limestone with abundant ammonites) as thickest
(98m) in Zaluch Nala) represents Waagen’s (1895) lower ceratite limestone, ceratite marl, ceratite
sandstone and upper ceratite limestone. The ammonoids include Ambites, Proptychites, Koninckites,
Gyronites, Prionolobus, Kymatites, Kingites and Paranorites. The pectinids (Pecten discites)
ostracodes and conodonts are also reported. The fossils like Pseudomonotis sp., Nucula sp.,
Rhynchonella sp., Bellerophon (Stachella) sp., Anasibirites, Prionites, Hemiprionites and others.
The bivalves represented by Gervillia sp. and Pecten sp. In Nammal gorge the member consists of
shale interbedded with limestone and sandstone. The upper Narmia member is equivalent to bivalve
beds and dolomite unit. In Surghar Range it is pisolitic dolomite with 2m thickness contains
Spirijerina and other barchiopods. It contains barchiopods, ammonoids, nautiloids, echinoid spines
and crinoidal remains. Ammonoids include Subvishnuites sp., indet., Xenoceltites sinuatus,
Xenoceltites sp., indet., Procarnites kokeni, Isculitoides sp., indet., Stacheites sp., indet.,
Dagnaoceras sp., indet., Nordophiceras sp., indet., Nordophiceras planorbis, Arctomeekoceras sp.,
indet., Tirolites sp., indet., Prohungarites cf., P. crasseplicatus (Fatmi 1977). This fauna indicates
Late Scythian age.
Tredian Formation: The name Tredian Formation was named after the Tredian hills in Mianwali
district by Gee (in Kummel, 1966) to replace his earlier name Kingriali sandstone. It consists of
sandstone of terrestrial environments. Fatmi (1977) mentioned two members, the lower is Landa –

41
sandstone and shale (Kummel 1966) and upper is Khatkiara-massive thickbedded sandstone
(Danilchik and Shah 1967). The Landa member contains acritarchs where as Khatkiara yielded
spores, pollen grains and wood fragments. Some Palynomorphs are Calasmospra landiana,
Cyciogranisporites arenosus, Aratrisporites paenulatus, Falcisporites stabilis and Platysaccus
queenslandi. The stratigraphic position tells Middle Triassic age.
Kingriali Formation: The name Kingriali dolomite was named after the Kingriali peak in Khisor
Range by Gee (1945) and later amended as Kingriali Formation. It consists of dolomite, limestone,
dolomitic limestone, marl, sandstone and shale. Anwar et al. (1992) divided the formation into two
members like lower Doya (sandstone, dolomite and minor shale) and upper Vanjari (mainly
dolomite). Some brachiopods, bivalves and crinoidal remains are reported. The Chak Jabbi
Limestone of Fatmi (1972) is the lateral variation of Kingriali dolomite, so now it is being
considered here as junior synonym of Kingriali formation. Age Late Triassic.
Surghar Group was named by Shah (1980) after Surghar range for 5 formations but here 3
formations of Jurassic are incorporated in this group and other 2 formations of Cretaceous are
assembled in other group. Now this group comprises of Datta, Shinawari and Samanasuk formations
of Jurassic age.
Datta Formation: The name Data Formation was named after Data Nala in Surghar range by
Danilchik (1961). It consists of mostly terrestrial deposits like sandstone, shale, ferruginous glass
sand and fire clay. The fire clay occurs in the lower part. Age Early Jurassic.
Shinawari Formation: The name Shinawari Formation was named after Shinawari village in
Samana range of Kohat district by Fatmi (1977). It consists of alternation of marl, shale and
limestone. From Bagnotar Hazara and Chak Dalla Kala Chitta Bouleiceras is reported. Further Latif
(1970) reported Terebratula, Montlivaltia, Pholadomya, Zeilleria and Eotrapezium. In Kala Chitta
Spiriferina sp., Velata velata, Pecten sp., Lima (Plagiostoma) gigantee, corals and gastropods are
reported. In Marawat (Sheikh Buddin Hill) and Khisor ranges Bouleiceras sp., bivalves,
barchiopods, etc reported (Fatmi and Cheema 1972). The fauna from lower part indicates an Early
Jurassic (Toarcian) age but the upper part may extends upto Middle Jurassic.
Samanasuk Formation: The name Samanasuk Limestone was derived from Samana Range by
Davies (1930). It consists of mainly limestone with minor shale. Fatmi (1968,1972) reported middle
Callovian fauna (brachiopods, bivalves, gastropods, ammonoids and crinoids) from the uppermost
part. The ammonoids include Reineckeia R. sp., R. ancepts, Choffatia sp., (C. aff. Cobra),
Obtusicostites spp., Obuckmani, Hubertoceras sp., indet., and Kinkeliniceras sp. The brachiopods
include Somalirhynchia nobelis. The bivalves include Homomya sp., Pecten sp., Arctostrea sp., and
Tellurimya tellaris. From Samana Range Belemnopsis grantana and Kala Chitta (Jhallar and Chak
Dalla) bivalves include Protocardia grandidieri, Eomiodon indicus and Corbula lyrata (Fatmi 1968,
1972). Latif (1970a) reported following fauna from Hazara such as Stylina sp., Corbula sp.,
eomiodon sp., Gervillea sp., Lima sp., Lucina sp., Nucula sp., Nerinen sp., Protocardia sp., Pygurus
sp. Malkani (2007a, 2008a) reported first time in Indo-Pakistan the titanosauriforms/titanosaurs
(Malakhelisaurus mianwali Malkani 2008, renamed due to engaged Malasaurus Malkani 2007)
trackways confronted by a running theropod (Samanadrinda surghari Malkani 2007). Further
Malkani (2015c,e) and Malkani and Sun Ge (2016) reported a significant trackway of a couple of
small theropods. The two trackways of small theropod meets/overlap/converge with each other and
then become diverge showing mating/fighting. All these fauna indicates Middle Jurassic age.

42
Chichali Group is named by Malkani and Mahmood (2016a) for the Chichali, Lumshiwal,
Kawagarh and Indus formations. However lateral facies of Lumshiwal Formation in downward slope
is Kawagarh Formation (carbonate facies) is also included in this group. Further Cretaceous Tertiary
boundary and Infra Tertiary boundary named as Indus Formation by Malkani and Mahmood
(2016a), now it is also included in Chichali Group. Chichali Group is correlated with the Parh and
Fort Munro groups of Sulaiman and Kirthar basins.
Chichali Formation was named after the Chichali Pass in Surghar Range by Danilchik (1961). It
consists of dark greenish grey glauconitic sandstone and glauconitic shale in the lower part. It is
correlated with Spiti shale of Hazara area. A lot of invertebrate fauna like many species of
Cephalopod ammonoids and belemnites, brachiopods and foraminifers represents Late Jurassic to
Early Cretaceous age (Spath 1930; Fatmi 1968, 1972, 1977; Shah 2009).
Lumshiwal Formation was named as Lumshiwal sandstone after the Lumshiwal Nala in the
Surghar Range by Gee (1945) and later Lumshiwal Formation was amended due to different
lithology by Fatmi (1977). It consists of cross bedded sandstone and shale of continental origin. Its
age is Late Cretaceous.
Kawagarh Formation was named as Kawagarh marl was named after the Kawagarh hills north of
Kala Chitta Range by Day (in unpublished Attock Oil Company’ report-1945) and later Kawagarh
Formation was amended due to different lithological extension by Fatmi (1977). It consists of marl
and limestone and shale. Fatmi (1968, 1972) reported ammonoids. Latif (1970) reported
Globotruncana lapparenti, G. fornicate, G. Concavata carinata, G. elevate-calcurata, Heterohelix
reussi, H. globocarinata, H. globulosa, Pseudotextularia elegans, Rugoglobigerina rugosa,
Globorotalites multisepta, foraminifers. It is lateral extension of Lumshiwal Formation, so it is
considered under the Chichali Group. Its age is Late Cretaceous.
Indus Formation was named by Malkani and Mahmood (2015,2016). Some disconfirmable
boundaries like Jurassic-Cretaceous boundary in the northern Kirthar named as Dilband Formation,
the Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary along with Latest Cretaceous continental strata named as Vitakri
Formation in middle Indus basin. Like these in upper Indus and uppermost Indus basins the infra
Tertiary boundary is named as Indus Formation because it is well exposed in the Indus basin. Its type
locality is Narali area (eastern limb) of Tatta Pani Anticlinorium (43K/2), District Kotli, Azad
Kashmir. It consists of lateritic and bauxitic beds along with pisolitic beds (Fig.7). Its upper contact
is with the Hangu Formation (synonym Patala formation) and lower contact with different older
strata. In the type locality its lower contact is with the Samanasuk Limestone (previously named
Abbottabad Formation for all the limestone from Cambrian to Jurassic). But here in Kotli and
Muzaffarabad Azad Kashmir, the Abbottabad limestone and dolomite may be in the core/lower part
and followed by Jurassic Samanasuk Limestone in the upper part.
Hangu Group was named by Malkani and Mahmood (2016) for Paleocene Hangu and Lockhart
formations. Shah (1980) considered the Makarwal Group for Hangu, Lockhart and Patala
formations. But now Patala is considered lateral variation of Hangu, so Malkani and Mahmood
(2016a) considered it as Hangu Group. Further it is easy because of Hangu formation and type
section. Hangu Group is equivalent to Ranikot Group of Kirthar basin and Sangiali Group of
Sulaiman basin.
Hangu Formation was named as Hangu shale and Hangu sandstone after the section south of Fort
Lockhart in Samana Range of Kohat area by Davies (1930a) and later Hangu Formation was
amended by Cheema et al. (1977). It consists of sandstone with grey shale and coal probably latest

43
Cretaceous age deduced from the correlation with Vitakri formation of Sulaiman basin. The Patala
Formation is being considered as synonym of Hangu Formation because of lateral extension of
Hangu Formation and mostly same lithology and almost same horizon. Foraminifers with some
corals, gastropods and bivalves have been reported (Cox 1930b, Davies and Pinfold 1937,, Haque
1956, Iqbal 1972). Davies and Pinfold (1937) recorded the following fauna in Salt Range such as
Operculina cf. O. candalifera, O. subsalsa, Miscellanea miscella, Lockhartia haemei, L. conditi and
Lepidocycma (Polylepidina) punjabensis. Age considered is Early Paleocene. Patala is a junior
synonym of Hangu Formation (Malkani and Mahmood 2016a) because Ptala is a lateral facies of
Hangu and also in one basin only one name is suitable and justified.
Lockhart Limestone was named after Fort Lockhart in Samana Range by Davies (1930a). It
consists of rubbly limestone. It is fine rubbly relative to Sakesar limestone/Margala Hill limestone.
Lockhart Limestone consists of abundant foaminifers, corals, mollusces, echinoids and algae (Davies
and Pinfold 1937; Eames, Bhola and Nagappa 1951; Haque 1956; Raza 1967, Cheema 1968, Latif
1970c). These fossils and law of superposition tells Late Paleocene age.
Nammal Group was named by Malkani and Mahmood (2016) for Eocene Nammal and Sakesar
formations. It is equivalent to Laki Group of southern Kirthar basin and Ghazij Group of Sulaiman
basin and northern Kirthar basin.
Nammal Formation was named as Nammal limestone and shale of Gee (in Fermor, 1935) was
named after the Nammal gorge in western Salt Range. It consists of shale, marl and limestone of
Early Eocene.
Sakesar Formation was named after the Sakesar peak in the Salt Range by Gee (in Fermor, 1935).
It consists of dominant limestone with subordinate marl of Early Eocene age. The formation has
yielded a rich assemblage of forminifers, mollusks and echinoids revealing its age as Early Eocene
(Cheema et al. 1977). Margala Hill limestone is considered as synonym of Sakesar formation/
limestone due to its lateral facies and same basin and also same age (Malkani and Mahmood 2016a).
Panoba Group was named by Malkani and Mahmood (2016) for the Panoba, Chashmai, Gurguri,
Shekhan, Bahadurkhel salt and Jatta gypsum. It is equivalent to Laki Group of southern Kirthar
basin and Ghazij Group of Sulaiman basin and northern Kirthar basin.
Panoba Formation (=Shaheed Ghat Formation of Sulaiman and Kirthar basins) was named after
Panoba village by Eames (1952) and it consists of greenish grey shale with occasional beds of
sandstone and limestone of Early Eocene age. Here it is considered as Panoba Formation.
Chashmai Formation (=Toi Formation of Sulaiman and Kirthar basins) is named by Tanoli et al.
(1993) after Chashmai Algad (330 06’ 45’’: 700 47’) about 1.5km northeast of Chashmai village
which is located 8km WNW of Latambar Village on Bannu-Kohat road. It consists of sandstone and
green shale. According to its stratigraphic position, its age can be considered as Early Eocene.
Gurguri Formation (=Kingri Formation of Sulaiman and Kirthar basins) was named by Wells
(1984) after Gurguri, in the west-central part of Kohat area. It consists of sandstone and brown shale
of Early Eocene age.
Shekhan Formation (=Drug Formation of Sulaiman basin and Sakesar/Margala Hill limestone of
Potwar and Hazara basins) was named after Shekhan Nala as Shekhan limestone by Davies (1926b)
and as formation by Cheema et al. (1977). It consists of limestone, shale and sandstone. It consists of
larger foraminifers, corals, mollusks and echinoids. Nagappa (1959) and Pascoe (1963) reported
foraminifers such as Alveolina oblaonga, Assilina daviesi, A. laminose, Nummulites atacicus, and
Orbitolites complanatus. These fossils indicate an Early Eocene age.

44
Bahadurkhel Salt was named after Bahadurkhel salt Quarry by Meissner et al. (1968) for the Kohat
saline series of Gee (1945). It consists of white salt and the upper salt is grey to black due to
bituminous coating with fetid odour. It is Early Eocene.
Jatta Gypsum was named after Jatta Gypsum Quarry by Meissner et al. (1968) for the upper part of
Kohat series by Gee (1945). It consists of gypsum and some clay partings. It is Early Eocene age.
Kahan Group was first introduced by Khan (2009) in his Geological map of 39 G (1 0 sheet). The
type section was designated by Malkani (2010g) near the village of Kahan. In Kohat sub basin the
Kahan Group consists of Habib Rahi, Domanda, Pirkoh and Drazinda formations. The Kahan Group
is equivalent to Kuldana Group of Potwar sub basin and Kirthar Group of Kirthar basin.
Habib Rahi Formation was initially named as Habib Rahi limestone by Tainsh et al. (1959). The
reference section (lat. 390 37’ 50’’N; long. 700 14’E) was mentioned by Hemphill and Kidwai
(1973). But the grid of type locality (lat. 290 06’ 10’’N; long. 690 02’ 30’E) located in the Vicinity of
Dera Bugti town in the southern limb of Pir Koh anticline is first time reported by Malkani (2010g).
It consists of limestone, shale and marl. The age of Habib Rahi Formation is Early Middle Eocene. It
also includes the Kohat formation and its Kaladhand (limestone with some shale) and Sadkhel (shale
with subordinate limestone) members. The lower contact with Jatta gypsum and Shekhan formation
and upper contact with Domanda Formation is conformable. It is late Early to Middle Eocene.
Domanda Formation was initially named as Drazinda shale by Hemphill and Kidwai (1973) after
Domanda Post and adjacent to the Zhob-D.I.Khan road. It consists of mainly shale/mud with one bed
of gypsum. The shale is chocolate, khaki and calcareous. Massive gypsum with one bed (1-2m thick)
has white to light grey colour. Its age is middle Eocene.
Pirkoh and Drazinda formations are found in the southernmost part of Kohat sub-basin.
Kuldana Group was name by Malkani and Mahmood (2016a) for the Chorgali and Kuldana
formations. It is equivalent to Kirthar Group of Kirthar basin and Kahan Group of Sulaiman basin.
Chorgali Formation was named after the Chorgali pass in Khaire Murat range as Chorgali beds by
Pascoe (1920) and as formation by Cheema et al. (1977). It consists of shale and limestone. It is
exposed in the eastern Salt range, Kala-Chitta range, Khaire Murat range, and in Hazara area. Its
lower contact with Sakesar limestone is conformable and upper contact with Kuldana in the Murree
and Hazara areas is conformable while its upper contact in some part of Salt Range with Murree
formation is disconfirmable. Davies and Pinfold (1937), Eames (1952), Gill (1953) and Latif (1953)
reported foraminifers, mollusks and ostracodes. The foraminifers include Assilina spinosa, A.
granulose, A. daviesi, A.leymerei, Floscula globosa, globorotalia reissi, G. wilcoxensis, globogerina
prolata, Lockhartia hunti, L. tipper, L. conditi, Nummulites atacicus, N. mammilla, Orbitolites
complanatus and Rotalia crookshankiana. This fauna indicates an Early Eocene age.
Kuldana Formation was named after the Kuldana village north of Murree Hill station in Hazara
area as Kuldana beds by Wynne (1874), Lower Cherat series of Eames (1952) and Mami Khel clay
of Meissner et al. (1968). It consists of shale and marl with minor sandstone, limestone,
conglomerate and bleached dolomite. Its lower contact in the Hazara, Kala-Chita and Potwar area
with Chorgali formation, and in Potwar sub basin with Murree formation are disconformable.
Pinfold (1918), Dehm and Zu (1958), Meissner et al. (1968, 1969) and Latif (1970c) reported
Potwar Group; Siwalik group was named by Meddlicot (1868) from the Siwalik and Simla hills of
India. But Malkani and Mahmood (2016a) named as Potwar Group which include the Chinji, Nagri
and Dhok Pathan formations. The Potwar Group is equivalent to Murree Formation. Kamlial

45
formation is upper part of Murree Formation. Potwar Group consists of fine clastic with relative to
Soan Group.
Murree Formation: Mari group of Wynne (1874), Murree beds of Lydekker (1876) and Murree
series of Pilgrim (1910) has been accepted by SCP as Murree Formation (Cheema et al, 1977). It
consists of monotonous sequence of dark red and purple clay and purple grey to greenish grey
sandstone of fluvial origin. Its age seems to be Miocene. It is correlated with Vihowa group of
Sulaiman basin. Kamlial beds were distinguished by underlying Murree Formation by its heavy
mineral content in which tourmaline dominates over epidote (Shah 2009).
Chinji Formation; It is named after the Chinji zone of Pilgrim (1913) by the SCP (Cheema et al.
1977). It consists of red shale and grey to brownish grey sandstone late Miocene.
Nagri Formation; It is named after Nagri village by Lewis (1937). It consists of greenish grey
sandstone and chocolate brown shale, and conglomerate late Miocene to Early Pliocene.
Dhok Pathan Formation is named after the Dhok Pathan village by Pilgrim (1913). It consists of
monotonous cyclic alternations of grey, greenish grey and brown sandstone, and chocolate color and
rusty orange and grey to greenish grey shale, and conglomerate lenses and beds. The conglomerate is
being thick and dominant in the upper part of late Pliocene.
Soan Group was named by Malkani and Mahmood (2016) which consists of the Pleistocene coarse
clastic Lei (/Mirpur/Kakra) Conglomerate and then Holocene mixed fine and coarse clastic of Soan
Formation. Soan Group consists of coarse clastic with relative to Potwar Group.
Lei Conglomerate was introduced by Gill (1952) for the Pleistocene coarse clastic (synonym
Mirpur/Kakra formations).
Soan Formation was named by Cheema et al. (1977) for the upper Siwalik of Meddlicott (1864). It
consists of massive conglomerate with subordinate varicoloured sandstone, siltstone and clay of
Early Pleistocene.

INTERFINGURING OF STRATIGRAPHY OF SULAIMAN (MIDDLE INDUS) AND

KOHAT-POTWAR (UPPER INDUS) BASIN

From Sargodha high-Pezu-Parachinar there is a line of Interfingering of Stratigraphy of

Sulaiman (middle Indus) and Kohat-Potwar (upper Indus) basin. The marine and non-marine rocks
are also contacted in this line as land-ocean linkages. The northern part of Spinghar area show Indo-
Pak basement rocks (it may be younger) and southern part (Parachinar area) represents Jurassic
Chiltan/Samanasuk limestone; Cretaceous Sembar Shale, Fort Munro Limestone; the Vitakri
Formation representing Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary are widely exposed in Sulaiman and Kohat-
Potwar basins; Paleocene Sangiali Group like Rakhi Gaj Sandstone and Dungan Limestone; Eocene
Ghazij shale and sandstone (Ahmad 1957; Asrarullah and Ahmad 1984). The Parachinar area
represents connections of Jurassic Chiltan Limestone of Sulaiman basin and Samanasuk Limestone
of Kohat-Potwar basin The Parachinar area represents connections of Jurassic Chiltan Limestone of
Sulaiman basin and Samanasuk Limestone of Kohat-Potwar basin The Parachinar area represents
connections of Jurassic Chiltan Limestone of Sulaiman basin and Samanasuk Limestone of Kohat-
Potwar basin; the Cretaceous Sembar Shale and Fort Munro Limestone of Sulaiman basin
interfingered with the Chichali Shale and Kawagarh Limestone of Kohat-Potwar basin; the
Paleocene Sangiali Group like Rakhi Gaj Sandstone and Dungan Limestone interfingered with
Hangu (synonym Patala) sandstone, shale and coal, and Lockhart Limestone; the Eocene Chamalang

46
(Ghazij) shale and sandstone interfingered with the Nammal/Panoba shale and Shekhan (Gurgori)
sandstone of Kohat-Potwar basin. In this way Vihowa group is interfingered with the Potwar group.

REVISED STRATIGRAPHY OF SULAIMAN BASIN (MIDDLE INDUS BASIN)

Sulaiman basin/Middle Indus basin is located in the central Pakistan, on the west it is
bounded by Western Indus Suture and then Kakar Khorasan range of Balochistan Basin, on the east
Indo-Pak shield and India, on the north by Kohat-Potwar basin/upper Indus basin and on the south
Kirthar basin. The Sulaiman basin epresents exposed Mesozoic and Cenozoic rocks, however in
subsurface the Paleozoic and Precambrian rocks may be found. The exposed stratigraphic sequences
in the Sulaiman basin is as follows.

Triassic Khanozai Group

It is named by Fatmi et al. (1986) for Gwal and Wulgai formations exposed in the Western Indus
Suture and at the contact of Sulaiman with Balochistan basins.

Gwal Formation: Gwal named by Anwar et al. (1991) after Gwal village. It consists of variegated
shale and thin bedded limestone and marl with rare mafic intrusion and diabase flow. On the basis of
ammonites including Meekoceras, Owenites, Anakashmirites, Anasibirites, Durgaites,
Hemiprionites, etc the age is Early Triassic (Late-Middle Scythian). It is exposed in Khanozai, Zhob,
Quetta, Shirinab, etc, areas. It is 350 m thick in the Trakai-Gwal section. It contains exotic blocks of
Permian limestone containing brachiopods, corals etc. Its lower contact is not exposed and upper
contact with Wulgai is sharp with fossiliferous conglomeratic and dense limestone. It is correlative
with the Narmia and Mittiwali members of Mianwali Formation of Upper Indus Basin (Anwar et al.
1991; Shah 2009). Gwal formation is a senior synonym of Raghzai formation named by Khan (1999)
in Waziristan area.

Wulgai Formation: Wulgai is named by Williams 1959 after Wulgai village for variegated shale
with medium bedded limestone of Middle to Late Triassic age exposed in the Western Indus Suture
regions like Khanozai, Zhob, etc. It is 180 m thick in the Trakai-Gwal section. Its lower contact with
Wulgai is sharp with fossiliferous conglomeratic and dense limestone and upper contact with
Spingwar formation seems to be conformable. The fossils like radiolarian, conodonts and some
Spiriferinid brachiopods in basal limestone indicates Middle Triassic age and Holobia, Daonella
(Bivalves) and ammonites like Cladescites, Jovites, Arietoceltites, Anatomites, Juvavites, Arcetes
indicating Late Triassic. It is correlated with the Tredian and Kingriali formations of upper Indus
basin (Anwar et al. 1991; Shah 2009). Wulgai Formation is a senior synonym of Kishai formation
named by Khan (1999) in Waziristan area. The Wulgai Formation show close similarity with the
Triassic rocks of Mount Everest region (Wager 1939).

Jurassic Sulaiman Group

The term “Sulaiman limestone” was first used by Pinfold (1939), the type section in the gorge
between Mughal Kot and Dhana Sar (lat. 310 26’N; long. 700 01’E) was formally described by
Williams (1959), and later “Sulaiman Limestone Group” is used by the Geological Survey of
Pakistan. The Alozai group was used by Shah (2009) for Spingwar and Loralai formations only on

47
the suggestions of A.N Fatmi that the Alozai group is well exposed in the Quetta to Zhob. Malkani
(2009a) used the term Sulaiman Group for the Spingwar, Loralai Takatu/ Chiltan and Dilband
formations. The Sulaiman Group is adopted due to type locality of Alozai is located in Western
Indus Suture (WIS; previously used as Axial Belt) and further Alozai consists of only Spingwar and
Loralai formations, while Takatu Limestone and Dilband Formation are not developed in the Alozai
type area. So considering the Alozai subgroup, Malkani (2010a) named the Sulaiman Group for
Spingwar, Loralai, Takatu (Chiltan) and Dilband formations. Mesozoic rocks are mostly pericratonic
marine shelf sloping westward from Indo-Pakistan Peninsula with some terrestrial strata. These
sequence show igneous rocks in and near vicinity of western Indus suture.

Spingwar Formation: The Spingwar member of Shirinab Formation was named by Williams
(1959) and he designated the type section at Spingwar at the north of Zamari Tangi, about 35 km
northwest of Loralai (lat. 300 32’ 52’’N; long. 680 19’ 16’’E). Stratigraphic committee (Shah, 2009)
upgraded it to the formation level due to wide and thick exposures and clear cut differences among
the under and overlying strata. It consists of grey to greenish grey shale, grey to whitish grey marl
and limestone with some igneous sills especially in the vicinity of Western Indus suture (Axial Belt).
It is mostly exposed near the western Indus suture. It is 665m in Zamari Tangi, 215m in the Mara
Tangi, and 140m in the Tazi Kach sections (Fatmi 1977; Shah 2009). It is conformably contacted on
the base with Triassic Wulgai Formation and upper contact with Loralai Limestone. Its Upper
Triassic to Early Jurassic age is based on fossils of ammonites, brachiopods, bivalves, crinoids,
corals and shell fragments (Williams, 1959; Anwar, et al, 1991; Fatmi 1977).

Loralai Formation: The Loralai member of Shirinab Formation was named by Williams (1959) and
he designated the type section in the Zamari Tangi in Loralai District (lat. 300 32’ 10’’N; long. 680
18’ 40’’E). It represents mainly thin to medium bedded grey limestone with some grey shale and
marl. It is mostly peak forming especially in the vicinity of Loralai, Mekhtar, Gadebar, Tor Thana,
Anambar, etc. In these areas, the Chiltan Limestone is not developed, so here the age of Loralai
Formation is extended to an upper level of deposition of Chiltan Limestone in Takht-e- Sulaiman,
Ziarat and Takatu areas. Loralai Formation is 250m thick in the Zamari Tangi, 360m in the Mara
Tangi, and 150m in the Tazi Kach (Khanozai area) sections (Fatmi 1977; Shah 2009), and in the
Gadebar section it is more than 400m thick. Its lower contact with Spingwar Formation and upper
contact with Takatu (Chiltan) Limestone is conformable. Where the Chiltan/Takatu is missing, its
upper contact with Sembar Formation is disconfirmable and represented by J-K boundary. The
Loralai formation is rich in radiolarian chert. The age assigned by Williams (1959) and Woodward
(1959) is Early Jurassic but HSC (1961) have recorded Torcian fossils from its lower part. Some
Torcian ammonites (Nejdia sp. and Protogrammoceras sp. from Khulgai Ali Khel section and
Phymatoceras sp. from Mara Tangi section) are also collected from Loralai and its vicinity areas
(Anwar, et al, 1991; Fatmi 1977; Shah 2009). Its age ranges from Late Liassic to Bajocian (Early-
Middle Jurassic).

Chiltan (Takatu Limestone) Formation: Stratigraphic Committee (Shah, 2002; 2009) named the
Takatu Formation after the Williams (1959). Its name was derived from the Takatu Range in the
Northeast of Quetta. The type section is along Data Manda Nala, a small stream passing throughout
the entire formation in very deep narrow gorge and enters the plain about 3km south of Bostan

48
village (Lat. 300 20’N; Long. 670 03’E). The type locality of Chiltan is after the Chiltan Range (Lat.
300 01’ N; Long. 660 46’E). The famous name Chiltan limestone was introduced by Hunting Survey
Corporation (1961) after the Chiltan Range southwest of Quetta. This term Chiltan Limestone is well
known in all geoscientists. It is also valid in most of the Kirthar, Sulaiman and Axial belt areas. It
consists of massive thick bedded limestone which forms prominent ranges and high peaks in the
surrounding of Quetta, Ziarat and then in the Takht Sulaiman area, however in the vicinity of
Loralai, the peak forming equilent is Loralai formation. This limestone is considered as biohermal or
reefal. This formation is 800m thick in the type locality and 1100m in the Takht Sulaiman and in
other areas varies from 600 to 1100m (Fatmi 1977; Shah 2009). The lower contact of Chiltan
(Takatu) Limestone with Loralai Formation is conformable while upper contact with
Dilband/Sembar Formation is disconfirmable. Arkell (1956) reported Late Bathonian ammonites
from the lower part of Mazar Drik unit/Dilband Formation, its age can be considered as Early
Callovian to Late Bathonian (Middle Jurassic) (Fatmi 1977). Its stratigraphic position also tells the
age range from Middle Jurassic to Late Jurassic.

Dilband Formation: Dilband Formation which is about 20m thick in the type area (northern Kirthar
range) was named by Abbas et al. (1998) and designated three members like lower Jarositic clay
member (light grey to brown), middle ironstone member (reddish), and upper green glauconitic shale
member. Ammonits from Mazar Drik and Moro area include Macrocephalites, Dolikephalites,
Indocephalites, Pleurocephalites, Indosphinctes and Choffatia (Fatmi 1977). Arkell (1956) reported
Bullatimorphites bullatus and Clydoniceras from the lower part of Mazar Drik unit/Dilband
Formation, representing Late Bathonian age. So its age can be considered as Late Jurassic. Recently
Malkani (2003c) has found dinosaurs (Brohisaurus kirthari) fossils from Sun Chaku (Karkh area)
and Charoh (Zidi area) localities of Khuzdar district (Kirthar range) from the Dilband formation
(transition beds of Sembar and Dilband Formation). Its stratigraphic position tells the age range from
Middle Jurassic to Late Jurassic. The Aghbargai Zhiara limestone named by Hirayama et al. (1992)
in Ghunda Manra area south of Bagh is correlated with Chiltan/Loralai limestone. The Dilband
Formation (synonym Mazar Drik Formation) is less than 30 m and exposed also in the Dilband
Johan-Moola Zahri Range of Kirthan foldbelt and Loralai, Duki and Gadebar areas of Sulaiman
foldbelt. It is considered a member of Takatu Formation by Shah (2009) but in most of these areas
the Takatu limestone is missing in Sulaiman basin and occupied by Loralai Formation. Further it
includes mostly the transitional and disconfirmable horizons representing Jurassic Cretaceous (J-K)
boundary. This J-K boundary exposed in Duki, Loralai, Daman Ghar and Gadebar areas is
represented by light brown shale alternated with light grey fresh colour and light brown weathered
colour limestone belong to Dilband Formation. Recently Malkani (2003c) has found dinosaurs
(Brohisaurus kirthari) fossils from Sun Chaku (Karkh area) and Charoh (Zidi area) localities of
Khuzdar district (Kirthar range) from the Dilband Formation (at the base of Sembar Formation).

Early Cretaceous Parh Group

The term Parh was first used by Blanford (1879) for rocks of Parh Range. The name was later
applied by Vredenburg (1909) to a prominent white limestone in his Cretaceous succession.
Williams (1959) redefined it as a limestone between the Goru and Mughal Kot formations. The type
area lies in the Parh Range in the upper reaches of the Gaj River (lat. 260 54’ 45’’N; long. 670 05’
45’’E). Goru and Parh formations are well exposed in the Goru and Parh ranges but the Sembar is

49
well exposed in the Lakha Pir Charoh area just east of Parh Range. Parh Group represents Sembar,
Mekhtar, Goru and Parh formations, however Mekhtar sandstone (Lower Goru Sandstone) is not
exposed in Parh range while it is exposed in Mekhtar area of Loralai District and also found in
subsurface in eastern Kirthar basin. Shah (2009) mentioned the Mona Jhal Group after the Fatmi et
al. (1996) from Mona Jhal Anticline, 13 km north of Khuzdar and it includes the Sembar, Goru, Parh
and Mughal Kot. According to the author’s opinion the Mughal Kot Formation is arenaceous clastic
in the Eastern Sulaiman and fit with the Fort Munro Group which is mostly clastic, except Fort
Munro Limestone.

Sembar Formation: The term Sembar Formation was proposed by Williams (1959) to replace the
term Belemnite beds of Oldham (1890). The type section is Sembar Pass (lat. 29 0 55’ 05’’N; long.
680 34’ 48’’E). Malkani (2010a) reported three members of Sembar Formation in the Mekhtar and
Murgha Kibzai area of Sulaiman Foldbelt like Sembar lower and upper shale members and middle
member is named as Mekhtar member/Mekhtar sandstone member. The type locality of Mekhtar
member is just south of Mekhtar town, near the Kareez (39F/7). This sandstone unit is about 100m
thick. It is also found in the north of Mekhtar like Murgha Kibzai area. The shale is greenish grey
and khaki, mostly calcareous, with rare glauconitic. The Mekhtar sandstone is Pab like white to grey,
quartzose, thin to thick bedded and medium to coarse grained, mostly weathered as dark grey to
black. The marl is grey to cream white, thin bedded and porcelaneous. Malkani and Mahmood
(2016b) updated the Mekhtar member as Mekhtar Formation (Mekhtar sandstone or it is commonly
called as lower Goru sandstone). Sembar Formation is estimated as about 1000m in the Loralai,
Gadebar Range and Tor Thana areas. As lateral variation, this formation is relatively more and
maximum thick in the Loralai, Tor Thana and Gadebar areas. It is being reduced in towards the
Kirthar basin and axial belt regions and also toward the northern Sulaiman Foldbelt. It is 133m thick
in the type locality and 262m in the Mughal Kot area (Fatmi 1977; Shah 2009). It is about 200m near
the Lakha Pir of Charoh anticline in Zidi area in the east of Khuzdar town. Its lower contact with the
Loralai/Chiltan/Dilband formations is disconfirmable and upper contact with Goru formation is
transitional and conformable. It contains foraminifers and most common belemnites Hibolithes
pistilliformis, H. subfusiformis and Duvalia sp. From Windar River in Lasbela, Nuttal (in Arkell
1956) reported fragments of Virgatosphinctes denseplicatus and V. cf. V. subquadratus. The age
varies from latest Jurassic to Early Cretaceous (Fatmi 1977).

Tor Ghundi Pegmatite: Malkani and Haq (1998) have reported it as a Tor Ghundi pegmatite
(micropegmatite; intrusive) with deposit of feldspar and subordinate mica crystal (3-5cm) in the
southwest of Kasa and south of Killi Shabozai. It is a circular pipe or plug type (1km in diameter)
surrounded dolerite type igneous rocks and then by Parh limestone and Sembar Shale of Parh Group.
This pegmatite is scarce in quartz. There is another showing about 2km in the east in Sembar shale.
Jadoon and Baig (1991) reported it as Tor Ghar nepheline synite.

Mekhtar Formation (or Mekhtar Sandstone): Mekhtar Formation (or Mekhtar Sandstone or it is
commonly called as lower Goru sandstone) is upgraded by Malkani and Mahmood (2016b) as
formation (from previous Mekhtar member) due to its wide occurrence and lateral extension in the
Eastern Sulaiman and also Eastern Kirthar basins (subsurface). Malkani (2010a) established three

50
members of Sembar formation. But here the Middle Sandstone and upper shale and marl are
considered as Mekhtar Formation. Its type locality is near the Mekhtar town just south of Mekhtar
on Chamalang Mekhtar road (39F/7). At type locality it is round about 100m thick lensoid shape.
According to law of superposition its age can be considered as Early Cretaceous. This sandstone is
oil producing/reservoir rocks in Kirthar basin commonly called Lower Goru Sandstone. Actually it is
a Mekhtar Formation. It mostly consists of sandstone (Pab like) with some shale and marl. The lower
contact with Sembar is gradational and sharp marked on Sandstone facies variation from Shale facies
of Sembar. The upper contact with Goru Formation is transitional.

Goru Formation: The term Goru Formation was introduced by Williams (1959). The type section is
located near Goru village on the Nar river in the southern Kirthar Range (lat. 27 0 50’ 00’’N; long.
660 54’ 00’’E). It consists of alternations of about 3 thick marl units and two shale units. The shale is
grey to khaki and calcareous. The marl is grey to cream white, thin bedded to thick bedded and
porcelaneous. It is relatively reduced towards the axial belt regions. It is about 500m thick in the
type area and also same in the Mekhtar area. It is being reduced towards western Indus Suture near
Quetta upto 60m thick. Its lower contact with Sembar Formation is transitional and conformable, and
upper contact with Parh Limestone is marked by a marine maroon red beds which also show
conformable contact, however some author have suggested the maroon beds are indicator of
disconformity but in actual these are marine red beds. The most of the fossils found belong to
foraminifers and belemnite (Hibolithes spp.). Fritz and Khan (1967) described the foraminifers from
Bangu Nala in Quetta as Globigerinelloides algeriana, G. breggiensis, G. caseyi, Ticinella roberti,
Gavelinella, Rotallipora ticinensis, R. appennenica, R. brotzeni, R. reicheli, Praeglobo-truncana
stephani and Planomallina buxtorfi. According to stratigraphic position, its age can be considered as
Early Cretaceous.

Parh Formation: It consists of mainly limestone with minor shale and marly beds. Limestone and
marl is cream white to grey, thin to thick bedded and porcelaneous. The shale is grey, khaki and
calcareous. It is 60-70m thick in Sulaiman Basin. As lateral variation, this formation is relatively
more and maximum thick (about 300-400m) in Karkh, Kharzan and the type locality areas of Kirthar
Foldbelt. Its lower contact with Goru Formation is conformable and upper contact with Mughal Kot
Formation is also transitional and conformable represented by about 12m marly beds. The formation
is rich in foraminifers like Globotruncana Spp., G. ventricosa, G. lapparenti, G. sigali,
Pseudotextularia elegans (Gigon 1962). The age of the Parh limestone is middle Cretaceous in the
Sulaiman and Kirthar foldbelts, however it is maintained from middle Cretaceous to Late Cretaceous
in the Axial Belt areas where the Fort Munro Group is not developed and also lower and middle
Sangiali group is not developed. For example the Ziarat Laterite showing K-T boundary is contacted
by Parh and Dungan formation

Late Cretaceous Fort Munro Group

The term Fort Munro Group was first time used by Malkani (2009a) for Mughal Kot, Fort Munro,
Pab and Vitakri formations. Its type section is Rakhi Gaj and Girdu are in Toposheet 39 K/1. The
lower contact of this group is also found in Shadiani section in Toposheet 39 J/4.

51
Mughal Kot Formation: Williams (1959) named and designated the type section of the Mughal Kot
Formation to be in the gorge 1-3 miles west of Mughal Kot post (lat. 310 26’ 52’’N; long. 700 02’
58’’E). Its synonym is Nishpa formation. It has variable lithology like marly mudstone in the Rakhi
Gaj area and its vicinity, alternation of shale, lenticular sandstone and limestone in the Tor Thana
and Murgha Kibzai area, and alternations of shale with subordinate sandstone is common in all other
areas of eastern Sulaiman Foldbelt. In the western Sulaiman like the vicinity of Loralai, the Fort
Munro Group is represented by about 100m shale further reducing to western Indus Suture belt, in
the Ziarat laterite area, it is not developed. In the western vicinity of Ziarat, it is represented by shale
and volcanics (Bibai Formation), and in the eastern vicinity of Quetta like Hana Lake and Sor Range
areas it is represented by limestone with negligible shale. The shale is grey, khaki and calcareous and
rarely noncalcareous. The sandstone is grey to white, quartzose to muddy, thin to thick bedded and
medium to coarse grained, mostly weathered as dark grey to black. The marl and mudstone is grey to
cream white. The Parh like limestone is creamy white, porcelaneous, thick bedded and lenticular
observed in the Tor Thana area (39 F/3). It is estimated about 1200m in the Musa Khel and type
locality area. Petroleum seep is reported in Toi River of Mughal Kot area, on the contact of Mughal
Kot and Pab formations. As lateral variation, this formation is relatively more and maximum thick in
the type locality and Musa Khel district. It is being reduced in towards the Kirthar basin and axial
belt regions. It is mostly developed in shallow marine, prodeltaic and deltaic environments. Its lower
contact with Parh Formation is transitional and conformable represented by marly beds well exposed
in the Tor Thana and its vicinity areas, and upper contact with Fort Munro/Pab Formation is also
transitional and conformable. Williams (1959) reported Omphaocyclus sp. and Orbitoides sp.
showing Maastrichtian ages, while Marks (1962) reported Siderolites cf. calcitrapoides, Orbitoides
tissoti minima and O. tissoti compressa from upper part of Mughalkot formation in Rakhi Nala
showing late to middle Campanion age, so its lower part may extends up to early Campanion. So its
age is Early to Late Campanion

Fort Munro Formation: The name Fort Munro limestone member was introduced by Williams
(1959) for the upper dominantly limestone unit of the Mughal Kot Formation and he designated the
type section in the western flank of the Fort Munro anticline along the Fort Munro-Dera Ghazi Khan
road (lat. 290 57’ 14’’N; long. 700 10’ 38’’E). Fatmi (1977) assigned it a separate formation status
because of its distinct lithology and regional extent. It consists of grey to brown and thin to thick
bedded limestone with minor greenish grey shale. It is 100m thick at type locality, 248m in
subsurface at Dabbo Creek i,e due to dip it actual thickness may be 100-150m. The lower contact
with Mughal Kot Formation and upper contact with Pab Formation are transitional and conformable.
Blanford (1879) correlated the unit with Hippuritic limestone of Iran on the base of fragments of
Hippurite found from the scree of this unit. Williams (1959) reported Omphaocyclus sp. and
Orbitoides sp. showing Maastrichtian ages. HSC (1961) reported Actinosiphon punjabensis,
Orbitoides media, Siderolites sp. etc from Kirthar range and assigned Maastrichtian gae. According
to Williams (1959), HSC (1961) and Marks (1962, its age may be late companion to Early
Maastrichtian.

Pab Formation: The term Pab Sandstone was introduced by Vredenburg (1907) and the type section
in the Pab Range (lat. 250 31’ 12’’N; long. 700 02’ 58’’E) was designated by Williams (1959).
Malkani (2006d) divided the Pab Formation into three members like lower Dhaola member (Dhaola

52
Nala, lat. 290 42’ 41’’N; long. 690 29’ 48’’E), middle as Kali member (Kali hills of Dhaola Range,
lat. 290 42’ 41’’N; long. 690 29’ 42’’E) and upper Vitakri member). The best reference section for
Dhaola member is Fort Munro area (lat. 290 57’ 14’’N; long. 700 10’ 38’’E) of D.G.Khan district,
and for Kali member is Tor Thana area (lat. 300 12’ N; long. 690 11’E) of Loralai District. The
Dhaola member (white quartzose sandstone with minor to moderate black weathering) represents the
environments of proximal delta, near the coastline and consistent in the eastern Sulaiman Foldbelt.
Kali member (shale and black weathering sandstone) represent middle and distal deltaic
environments and mostly exposed in the western part of Sulaiman Foldbelt. Two members are not
consistent every where in the Sulaiman basin. In the Dhaola and Chamalang sections, both Dhaola
and Kali member are existed well. The thickness of Pab Formation is estimated 500m in the Fort
Munro area. It is pinching toward north like Mughal Kot section (300m), and also pinching toward
south in the Khairpur- Jacob Abad high. This high separates the northern delta (Sulaiman Basin)
from southern delta (Kirthar Basin). In the western Kirthar it is about 600m or more thick. It is not
absent in Mari-Bugti Hills but shale proportion increases. The thickness of this formation is
relatively less in the Mughal Kot and toward north and Western Indus Suture (WIS) but uniform in
the eastern Sulaiman Foldbelt. Its lower contact with Fort Munro or Mughal Kot Formation is
transitional and conformable and upper contact with Vitakri or Rakhi Gaj Formation is
disconfirmable. Vredenburg (1908) reported Orbitoides (Lepidorbitoides) minor from lower part of
the unit in Rakhi Nala representing early Maestrichtian age. Williams (1959) reported mixed
bentonic-pelagic foraminifers of Maestrichtrian age from type locality area. HSC (1961) reported
Globotruncana aff. G. linnei, Lituola sp., Omphalocyclus macropora, Orbitella media, Orbitoides
sp., Siderolites sp., from Moro area with Maestrichtian age. Recently, dinosaurs, crocodiles and
pterosaurs are found from Vitakri Formation (Previously upper member of Pab formation, for detail
see in Vitakri Formation) of Sulaiman foldbelt. The fossil of gymnosperm/conifer wood of
Baradarakht goeswangai Malkani 2014, with 20 cm in diameter, is found from the Latest
Cretaceous (Maastrichtian) Pab Formation in Goeswanga Pass, Barkhan District, Balochistan
(Malkani 2014f). According to dinosaur fossils and stratigraphic position, the age is considered as
Middle to Late Maastrichtian.

Vitakri Formation: Malkani (2006c) introduced first time the upper member of Pab Formation as
Vitakri member and Malkani (2009a) upgraded this member into Vitakri Formation (Type Vitakri
area, lat. 290 41’ 19’’N; long. 690 23’ 02’’E) due to its distinct lithology, depositional environments
and lateral extension. Vitakri village is about 30 Km in the south-southwest of Barkhan town.
Vitakri Formation (15-35m, extended mostly in the eastern Sulaiman Fold and Thrust Belt) consist
of alternated two units of red mud/clay (2-15m each unit) of over bank flood plain deposits and two
quartzose sandstone units (2-15meach unit) with black weathering of meandering river system.
Lower red mud horizon is based on Kali member or Dhaola member and capped by middle
sandstone horizon of Vitakri Formation. The upper red mud horizon is based on middle sandstone
horizon and capped by a resistant sandstone horizon. Its coeval strata (coal, carbonaceous shale and
sandstone) represent the lacustrine and deltaic environment, and laterite represent the erosional
disconformity. The sandstone is white to grey, thin to thick bedded and fine to coarse grained,
quartzose, mostly weathered as dark grey to black. The shale is red, maroon, and greenish grey and
calcareous to noncalcareous. The red muds of this disconformity and just below this are the host of
latest Cretaceous dinosaurs in Pakistan. Vitakri Formation is regional extension in eastern Sulaiman

53
Foldbelt and also Ziarat laterite is a part of Vitakri Formation. Vitakri Formation was the Park for
the latest Cretaceous dinosaurs and crocodiles of Pakistan. Its lower and upper contact with Pab and
Sangiali formations is disconfirmable. The Vitakri Formation has dinosaurs, mesoeucrocodiles and
pterosaurs and invertebrates like fresh water bivalves, etc. More fossil plants may be found further
from the Kingri coal of Vitakri Formation (Malkani 2014f).
Pakistan appeared for the first time on the world dinosaur’s map based on recent geological
and paleontological exploration. The Mesozoic strata and their internal and external boundaries are
well exposed in the Lower, Middle and Upper Indus basins of Pakistan which allowed the
discoveries of numerous remains of dinosaurs and associated vertebrates. The lower Indus (Kirthar)
Basin yielded a partial rib and an egg of the Cretaceous Mesoeucrocodile Khuzdarcroco zahri and
few remains of Late Jurassic titanosauriform or early titanosaurian sauropod dinosaur Brohisaurus
kirthari. Furthermore, the lower Indus basin yielded a footprint of a Middle Jurassic
titanosauriform/early titanosaurian sauropod.
The red muds of the Latest Cretaceous Vitakri Formation of Middle Indus (Sulaiman) Basin
yielded well developed and well preserved remains of the herbivorous pakisaurids Khetranisaurus
barkhani, Sulaimanisaurus gingerichi and Pakisaurus balochistani, of the balochisaurids
Marisaurus jeffi, Balochisaurus malkani and Maojandino alami, of the saltasaurids Nicksaurus
razashahi, as well as of the most advanced and large-sized titanosaurian sauropod dinosaurs
Gspsaurus pakistani and Saraikimasoom vitakri. Carnivorous large bodied abelisaurians
Vitakridrinda sulaimani and small bodied noasaurian theropods Vitakrisaurus saraiki have also been
identified, as well as carnivorous large to medium bodied mesoeucrocodilians Sulaimanisuchus
kinwai of Sulaimanisuchidae and large bodied Pabwehshi pakistanensis and Induszalim bala of
Induszalimidae. Other fossil remains include the toothed pterosaur Saraikisaurus minhui and a wood
fossil of the conifer Baradarakht goeswangai. Further titanosaur (Pashtosaurus zhobi) trackways
have been found on the thick sandstone bed of the Latest Cretaceous Vitakri Formation of Western
Sulaiman basin and eastern extremity of Western Indus Suture as well as bony remains of the
titanosaurs found in the same basin and same formation.
The upper Indus basin yielded trackways and footprints of herds of large-sized
titanosauriforms or early titanosaurs (Malakhelisaurus mianwali) attacked by a running large-sized
theropod trackway (Samanadrinda surghari). Further 400m southward, two tracks of a couple of
small-sized theropods (Himalayadrinda potwari) were found from the Middle Jurassic Samanasuk
Limestone. These Jurassic and Cretaceous vertebrates of Indo-Pak have a major paleobiogeographic
significance due to the present-day connection of this continent with Asia (Northern hemisphere),
whereas during the Jurassic and pre-Jurassic it was connected to Gondwana (Southern hemisphere).
Most vertebrates like titanosaurian sauropods, carnivorous abelisaurian and noasaurian theropod
dinosaurs and mesoeucrocodiles show close affinities with Gondwanan landmasses (Southern
hemisphere). All these vertebrates are reported in many journals and national and international
conferences (2004a,b,c; 2006a,b,c; 2007a,b,c,e; 2008a,b,c,d,e,; 2009a,b,c,d,e; 2010a,b,c,d,e,f;
2011a,b,c; 2012a,b,c,d,e,f,g,h,I,j,k; 2013a,b,c,d,e,f,g,h,I; 2014a,b,c,d,e,f,g,h; 2015a,b,c,d,e,f,g,h;
2016a,b,c,d,e; Malkani and Anwar 2000; Malkani et al. 2001; Wilson et al. 2001,2005; Malkani and
Sun 2016 ).
Pakiring kharzani Malkani 2014 (bivalves) is found from the Cretaceous-Paleogene (K-Pg)
boundary laterite/thin rust on the last bed of Pab sandstone and it belongs to Vitakri Formation in the

54
Kharzan area of Khuzdar district (Malkani 2014f). It is sub ring type and rough surface ornamented
bivalves with rope like shape.
According to dinosaur fossils and stratigraphic position, the age is considered as Latest
Maastrichtian or Latest Cretaceous (67-66Mya).

Paleocene Sangiali Group

Malkani (2009a) introduced Sangiali Group representing Sangiali, Rakhi Gaj and Dungan
formations. The type section (Sangiali village area, lat. 290 41’ 53’’N; long. 690 23’ 54’’E) is
exposed just 1km south southeast of Village Sangiali. Sangiali Village is 4km north of Vitakri
Village. Sangiali Village is about 26 Km in the south-southwest of Barkhan town. The best and
easily approachable reference section (close to type locality of Kingri Formation) is about 5km in the
northwest of Kingri town (39F/15). The Khadro Formation of Kirthar Foldbelt has much volcanics.
In Sulaiman Range there are no volcanics but its green shale and sandstone may be glauconitic or
may show some volcanic source. Further the dominant sandstone in Khadro can hurdle for
identification of Rakhi Gaj formation. Further the upper sequence is again different from Ranikot
group. It is about 30m thick in the type area and it is being reduced on every side from type locality
area but existed in the eastern Sulaiman Foldbelt. Sangiali Formation and Group is suggested to
remove the problems. Mesozoic in Sulaiman and Kirthar are closely resemble while Paleocene is
different because the Bara and also part of Khadro formations were deposited by fluvial to deltaic
while in the Sulaiman the deposition was marine and deltaic.

Sangiali Formation: Malkani (2009a) introduced first time the Sangiali Formation (due to its
distinct lithology, depositional environments and lateral extension) with type section (Sangiali
village area, lat. 290 41’ 53’’N; long. 690 23’ 54’’E) exposed just 1km south southeast of Village
Sangiali. It is extensive in most part of eastern Sulaiman Foldbelt and consists of green shale and
sandstone with resistant brown limestone. The shale is found in the lowermost part, which is graded
in to sandstone. The sandstone is capped by limestone. The shale is green and glauconitic and may
be phosphate bearing. The sandstone is greenish grey to grey and white and thin to medium bedded.
The limestone is brown, thin to thick bedded and bivalves bearing. The Sangiali Formation is 30m
thick at the type locality and pinching into few metres beds toward all vicinity areas. Nautiloids are
common in the type and just south in Vitakri area. Its lower contact with Vitakri Formation is
disconfirmable and upper contact with Rakhi Gaj Formation is transitional and conformable. The
Nautiloids and bivalves are common in this formation found from the Sangiali and Vitakri area.
Pakiwheel vitakri Malkani 2014, the stocky type nautiloids is found just after the K- Pg boundary in
Sangiali Formation close to east of Vitakri town (Malkani 2014f), and Pakiwheel karkhi Malkani
2014, the slender type nautiloids, is found in the green mudstone, may be of volcanic origin, of the
Early Paleocene Sangiali Formation, 5 km east of Karkh town (Malkani 2014f). Eames (1952)
reported Early Paleocene fossils from Rakhi Nala. The possible bony fishes, the Teleostei or holostei
fish or ichthyosaur Karkhimachli sangiali Malkani 2014 are found fragmentary on the Early
Paleocene part of Sangiali Group of Karkh area of Khuzdar District but its nearby higher areas
consists of Late Cretaceous Mughalkot and Pab formations. Its preserved portion mostly belongs to
body cross section having herring bone type structure. It is small sized fish/ichthyosaur. Further
some cross sections are also referred to it. A body cross section of marine fish found in the Jurassic

55
Chiltan Limestone of Kharzan of Mula-Zahri area, Kirthar Range (Malkani 2014f). So its age is
considered as Early Paleocene.

Rakhi Gaj Formation: Williams (1959) introduced the lower Rakhi Gaj shales. The Rakhi Gaj
formation is mentioned by Shah (2002). The Rakhi Gaj Formation is also used by the present author
in many Geological maps. Upon the suggestions of S.M.Hussain of American Oil Company, the
Stratigraphic Committee (Shah 2009) has adopted the name Girdu Member for the Gorge beds of
Eames (1952). The Rakhi Gaj Nala is designated as the type section (Lat. 290 57’ 14’’ N; Long. 700
11’ 30’’ E). Malkani (2010a) reported two members of Rakhi Gaj formation like lower Girdu
member (Gorge beds) and upper Bawata members (Fig.1g in Malkani 2010a). It is the middle
formation of Sangiali Group and lower formation where Sangiali Formation is absent. The Girdu
member is about 100m thick at type area (Lat. 290 57’ 27’’ N; Long. 700 04’ 40’’ E) where it
consists of thick and resistant beds of sandstone with minor shale. The sandstone is grey, greenish
grey, thin to thick bedded and fine to coarse grained, bivalve bearings, hematitic and glauconitic
weathered as dark reddish grey to dark grey. Iron and potash from glauconitic and hematitic
sandstone seems to be significant especially in the Fort Munro, Rakhi Gaj and its vicinity areas of
eastern Sulaiman Foldbelt. The Bawata member named by Malkani (2010a) to fill the missing link.
This upper member can be named Rakhi Gaj member which lacks the well developed contact with
Dungan Formation while Bawata locality has well developed contact with Dungan Formation. The
Bawata member (Bawata as type section; Lat. 300 00’ N; Long. 690 57’ 30’’ E) consists of mainly
shale along with alternation of sandstone (Fig.1g in Malkani 2010a) is about 200m thick. The Shale
is common in the uppermost part. The shale is grey, khaki and calcareous. The sandstone is greenish
grey to grey, bivalves and iron bearings. The shale and sandstone of Fort Munro area show green
colour may due to glauconitic or igneous origin from volcanism of Deccan trap. The Girdu member
is about 100m and Bawata member is about 200 m in its type areas. Both members are exposed in
the eastern Sulaiman Foldbelt and its contact is transitional. The lower contact of Girdu member
with Sangiali and upper contact of Bawata member with Dungan Formation is conformable. The
lower contact of Rakhi Gaj Formation with Pab is disconfirmable where Vitakri and Sangiali
formations are absent. Eames (1952) reported Corbula (Varicorbula) harpa, Leionucula rakhiensis,
Venericardia vredenburgi, Tibia (Tibiochilus) rakhiensis and other fossils from Rakhi Nala with
Early Paleocene age. Abundant Cardita (Venericardia) beaumonti of Danian age reported many
works from different areas. Nagappa (1959) reported Globogerina pseudobulloides and G.
triloculinoides. Sohn (1959) recorded ostracodes such as Howecythereis multispinosa, H. micromma
and Paracypris rectoventra from Laki Range. HSC (1961) also reported many list of foraminifers.
Latif (1964) has reported pelagic foraminifera possibly from the Rakhi Gaj Formation of Rakhi
Nala. Its age is considered as middle Paleocene due to stratigraphic positions.

Dungan Formation: The term Dungan limestone was introduced by Oldham (1890). Williams
(1859) designated the type section to be near Harnai (lat. 30 0 08’ 38’’N; long. 670 59’ 33’’E) and
renamed the unit Dungan Formation. It consists of limestone, shale and marl. The limestone is grey
to buff, thin to medium bedded and conglomeratic. Shale is grey, khaki and calcareous. The marl is
brown to grey, thin to medium bedded and fine grained. This formation is 50-300m maximum thick.
Laterally this formational facies is more diverse, at places thick limestone deposits while at places
minor limestone showings. The Sui main limestone is an upper part of Dungan limestone due to its

56
variable behavior. It is thick in the Zinda Pir, Duki, Sanjawi, Harand, and also in Mughal Kot section
but negligible as in Rakhi Gaj and Mekhtar areas. Petroleum showings are common in this formation
especially in the Khatan area (Oldham 1890). Its lower contact with Bawata member of Rakhi Gaj
Formation is conformable, however near the western Indus Suture belt it has disconformity at the
base, while the upper contact with Shaheed Ghat Formation is transitional and conformable. It has
many mega forams. It age is considered as Late Paleocene, rarely exceeding to early Eocene.
However it is maintained all Paleocene in the Ziarat area and the Axial belt areas where the Sangiali
and Rakhi Gaj formations i.e. the lower and middle Sangiali group is not developed. For example the
Ziarat Laterite showing K-T boundary is contacted by Parh and Dungan formation. A rich fossil
assemblage including foraminifers, gastropods, bivalves and algae are reported by Davies (1941),
Khan M.H. (in Lexique 1956), HSC (1961), Latif (1964), Iqbal (1969a) and others. Khan M.H. (in
Lexique 1956) reported presence of rich assemblages of foraminifers (Davies 1927; Nuttal 1931),
corals (Duncan 1880), mollusces (Vredenburg 1909, 1928b) and echinoids (Duncan and Sladen
1882). The foraminifers include Nummulites nuttali, N. thalicus, N. globules, N. sindensis, Assilina
ranikotensis, Miscellanea miscella, M. stampi, Lockhartia haemei, Lepidocyclina (Polylepidina)
punjabensis and Discocyclina ranikotensis. Foraminifers are generally abundant and most of these
belong to Fasciolites, Nummulites, Coskinolina, Dictyoconoides, Linderina, Lockhartia, Operculina,
Miscellanea, Globorotalia, Cibicides, etc. Species like Miscellanea miscella, M. stampi, nummulites
nuttali, n. thalicus, N. sindensis, Assilina dandotica, Kathina selveri and Lockhartia tipper indicate
Paleocene to Early Eocene age which is also confirmed by some algae such as Distichoplax sp.,
Lithothamnium sp., Mesophyllum sp. However now these fossils and law of superposition suggests
the age of this formation as Late Paleocene.

Early Eocene Chamalang (=Ghazij) Group

The term Chamalang Group was first used by Malkani (2010a). The term Ghazij was introduced by
Oldham (1890). Williams (1959) proposed that the type section be at Spintangi (lat. 290 57’ 06’’N;
long. 680 05’ 00’’E) and used the term Ghazij formation. It is upgraded as group by Shah, (2002).
Chamalang (Ghazij) group represents Shaheed Ghat, Toi, Kingri and Baska formations. Drug and
Kingri formations are not well developed in the Spintangi area, so the Malkani (2010a) suggests for
the Chamalang Group where all the formations of Ghazij group are well developed along with new
formation like Kingri Formation. The type section for Chamalang Group is the Chamalang area
(lat.300 10’ N; long. 690 25’ E).

Shaheed Ghat Formation: Sibghatullah Siddiqui, Jamiluddin, I.H. Qureshi and A.H. Kidwai (1965)
(verbal communications with Sibghatullah Siddiqui and Jamiluddin) used the name Shaheed Ghat
Formation for the upper Rakhi Gaj and green nodular shales of Eames (1952). The type locality is
Shaheed Ghat, Zinda Pir area of Dera Ghazi Khan District (lat. 300 24’N; long. 700 28’E). It consists
of mainly shale/mud with negligible silt and sandy beds. The shale is grey, greenish grey, khaki and
calcareous. The shale is rarely intercalated with silty and sandy lenses. The formation contains thin
limestone beds in the upper part with nummulites, gastropods and lamellibranchs. The thickness of
this formation is estimated 500m in Sulaiman and northern Kirthar foldbelt. The thickness of this
formation is relatively slightly less than the other exposures in eastern Sulaiman Basin. Mulastar
zahri Malkani 2014, a star fish (Malkani 2014f), two pectin type other bivalves, 3 gastropods and 1
coral like fossils are found from Shaheed Ghat Formation of Kharzan area, Mula-Zahri range. Its

57
lower contact with Dungan and upper contact with Toi Formation in the coal bearing areas) or Drug
Formation (when Toi and Kingri formations are absent especially in the easternmost and
southeastern part of Sulaiman Basin) are conformable. This formation contains foraminifera,
gastropods and bivalves. The pelecypods include Venericardia pakistanica, Lucina yawensis,
Corbula (Bicorbula) subexarata, C.(B.) paraexarata and gastropods include Crommium polihathra,
Turritella (stiracolpus) harnaiensis, Chondrocerithium pakistanicum, Gisortia cf. G. murchisoni
(Iqbal 1969b). These fossils and Siddiqui et al (1965) suggested Early Eocene age.

Toi Formation: The Toi Formation has been formalized after S. M. Hussain of American Oil
Company’s briefing and verbal communication before the stratigraphic Committee of Pakistan
(Shah, 2002). The Shah (2002) mentioned the Mughal Kot type locality with wrong grid reference,
while correct references seams to be (lat. 310 29’ N; long. 700 07’E). Its name is derived from the
Toi River/Nala flowing near the Mughal Kot locality. It consists of sandstone, greenish grey to grey
shale and white to light brown marl/rubbly limestone along with some coal. The sandstone is
greenish grey to grey and thin to thick bedded. The shale is greenish grey, khaki and calcareous. The
marl or limestone is white to light brown and rubbly. The coal is sub bituminous and have metallic
luster. The thickness of Toi Formation is about 600m in the type area of Mughal Kot section and
about 1200m in the Kingri, Bahlol and Chamalang sections. The lower contact of Toi Formation
with Shaheed Ghat Formation is conformable while the upper contact with Kingri formation is
disconfirmable. Raza (2002) correlated the Kingri molasses with the Litra and Chaudhwan
formations of Vihowa group, but in actual Kingri molasses represents Eocene Toi and Kingri
formations of Chamalang Group. It has no correlation with Vihowa or Siwalik mollasse. Shah (2002,
2009) mentioned the wrong position of Toi Formation. It has many fossiliferous sandstone/coquina
beds especially in the Chamalang area. Malkani (2014f,2015c) and Malkani and Sun (2016) reported
Bolanicyon shahani from Mach coal mine area. According to its stratigraphic position, its age can be
considered as middle Early Eocene. Bolanicyon shahani Malkani 2014 (Quettacyonidae) is found
(Malkani 2014f) at the coal mining at depth of about 500m in the Early Eocene Toi Formation of
southwestern Mach (Gishtari) area. Its 1 incisor, 1 canine, 4 premolar and 3 molar teeth are
preserved (Malkani and Sun 2016).

Kingri Formation: The tem Kingri Formation was first used by Malkani (2009a). The type section
of Kingri formation is the just northwest of Kingri town (lat. 300 28’ N; long. 690 47’E). It consists
of reds shale/mud with subordinate grey sandstone. The shale is mostly red and maroon and sandy
and silty and calcareous. The sandstone is grey to light brown, thin to thick bedded. The thickness of
this formation is estimated about 700m in the type section of Kingri (Musakhel district Balochistan)
and also same in Shirani section (FR D.I.Khan, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa). It extends toward Johan
(Kalat, Balochistan) in the southwest and also extends in the north upto Hangu (Kohat sub basin)
where it is called Gurguri snadstone. It represents the flood plain or overbank fines along with
channel sandstone. It is pinching rapidly eastward and absent in areas of D.G. Khan, Rajan Pur and
Dera Bugti districts. Its lower contact with Toi and upper contact with Drug Formation are
disconfirmable. Gingerich, et al (2001) has also found a unique mammalian fauna from the
Kingri/Toi formation of Gandhera (Kingri) area. According to its stratigraphic position, its age can
be considered as middle Early Eocene.

58
Drug Formation: Sibghatullah Siddiqui, Jamiluddin, I.H. Qureshi and A.H. Kidwai (1965) (verbal
communications with Sibghatullah Sidique and Jamiluddin), and Iqbal (1969) used the name Drug
Formation for rubbly limestone of Eames (1952). The type section (lat. 30 0 49’ 15’’N; long. 700 12’
30’’E) has been designated in Drug Tangi located about 3 km southeast of Drug village (Shah,
2002). The Shah (2002, 2009) mentioned the wrong order or position of Ghazij group formations
like Toi and Drug formations. The actual position of Toi Formation is below the Drug Formation
while Shah (2002, 2009) mentioned every where the Toi formation is above the Drug formation. It is
confirmed in the north and southwest of Sulaiman province. It consists of limestone, marl and shale.
The limestone and marl is chalky white to light brown and grey, rubbly and thin to thick bedded. The
shale is grey, khaki and calcareous. The formation is maximum thick in the core of Sulaiman
foldbelt like Baghao and Rar Khan Areas of Barkhan District and estimated about 200-300m thick. It
is being reduced in all directions from these maximum thick areas. It is absent in the Axial Belt,
Kirthar Foldbelt and also in Mughal Kot section of Sulaiman Foldbelt and further north. Its lower
contact with Shaheed Ghat Formation in the easternmost and southeastern Sulaiman Foldbelt is
transitional and conformable, and upper contact in the northeast, central and western Sulaiman
Foldbelt is disconfirmable with the Kingri Formation, and in the eastern and southeastern Sulaiman
Foldbelt the upper contact with Baska Formation is conformable and marked at the first bed of
alabaster gypsum. The Drug limestone and shale is the host of celestite mineralization in Sulaiman
Foldbelt. It has many fossiliferous sandstone/coquina beds especially in the Chamalang area. Iqbal
(1969b) reported gastropods like Euspirocrommium oveni, Cancelluluria soriensis, Ringicuia
pseudopunjabensis, and a pelecypod Lucina exquiscia. These fossils and Siddiqui et al (1965)
suggested Early Eocene.

Baska Formation: The name Baska shale is proposed by the Hemphill and Kidwai (1973) to replace
the descriptive term “shale with alabaster” of Eames (1952). Hemphill and Kidwai (1973) designated
the type section exposed about 2 km east-northeast of Baska village (lat. 310 29’N; long. 700 08’E).
It consists of gypsum, shale, limestone, marl and rare siltstone. The gypsum is grey to grayish white,
medium to thick bedded and massive. . Shale is grey, khaki and calcareous. The marl is cream white,
thin to medium bedded and porcelaneous. The siltstone is greenish grey to grey and thin to medium
bedded. Its thickness is estimated variable from 100m to 30m. As lateral variation, this formation is
relatively more and maximum thick than the other exposures in the Chamalang, Nisau, Manjhail, Toi
Nala, Toi River and Barkhan areas and minimum thick in the south eastern and southern Sulaiman
located in the central core of Sulaiman Basin. Its lower contact with Drug Formation and upper
contact with Habib Rahi Formation are conformable. It has many fossiliferous rubbly limestone beds
especially in the Chamalang and Mughal Kot sections. Iqbal (1969b) reported foraminifers like
Cuneoline sp., Lockhartia hunti, and Dictyoconoides vredenburgi, pelecypods like Bulsella sp., A.
Eames and Barbatia drougensis, the later being restricted to Early Eocene, gastropods like Euspira
cf. E. punjabensis and Gosavia humberti. Its age is Early Eocene.

Early-Middle Eocene Kahan Group

The term Kahan group was first introduced by Khan (2009) in his Geological map of 39 G (1 0
sheet). The type section is here designated near the village of Kahan (lat. 390 17’N; long. 680 50’E).
Kahan group consists of Habib Rahi, Domanda, Pirkoh and Drazinda formations which were

59
previously members of Kirthar Formation. The stratigraphic committee of Pakistan (Shah (2002) has
formalized these formations.

Habib Rahi Formation: Tainsh et al. (1959) used the term Habib Rahi limestone. The reference
section (lat. 390 37’ 50’’N; long. 700 14’E) was mentioned by Hemphill and Kidwai (1973). But the
grid of type locality (lat. 290 06’ 10’’N; long. 690 02’ 30’E) located in the Vicinity of Dera Bugti
town in the southern limb of Pir Koh anticline is first time being reported here. It consists of
limestone, shale and marl. The limestone and marl is cream white, thin to medium bedded and
porcelaneous. The shale is grey, khaki and calcareous. Its thickness is estimated 70m in the Dera
Bugti area with vertical changes as 38m limestones alternated with shale and marl, 30m shale, and
upper 5m limestone. As lateral variation, this formation is relatively more and maximum thick in the
Pirkoh area than the other exposures in Sulaiman Foldbelt. Its lower contact with Baska Formation
and upper contact with Domanda Formation are transitional and conformable. Muller (2002)
assigned NP 16 of Nannoplanktonic zone. Early Middle Eocene age is assigned to this formation.
From the transition zone of Habib Rahi and Domanda formation, Gingerich et al. (2001) discovered
the walking whale from Lakha Kach syncline of Rakhni area of Barkhan District, has solved the
evolution of swimming whale from walking early Artiodactyla instead of Mesonychia, and also
assigned the age of the transitional zone (which is host of Rhodocetus balochistanensis and Articetus
clavis) or contact of Habib Rahi and Domanda Formation as 47 Ma. So the age of Habib Rahi
Formation is Early Middle Eocene.

Domanda Formation: Hemphill and Kidwai (1973) used the term Drazinda shale member and
designated the type section to be just west of Domanda Post and adjacent to the Zhob-D.I.Khan road
(lat. 310 35’ 30’’N; long. 700 12’E). It consists of mainly shale/mud with one bed of gypsum. The
shale is chocolate, khaki and calcareous. Massive gypsum with one bed (1-2m thick) has white to
light grey colour. The thickness of this formation is estimated 90m in the Dera Bugti area which
comprised of vertical variations as 55m shale, 1-2m gypsum bed, and upper 35m chocolate shale.
The thickness of this formation is relatively less than the other exposures in northern Sulaiman
Foldbelt. Its lower contact with Habib Rahi Formation and upper contact with Pirkoh Formation is
transitional and conformable. Eames (1952) reported vertebrates and invertebrates and Gingerich et
al. (1979, 1994) collected also vertebrates. This formation yielded fishes (e.g. Apogon), Shark
(Galeocerdo latidens), sea snake (Pterosphenus) and cetaceans (Indocetus ramani, Rhodocetus
kasrani). The basal transitional part of Domanda formation is aged by Gingerich et al. (2001) as 47
Ma. Its age is Middle Eocene. The walking whale from Pakistan tells the evolution from land to sea
(Gingerich et al. 2001).

Pirkoh Formation: White marl band of Eames (1952) has been referred Pir Koh Limestone by
unpublished records of oil companies (Cheema, 1977). Pir Koh limestone member was used by
Hemphill and Kidwai (1973). The Pirkoh anticline is designated as the type locality (lat. 290 07’N;
long. 690 08’E). It consists of limestone, marl and shale. The limestone and marl is milky white to
cream white, thin to thick bedded and porcelaneous. Shale is grey, khaki and calcareous. The
formation thickness is estimated 130m in the Pirkoh section (39G/4) and 30m thick in the Nisau area
(39G/6), decreasing toward north in the Sulaiman Foldbelt. Its lower contact with Domanda
Formation and upper contact with Drazinda Formation is transitional and conformable. Afzal et al.

60
(1997) mentioned Middle Eocene on the basis of 3 age-diagnostic planktonic foraminifers zones
from Thak and Domanda sections and Bartonian age from Thak and Rakhi Nala sections. Middle to
late Middle Eocene age is assigned to this formation.

Drazinda Formation: Hemphill and Kidwai (1973) used the term Drazinda shale member and
designated the type section to the east and northeast of Drazinda village (lat. 310 46’N; long. 700
09’E). It consists of mainly shale/muds, and marl. The shale is chocolate, khaki and calcareous. The
marl is cream white, thin to thick bedded, massive and porcelaneous. The formation thickness is
estimated 120m in the Pirkoh section and 140m thick in the Nisau area, increasing toward north in
the Sulaiman Foldbelt. In Dera Bugti areas, the Drazinda Formation have three horizons of white
marl (each horizon is about 20m thick) in the base, middle and upper parts, alternated by thick shale
horizons. Its lower contact with Pirkoh Formation is conformable while upper contact with
Chitarwata Formation is disconfirmable. Recently Malkani et al. (2013) found Sulaimanitherium
dhanotri Malkani et al. 2013. Sulaimanitherium dhanotri Malkani et al. 2013 is third genus and
species of Basilosauridae (king of basal whale) in Asia. It is important due to present discovery of
almost complete vertebral column (Malkani et al. 2013). Latif (1964), Samanta (1973) and Afzal et
al. (1997) mentioned the age late Middle Eocene.

Oligocene-Pliocene Vihowa Group

The term “Vihowa Group” is first used by Malkani (2009a). Oligocene-Pliocene Vihowa group
(type section is the Vihowa Rud in Toposheet 39 I/4,8; lat. 310 04’N; long. 700 16’E) represents
Chitarwata, Vihowa, Litra and Chaudhwan formations. The Suture zones are elevated on a great
tectonic event occurred at the collision of Indo-Pak subcontinent and Asia. The mollasse facies
started and different river systems may have deposited this group and also its equilent strata.

Chitarwata Formation: The Chitarwata Formation was first used by Hemphill and Kidwai (1973).
The type section designated to be at Chitarwata Post (lat. 31 0 03’N; long. 700 14’E). It consists of
sandstone, shale and conglomerate. The sandstone is white, varicolored, thin to thick bedded and
fine to coarse grained, gritty, ferruginous, calcareous when muddy and slightly calcareous to
noncalcareous and siliceous in silica sands. Some iron beds and silica sand are also found in the
Dera Bugti area. The shale is maroon, red, khaki and calcareous and ferruginous. The conglomerate
is thin to thick bedded and dominantly sandy and calcareous and ferruginous. On the base of
Chitarwata Formation, about 30-100m thick resistant conglomeratic sandstone with some interbeds
of silts and muds are mostly common in the Sulaiman Foldbelt. This unit is followed by a soft and
easily erodable mostly red shale and varicoloured sandstone. The lower part of Chitarwata
Formation forms ridges and cliffs, and upper part forms slopes in most of the Sulaiman Foldbelt.
Hemphill and Kidwai (1973) mentioned about 380m in the southeast of Domanda post and also
estimated about 150m at Chitarwata post, Kaura and Litra nalas, they also mentioned the pinching
towards North Waziristan. Its lower contact is disconfirmable as observed in the Gadumra section
(39 G/5) of Barkhan district. Further Eames (1950, 1970) recognized an unconformity in the Rakhi
Munh section. In parts of Bannu area, the lower contact with Eocene carbonate rocks is sharp and
disconfirmable (Kazmi and Abbasi, 2008). Downing et al. (1993) subdivided the formation in to
three units like lower 156m thick unit of multicolored siltstone interbedded with sandstone. Its lower
19 m is highly limonitic siltstone. Middle unit which is 104m thick consists of medium to coarse

61
grained, massive, multistoried, tabular and trough cross bedded sandstone. Iron concretions and
wood fossils are found along some bedding planes. The upper unit is 153m thick fine sandstone with
abundant mollusks, and sporadic bone fragments. The formation thickness is estimated 130m which
comprising of 3-4m red mud, 1m basal conglomerate and 130m-alternated sandstone with shale and
conglomerate.
Raza et al. (2002) mentioned about 500m Chitarwata, 700m Vihowa, 1700m Litra and
exposed basal 400m Chaudhwan formations in the Zinda Pir anticline area. Downing et al. (1993)
reported 410m Chitarwata, and 300m lower Vihowa formations at Dalana area of D. G. Khan
district. They marked the upper contact of Chitarwata Formation just below the trough cross bedded
sandstone of Vihowa formation in Dalana area. Downing et al. (1993) reported coastal systems at
Dalana area and they also suggested the facies associations of Chitarwata and Vihowa formations
like a sequential shift in ascending order are of estuary, strand plain, tidal flat/tidal channel and
fluvial environments. All the mollusks from the upper unit like Trigonia, Exogyra, and Turritella are
interpreted as littoral or sublitoral marine (Kazmi and Abbasi, 2008). Pilgrim (1908, 1912) and
Eames (1950,1970) reported basal marine facies in the Zin Range, where it varies from a two inch
thick calcareous sandstone bed with Nummulites intermedius and Pecten substriatus between
Khajuri and Shori nalas, to about a two feet thick hard limestone bed with Nummulites sp. in Dakko
Nala. Pilgrim (1912) considered contemporaneous this zone with the upper Gaj. Raza and Meyer
(1984) are of the view that the marine fauna was eroded from the underlying Drazinda Formation
and deposited in the overlying Chitarwata Formation and they also correlated it with Fatehjang
Member of Murree Formation in the Potwar Plateau. Waheed and Wells (1992) interpreted it as
fluvial in Chaudhwan and Rakhi Nala. The also mentioned the meandering features such as epsilon
cross bedding, fining upward channelized sandstone bodies, point bar cross bedding and abundant
overbank fines intercalated with crevasse splay deposits. Its lower contact with Drazinda Formation
and upper contact with Vihowa Formation is disconfirmable.
The Chitarwata Formation is synonymous with Bugti bone beds or Bugti formation of Dera
Bugti area. This formation is the host of continental vertebrates like Balochitherium, Bugtitherium,
etc. Vickary (1846) first time reported the vertebrate fauna and land flora in Bugti areas. He reported
bones of mastodon (a partial tusk of elephant), partial jaw of hippopotamus, broken jaws and various
bones of crocodiles embedded in loosely cemented gravel with Paldina and cardium shells. He also
mentioned that many cart loads of the bones could be collected from an acre of ground in the vicinity
of Khumbi and Dera Bugti areas. Later Blanford (1879), Pilgrim (1908) and Cooper
(1911,1923,1924a,b,c) collected and described fossils from these beds. This formation represents a
unique blend of mammals of Asian affinity. It includes rhinocerotids and antharacotherids with few
proboscideans, carnivores, chalicotheres, suids and crocodilians (Shah, 2002). Pilgrim (1908) found
the genus Bugtitherium of Anthracotheridae (Artiodactyla) based on two fragments of two skulls
which were identical and had portions of maxillaries and premaxillaries. He also attributed some
isolated teeth to this genus. Coopper (1911) described the giant sized species Paraceratherium
(synonymous Baluchitherium/ Indricotherium) of Hyracodontidae (Perisssodactyla) from Churlands
locality of Bugti hills. Baluchitherium is the largest land mammal known so far. It is larger than
largest mammoth like Mammuthus sungari. Adult Baluchitherium are estimated to have been 5..5 m
(18ft) tall at the shoulder, 12 m (39 feet) in length with tail and a maximum raised head height of
about 8m (26 feet) and a skull length of 1.5m (4..9 feet) and total estimated weight about 20 tons.
Bugtilemur (Marivaux, et al. 2001) the cousin of primitive primates are also reported from Dera

62
Bugti area. Metais et al. (2006) reported the new remains of the enigmatic cetartiodactyl
Bugtitherium grandincisivum Pilgrim 1908, from the upper Oligocene of the Bugti Hills. All these
mammals lived in the green and lush landscape. The Paraceratherium bugtiense was based on
moderately complete lower jaw with all lower teeth on each side of the mandible. In close proximity
to Paraceratherium in the same Churlands locality, Cooper (1911) found the bones of greatest of all
the rhinos (Baluchitherium bugtiense). His remarkable discovery was based on some neck vertebrae,
foot and limb bones. Cooper (1924) also reported its cranial parts from Dera Bugti area. Later on,
the discovery of a skull and a part of mandible in Mongolia were the basis of Baluchitherium
gravgeri. Shah and Arif (1992) discovered 12 different faunal localities in Bugti hills, represents
fragmentary postcranial remains of great rhinos. A partial skull with all cheek teeth in place and
almost complete mandible of Bugtitherium grandicisivum was reprted by Shah and Arif (1992).
Eames (1970) compiled a list of 60 mammalian and 3 crocodilian species. Raza and Meyer
(1984) listed about 63 mammalian species (Table 2) from Gendoi post and Chur Lando Nala. Some
important genera and species are Metarctos bugtiensis, Amphicyon sp., Deinotherium
pentapotaamiae, Gomphotherium sp., Paratherium bugtiense, Diceratherium shahbazi,
Aceratherium gajense, Brachyodus giganteus, and B. africanus. Shah and Arif (1992) discovered 12
different faunal localities in Bugti hills, represents fragmentary postcranial remains of great rhinos
during 1985 and 1987. They also reported a partial skull with all cheek teeth in place and almost
complete mandible of Bugtitherium grandicisivum. Raza et al. (2002) reported the large mammalian
fauna from Zinda Pir anticline like Deinotheridae (Deintherium), Gomphotheridae (Hemimostodon,
Gomphotherium), Chalicotheridae (gneus and sp. indet.), Rhinocerotidae (genus and sp. indet.),
Suidae (Snaitherium?) and Anthracotheridae (Masritherium). They also mentioned the family level
similarities of these fauna with the overlying Vihowa/ Siwalik group but different at generic level.
Downing et al. (1993) and Flynn 2000) reported a major faunal turnover event in upper Chitarwata
Formation circa 20 Ma. Shah and Arif (1992) reported the lenticular beds of volcanic ash just below
the Baluchitherium host beds in the Chur Lando Nala observed by GSP party in 1985. The sample of
tuff was processed by Tabbut et al. (1992) for absolute dating. They have dated using the external
detector method of fission track dating on zircon grains which yielded a concordant age of 22.6 +_
2.9 Ma for this formation. Buzdartherium gulkirao Malkani 2014 from Taunsa area of Dera Ghazi
Khan District (east and northern Sulaiman) is the first time discovery of baluchithere in Punjab
Province and third locality of baluchitheres in Pakistan after Dera Bugti and Shagala (Malkani
2014c). These hornless rhinos Baluchithere were widespread during the Eocene to Oligocene in Asia
(Pakistan, China, Mongolia, Kazakhstan) and southeastern Europe (Yugoslavia, Bulgaria, Romania,
Turkey Georgia). The bones/pieces of bones belong to cranial, vertebral and limb elements. The tusk
like incisor, large size of the bones, large size of ungual/toe, their close occurrences and no
duplication tells their association with one individual of baluchithere (Malkani 2014f,2015c). A
eucrocodile Asifcroco retrai Malkani 2015 is found in the ferruginous conglomeratic bed of
Oligocene Chitarwata Formation in Gulki area (Taunsa-Gulki section) of Dera Ghazi Khan District
(eastern Sulaiman foldbelt) (Malkani 2015c). It is fresh water crocodiles living in the Paleo Indus
River. Its centrum is opisthocoelous type having ball on anterior and concave cavity/coel in the
posterior. Its ulna have dorsal groove to set humerus. Further the three eggs are collected, one egg
may belongs to crocodiles while other egg may belongs to birds/snake/lizard. This egg like material
may be the osteoderms/coprolite of baluchithere because these are found in the association with the
Buzdartherium gulkirao Malkani 2014 (Malkani 2014f, 2015c).

63
 Based on faunal analysis and absolute dating, the age of this formation is considered as Late
Oligocene to Early Miocene (Shah, 2002). In the Zinda Pir anticline, small mammals and magnetic
polarity (Lindsay and Downs, 2000) suggests an early Miocene age. According to stratigraphic
position, its age may range from Oligocene to Early Miocene.

Vihowa Formation: The Vihowa Formation was first used by Hemphill and Kidwai (1973). The
type section designated to be Vihowa Rud (lat. 310 04’N; long. 700 16’E). It consists of shale,
sandstone and conglomerate. Shale is red, maroon, khaki and calcareous and ferruginous. The
sandstone is grey to white, thin to thick bedded and fine to coarse grained, gritty, calcareous when
muddy and slightly calcareous to noncalcareous and siliceous in silica sands. The conglomerate is
thin to thick bedded and dominantly sandy and calcareous and ferruginous. The white to light brown,
thin to thick bedded and medium to coarse grained silica sands are also observed. Thin to thick iron
muddy and sandy beds are also observed. The formation thickness is estimated 400-700m. It is about
700m thick in the type area and about 400m thick at Chaudhwan Zam area. The dominant rock type
is red siltstone and mud in the type area while in the north at Chaudhwan Zam the red sandstone and
muds are common. Hemphill and Kidwai (1973) reported mammalian bone fragments near Baddha
village. La Touché (1893) also reported bones and teeth between Parwara and Landai villages in a
somewhat pebbly band near the base of this formation.
Its lower contact with Chitarwata Formation and upper contact with Litra Formation is
disconfirmable. This formation is rich in continental vertebrates. Waheed and Wells (1992)
mentioned its fluvial origin with braided river system flowing toward SSW. The abundance of sand,
large size of bed forms, and southward flow indicates a large longitudinal trunk river (Kazmi and
Abbasi, 2008). The Downing et al. (1993) mentioned advanced cricetids, rhizomyids, a
ctenodactylid, the enigmatic rodent Diatomys, possibly a hedgehog (erinaceid), plus tree shrews
(tupaiid) and a bat, and large mammals include gomphothere, deinothere, chalicothere, rhino, suid,
anthracothere, tragulid and bowid fossils. Downing et al. (1993) also mentioned the similarity of
Vihowa Formation of Sulaiman Foldbelt with Kamlial formation of Potwar plateau. Raza et al.
(2002) reported large mammals like carnivore, Deinotheridae (Deinotherium), Gomphotheridae
(Gomphotherium), Chalicotheridae, Rhinocerotidae, Suide (Sanitherium and Listridon),
Anthracothridae (hyoboops), Traguliade (Dorcatherium minimus), Giraffidae (Giraffokeryx), and
Bovidae (Eotragus, Elachistocerus). Raza et al. (2002) estimated the onset of Vihowa Formation at
Burdigalion time (~18Ma) and they confirmed the latest early Miocene to Middle Miocene on the
basis of Eotrgus noyei, Listriodon sp., Giraffokeryx sp. and Hyoboops sp.

Litra Formation: The Litra Formation was first used by Hemphill and Kidwai (1973). The type
section designated to be Litra Nala (lat. 310 01’N; long. 700 25’E). It consists of sandstone with
subordinate shale and conglomerate. The sandstone is grey, thin to thick bedded and massive, fine to
coarse grained, gritty and calcareous. The shale is maroon, khaki and calcareous. The conglomerate
is thin to thick bedded and dominantly sandy and calcareous. Its lower contact with Vihowa
Formation and upper contact with Chaudhwan Formation is disconfirmable. This formation is the
host of continental vertebrates. Raza et al. (2002) reported large mammals such as Gomphotheriidae
(Gomphotherium sp., Choerolophodon corrugatos) and Equidae like Cormohipparion (sivalhippus)
theobaldi and Hipparison sp. from the middle part from Zinda Pir anticline, while the bovids,
graffids and suids from the upper part of this formation. Raza et al. (2002) mentioned three toed

64
horse Hipparion at about 10.7 Ma from the lower 400m of Litra Formation, which show the co-
occurrence of common chinji type suid Listriodon that becomes extinct at 10.3 Ma in Potwar.
Malkani (2014c,2015c) reported a Gomphotheriidae proboscidean from Mahoi area, eastern limb of
Zinda Pir anticline. Gomphotherium buzdari Malkani 2014 a big proboscidean remains collected
from Miocene Litra Formation of Vihowa group in the Zinda Pir anticline area located in the
easternmost extremity of Sulaiman fold and thrust belt (Malkani 2014f, 2015c). Raza et al. (2002)
placed the lower age of Litra formation at 11 Ma based on Hipparaion in the lower part of this
formation. They also estimated the age of Litra Formation from 11 to 6 Ma i.e. Late Miocene.

Chaudhwan Formation: The Chaudhwan Formation was first used by Hemphill and Kidwai
(1973). The type section designated to be in Chaudhwan Zam (lat. 31 0 37’N; long. 700 15’E). It
consists of alternated mudstone/shale, sandstone and conglomerate. The mudstone/shale is maroon,
khaki and calcareous. The sandstone is grey, brown, thin to thick bedded, fine to coarse grained,
gritty and calcareous. The conglomerate is thin to thick bedded and dominantly sandy and
calcareous. Thick conglomerate beds with some mud and sands cap the upper part of this formation.
This cap is forming long belt in the eastern most boarder of Sulaiman Foldbelt. This cap is the
contact of Sulaiman Foldbelt and Sulaiman Foredeep zone. The formation thickness is estimated
750-650m. Its lower contact with Litra Formation is disconfirmable while upper contact with Dada
Formation is angular. This formation is the host of continental vertebrates’ likely Bugti lemur, etc.
According to stratigraphic position, its age may be Pliocene.

Pleistocene-Holocene Sakhi Sarwar Group

Sakhi Sarwar Group was named by (Malkani 2012h). It represents Pleistocene Dada (mainly
conglomerate) and Holocene Sakhi Sarwar (clays, silt, sandstone and conglomerate) formations
(Malkani 2012h).

Dada Formation: Its name is derived from Dada River (lat. 290 50’N; long. 680 03’E) south of
Spintangi Railway station (HSC, 1961). It consists of conglomerate with subordinate shale and
sandstone. At places it also includes the white and red muds especially in the valley areas. The
conglomerate is thin to thick bedded and dominantly sandy and calcareous. Thick conglomerate beds
with some mud and sands cap the upper part of this formation. The mudstone/shale is maroon, white,
khaki and calcareous. The sandstone is grey, brown, thin to thick bedded, fine to coarse grained,
gritty and calcareous. Its lower contact with Dhok Pathan and older formations and upper contact
with Sakhi Sarwar and younger alluvium are disconfirmable and at places angular. According to
stratigraphic position, its age may be Pleistocene.

Sakhi Sarwar Formation: Sakhi Sarwar Formation was named by Malkani (2012h) for the
varicoloured clays, sandstone, siltstone and conglomerate of Holocene age.

Subrecent-Recent surficial deposits

Subrecent and Recent surficial deposits show the alluvial, colluvial and aeolian deposits.

65
The closure of Paleo Vitakri River systems and the birth of Paleo Indus River systems in
Sulaiman (middle Indus) Basin, Pakistan

The Super Indus Basin is subdivided in to Khyber-Hazara-Kashmir/Uppermost/ northernmost Indus,

Kohat-Potwar/upper/north Indus, Sulaiman/middle Indus and Kirthar/lower/south Indus basins. The
Paleo Vitakri River Systems generally flows from east to west and carry the clastic/terrigenous
materials from Indo-Pakistan shield like Nagar Parker, Kirana and adjoining areas. The Paleo Indus
River Systems generally flows from north to south and northwest to south east and carry the
clastic/terrigenous materials from fore land and hinterland regions around the Western and northern
Indus Suture of Indo-Pakistan subcontinental plate. The Paleo Vitakri River systems deposited the
Mesozoic and also Paleocene clastic materials in the Sulaiman basin. The main clastic rocks
formations are Triassic Wulgai, Jurassic Spingwar, Cretaceous Sembar, Mughal Kot, Pab and
Vitakri, and Paleocene Rakhi Gaj and Dungan. The feeble contact of Indo-Pakistan plate with Asia
occurred at the Latest Cretaceous. In this way the Latest Cretaceous Vitakri Formation which
contains the pure terrestrial alluvial overbank red muds (which is the host of first ever dinosaurs and
associated vertebrates from Pakistan) alternated with meandering river stream deposits sandstone
unit. These continental environments resulted in the form of first collision of Indo-Pakistan plate
with Asia. Due to this collision the Indus Suture and adjoining areas became uplifted. This uplift
resulted in the birth of Paleo Indus River systems and the closure of Paleo Vitakri River Systems.
These Paleo Indus River systems started and deposited the Eocene Chamalang/Ghazij, and Kahan
groups, Oligocene-Pliocene Vihowa Group and Pleistocene-Holocene Sakhi Sarwar Group and
subrecent and recent alluvial and eolian surficial deposits. The lithostratigraphy deposited by Paleo
Indus River systems in Sulaiman basin are as follows. Early Eocene Chamalang (Ghazij) group
represents Shaheed Ghat (shale), Toi (sandstone, shale, rubbly limestone and coal), Kingri (red
shale/mud, grey and white sandstone), Drug (rubbly limestone, marl and shale), and Baska (gypsum
beds and shale) formations, and Late Eocene Kahan group represents Habib Rahi (limestone, marl
and shale), Domanda (shale with one bed of gypsum), Pir Koh (limestone, marl and shale) and
Drazinda (shale with subordinate marl) formations, Oligocene-Pliocene Vihowa Group represents
Chitarwata (ferruginous sandstone, conglomerate, mud), Vihowa (red ferruginous mud, sandstone
and conglomerate), Litra ( greenish grey sandstone with subordinate conglomerate and mud), and
Chaudhwan (mud, conglomerate and sandstone) formations, and Pleistocene-Holocene Sakhi Sarwar
group represents Dada (conglomerate with some mud and sandstone) and Sakhi Sarwar (mud,
sandstone and conglomerate) formations concealed at places especially in the valleys and plain areas
by the Subrecent and Recent fluvial and eolian deposits.

Stratigraphy and economic geology of Dhana Sar-Mughal Kot-Domanda-Chaudhwan section,

Zhob and D.I.Khan districts, Balochistan and Khyber Pakhtunkhwa provinces (Sulaiman
Basin)

Dhana Sar-Mughal Kot-Domanda-Chaudhwan section is located transversely on the eastern limb of

Takht-e-Sulaiman anticlinorium. The axis of anticlinorium and strike of its strata is generally north
south. Dhana Sar area is located on the core of anticlinorium under the territory of Zhob District,
Balochistan Province while the Mughalkot, Domanda-Chaudhwan areas are located on the eastern
limb of anticlinorium under the territory of D.I.Khan District, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Province. The

66
oldest core formations exposed in this section are Jurassic Sulaiman Group representing Loralai (thin
to medium bedded limestone with minor shale) and Chiltan (thick bedded to massive limestones)
formations. The exposed limb stratigraphy in ascending order is Early Cretaceous Parh Group
represents Sembar (mainly shale), Goru (marl and shale), and Parh (limestone with minor shale)
formations, and Late Cretaceous Fort Munro group represents Mughal Kot (shale/mudstone,
sandstone, marl and limestone), Fort Munro (limestone), Pab (sandstone with subordinate shale) and
Vitakri (red muds and greyish white sandstone) formations. The following Paleocene Sangiali group
represents Rakhi Gaj (Girdu member, glauconitic and hematitic sandstone; Bawata member,
alternation of shale and sandstone), and Dungan (thick limestone with minor shale) formations;
Early Eocene Chamalang (Ghazij) group represents Shaheed Ghat (shale), Toi (sandstone, shale,
rubbly limestone and coal), Kingri (red shale/mud, grey and white sandstone) and Baska (gypsum
beds and shale) formations, and Middle Eocene Kahan group represents Habib Rahi (limestone, marl
and shale), Domanda (shale), Pir Koh (limestone, marl and shale) and Drazinda (shale) formations,
Oligocene-Pliocene Vihowa group represents Chitarwata (grey ferruginous sandstone, conglomerate
and mud), Vihowa (red ferruginous shale/mud, sandstone and conglomerate), Litra (greenish grey
sandstone with subordinate conglomerate and mud), and Chaudhwan (mud, conglomerate and
sandstone) formations, and Pleistocene-Holocene Sakhi Sarwar group represents Dada (well
developed conglomerate with subordinate mud and sandstone) and Sakhi Sarwar Formation (poorly
developed conglomerate with subordinate mud and sandstone, while in centre of valleys the mud is
dominant) concealed at places especially in the Chaudhwan valleys and plain areas by the Subrecent
and Recent fluvial and eolian deposits. The significant mineral commodities found in this section are
huge deposits of gypsum, very small coal deposits and petroleum seepage and huge cement
resources and construction and building materials. The area consists of ideal places for cement
industry installations and small dams for water storage.

Stratigraphy, vertebrate paleontology and economic significance of Zinda Pir anticline, Dera
Ghazi Khan District, South Punjab, Pakistan

Zinda Pir anticline is doubly plunging anticline located in the easternmost part of Sulaiman Range. It
is generally trending north south. The core formation exposed in the Zinda Pir Ziarat gorge is Early
Paleocene Rakhi Gaj Sandstone and shale caped by the massive and thick limestone of Late
Paleocene Dungan Formation. The Dungan Limestone forms the peaks of anticlinal axis extending
more than 10 km north south. This limestone is also being used for D.G.Khan cement industry. Due
to high affinity of erosion the Early Eocene Shaheed Ghat shales are found on the limbs and
plunging areas. The limbs and plunging formations are Early Eocene Drug rubbly limestone and
Baska gypsum and shales of Chamalang (Ghazij) Group, Middle Eocene Habib Rahi limestone,
Domanda shale, Pirkoh marl/limestone and Drazinda shale of Kahan Group, Oligocene Chitarwata
(ferruginous sandstone, conglomerate and shale), Miocene Vihowa (red muds and sandstone) and
Litra (greenish grey sandstone with some red muds) and Pliocene Chaudhwan (alternated sandstone
and maroon muds) of Vihowa Group and Pleistocene Dada (conglomerate) and Holocene Sakhi
Sarwar (clays, sandstone and conglomerates) of Sakhi Sarwar Group. After the exposures of Sakhi
Sarwar Formation, the eastern limb mostly covers by thick alluvium with some eolian deposits. The
western limb shares with Baghal Chur-Barthi-Fazla Kach syncline. The Eocene and post Eocene
rocks plunges in the south at Dalana, Sakhi Sarwar areas, etc and in the north at Sanghar, Satta post,

67
Litra and Vihowa areas. The trends of Paleocene to Holocene rocks shifted from north south to
gradually east west in the southern and northern plunge areas. The significance of this anticlinorium
is many paleontological findings and economic commodities. Many vertebrates like rhinocerotoids,
antharacotherids, proboscideans, carnivores, chalicotheres, deinotheres, bovids, suids, Creodonta,
ruminantia, amynodontiae and crocodilians and also many invertebrates are reported. Recently the
most famous vertebrates found in this and surrounding areas are middle Eocene walking whale,
Basilosaurid (Sulaimanitherium dhanotri) the king of basal whales, Oligocene Baluchitheria
(Buzdartherium gulkirao) the largest land mammals and crocodile (Asifcroco retrai) and Miocene
large proboscideans like (Gomphotherium buzdari). The economic mineral and rock commodities
are Petroleum (from Dhodhak and surroundings), fuller earth, gypsum and other cement raw
materials like limestone and shale, building stone and construction materials like Dungan limestone
and some beds of Habib Rahi Limestone and conglomerates of Pleistocene Dada and Holocene
Sakhi Sarwar formations. Some coal showings are also found in the eastern limb.

Lithostratigraphy, economic and vertebrate significance of Fort Munro anticlinorium, Dera

Ghazi Khan and Rajan Pur districts of Punjab and Dera Bugti and Barkhan districts of
Balochistan (Sulaiman Basin)

Doubly plunging Fort Munro anticlinorium located in Sulaiman Range. The oldest Early Cretaceous
Parh Limestone is exposed in Shadiani gorge. The Late Cretaceous Mughal Kot marl/mudstone, Fort
Munro Limestone and Pab Sandstone, and Latest Cretaceous Vitakri Formation (sandstone and red
muds) of Fort Munro Group are exposed in the Shadiani, Rakhi Gaj and other gorges. The tourism
places and peaks (about 2000m AMSL) are Fort Munro and Mari. The north south trending peak
consists of exposed Paleocene Sangiali limestone (a few meter thick), Rakhi Gaj Formation (more
than 100m of Girdu ferruginous sandstone and Bawata shale) and Dungan Limestone of Sangiali
Group. At places the exposures of Pab Sandstone and Vitakri Formation (host of dinosaurs and
associated vertebrates which are found just below the K-T boundary) are exposed in the areas of
Mian Ghundi, Fort Munro, Chitri, etc and on both limbs of anticlinorium. The eastern and western
limb formations are Early Eocene Shaheed Ghat (shale), Drug (rubbly limestone), Baska (gypsum
and shale) of Chamalang (Ghazij) Group and Middle Eocene Habib Rahi limestone, Domanda shale,
Pirkoh marl/limestone and Drazinda shale of Kahan Group, Oligocene Chitarwata (ferruginous
sandstone, conglomerate and shale), Miocene Vihowa (red muds and sandstone) and Litra (greenish
grey sandstone with some red muds) and Pliocene Chaudhwan (alternated sandstone and maroon
muds) of Vihowa Group and Pleistocene Dada (conglomerate) and Holocene Sakhi Sarwar (clays,
sandstone and conglomerates) of Sakhi Sarwar Group. The eastern limb shared with Barthi-Baghal
Chur syncline and western limb shares with Beaker, Mat Khetran, Chacha, Rakhni and Manjhail
Kharar syncline. The Paleocene and post Paleocene rocks plunge in the south at Mari and Kalchas
and in the north at Hinglun-Sora Tangi. Due to plunge the trends of Paleocene to Holocene rocks
shifted from north south to gradually east west forming arc in the southern and northern plunge
areas. In the south after the plunge the main structures found are Sui, Zin, Uch, Loti, Pir Koh, etc
which produce petroleum/gas. The significance of this anticlinorium is many economic commodities
and paleontological findings. The economic mineral commodities are fuller earth, gypsum and other
cement raw materials like limestone and shale, building stone and construction materials like
Dungan limestone and some beds of Habib Rahi Limestone and conglomerates of Pleistocene Dada

68
and Holocene Sakhi Sarwar formations, millstone and quartzite from Pab, iron from Chitarwata and
Girdu member or Gorge beds of Rakhi Gaj Formation. This iron may be used for cement/steel
industry like the Satta Post red mud which is being used by D.G.Khan cement industry. Some coal
showings are also tried for mining in the Domanda and Chitarwata formations in the eastern limb but
now minings are abandoned. Many vertebrates like dinosaurs, pterosaurs, mesoeucrocodiles and
mammals and invertebrates are reported. Recently the most famous vertebrates reported are
dinosaurs (titanosaurian sauropods and abelisaurian and noasaurian theropods), mesoeucrocodiles
and pterosaurs-the flying reptiles, middle Eocene walking whale, the king of basal whales
(Sulaimanitherium dhanotri), Oligocene Baluchitheria- the largest land mammals (Baluchitherium
osborni and Buzdartherium gulkirao) and crocodile (Asifcroco retrai) and Miocene large
proboscideans (Gomphotherium buzdari).

Stratigraphy and economic geology of Kaha-Harand section of Mari anticline, Rajan Pur
District, Punjab, Pakistan

Rajan Pur District consists of alluvial plain in the east and mountain range in the west. Kaha-Harand
section is located on the southern plunge of Mari anticline (trending generally north south). Mari
anticline is located in the south of Fort Munro anticlinorium of Sulaiman Range. The oldest strata of
Kaha-Harand section is exposed in the core of Mari anticline, where gorge formed by cutting of
Kaha river coming from Beakar and Phailawagh areas of Dera Bugti District and Nisau area of
Kohlu District, and Vitakri and Rakhni areas of Barkhan District. The stratigraphy in ascending
order is Late Cretaceous Fort Munro Group represents Mughal Kot (marl/mudstone), Fort Munro
(limestone), and Pab (Sandstone); Paleocene Sangiali Group represents Sangiali (shelly limestone-a
few meter thick), Rakhi Gaj (more than 100m of Girdu ferruginous sandstone and Bawata shale) and
Dungan (limestone and shale); Early Eocene Chamalang (Ghazij) Group represents Shaheed Ghat
(shale), Drug (rubbly limestone) and Baska (gypsum and shale); Middle Eocene Kahan Group
represents Habib Rahi (limestone, marl and shale), Domanda (mainly shale), Pirkoh (marl/limestone,
shale) and Drazinda (mainly shale); Oligocene-Pliocene Vihowa Group represents Chitarwata
(ferruginous sandstone, conglomerate and shale), Vihowa (red muds and sandstone), Litra (greenish
grey sandstone with some red muds) and Chaudhwan (alternated sandstone and maroon muds);
Pleistocene-Holocene Sakhi Sarwar Group represents Dada (conglomerate) and Sakhi Sarwar (clays,
sandstone and conglomerates) formations; alluvial terraces, fans and alluvial plains. The economic
geology of Kaha-Harand section of Mari anticline represents many economic commodities. The
economic mineral commodities are fuller earth, gypsum and other cement raw materials like
limestone and shale, building stone and construction materials like Dungan limestone and some beds
of Habib Rahi Limestone and conglomerates of Pleistocene Dada and Holocene Sakhi Sarwar
formations, millstone and quartzite from Pab, iron from Chitarwata and Girdu member or Gorge
beds of Rakhi Gaj Formation. This iron may be used for cement/steel industry like the Satta Post red
mud which is being used by D.G.Khan cement industry. Some carbonaceous shale with minor coal is
also observed in the Domanda and Chitarwata formations in the eastern limb of Mari anticline. In the
Kaha-Harand section the thick Dungan limestone and large Baska gypsum deposits are well
exposed. The close occurrence of inexhaustable cement raw materials which will be provided to
industry only by belts (and not by trucks), peaceful and favourable locations in the centre of Pakistan
and ideal location for all provinces strongly suggests for installation of new cement industries at

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Kaha-Harand section. The installation of the cement industry at Kaha-Harand section (on the eastern
limb of Mari anticline, just close to Harand) will be an accelerated innovation for the sustainable
development of the areas, provinces and Pakistan.

REVISED STRATIGRAPHY OF KIRTHAR BASIN (LOWER INDUS BASIN), PAKISTAN

Kirthar basin shows mostly the same lithological units like Sulaiman basin during Mesozoic and
Quaternary but vary in Tertiary strata. Further the Tertiary strata of western Kirthar basin (Quetta-
Mastung-Kalat-Khuzdar and Lasbela areas of Balochistan) are also slightly different than eastern
Kirtan basin (all areas of Sindh province).

REVISED STRATIGRAPHY OF WESTERN KIRTHAR BASIN (KIRTHAR RANGE AND

SURROUNDINGS), BALOCHISTAN PROVINCE

Western Kirthar basin as name shows it is located in the western part of Kirthar basin occupied by
Kirthar range and surrounding areas. On the west it is bounded by southern part (Khuzdar-Lasbela)
of Western Indus Suture belt and then Makran range of Balochistan basin, on the east by eastern
Kirthar basin, on the south by Indo-Pak Ocean and on the north by Sulaiman basin. Western Kirthar
basin represents exposed Mesozoic and Cenozoic rocks, however in subsurface the Paleozoic and
Precambrian rocks may be found. The exposed stratigraphic sequences in the western Kirthar basin
under the Balochistan Province are being described as follows.

Triassic Khanozai Group

It is named by Fatmi et al. (1986) for Gwal and Wulgai formations exposed in the Western Indus
Suture (Shirinab area of Mastung and Kalat, Gwal-Khanozai, Zhob) and at the contact of Sulaiman
with Balochistan basins.

Gwal Formation
Gwal named by Anwar et al. (1991) after Gwal village. It consists of variegated shale and thin
bedded limestone and marl with rare mafic intrusion and diabase flow. On the basis of ammonites
including Meekoceras, Owenites, Anakashmirites, Anasibirites, Durgaites, Hemiprionites, etc the
age is Early Triassic (Late-Middle Scythian). It is exposed in Khanozai, Zhob, Quetta, Shirinab
(Mastung, Kalat), etc, areas. It is 350 m thick in the Trakai-Gwal section. It contains exotic blocks of
Permian limestone containing brachiopods, corals etc. Its lower contact is not exposed and upper
contact with Wulgai is sharp and conforable with fossiliferous conglomeratic and dense limestone.

Wulgai Formation
Wulgai is named by Williams 1959 after Wulgai village for variegated shale with medium bedded
limestone of Middle to Late Triassic age exposed in the Western Indus Suture regions like Shirinab
area of Mastung and Kalat, Khanozai, Zhob, etc. It is 180 m thick in the Trakai-Gwal section. Its
lower contact with Gwal is sharp with fossiliferous conglomeratic and dense limestone and upper
contact with Spingwar formation seems to be conformable. The fossils like radiolarian, conodonts
and some Spiriferinid brachiopods in basal limestone indicates Middle Triassic age and Holobia,

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Daonella (Bivalves) and ammonites like Cladescites, Jovites, Arietoceltites, Anatomites, Juvavites,
Arcetes indicating Late Triassic.

Jurassic Sulaiman Group

The term “Sulaiman limestone” was first used by Pinfold (1939), the type section in the gorge
between Mughal Kot and Dhana Sar (lat. 310 26’N; long. 700 01’E) was formally described by
Williams (1959), and later “Sulaiman Limestone Group” is used by the Geological Survey of
Pakistan. The Alozai group was used by Shah (2009) for Spingwar and Loralai formations only on
the suggestions of A.N Fatmi that the Alozai group is well exposed in the Quetta to Zhob. Malkani
(2009a) used the term Sulaiman Group for the Spingwar, Loralai/Anjira, Chiltan/Takatu/Zidi and
Dilband formations. Mesozoic rocks are mostly pericratonic marine shelf sloping westward from
Indo-Pak Peninsula. The sequence show igneous rocks in and near vicinity of western Indus suture.

Spingwar Formation
The Spingwar member of Shirinab Formation was named by Williams (1959) and he designated the
type section at Spingwar at the north of Zamari Tangi, about 35 km northwest of Loralai (lat. 300 32’
52’’N; long. 680 19’ 16’’E). Stratigraphic committee (Shah, 2009) upgraded it to the formation level
due to wide and thick exposures and clear cut differences among the under and overlying strata. It
consists of grey to greenish grey shale, grey to whitish grey marl and limestone with some igneous
sills especially in the vicinity of Western Indus suture (Axial Belt). It is mostly exposed near the
western Indus suture. It is 665m in Zamari Tangi, 215m in the Mara Tangi, and 140m in the Tazi
Kach sections (Fatmi 1977; Shah 2009). It is conformably contacted on the base with Triassic
Wulgai Formation and upper contact with Anjira/Loralai Limestone. Its Upper Triassic to Early
Jurassic age is based on fossils of ammonites, brachiopods, bivalves, crinoids, corals and shell
fragments (Williams, 1959; Anwar, et al, 1991; Fatmi 1977).

Anjira Formation
The Anjira member of Shirinab Formation was named by Williams (1959) after Anjira village
(34L/7) with type locality 12 km east of Anjira (Anwar et al. 1991). It is correlative to Loralai
limestone of Sulaiman basin. It represents mainly thin to medium bedded grey limestone with some
grey shale and marl. Its lower contact with Spingwar Formation and upper contact with Chiltan
(Takatu, Zidi) Limestone is conformable. The age assigned by Williams (1959) and Woodward
(1959) is Early Jurassic but HSC (1961) have recorded Torcian fossils from its lower part. Its age
ranges from Late Liassic to Bajocian (Early-Middle Jurassic).

Chiltan (Takatu/Zidi Limestone) Formation

The famous name Chiltan limestone was introduced by Hunting Survey Corporation (1961) after the
Chiltan Range southwest of Quetta. The type locality of Chiltan is after the Chiltan Range (Lat. 30 0
01’ N; Long. 660 46’E). Shah (2002,2009) named the Takatu Formation after the Williams (1959).
Its name was derived from the Takatu Range in the Northeast of Quetta. The type section is along
Data Manda Nala, a small stream passing throughout the entire formation in very deep narrow gorge
and enters the plain about 3km south of Bostan village (Lat. 300 20’N; Long. 670 03’E). The term
Chiltan Limestone is well known in all geoscientists. It is also valid in most of the Kirthar, Sulaiman
and Axial belt areas. It consists of massive thick bedded limestone which forms prominent ranges

71
and high peaks in the surrounding of Quetta, Ziarat and then in the Takht Sulaiman area, however in
the vicinity of Loralai, the peak forming equilent is Loralai formation. This limestone is considered
as biohermal or reefal. This formation is 800m thick in the type locality and 1100m in the Takht
Sulaiman and in other areas varies from 600 to 1100m (Fatmi 1977; Shah 2009). The lower contact
of Chiltan (Takatu) Limestone with Anjira/Loralai Formation is conformable while upper contact
with Dilband/Sembar Formation is disconfirmable and at places conformable. Arkell (1956) reported
Late Bathonian ammonites from the lower part of Mazar Drik unit/Dilband Formation, its age can be
considered as Early Callovian to Late Bathonian (Middle Jurassic) (Fatmi 1977). Its stratigraphic
position also tells the age range from Middle Jurassic to Late Jurassic.

Dilband Formation
Dilband Formation which is about 20m thick in the type area (northern Kirthar range) was named by
Abbas et al. (1998) and designated three members like lower Jarositic clay member (light grey to
brown), middle ironstone member (reddish), and upper green glauconitic shale member. The
Dilband Formation (synonym Mazar Drik Formation) is less than 30 m and exposed also in the
Dilband Johan-Moola Zahri Range of Kirthan foldbelt and Loralai, Duki and Gadebar areas of
Sulaiman foldbelt. It includes mostly the transitional and disconfirmable horizons representing
Jurassic Cretaceous (J-K) boundary. This J-K boundary exposed in Duki, Loralai, Daman Ghar and
Gadebar areas is represented by light brown shale alternated with light grey fresh colour and light
brown weathered colour limestone belong to Dilband Formation. Its lower contact with Chiltan
(Takatu/Zidi) Limestone and upper contact with Sembar Formation is disconfirmable and at places
conformable. Ammonits from Mazar Drik and Moro area include Macrocephalites, Dolikephalites,
Indocephalites, Pleurocephalites, Indosphinctes and Choffatia (Fatmi 1977). Arkell (1956) reported
Bullatimorphites bullatus and Clydoniceras from the lower part of Mazar Drik unit/Dilband
Formation, representing Late Bathonian age. Recently Malkani (2003c) has found dinosaurs
(Brohisaurus kirthari) fossils from Sun Chaku (Karkh area) and Charoh (Zidi area) localities of
Khuzdar district (Kirthar range) from the Dilband formation (transition beds of lower Sembar from
Chiltan Limestone to Sembar shale). Its stratigraphic position tells the age range from Middle
Jurassic to Late Jurassic. Its age can be considered as Late Jurassic.

Early Cretaceous Parh Group

The term Parh was first used by Blanford (1879) for rocks of Parh Range. The name was later
applied by Vredenburg (1909) to a prominent white limestone in his Cretaceous succession.
Williams (1959) redefined it as a limestone between the Goru and Mughal Kot formations. The type
area lies in the Parh Range in the upper reaches of the Gaj River (lat. 260 54’ 45’’N; long. 670 05’
45’’E). Goru and Parh formations are well exposed in the Goru and Parh ranges but the Sembar is
well exposed in the Lakha Pir Charoh area just east of Parh Range. Parh Group represents Sembar,
Mekhtar, Goru and Parh formations, however Mekhtar sandstone (Lower Goru Sandstone) is not
exposed in Parh range while it is exposed in Mekhtar area (Loralai District) and Murgha Kibzai area
(Zhob District) of Balochistan and also found in subsurface in eastern Kirthar basin. Shah (2009)
mentioned the Mona Jhal Group after the Fatmi et al. (1996) from Mona Jhal Anticline, 13 km north
of Khuzdar and it includes the Sembar, Goru, Parh and Mughal Kot. According to the author’s
opinion the Mughal Kot Formation is arenaceous clastic in the Eastern Sulaiman and fit with the Fort
Munro Group which is mostly clastic, except Fort Munro Limestone.

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Sembar Formation
The term Sembar Formation was proposed by Williams (1959) to replace the term Belemnite beds of
Oldham (1890). The type section is Sembar Pass (lat. 290 55’ 05’’N; long. 680 34’ 48’’E). Malkani
(2010a) reported three members of Sembar Formation in the Mekhtar and Murgha Kibzai area of
Sulaiman Foldbelt like Sembar lower and upper shale members and middle member is named as
Mekhtar member/Mekhtar sandstone member. The type locality of Mekhtar member is just south of
Mekhtar town, near the Kareez (39F/7). This sandstone unit is about 100m thick. It is also found in
the north of Mekhtar like Murgha Kibzai area. The shale is greenish grey and khaki, mostly
calcareous, with rare glauconitic. The Mekhtar sandstone is Pab like white to grey, quartzose, thin to
thick bedded and medium to coarse grained, mostly weathered as dark grey to black. The marl is
grey to cream white, thin bedded and porcelaneous. Malkani and Mahmood (2016b) updated the
Mekhtar member as Mekhtar Formation (Mekhtar sandstone or it is commonly called as lower Goru
sandstone). Sembar Formation is estimated as about 1000m in the Loralai, Gadebar Range and Tor
Thana areas. As lateral variation, this formation is relatively more and maximum thick in the Loralai,
Tor Thana and Gadebar areas. It is being reduced in towards the Kirthar basin and Western Indus
suture regions and also toward the northern Sulaiman Foldbelt. It is 133m thick in the type locality
and 262m in the Mughal Kot area (Fatmi 1977; Shah 2009). It is about 200m near the Lakha Pir of
Charoh anticline in Zidi area in the east of Khuzdar town. Its lower contact with the
Loralai/Chiltan/Dilband formations is disconfirmable and at places conformable and upper contact
with Goru formation is transitional and conformable. It contains foraminifers and most common
belemnites Hibolithes pistilliformis, H. subfusiformis and Duvalia sp. From Windar River in
Lasbela, Nuttal (in Arkell 1956) reported fragments of Virgatosphinctes denseplicatus and V. cf. V.
subquadratus. The age varies from latest Jurassic to Early Cretaceous (Fatmi 1977).

Mekhtar Formation (or Mekhtar Sandstone)

Mekhtar Formation (or Mekhtar Sandstone or it is commonly called as lower Goru sandstone) is
upgraded by Malkani and Mahmood (2016b) as formation (from previous Mekhtar member) due to
its wide occurrence and lateral extension in the Eastern Sulaiman and also Eastern Kirthar basins
(subsurface). It is not exposed in the Kirthar basin but found in subsurface, however it is exposed in
Mekhtar and Murgha Kibzai areas of Sulaiman basin. Malkani (2010a) established three members of
Sembar formation. But here the Middle Sandstone and upper shale and marl are considered as
Mekhtar Formation. Its type locality is near the Mekhtar town just south of Mekhtar on Chamalang
Mekhtar road (39F/7). At type locality it is round about 100m thick lensoid shape. This sandstone is
oil producing/reservoir rocks in Kirthar basin commonly called Lower Goru Sandstone. Actually it is
a Mekhtar Formation. It mostly consists of sandstone (Pab like) with some shale and marl. The lower
contact with Sembar is gradational and sharp marked on Sandstone facies variation from Shale facies
of Sembar. The upper contact with Goru Formation is also sharp. According to law of superposition
its age can be considered as Early Cretaceous.

Goru Formation
The term Goru Formation was introduced by Williams (1959). The type section is located near Goru
village on the Nar river in the southern Kirthar Range (lat. 27 0 50’ 00’’N; long. 660 54’ 00’’E). It
consists of alternations of about 3 thick marl units and two shale units. The shale is grey to khaki and

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calcareous. The marl is grey to cream white, thin bedded to thick bedded and porcelaneous. It is
relatively reduced towards the axial belt regions. It is about 500m thick in the type area and also
same in the Mekhtar area. It is being reduced towards western Indus Suture near Quetta upto 60m
thick. Its lower contact with Sembar Formation is transitional and conformable where Mekhtar
sandstone (Lower Goru Sandstone) is missing, otherwise its upper contact with Mekhtar sandstone is
sharp. The upper contact with Parh Limestone is marked by a marine maroon red beds which also
show conformable contact, however some author have suggested the maroon beds are indicator of
disconformity but in actual these are marine red beds. The most of the fossils found belong to
foraminifers and belemnite (Hibolithes spp.). Fritz and Khan (1967) described the foraminifers from
Bangu Nala in Quetta as Globigerinelloides algeriana, G. breggiensis, G. caseyi, Ticinella roberti,
Gavelinella, Rotallipora ticinensis, R. appennenica, R. brotzeni, R. reicheli, Praeglobo-truncana
stephani and Planomallina buxtorfi. According to stratigraphic position, its age can be considered as
Early Cretaceous.

Parh Formation
It consists of mainly limestone with minor shale and marly beds. Limestone and marl is cream white
to grey, thin to thick bedded and porcelaneous. The shale is grey, khaki and calcareous. It is 60-70m
thick in Sulaiman Basin. As lateral variation, this formation is relatively more and maximum thick
(about 300-400m) in Karkh, Kharzan and the type locality areas of Kirthar Foldbelt. Its lower
contact with Goru Formation is conformable and upper contact with Mughal Kot Formation is also
transitional and conformable represented by about 12m marly beds. The formation is rich in
foraminifers like Globotruncana Spp., G. ventricosa, G. lapparenti, G. sigali, Pseudotextularia
elegans (Gigon 1962). The age of the Parh limestone is middle Cretaceous in the Sulaiman and
Kirthar foldbelts, however it is maintained from middle Cretaceous to Late Cretaceous in the
western Indus Suture (Axial Belt) areas where the Fort Munro Group is not developed and also
lower and middle Sangiali group is not developed. For example the Ziarat Laterite showing K-T
boundary is contacted by Cretaceous Parh Limestone and Paleocene Dungan Limestone.

Late Cretaceous Fort Munro Group

The term Fort Munro Group was first time used by Malkani (2009a) for Mughal Kot, Fort Munro,
Pab and Vitakri formations. Its type section is Rakhi Gaj and Girdu are in Toposheet 39 K/1. The
lower contact of this group is also found in Shadiani section in Toposheet 39 J/4.

Mughal Kot Formation

Williams (1959) named and designated the type section of the Mughal Kot Formation to be in the
gorge 1-3 miles west of Mughal Kot post (lat. 310 26’ 52’’N; long. 700 02’ 58’’E). Its synonym is
Nishpa formation. It has variable lithology like marly mudstone in the Rakhi Gaj area and its
vicinity, alternation of shale, lenticular sandstone and limestone in the Tor Thana and Murgha Kibzai
area, and alternations of shale with subordinate sandstone is common in all other areas of eastern
Sulaiman Foldbelt. In the western Sulaiman like the vicinity of Loralai, the Fort Munro Group is
represented by about 100m shale further reducing to western Indus Suture belt, in the Ziarat laterite
area, it is not developed. In the western vicinity of Ziarat, it is represented by shale and volcanics
(Bibai Formation), and in the eastern vicinity of Quetta like Hana Lake and Sor Range areas it is
represented by limestone with negligible shale. The shale is grey, khaki and calcareous and rarely

74
noncalcareous. The sandstone is grey to white, quartzose to muddy, thin to thick bedded and medium
to coarse grained, mostly weathered as dark grey to black. The marl and mudstone is grey to cream
white. The Parh like limestone is creamy white, porcelaneous, thick bedded and lenticular observed
in the Tor Thana area (39 F/3). It is estimated about 1200m in the Musa Khel and type locality area.
Petroleum seep is reported in Toi River of Mughal Kot area, on the contact of Mughal Kot and Pab
formations. As lateral variation, this formation is relatively more and maximum thick in the type
locality and Musa Khel district. It is being reduced in towards the Kirthar basin and western Indus
suture regions. It is mostly developed in shallow marine, prodeltaic and deltaic environments. Its
lower contact with Parh Formation is transitional and conformable represented by marly beds well
exposed in the Tor Thana and its vicinity areas, and upper contact with Fort Munro Limestone is also
transitional and conformable, however where the Fort Munro Limestone is absent its upper contact
with Pab sandstone is transitional. Williams (1959) reported Omphaocyclus sp. and Orbitoides sp.
showing Maastrichtian ages, while Marks (1962) reported Siderolites cf. calcitrapoides, Orbitoides
tissoti minima and O. tissoti compressa from upper part of Mughalkot formation in Rakhi Nala
showing late to middle Campanion age, so its lower part may extends up to early Campanion. So its
age is Early to Late Campanion

Fort Munro Formation

The name Fort Munro limestone member was introduced by Williams (1959) for the upper
dominantly limestone unit of the Mughal Kot Formation and he designated the type section in the
western flank of the Fort Munro anticline along the Fort Munro-Dera Ghazi Khan road (lat. 290 57’
14’’N; long. 700 10’ 38’’E). Fatmi (1977) assigned it a separate formation status because of its
distinct lithology and regional extent. It consists of grey to brown and thin to thick bedded limestone
with minor greenish grey shale. It is 100m thick at type locality, 248m in subsurface at Dabbo Creek
i,e due to dip it actual thickness may be 100-150m. The lower contact with Mughal Kot Formation
and upper contact with Pab Formation are transitional and conformable. Blanford (1879) correlated
the unit with Hippuritic limestone of Iran on the base of fragments of Hippurite found from the scree
of this unit. Williams (1959) reported Omphaocyclus sp. and Orbitoides sp. showing Maastrichtian
ages. HSC (1961) reported Actinosiphon punjabensis, Orbitoides media, Siderolites sp. etc from
Kirthar range and assigned Maastrichtian gae. According to Williams (1959), HSC (1961) and
Marks (1962, its age may be late companion to Early Maastrichtian.

Pab Formation
The term Pab Sandstone was introduced by Vredenburg (1907) and the type section in the Pab
Range (lat. 250 31’ 12’’N; long. 700 02’ 58’’E) was designated by Williams (1959). Malkani (2006d)
divided the Pab Formation into three members like lower Dhaola member (Dhaola Nala, lat. 29 0 42’
41’’N; long. 690 29’ 48’’E), middle as Kali member (Kali hills of Dhaola Range, lat. 29 0 42’ 41’’N;
long. 690 29’ 42’’E) and upper Vitakri member). The best reference section for Dhaola member is
Fort Munro area (lat. 290 57’ 14’’N; long. 700 10’ 38’’E) of D.G.Khan district, and for Kali member
is Tor Thana area (lat. 300 12’ N; long. 690 11’E) of Loralai District. The Dhaola member (white
quartzose sandstone with minor to moderate black weathering) represents the environments of
proximal delta, near the coastline and consistent in the eastern Sulaiman Foldbelt. Kali member
(shale and black weathering sandstone) represent middle and distal deltaic environments and mostly
exposed in the western part of Sulaiman Foldbelt. Two members are not consistent every where in

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the Sulaiman basin. In the Dhaola and Chamalang sections, both Dhaola and Kali member are
existed well. The thickness of Pab Formation is estimated 500m in the Fort Munro area. It is
pinching toward north like Mughal Kot section (300m), and also pinching toward south in the
Khairpur- Jacob Abad high. This high separates the northern delta (Sulaiman Basin) from southern
delta (Kirthar Basin). In the western Kirthar it is about 600m or more thick. It is not absent in Mari-
Bugti Hills but shale proportion increases. The thickness of this formation is relatively less in the
Mughal Kot and toward north and Western Indus Suture (WIS) but uniform in the eastern Sulaiman
Foldbelt. Its lower contact with Fort Munro Limestone or Mughal Kot Formation (when Fort Munro
Limestone is absent) is transitional and conformable and upper contact with Vitakri is
disconfirmable, when Vitakri Formation is missing, its upper contact with Sangiali/Rakhi Gaj
Formation is conformable. Vredenburg (1908) reported Orbitoides (Lepidorbitoides) minor from
lower part of the unit in Rakhi Nala representing early Maestrichtian age. Williams (1959) reported
mixed bentonic-pelagic foraminifers of Maestrichtrian age from type locality area. HSC (1961)
reported Globotruncana aff. G. linnei, Lituola sp., Omphalocyclus macropora, Orbitella media,
Orbitoides sp., Siderolites sp., from Moro area with Maestrichtian age. Recently, dinosaurs,
crocodiles and pterosaurs are found from Vitakri Formation (Previously upper member of Pab
formation, for detail see in Vitakri Formation) of Sulaiman foldbelt. The fossil of
gymnosperm/conifer wood of Baradarakht goeswangai Malkani 2014, with 20 cm in diameter, is
found from the Latest Cretaceous (Maastrichtian) Pab Formation in Goeswanga Pass, Barkhan
District, Balochistan (Malkani 2014f). According to dinosaur fossils and stratigraphic position, the
age is considered as Middle to Late Maastrichtian.

Vitakri Formation
Malkani (2006c) introduced first time the upper member of Pab Formation as Vitakri member and
Malkani (2009a) upgraded this member into Vitakri Formation (Type Vitakri area, lat. 29 0 41’
19’’N; long. 690 23’ 02’’E) due to its distinct lithology, depositional environments and lateral
extension. Vitakri village is about 30 Km in the south-southwest of Barkhan town. Vitakri Formation
(15-35m, extended mostly in the eastern Sulaiman Fold and Thrust Belt) consist of alternated two
units of red mud/clay (2-15m each unit) of over bank flood plain deposits and two quartzose
sandstone units (2-15meach unit) with black weathering of meandering river system. Lower red mud
horizon is based on Kali member or Dhaola member and capped by middle sandstone horizon of
Vitakri Formation. The upper red mud horizon is based on middle sandstone horizon and capped by
a resistant sandstone horizon. Its coeval strata (coal, carbonaceous shale and sandstone) represent the
lacustrine and deltaic environment, and laterite represent the erosional disconformity. The sandstone
is white to grey, thin to thick bedded and fine to coarse grained, quartzose, mostly weathered as dark
grey to black. The shale is red, maroon, and greenish grey and calcareous to noncalcareous. The red
muds of this disconformity and just below this are the host of latest Cretaceous dinosaurs in
Pakistan. Vitakri Formation is regional extension in eastern Sulaiman Foldbelt and also Ziarat
laterite is a part of Vitakri Formation. Vitakri Formation was the Park for the latest Cretaceous
dinosaurs and crocodiles of Pakistan. Its lower and upper contact with Pab and Sangiali formations is
disconfirmable. The Vitakri Formation has dinosaurs, mesoeucrocodiles and pterosaurs and
invertebrates like fresh water bivalves, etc. More fossil plants may be found further from the Kingri
coal of Vitakri Formation (Malkani 2014f).

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 Pakistan appeared for the first time on the world dinosaur’s map based on recent geological
and paleontological exploration. The Mesozoic strata and their internal and external boundaries are
well exposed in the Lower, Middle and Upper Indus basins of Pakistan which allowed the
discoveries of numerous remains of dinosaurs and associated vertebrates. The lower Indus (Kirthar)
Basin yielded a partial rib and an egg of the Cretaceous Mesoeucrocodile Khuzdarcroco zahri and
few remains of Late Jurassic titanosauriform or early titanosaurian sauropod dinosaur Brohisaurus
kirthari. Furthermore, the lower Indus basin yielded a footprint of a Middle Jurassic
titanosauriform/early titanosaurian sauropod.
The red muds of the Latest Cretaceous Vitakri Formation of Middle Indus (Sulaiman) Basin
yielded well developed and well preserved remains of the herbivorous pakisaurids Khetranisaurus
barkhani, Sulaimanisaurus gingerichi and Pakisaurus balochistani, of the balochisaurids
Marisaurus jeffi, Balochisaurus malkani and Maojandino alami, of the saltasaurids Nicksaurus
razashahi, as well as of the most advanced and large-sized titanosaurian sauropod dinosaurs
Gspsaurus pakistani and Saraikimasoom vitakri. Carnivorous large bodied abelisaurians
Vitakridrinda sulaimani and small bodied noasaurian theropods Vitakrisaurus saraiki have also been
identified, as well as carnivorous large to medium bodied mesoeucrocodilians Sulaimanisuchus
kinwai of Sulaimanisuchidae and large bodied Pabwehshi pakistanensis and Induszalim bala of
Induszalimidae. Other fossil remains include the toothed pterosaur Saraikisaurus minhui and a wood
fossil of the conifer Baradarakht goeswangai. Further titanosaur (Pashtosaurus zhobi) trackways
have been found on the thick sandstone bed of the Latest Cretaceous Vitakri Formation of Western
Sulaiman basin and eastern extremity of Western Indus Suture as well as bony remains of the
titanosaurs found in the same basin and same formation.
Pakiring kharzani Malkani 2014 (bivalves) is found from the Cretaceous-Paleogene (K-Pg)
boundary laterite/thin rust on the last bed of Pab sandstone and it belongs to Vitakri Formation in the
Kharzan area of Khuzdar district (Malkani 2014f). It is sub ring type and rough surface ornamented
bivalves with rope like shape.
According to dinosaur fossils and stratigraphic position, the age is considered as Latest
Maastrichtian or Latest Cretaceous (67-66Mya).

Paleocene Sangiali Group

Malkani (2009a) introduced Sangiali Group representing Sangiali, Rakhi Gaj and Dungan
formations. The type section (Sangiali village area, lat. 290 41’ 53’’N; long. 690 23’ 54’’E) is
exposed just 1km south southeast of Village Sangiali. Sangiali Village is 4km north of Vitakri
Village. Sangiali Village is about 26 Km in the south-southwest of Barkhan town. The best and
easily approachable reference section (close to type locality of Kingri Formation) is about 5km in the
northwest of Kingri town (39F/15). The Khadro Formation of Kirthar Foldbelt has much volcanics.
In Sulaiman Range there are no volcanics but its green shale and sandstone may be glauconitic or
may show some volcanic source. Further the dominant sandstone in Khadro can hurdle for
identification of Rakhi Gaj formation. Further the upper sequence is again different from Ranikot
group. It is about 30m thick in the type area and it is being reduced on every side from type locality
area but existed in the eastern Sulaiman Foldbelt. Sangiali Formation and Group is suggested to
remove the problems. Mesozoic in Sulaiman and Kirthar are closely resemble while Paleocene is
different because the Bara and also part of Khadro formations were deposited by fluvial to deltaic
while in the Sulaiman the deposition was marine and deltaic.

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Sangiali Formation
Malkani (2009a) introduced first time the Sangiali Formation (due to its distinct lithology,
depositional environments and lateral extension) with type section (Sangiali village area, lat. 290 41’
53’’N; long. 690 23’ 54’’E) exposed just 1km south southeast of Village Sangiali. It is extensive in
most part of eastern Sulaiman Foldbelt and consists of green shale and sandstone with resistant
brown limestone. The shale is found in the lowermost part, which is graded in to sandstone. The
sandstone is capped by limestone. The shale is green and glauconitic and may be phosphate bearing.
The sandstone is greenish grey to grey and white and thin to medium bedded. The limestone is
brown, thin to thick bedded and bivalves bearing. The Sangiali Formation is 30m thick at the type
locality and pinching into few metres beds toward all vicinity areas. Nautiloids are common in the
type and just south in Vitakri area. Its lower contact with Vitakri Formation is disconfirmable and
upper contact with Rakhi Gaj Formation is transitional and conformable. The Nautiloids and
bivalves are common in this formation found from the Sangiali and Vitakri area. Pakiwheel vitakri
Malkani 2014, the stocky type nautiloids is found just after the K- Pg boundary in Sangiali
Formation close to east of Vitakri town (Malkani 2014f), and Pakiwheel karkhi Malkani 2014, the
slender type nautiloids, is found in the green mudstone, may be of volcanic origin, of the Early
Paleocene Sangiali Formation, 5 km east of Karkh town (Malkani 2014f). Eames (1952) reported
Early Paleocene fossils from Rakhi Nala. The possible bony fishes, the Teleostei or holostei fish or
ichthyosaur Karkhimachli sangiali Malkani 2014 are found fragmentary on the Early Paleocene part
of Sangiali Group of Karkh area of Khuzdar District but its nearby higher areas consists of Late
Cretaceous Mughalkot and Pab formations. Its preserved portion mostly belongs to body cross
section having herring bone type structure. It is small sized fish/ichthyosaur. Further some cross
sections are also referred to it. A body cross section of marine fish found in the Jurassic Chiltan
Limestone of Kharzan of Mula-Zahri area, Kirthar Range (Malkani 2014f). So its age is considered
as Early Paleocene.

Rakhi Gaj Formation

Williams (1959) introduced the lower Rakhi Gaj shales. The Rakhi Gaj formation is mentioned by
Shah (2002). The Rakhi Gaj Formation is also used by the present author in many Geological maps.
Upon the suggestions of S.M.Hussain of American Oil Company, the Stratigraphic Committee (Shah
2009) has adopted the name Girdu Member for the Gorge beds of Eames (1952). The Rakhi Gaj
Nala is designated as the type section (Lat. 290 57’ 14’’ N; Long. 700 11’ 30’’ E). Malkani (2010a)
reported two members of Rakhi Gaj formation like lower Girdu member (Gorge beds) and upper
Bawata members (Fig.1g in Malkani 2010a). It is the middle formation of Sangiali Group and lower
formation where Sangiali Formation is absent. The Girdu member is about 100m thick at type area
(Lat. 290 57’ 27’’ N; Long. 700 04’ 40’’ E) where it consists of thick and resistant beds of sandstone
with minor shale. The sandstone is grey, greenish grey, thin to thick bedded and fine to coarse
grained, bivalve bearings, hematitic and glauconitic weathered as dark reddish grey to dark grey.
Iron and potash from glauconitic and hematitic sandstone seems to be significant especially in the
Fort Munro, Rakhi Gaj and its vicinity areas of eastern Sulaiman Foldbelt. The Bawata member
named by Malkani (2010a) to fill the missing link. This upper member can be named Rakhi Gaj
member which lacks the well developed contact with Dungan Formation while Bawata locality has
well developed contact with Dungan Formation. The Bawata member (Bawata as type section; Lat.

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300 00’ N; Long. 690 57’ 30’’ E) consists of mainly shale along with alternation of sandstone (Fig.1g
in Malkani 2010a) is about 200m thick. The Shale is common in the uppermost part. The shale is
grey, khaki and calcareous. The sandstone is greenish grey to grey, bivalves and iron bearings. The
shale and sandstone of Fort Munro area show green colour may due to glauconitic or igneous origin
from volcanism of Deccan trap. The Girdu member is about 100m and Bawata member is about 200
m in its type areas. Both members are exposed in the eastern Sulaiman Foldbelt and its contact is
transitional. The lower contact of Girdu member with Sangiali and upper contact of Bawata member
with Dungan Formation is conformable. The lower contact of Rakhi Gaj Formation with Vitakri
Formation and Pab Formation (when Vitakri and Sangiali both are absent) is disconformable. Eames
(1952) reported Corbula (Varicorbula) harpa, Leionucula rakhiensis, Venericardia vredenburgi,
Tibia (Tibiochilus) rakhiensis and other fossils from Rakhi Nala with Early Paleocene age. Abundant
Cardita (Venericardia) beaumonti of Danian age reported many works from different areas. Nagappa
(1959) reported Globogerina pseudobulloides and G. triloculinoides. Sohn (1959) recorded
ostracodes such as Howecythereis multispinosa, H. micromma and Paracypris rectoventra from Laki
Range. HSC (1961) also reported many list of foraminifers. Latif (1964) has reported pelagic
foraminifera possibly from the Rakhi Gaj Formation of Rakhi Nala. Its age is considered as middle
Paleocene due to stratigraphic positions.

Dungan Formation
The term Dungan limestone was introduced by Oldham (1890). Williams (1859) designated the type
section to be near Harnai (lat. 300 08’ 38’’N; long. 670 59’ 33’’E) and renamed the unit Dungan
Formation. It consists of limestone, shale and marl. The limestone is grey to buff, thin to medium
bedded and conglomeratic. Shale is grey, khaki and calcareous. The marl is brown to grey, thin to
medium bedded and fine grained. This formation is 50-300m maximum thick. Laterally this
formational facies is more diverse, at places thick limestone deposits while at places minor limestone
showings. The Sui main limestone is an upper part of Dungan limestone due to its variable behavior.
It is thick in the Zinda Pir, Duki, Sanjawi, Harand, and also in Mughal Kot section but negligible as
in Rakhi Gaj and Mekhtar areas. Petroleum showings are common in this formation especially in the
Khatan area (Oldham 1890). Its lower contact with Bawata member of Rakhi Gaj Formation is
conformable, near the western Indus Suture belt it has disconformity at the base, while the upper
contact with Shaheed Ghat Formation is transitional and conformable. It has many mega forams. It
age is considered as Late Paleocene, rarely exceeding to early Eocene. However it is maintained all
Paleocene in the Ziarat area and the Western Indus suture (Axial belt) areas where the Sangiali and
Rakhi Gaj formations i.e. the lower and middle Sangiali group is not developed. For example the
Ziarat Laterite showing K-T boundary is contacted by Parh and Dungan formation. A rich fossil
assemblage including foraminifers, gastropods, bivalves and algae are reported by Davies (1941),
Khan M.H. (in Lexique 1956), HSC (1961), Latif (1964), Iqbal (1969a) and others. Khan M.H. (in
Lexique 1956) reported presence of rich assemblages of foraminifers (Davies 1927; Nuttal 1931),
corals (Duncan 1880), mollusces (Vredenburg 1909, 1928b) and echinoids (Duncan and Sladen
1882). The foraminifers include Nummulites nuttali, N. thalicus, N. globules, N. sindensis, Assilina
ranikotensis, Miscellanea miscella, M. stampi, Lockhartia haemei, Lepidocyclina (Polylepidina)
punjabensis and Discocyclina ranikotensis. Foraminifers are generally abundant and most of these
belong to Fasciolites, Nummulites, Coskinolina, Dictyoconoides, Linderina, Lockhartia, Operculina,
Miscellanea, Globorotalia, Cibicides, etc. Species like Miscellanea miscella, M. stampi, nummulites

79
nuttali, n. thalicus, N. sindensis, Assilina dandotica, Kathina selveri and Lockhartia tipper indicate
Paleocene to Early Eocene age which is also confirmed by some algae such as Distichoplax sp.,
Lithothamnium sp., Mesophyllum sp. However now these fossils and law of superposition suggests
the age of this formation as Late Paleocene.

Early Eocene Chamalang (=Ghazij) Group

The term Chamalang Group was first used by Malkani (2010a). The term Ghazij was introduced by
Oldham (1890). Williams (1959) proposed that the type section be at Spintangi (lat. 290 57’ 06’’N;
long. 680 05’ 00’’E) and used the term Ghazij formation. It is upgraded as group by Shah, (2002).
Chamalang (Ghazij) group represents Shaheed Ghat, Toi, Kingri and Baska formations. Drug and
Kingri formations are not well developed in the Spintangi area, so the Malkani (2010a) suggests for
the Chamalang Group where all the formations of Ghazij group are well developed along with new
formation like Kingri Formation. The type section for Chamalang Group is the Chamalang area
(lat.300 10’ N; long. 690 25’ E).

Shaheed Ghat Formation

Sibghatullah Siddiqui, Jamiluddin, I.H. Qureshi and A.H. Kidwai (1965) (verbal communications
with Sibghatullah Siddiqui and Jamiluddin) used the name Shaheed Ghat Formation for the upper
Rakhi Gaj and green nodular shales of Eames (1952). The type locality is Shaheed Ghat, Zinda Pir
area of Dera Ghazi Khan District (lat. 300 24’N; long. 700 28’E). It consists of mainly shale/mud
with negligible silt and sandy beds. The shale is grey, greenish grey, khaki and calcareous. The
shale is rarely intercalated with silty and sandy lenses. The formation contains thin limestone beds in
the upper part with nummulites, gastropods and lamellibranchs. The thickness of this formation is
estimated 500m in Sulaiman and northern Kirthar foldbelt. The thickness of this formation is
relatively slightly less than the other exposures in eastern Sulaiman Basin. Mulastar zahri Malkani
2014, a star fish (Malkani 2014f), two pectin type other bivalves, 3 gastropods and 1 coral like
fossils are found from Shaheed Ghat Formation of Kharzan area, Mula-Zahri range. Its lower contact
with Dungan and upper contact with Toi Formation (in the coal bearing areas like Johan and Mach)
or Drug Formation (when Toi and Kingri formations are absent especially in the Karkh area) are
conformable. This formation contains foraminifera, gastropods and bivalves. The pelecypods include
Venericardia pakistanica, Lucina yawensis, Corbula (Bicorbula) subexarata, C.(B.) paraexarata
and gastropods include Crommium polihathra, Turritella (stiracolpus) harnaiensis,
Chondrocerithium pakistanicum, Gisortia cf. G. murchisoni (Iqbal 1969b). These fossils and
Siddiqui et al (1965) suggested Early Eocene age.

Toi Formation
The Toi Formation has been formalized after S. M. Hussain of American Oil Company’s briefing
and verbal communication before the stratigraphic Committee of Pakistan (Shah, 2002). The Shah
(2002) mentioned the Mughal Kot type locality with wrong grid reference, while correct references
seams to be (lat. 310 29’ N; long. 700 07’E). Its name is derived from the Toi River/Nala flowing
near the Mughal Kot locality. It consists of sandstone, greenish grey to grey shale and white to light
brown marl/rubbly limestone along with some coal. The sandstone is greenish grey to grey and thin
to thick bedded. The shale is greenish grey, khaki and calcareous. The marl or limestone is white to
light brown and rubbly. The coal is sub bituminous and have metallic luster. It is exposed in the

80
Mach and Johan area located in the northern part of eastern Kirthar basin. The thickness of Toi
Formation is about 600m in the type area of Mughal Kot section and about 1200m in the Kingri,
Bahlol and Chamalang sections. The lower contact of Toi Formation with Shaheed Ghat Formation
is conformable while the upper contact with Kingri formation is disconfirmable. It has many
fossiliferous sandstone/coquina beds. Malkani (2014f,2015c) and Malkani and Sun (2016) reported
Bolanicyon shahani from Mach coal mine area. Bolanicyon shahani Malkani 2014 (Quettacyonidae)
is found (Malkani 2014f) at the coal mining at depth of about 500m in the Early Eocene Toi
Formation of south western Mach (Gishtari) area. Its 1 incisor, 1 canine, 4 premolar and 3 molar
teeth are preserved (Malkani and Sun 2016). According to its stratigraphic position and fauna, its age
can be considered as Early Eocene.

Kingri Formation
The tem Kingri Formation was first used by Malkani (2009a). The type section of Kingri formation
is the just northwest of Kingri town (lat. 300 28’ N; long. 690 47’E). It consists of reds shale/mud
with subordinate grey sandstone. The shale is mostly red and maroon and sandy and silty and
calcareous. The sandstone is grey to light brown, thin to thick bedded. It is exposed in the Mach and
Johan area located in the northern part of eastern Kirthar basin. The thickness of this formation is
estimated about 700m in the type section of Kingri (Musakhel district Balochistan) and also same in
Shirani section (FR D.I.Khan, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa). It extends toward Mach and Johan (Kalat),
Balochistan in the southwest and also extends in the north upto Hangu (Kohat sub basin) where it is
called Gurguri snadstone. It represents the flood plain or overbank fines along with channel
sandstone. It is pinching rapidly eastward and absent in areas of D.G. Khan, Rajan Pur and Dera
Bugti districts. Its lower contact with Toi and upper contact with Drug Formation are
disconfirmable. Gingerich, et al (2001) has also found a unique mammalian fauna from the
Kingri/Toi formation of Gandhera (Kingri) area. According to its stratigraphic position, its age can
be considered as Early Eocene.

Drug Formation
Sibghatullah Siddiqui, Jamiluddin, I.H. Qureshi and A.H. Kidwai (1965) (verbal communications
with Sibghatullah Sidique and Jamiluddin), and Iqbal (1969) used the name Drug Formation for
rubbly limestone of Eames (1952). The type section (lat. 30 0 49’ 15’’N; long. 700 12’ 30’’E) has
been designated in Drug Tangi located about 3 km southeast of Drug village (Shah, 2002). The Shah
(2002, 2009) mentioned the wrong order or position of Ghazij group formations like Toi and Drug
formations. The actual position of Toi Formation is below the Drug Formation while Shah (2002,
2009) mentioned every where the Toi formation is above the Drug formation. It is confirmed in the
north and southwest of Sulaiman province. It consists of limestone, marl and shale. The limestone
and marl is chalky white to light brown and grey, rubbly and thin to thick bedded. The shale is grey,
khaki and calcareous. The formation is maximum thick in the core of Sulaiman foldbelt like Baghao
and Rar Khan Areas of Barkhan District and estimated about 200-300m thick. It is being reduced in
all directions from these maximum thick areas. It is absent in the Western Indus Suture and also in
Mughal Kot section of Sulaiman Foldbelt and further north. It is exposed in the Mach and Johan area
located in the northern part of eastern Kirthar basin. Its lower contact with Shaheed Ghat Formation
in the easternmost and southeastern Sulaiman Foldbelt is transitional and conformable, and upper
contact in the northeast, central and western Sulaiman Foldbelt is disconfirmable with the Kingri

81
Formation, and in the eastern and southeastern Sulaiman Foldbelt the upper contact with Baska
Formation is conformable and marked at the first bed of alabaster gypsum. The Drug limestone and
shale is the host of celestite mineralization in Sulaiman Foldbelt. It has many fossiliferous
sandstone/coquina beds especially in the Chamalang area. Iqbal (1969b) reported gastropods like
Euspirocrommium oveni, Cancelluluria soriensis, Ringicuia pseudopunjabensis, and a pelecypod
Lucina exquiscia. These fossils and Siddiqui et al (1965) suggested Early Eocene.

Baska Formation
The name Baska shale is proposed by the Hemphill and Kidwai (1973) to replace the descriptive
term “shale with alabaster” of Eames (1952). Hemphill and Kidwai (1973) designated the type
section exposed about 2 km east-northeast of Baska village (lat. 310 29’N; long. 700 08’E). It
consists of gypsum, shale, limestone, marl and rare siltstone. The gypsum is grey to grayish white,
medium to thick bedded and massive. . Shale is grey, khaki and calcareous. The marl is cream white,
thin to medium bedded and porcelaneous. Its thin exposure is found in the Mach area located in the
northern part of eastern Kirthar basin. Further southward it is not reported. The siltstone is greenish
grey to grey and thin to medium bedded. Its thickness is estimated variable from 100m to 30m. As
lateral variation, this formation is relatively more and maximum thick than the other exposures in the
Chamalang, Nisau, Manjhail, Toi Nala, Toi River and Barkhan areas and minimum thick in the
south eastern and southern Sulaiman located in the central core of Sulaiman Basin. Its lower contact
with Drug Formation and upper contact with Habib Rahi Formation are conformable. It has many
fossiliferous rubbly limestone beds especially in the Chamalang and Mughal Kot sections. Iqbal
(1969b) reported foraminifers like Cuneoline sp., Lockhartia hunti, and Dictyoconoides vredenburgi,
pelecypods like Bulsella sp., A. Eames and Barbatia drougensis, the later being restricted to Early
Eocene, gastropods like Euspira cf. E. punjabensis and Gosavia humberti. Its age is Early Eocene.

Kirthar Group
It was initially introduced as Kirthar Series by Blanford (1876) after the Kirthar Range to describe
Eocene strata between his Ranikot group and Nari in western Sind while Noetling (1905) separated
the lower part as Laki series and retained the name Kirthar for the upper part only. The term Kirthar
Group is being used here for the Kirthar and Gorag formations. Kirthar group in western Kirthar
Basin is correlated with Laki Formation (upper formation of Laki Group) of eastern Kirthar basin
(Laki range and surroundings), Kahan group (Habib Rahi, Domanda, Pirkoh and Drazinda
formations) of Sulaiman Basin and Kohat sub basin, and Sakesar limestone of Nammal Group. Its
age is late Early-Middle Eocene.

Kirthar Formation
It is named by Cheema et al. (1977) and now it comprises of mixed lithology like shale, marl,
limestone of lower Kirthar member of Brahui limestone (HSC, 1961). Its lower contact with
Kingri/Shaheed Ghat formations are transitional and conforable. The Formation contains
foraminifers, gastropods, bivalves, echinoids and algae reported by Noetling (1905), Nuttall (1925),
Davies (1926), Haque and Khan (in Lexique 1956), Haque (1962a), HSC (1961) and Iqbal (1973).
The foraminifers include Assilina granulose, A. pustulosa, Lockhartia hunti, var. pustulosa,
Flosculina globosa, Opertorbitolites douvillei, Fasciolites oblonga, Linderina brugesi and
Dictyoconoides vredenburgi, important mollusces include Gisortia murchisoni, Velates perversus,

82
and Blagraveia sindensis and echinoids include Amblypygus subrotundus and Echinolampas
nummulitica. These fossils indicate an Early Eocene (Ypresian) age. Hunting Survey
Corporation/HSC (1961) reported middle Eocene fauna like Actinocyclina alticostata, Assilina
cancellata, A. rota, A. irregularis, Nummulites beaumonti, N. gizehensis, Dictyoconoides cooki and
Early Eocene fauna like Assilina laminose, Coskinolina balsilliei and Dictyoconoides vredenburgi.
So its age is Early Eocene to middle Eocene.

Gorag Formation
It is originally named as Gorag member of Brahui limestone by HSC (1961) after Gorag peak in
south of Gaj river in Kirthar range and it consists of resistant and peak forming limestone with
negligible shale and marl. It is well recognised in the Kirthar Range. This formation include the Laki
limestone member (following Laki limestone named after Laki Range and Laki village by Nuttal
1925, and Laki limestone member of Brouwers and Fatmi 1993) which is 200-300m thick exposed
as prominent scarp on flanks of Laki Range, hills south of Hyderabad and near Thano Bula Khan.
There was confusion in the Laki limestone member (upper part of Laki Group) and Kirthar
limestone in the Laki Range, Hyderabad and Thano Bula Khan Areas. Now this confusion is
removed by correlating Gorag limestone with Laki limestone member which is thick upto 200m. Its
lower contact with Kirthar and upper contact with Nari Formation is transitional and conformable. It
contains foraminifers, gastropods, bivalves, echinoids and algae reported by Noetling (1905), Nuttall
(1925), Davies (1926), Haque and Khan (in Lexique 1956), Haque (1962a), HSC (1961) and Iqbal
(1973). The foraminifers include Assilina granulose, A. pustulosa, Lockhartia hunti, var. pustulosa,
Flosculina globosa, Opertorbitolites douvillei, Fasciolites oblonga, Linderina brugesi and
Dictyoconoides vredenburgi, important mollusces include Gisortia murchisoni, Velates perversus,
and Blagraveia sindensis and echinoids include Amblypygus subrotundus and Echinolampas
nummulitica. These fossils indicate an Early Eocene (Ypresian) age. Hunting Survey
Corporation/HSC (1961) reported middle Eocene fauna like Actinocyclina alticostata, Assilina
cancellata, A. rota, A. irregularis, Nummulites beaumonti, N. gizehensis, Dictyoconoides cooki and
Early Eocene fauna like Assilina laminose, Coskinolina balsilliei and Dictyoconoides vredenburgi.
So its age is late Early Eocene to middle Eocene.

Gaj Group
To remove missing link the Gaj group is here being established after the Gaj River in Kirthar Range
for the Nari and Gaj formations. Duncan and laden (1884, 1886), Vredenburg (1906b, 1909b),
Nuttall (1925, 1926), HSC (1961), Pascoe (1963) Khan M.H. (1968) and Iqbal (1969a) reported
foraminifers, corals, mollusks, echinoid, algae and other fossils. The foraminifers include
Nummulites intermedius, N. vascus, N. fichteli, N. clypeus, Lepidocyclina (Eulepidina) dilatata, etc.,
bivalves include Crassatella sulcata, Venus (Ventricola) multilamella, V. (Antigona) peepera,
gastropods include Scaphander oligoturritus, Lyria anceps and Tritonsium (Saia) indicum. Pascoe
(1936) concluded Stamian of Europe and ranges from Rupelian to Chattian. Khan (1968) assigned
Rupelian to early Aquitanian age. HSC (1961) assigned the age of this group as Oligocene to
Miocene.

Nari Formation

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It was named by Williams (1959) for the Nari Series by Blanford (1876) after the Nari river. It
consists of marine brown sandstone, red, brown and yellow shale, and brown limestone. It is
equalent to Chitarwata formation of Sulaiman Basin. Its lower contact with Gorag and upper contact
with Gaj Formation is transitional and conformable. Fossils details are also mentioned in the above
Gaj group. Its stratigraphic position and above mentioned fauna tells Oligocene age.

Gaj Formation
It was named by Williams (1959) for the Gaj Series by Blanford (1876) after the Gaj river. It
consists of estuarine to terrestrial deposits dominantly varicoloured shale with subordinate sandstone
and limestone. It mostly resembles with Nari formation however the contact is being marked at the
end of massive sandstone and at the start of dominant shale lithology. It is correlative to Early
Miocene Vihowa Formation of Sulaiman basin. Its lower contact with Nari is conformable and upper
contact with Litra/Chaudhwan Formation is disconformable. Fossils details are also mentioned in the
above Gaj group. Its stratigraphic position and above mentioned fauna tells Miocene age.

Manchar Group
The term Manchar is derived from Manchar series of Blanford (1876) after the Manchar lake a few
kms west of Sehwan. Late Miocene to Pliocene Manchar group represents Litra Formation and
Chaudhwan Formation. The Litra formation is exposed in the Sor Range-Deghar syncline and also
on the eastern foothills of Kirthar Range. The Sor Range-Deghar syncline is a transition
zone/boarder zone of Sulaiman and Kirthar basins. The Sor Range-Deghar syncline is located in the
east of Quetta town. The Manchar group is mostly equalent to upper part of Vihowa Group (Litra
and Chaudhwan formations). These are exposed in the eastern foot mountains of Kirthar and Laki
ranges.

Litra Formation
The Litra Formation was first used by Hemphill and Kidwai (1973). The type section designated to
be Litra Nala (lat. 310 01’N; long. 700 25’E). It consists of sandstone with subordinate shale and
conglomerate. The sandstone is grey, thin to thick bedded and massive, fine to coarse grained, gritty
and calcareous. The shale is maroon, khaki and calcareous. The conglomerate is thin to thick bedded
and dominantly sandy and calcareous. Its lower contact with Gaj/Laki/Kirthar/Gorag Formation and
upper contact with Chaudhwan Formation is disconfirmable or angular. This formation is the host of
continental vertebrates. Raza et al. (2002) placed the lower age of Litra formation at 11 Ma based on
Hipparaion in the lower part of this formation. They also estimated the age of Litra Formation from
11 to 6 Ma i.e. Late Miocene.

Chaudhwan Formation
The Chaudhwan Formation was first used by Hemphill and Kidwai (1973). The type section
designated to be in Chaudhwan Zam (lat. 310 37’N; long. 700 15’E). It consists of alternated
mudstone/shale, sandstone and conglomerate. The mudstone/shale is maroon, khaki and calcareous.
The sandstone is grey, brown, thin to thick bedded, fine to coarse grained, gritty and calcareous. The
conglomerate is thin to thick bedded and dominantly sandy and calcareous. Thick conglomerate beds
with some mud and sands cap the upper part of this formation. These are exposed in the eastern foot
mountains of Kirthar and Laki ranges. Its lower contact with Litra Formation is disconfirmable while

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upper contact with Dada Formation is angular and at places transitional and marked at the start of
dominant and resistant conglomerate. This formation is the host of continental vertebrates.
According to stratigraphic position, its age is Pliocene.

Sakhi Sarwar Group

The term Sakhi Sarwar Group was named by Malkani (2012h) for Pleistocene Dada (mainly
conglomerate) and Holocene Sakhi Sarwar (clays, silt, sandstone and conglomerate) formations
(Malkani 2012h). These are exposed in the eastern foot mountains of Kirthar and Laki ranges.

Dada Formation
Its name is derived from Dada River south of Spintangi Railway station (HSC, 1961). It consists of
conglomerate with subordinate shale and sandstone. At places it also includes the white and red
muds especially in the valley areas. Its lower contact with Chaudhwan Formation and upper contact
with Sakhi Sarwar Formation is angular and at some places transitional. According to stratigraphic
position, its age may be Pleistocene.

Sakhi Sarwar Formation

It was named by Malkani (2012h) for the varicoloured clays, sandstone, siltstone and conglomerate.
Its lower contact with Dada Formation and upper contact with subrecent alluvium is angular and at
places transitional. Its age is Holocene.

Subrecent and Recent surficial deposits

These are represented by alluvial deposits in the footmountains (Daman) and plain areas deposited
by Indus river systems. Some minor eolian sand dunes are found in the coastal areas. In the vicinity
of high mountan ridges the colluvium scree and talus are also found.

REVISED STRATIGRAPHY OF EASTERN KIRTHAR BASIN (LAKI RANGE AND

SURROUNDINGS), SINDH PROVINCE

Eastern Kirthar basin (Laki anticline and eastward upto Nagar Parker Igneous complex) as name
shows it is located in the eastern part of Kirthar basin, on the west it is bounded by western Kirthar,
on the east by Nagar Parker segment of Indo-Pak shield, on the south by Indo-Pak Ocean and on the
north by Sulaiman basin. Eastern Kirthar basin represents exposed Late Cretaceous Pab and Latest
Cretaceous Vitakri Formation of Fort Munro Group in the core of Laki anticline and on the limbs
Cenozoic rocks. However in subsurface the older Mesozoic, Triassic, Paleozoic and Precambrian
rocks may be found. The exposed stratigraphic sequences in the eastern Kirthar basin under the
Sindh Province are being described as follows.

Late Cretaceous Fort Munro Group

The term Fort Munro Group was first time used by Malkani (2009a) for Mughal Kot, Fort Munro,
Pab and Vitakri formations. Its type section is Rakhi Gaj and Girdu are in Toposheet 39 K/1. Here
only Pab and Vitakri formations are exposed only in the core of Laki anticline. The remaining areas
show exposures of Tertiary and Quaternary deposits.

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Pab Formation
The term Pab Sandstone was introduced by Vredenburg (1907) and the type section in the Pab
Range (lat. 250 31’ 12’’N; long. 700 02’ 58’’E) was designated by Williams (1959). In the core of
Laki anticline, it consists of mainly sandstone with minor shale. The thickness of Pab Formation is
estimated 100m in the core of Laki anticline. Its lower contact is not exposed in Laki Range,
however in Kirthar Range it is contacted with Fort Munro Limestone as transitional and upper
contact with Vitakri Formation (red clay and some sandstone) is disconformable. On the vertebrate
(dinosaurs, mesoeucrocodiles, etc) found from following Latest Cretaceous Vitakri Formation), the
age is being assigned as Late Cretaceous/Late Maestrichtian.

Vitakri Formation
Malkani (2006c) introduced first time the upper member of Pab Formation as Vitakri member and
Malkani (2009a) upgraded this member into Vitakri Formation (Type Vitakri area, lat. 29 0 41’
19’’N; long. 690 23’ 02’’E) due to its distinct lithology, depositional environments and lateral
extension. Vitakri village is about 30 Km in the south-southwest of Barkhan town. Here Vitakri
Formation (about 15m thick) consists of red muds with alternated sandstone of fluvial origin. Vitakri
Formation of Sulaiman basin is the host of latest Cretaceous dinosaurs and crocodiles. Its lower and
upper contact with Pab and Khadro formations are disconfirmable.

Ranikot Group
The Sangiali Group is here replaced by Ranikot group named by Ranikot (Lat. 250 54’ 24’’N; Long.
670 54’ 38’’ E) including the Khadro, Bara and Lakhra formations.

Khadro Formation
It was named after Khadro Nai/Nala which is north of Bara Nai but its type section is Bara Nai/Nala
Lat. 260 07’ 06’’N; Long. 670 53’ 12’’ E in the northern Laki Range and named by Williams (1959). It
includes the Cardita beaumonti beds of Blanford (1878), Venericardia shales of Eames (1952), basal
parts of Karkh, Gidar Dhor and Jakker groups, Bad Kachu and Thar formations of HSC (1961). It
consists of limestone, sandstone, shale and volcanics. The igneous rocks like Decan trap basalts are
found in the Earliest Paleocene Khadro formation in the Kirthar basin exposed in the Laki range and
also encountered in the subsurface drill hole. Nusrat Kamal Siddiqui (verbal communication in 1987
with Shah; Shah 2009) named the basalt as Khaskheli basalt. Its lower contact with Vitakri
Formation is disconformable and upper contact with Bara Formation is transitional and conformable.
Its age is Earliest Paleocene age.

Bara Formation
It was named by Ahmad and Ghani (Written communication in 1971 to Cheema et al. 1977) after
Bara Nai (Lat. 260 07’ 06’’N; Long. 670 53’ 12’’ E, Type section) of Laki Range. Its principal
reference section is Ranikot (Lat. 250 54’ 24’’N; Long. 670 54’ 38’’ E). It includes the lower Ranikot
sandstone of Vredenburg (1906) and lower Ranikot of later workers, Ranikot formation of Williams
(1959), Lower Ranikot formation, lower parts of the Karkh, Gidar Dhor and Jakker groups, Bad
Kachu, Rottaro and Thar formations of HSC (1961). It consists of soft sandstone, shale and coal. Its

86
lower contact with Khadro and upper contact with Lakhra is transitional and conformable. Its age is
Early Paleocene.

Lakhra Formation
It was named by Ahmad and Ghani (Written communication in 1971 to Cheema et al. 1977) after
Lakhra of Laki Range. It includes the upper Ranikot limestone of Vredenburg (1906) and upper
Ranikot of lator workers, upper Ranikot formation of HSC (1961). It consists of dominant limestone
with minor shale. It is correlated with Dungan Limestone of western Kirthar and Sulaiman basin. Its
lower contact with Bara Formation is transitional and upper contact with Sohnar Gaj Formation is
disconformable. For fossils pl. see the Dungan Formation in western Kirthar. Its age is Late
Paleocene.

Laki Group
The term Laki group was proposed by HSC (1961) for the Laki Series of Noetling (1903) and lower
part of Kirthar Series of Blanford (1876). Laki group includes Sohnari (now upgraded as formation)
and Laki formations. It also includes the Tiyon formation of HSC (1961). It is well recognised in the
Laki Range and its surroundings. Nuttal (1925) subdivided Laki series in to basal Laki laterite (8m),
Meting limestone (45m), Meting shale (30m) and Laki limestone (70-200m). Cheema et al. (1977)
proposed two members like Sonhari member (=basal Laki laterite) represents laterite, and Meting
limestone and shale member (= Chat member of Nagappa 1959) which include the upper 3 units of
Nuttal (1925). Kazmi and Abbasi (2008) mentioned only one formation as Laki Formation. Further
Outerbridge et al. (1991) and also others stressed about the two fold divisions of Laki Group.
Akhtar et al. (2012) used the Laki Formation for all members/formations of Laki Group may be due
to scale problems. So here twofold division of Laki Group is adopted like the lower unit as Sohnai
Formation (consists of lateritic clay, ochre, shale, arenaceous limestone, sandstone and coal) and and
upper unit as Laki Formation (consists of mainly limestone with minor/subordinate shale). The age
of Laki Group is Early Eocene to Middle Eocene.

Sohnari Formation
It was named by Outerbridge et al (1989) for the basal Laki laterite (8m) of Nuttal (1925) and after
the Sonhari member of HSC (1961). Here it is being accepted as formation because other laterites
are also named as Dilband Formation (J/K boundary) of Abbas et al (1998), Vitakri Formation (latest
Cretaceous to K/T boundary) of Malkani (2009f). It mostly consists of lateritic clay, ochre, shale,
yellow arenaceous limestone, sandstone and lignite coal seams. The Sohnai Formation is correlated
with Early Eocene Chamalang (Ghazij) Group of western Kirthar and Sulaiman basin, Panoba Group
of Kohat sub basin and Nammal Formation of Nammal Group of Potwar sub-basin. Its lower contact
with Lakhra Formation and upper contact with Laki Formation is disconformable. Its age is Early
Eocene.

Laki Formation
It was named by Cheema et al. (1977), which is derived from Laki Series of Noetling (1903). It
consists of 3 members of Nuttal (1925) like lower member as Meting limestone (45m), middle
member as Meting shale (30m) and upper member as Laki limestone (70-200m). The lower and
middle members like Meting limestone (45m) and Meting shale (30m) are correlated with the

87
Kirthar Formation of Kirthar Group of western Kirthar. The upper member like Laki Limestone (70-
200m) is correlated with Gorag (resistant and peak forming limestone) formation of Kirthar Group
of western Kirthar. The Kirthar Formation belongs to lower part of Kirthar Group while the Gorag
Formation belongs to upper part of Kirthar Group, well exposed in western Kirthar i.e., in the typical
Kirthar range and its vicinity areas. Laki Formation consists of mainly limestone with
subordinate/minor shale and marl. Its lower contact with Sohnari Formation is disconformable and
upper contact with Nari Formation is transitional. The Laki Formation contains foraminifers,
gastropods, bivalves, echinoids and algae reported by Noetling (1905), Nuttall (1925), Davies
(1926), Haque and Khan (in Lexique 1956), Haque (1962a), HSC (1961) and Iqbal (1973). The
foraminifers include Assilina granulose, A. pustulosa, Lockhartia hunti, var. pustulosa, Flosculina
globosa, Opertorbitolites douvillei, Fasciolites oblonga, Linderina brugesi and Dictyoconoides
vredenburgi, important mollusces include Gisortia murchisoni, Velates perversus, and Blagraveia
sindensis and echinoids include Amblypygus subrotundus and Echinolampas nummulitica. These
fossils indicate an Early Eocene (Ypresian) age, however it may extends upto middle Eocene.

Gaj Group
To remove missing link the Gaj group is here being established after the Gaj River in Kirthar Range
for the Oligocene Nari and Miocene Gaj formations. Duncan and laden (1884, 1886), Vredenburg
(1906b, 1909b), Nuttall (1925, 1926), HSC (1961), Pascoe (1963) Khan M.H. (1968) and Iqbal
(1969a) reported foraminifers, corals, mollusks, echinoid, algae and other fossils. The foraminifers
include Nummulites intermedius, N. vascus, N. fichteli, N. clypeus, Lepidocyclina (Eulepidina)
dilatata, etc., bivalves include Crassatella sulcata, Venus (Ventricola) multilamella, V. (Antigona)
peepera, gastropods include Scaphander oligoturritus, Lyria anceps and Tritonsium (Saia) indicum.
Pascoe (1936) concluded Stamian of Europe and ranges from Rupelian to Chattian. Khan (1968)
assigned Rupelian to early Aquitanian age. HSC (1961) assigned the age of this group as Oligocene
to Miocene.

Nari Formation
It was named by Williams (1959) for the Nari Series by Blanford (1876) after the Nari river. It
consists of marine brown sandstone, red, brown and yellow shale, and brown limestone. It is
equalent to Chitarwata formation of Sulaiman Basin. Its lower contact with Laki Limestone and
upper contact with Gaj Formation is transitional. Fossils details are also mentioned in the above Gaj
group. Its stratigraphic position and above mentioned fauna tells Oligocene age.

Gaj Formation
It was named by Williams (1959) for the Gaj Series by Blanford (1876) after the Gaj river. It
consists of estuarine to terrestrial deposits dominantly varicoloured shale with subordinate
sandstone, gypsum and limestone. It mostly resembles with Nari formation however the contact is
being marked at the end of massive sandstone and at the start of dominant shale lithology. Three
beds of gypsum are reported by Alizai et al. (2000) ranging in thickness from 0.33 to 0.93m occurs
in Miocene Gaj shales near Johi and Khairpur Nathan Shah areas of Dadu district. It is correlative to
Miocene Vihowa Formation of Sulaiman basin. Its lower contact with Nari Formation is
conformable and transitional and upper contact with Litra Formation is disconformable. Fossils

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details are also mentioned in the above Gaj group. Its stratigraphic position and above mentioned
fauna tells Miocene age.

Manchar Group
The term Manchar is derived from Manchar series of Blanford (1876) after the Manchar lake a few
kms west of Sehwan. Late Miocene to Pliocene Manchar group represents Litra Formation and
Chaudhwan Formation. Manchar group is mostly equalent to upper part of Vihowa Group (Litra and
Chaudhwan formations). In Gaj river section it is 2200m thick (Khan et al. 1984) while in Sehwan it
is 1000m thick (Pilgrim 1912). Previous worker divided it into lower, middle and upper Manchar.
These are exposed in the eastern foot mountains of Kirthar and Laki ranges.

Litra Formation
The Litra Formation was first used by Hemphill and Kidwai (1973). The type section designated to
be Litra Nala (lat. 310 01’N; long. 700 25’E). It consists of dominant sandstone with relative to red to
maroon shale and rare conglomerate. The sandstone is grey, thin to thick bedded and massive, fine to
coarse grained, gritty and calcareous. The shale is maroon, red, khaki and calcareous. The
conglomerate is thin to thick bedded and dominantly sandy and calcareous. Here due to being tail of
Indus river, the shale and alternated sandstone was deposited by river system. Its lower contact with
Gaj/Laki/Kirthar/Gorag Formation and upper contact with Chaudhwan Formation is disconfirmable
and at places angular. This formation is the host of continental vertebrates. Raza et al. (2002) placed
the lower age of Litra formation at 11 Ma based on Hipparaion in the lower part of this formation.
They also estimated the age of Litra Formation from 11 to 6 Ma i.e. Late Miocene. Khan et al.
(1984) dated the lower 1700m of the Formation paleomagnetically as 15.3 Ma to 9-10Ma.

Chaudhwan Formation
The Chaudhwan Formation was first used by Hemphill and Kidwai (1973). The type section
designated to be in Chaudhwan Zam (lat. 310 37’N; long. 700 15’E). It consists of alternated
mudstone/shale, sandstone and conglomerate. As a whole shale is dominant in this formation. The
mudstone/shale is maroon, khaki and calcareous. The sandstone is grey, brown, thin to thick bedded,
fine to coarse grained, gritty and calcareous. The conglomerate is thin to thick bedded and
dominantly sandy and calcareous. Thick conglomerate beds with some mud and sands cap the upper
part of this formation. These are exposed in the eastern foot mountains of Kirthar and Laki ranges.
Its lower contact with Litra Formation is transitional while upper contact with Dada Formation is
angular or transitional. This formation is the host of continental vertebrates. According to
stratigraphic position, its age may be Pliocene.

Sakhi Sarwar Group

The term Sakhi Sarwar Group was named by Malkani (2012h) for Pleistocene Dada (mainly
conglomerate) and Holocene Sakhi Sarwar (clays, silt, sandstone and conglomerate) formations
(Malkani 2012h). These are exposed in the eastern foot mountains of Kirthar and Laki ranges.

Dada Formation
Its name is derived from Dada River south of Spintangi Railway station (HSC, 1961). It consists of
conglomerate with subordinate shale and sandstone. At places it also includes the white and red

89
muds especially in the valley areas. Its lower contact with Chaudhwan Formation and upper contact
with Sakhi Sarwar Formation is at places angular or transitional. According to stratigraphic position,
its age may be Pleistocene.

Sakhi Sarwar Formation

It was named by Malkani (2012h) for the varicoloured clays, sandstone, siltstone and conglomerate.
Its lower contact with Dada Formation and upper contact with subrecent at places is angular and at
places transitional. Its age is Holocene.

Subrecent and Recent surficial deposits

These are represented by alluvial deposits in the footmountains (Daman) and plain areas deposited
by Indus river systems. Thar Desert and some coastal areas consist of eolian sand dune deposits. In
the vicinity of high mountan ridges the colluvium scree and talus are also found.

STRATIGRAPHY OF INDUS OFFSHORE (GONDWANA FRAGMENT)

The offshore areas are significant for petroleum exploration. The Makran offshore areas located in
the west of Indus Suture line and show the Balochistan basin stratigraphy and further the trench is
also located in the near offshore area. The Indus offshore area located in the east of Indus Suture line
and shows the Kirthar basin stratigraphy.

ROCKS OF NAGER PARKER IGNEOUS COMPLEX (A GEO-HERITAGE OF INDO-PAK

SHIELD)

Nager Parker Igneous complex is named by Jan et al. (1997) for acidic and basic igneous rocks.
Kazmi and Khan (1973) named as Nagar Igneous Complex, Nagar Parker granite by Shah (1977)
and Nagar Parker Massif by Muslim and Akhtar (1995). According to Jan et al. (1997) reported six
major magmatic episodes of intrusive and extrusive activities like amphibolites and related dykes,
riebeckite-aegirine grey granite, biotite-hornblende pink granite, acid dykes, rhyolite plugs and basic
dykes. Nagar Parker Igneous complex is a part of Indo-Pak shield. These rocks may be the extension
of Proterozoic granitoids of the Indian Rajasthan.

CORRELATION OF THE KIRTHAR BASIN (PART OF GONDWANA) WITH

ADJOINING BALOCHISTAN BASIN (PART OF TETHYS), PAKISTAN

Kirthar Basin is located in the southern part of Supper Indus Basin which belongs to an Indo-
Pakistan subcontinent (A Gondwana Fragment). The Super Indus Basin is subdivided in to
Uppermost/northernmost Indus, upper/north Indus, middle Indus (Sulaiman) and lower/south Indus
basins. Balochistan Basin is evolved under Tethys Sea from Cretaceous to recent. Balochistan Basin
is subdivided into Chagai-Raskoh-Wazhdad magmatic arc, northern Balochistan/Kakar Khorasan
(back arc) and southern Balochistan/Makran (fore arc; arc-trench gap) basins. The Cretaceous strata
of Balochistan basin is exposed in Shirin Jogezai area of Qila Saifulla district and also exposed in
Chagai and at one place near the Ispikan conglomerate in Makran but these strata not well correlated

90
with Indus basin, however slight resemble with porcelaneous limestone of Parh Group. The
Cainozoic of Kirthar Basin is well correlated with adjoining Balochistan basin due to collision of
Indo-Pakistan plate with Asian plate during Latest Cretaceous. Due to this terminal Cretaceous
collision, the adjoining contact Balochistan Basin occurred with the Indus Basin. Due to this
collision the birth of Paleo Indus River systems occurs and ended the dynasty of Paleo Vitakri River
systems. The Paleocene Dungan limestone of Indus basin closely resemble with Nisai
limestone/Kharan limestone/Wakai limestone of Balochistan Basin. In this way Early Eocene
Shagala Group of Balochistan Basin is well correlated with the Chamalang/Ghazij Group (Shaheed
Ghat-shale, Toi-sandstone and shale, Kingri-red muds and sandstone-Drug-rubbly limestone and
Baska-gypsum and shale) and Kahan Group (Habib Rahi-limestone, Domanda-shale, Pirkoh-marl
and shale and Drazinda-shale) of western Kirthar basin and Laki Group of eastern Kirthar (Laki
range and adjoining areas). The Murgha Faqirzai Formation (shale, 2000m thick) of Shagala Group
is correlated with Shaheed Ghat shale of western Kirthar basin, the Mina Formation (alternation of
green shale unit and sandstone unit; 3000m thick) of Balochistan is well correlated with Toi
Formation of western Kirthar Basin, and the Shagala Formation (=Shagalu; alternation of terrestrial
red shale unit and sandstone unit; 3000m thick) of Balochistan basin is well correlated with the
Kingri Formation of western Kirthar Basin and also Sohnai Formation of Laki range and adjoining
areas of eastern Kirthar basin. At the hard contact of Indo-Pakistan plate with Asia at the end of
Eocene resulted in the form of the Oligocene-Pliocene Vihowa Group (synonyms; Malthanai/Dasht
Murgha group) in both basins. The Vihowa Group represents Chitarwata (which is the host of
Buzdartherium gulkirao-a baluchithere-the largest land mammals), Vihowa, Litra and Chaudhwan
formations. So far last major tectonic episode occurred at Early Pleistocene which deposited the
Pleistocene-Holocene Sakhi Sarwar Group (correlate with Boston formation) represents Dada
(conglomerate) and Sakhi Sarwar (mud and sandstone with poorly developed conglomerate, while in
centre of valleys the mud is dominant) formations well developed in both basins. The southern part
of Kakar Khorasan and Makran basins show flysch deposition like Murgha Faqirzai Shale/Hoshab
shale and Mina Formation/Panjgur Formation (green shale and sandstone) while the northern part of
Kakar-Khorasan basin shows both these formations as flysch deposition while the middle-Late
Eocene Shagala (Shaigalu) Formation (sandstone and red to maroon, brown shale and sandstone) as
terrestrial/molase deposits which is supported by continental rhinoceros-baluchithere (Pakitherium
Shagalai)-the largest land mammalian fauna (Malkani and Mahmood 2016b).

CORRELATION OF THE CAINOZOIC STRATA OF SULAIMAN BASIN (PART OF

GONDWANA) WITH ADJOINING NORTHERN BALOCHISTAN BASIN (PART OF
TETHYS), PAKISTAN

Sulaiman Basin is located in the middle part of Supper Indus Basin which belongs to an Indo-
Pakistan subcontinent (A Gondwana Fragment). The Super Indus Basin is subdivided in to
Uppermost/northernmost Indus, upper/north Indus, middle Indus (Sulaiman) and lower/south Indus
basins. Balochistan Basin is evolved under Tethys Sea. Balochistan Basin is subdivided into Chagai-
Raskoh-Wazhdad magmatic arc, northern Balochistan/Kakar Khorasan (back arc) and southern
Balochistan/Makran (fore arc; arc-trench gap) basins. The Cainozoic of Sulaiman Basin is well
correlated with adjoining northern Balochistan basin due to collision of Indo-Pakistan plate with
Asian plate during Latest Cretaceous. Due to this terminal Cretaceous collision, the adjoining

91
contact of northern Balochistan (Kaker Khorasan) Basin occurred with the Indus Basin especially
Sulaiman/Middle Indus Basin. Due to this collision the birth of Paleo Indus River systems occurs
and ended the dynasty of Paleo Vitakri River systems. The Paleocene Sangiali Group of Sulaiman
Basin is well correlated with the Nisai Group of Balochistan Basin especially the Nisai Limestone
with the Dungan Limestone. In this way Early Eocene Shagala Group of Balochistan Basin is well
correlated with the Chamalang/Ghazij Group (Shaheed Ghat-shale, Toi-sandstone and shale, Kingri-
red muds and sandstone-Drug-rubbly limestone and Baska-gypsum and shale) and Kahan Group
(Habib Rahi-limestone, Domanda-shale, Pirkoh-marl and shale and Drazinda-shale) of Sulaiman
basin. The Murgha Faqirzai Formation (shale, 2000m thick) of Shagala Group is correlated with
Shaheed Ghat shale of Sulaiman basin, the Mina Formation (alternation of green shale unit and
sandstone unit; 3000m thick) of Balochistan is well correlated with Toi Formation of Sulaiman
Basin, and the Shagala Formation (=Shagalu; alternation of terrestrial red shale unit and sandstone
unit; 3000m thick) of Balochistan basin is well correlated with the Kingri Formation of Sulaiman
Basin. At the hard contact of Indo-Pakistan plate with Asia at the end of Eocene resulted in the form
of the Oligocene-Pliocene Vihowa Group (synonyms; Malthanai/Dasht Murgha group) in both
basins. The Vihowa Group represents Chitarwata (which is the host of Buzdartherium gulkirao-a
baluchithere-the largest land mammals), Vihowa, Litra and Chaudhwan formations. So far last major
tectonic episode occurred at Early Pleistocene which deposited the Pleistocene-Holocene Sakhi
Sarwar Group (Boston formation) represents Dada (conglomerate) and Sakhi Sarwar (mud and
sandstone with poorly developed conglomerate, while in centre of valleys the mud is dominant)
formations well developed in both basins. The southern part of Kakar Khorasan basin shows flysch
deposition like Murgha Faqirzai Shale and Mina Formation (green shale and sandstone) while the
northern part of Kakar-Khorasan basin shows both these formations as flysch deposition while the
middle-Late Eocene Shagala (Shaigalu) Formation (sandstone and red to maroon, brown shale and
sandstone) as terrestrial/molase deposits which is supported by continental rhinoceros-baluchithere
(Pakitherium Shagalai)-the largest land mammalian fauna (Malkani and Mahmood 2016b).

CORRELATION OF REVISED STRATIGRAPHIC SET UP (AT GROUP AND

FORMATION LEVEL) OF LOWER, MIDDLE AND UPPER INDUS BASINS

The Upper (Kohat Potwar) Basin represents Precambrian Salt Range Formation (marl, salt and
gypsum), Cambrian Khewra group consists of Khewra (sandstone), Kussak (dolomite, siltstone and
sandstone), Jutana (dolomite) and Baghanwala (red shale alternated with flaggy sandstone) and
Khisor (thick gypsum in the base and shale in the upper part) formations; Early Permian Nilawahan
Group consists of Tobra (Tillitic facies in eastern Salt Range, fresh water facies of siltstone and
shale with pollen and spore flora, and a complex facies of diamictite, sandstone and boulder beds
increase in westernsalt range and Khisor range), Warcha (speckled sandstone with some shale,
Dandot is synonym and lateral facies of Warcha) and Sardhi (greenish grey clay with some
sandstone, siltstone and limestone) formations; Late Permian Zaluch Group consists of Amb
(sandstone), Wargal (limestone) and Chidru (shale, quartzose sandstone with minor limestone)
formations. The Precambrian and Paleozoic rocks may extend into Middle Indus (Sulaiman) and
Lower Indus (Kirthar) basins. The Triassic Musakhel Group consists of Mianwali (marl, limestone,
sandstone, siltstone and dolomite), Tredian (terrestrial sandstone) and Kingriali (dolomite, limestone,
dolomitic limestone, marl, sandstone and shale; Chak Jabbi is synonym and lateral facies of

92
Kingriali) formations. Musakhel Group is correlated with the Khanozai Group of Middle
Indus/Sulaiman and Lower Indus/Kirthar basins. Khanozai Group represents Gwal (shale, thin
bedded limestone) and Wulgai (shale with medium bedded limestone) formations. The Jurassic
Surghar Group comprises of Datta (terrestrial sandstone), Shinawari (shale, limestone) and
Samanasuk (Limestone and minor shale) formations. Surghar Group is correlated with the Sulaiman
Group of Sulaiman and Kirthar basins. Sulaiman Group represents Spingwar (shale, marl and
limestone), Loralai (limestone with minor shale), Chiltan (limestone) and Dilband (ironstone, laterite
and brown beds) formations. The Cretaceous Chichali Group represents Chichali (green shale and
sandstone), Lumshiwal (cross bedded sandstone and shale of continental origin), Kawagarh (marl
and limestone- lateral facies of Lumshiwal Formation in downward slope) and Indus (named by
Malkani and Mahmood 2016a as Indus Formation for laterite and bauxite-pisolitic, oolitic, and green
chamositic/ glauconitic materials, ironstone, ferruginous and quartzose sandstone and claystone and
fire clay) formations. Chichali Group is correlated with the Parh and Fort Munro groups of Sulaiman
and Kirthar basins. Parh Group represents Sembar (shale with a sandstone body), Mekhtar
(sandstone, commonly called lower Goru, exposed only in Mekhtar and Murgha Kibzai areas of
Loralai and Zhob districts), Goru (shale and marl), and Parh (limestone) formations, and Fort Munro
Group represents Mughal Kot (shale/mudstone, sandstone, marl and limestone), Fort Munro
(limestone), Pab (sandstone with subordinate shale) and Vitakri (red muds and greyish white
sandstone) formations.
The Paleocene Hangu Group (named by Malkani and Mahmood 2016b) consists of Hangu
(synonym Patala; shale, sandstone and coal) and Lockhart (relatively fine nodular limestone as
compared to Sakesar limestone) formations. Hangu Group is correlated with the Sangiali Group of
Sulaiman basin and western Kirthar basin and Ranikot Group of eastern Kirthar basin. The western
Kirthar basin belongs to Kirthar range and westward upto western Indus Suture. Western Indus
suture (WIS) is a suture between the Indus and Balochistan basins. The eastern Kirthar basin belongs
to Laki range and eastward upto Nagar Parker Igneous complex. Sangiali Group represents Sangiali
(limestone, glauconitic sandstone and shale), Rakhi Gaj (Girdu member, glauconitic and hematitic
sandstone; Bawata member, alternation of shale and sandstone), and Dungan (limestone and shale)
formations. Ranikot Group represents Khadro (limestone, shale, sandstone and volcanics), Bara (soft
sandstone, shale and coal) and Lakhra (limestone with subordinate shale) formations. The Early
Eocene Nammal Group (named by Malkani and Mahmood 2016b) of Potwar sub-basin and eastern
Kohat sub-basin consists of Nammal (green shale and muds) and Sakesar (coarse nodular/rubbly
limestone) formations. Nammal Group is correlated with the Panoba Group of Kohat sub-basin,
Chamalang/Ghazij Group of Sulaiman basin and also western Kirthar basin and Sohnari Formation
of Laki Group of eastern Kirthar basin. The Panoba Group (named by Malkani and Mahmood
2016b) of western Kohat sub-basin represents Panoba (shale; equivalent to Shaheed Ghat shale of
Sulaiman basin), Chashmai (green shale and sandstone; equivalent to Toi Formation of Sulaiman
basin), Gurguri (brown shale and sandstone; equivalent to Kingri Formation of Sulaiman basin),
Shekhan (limestone, shale; equivalent to Drug rubbly limestone of Sulaiman basin), Bahadurkhel
salt and Jatta gypsum. Actually in the western Kohat the stratigraphy of Sulaiman basin is extending.
So the terms of Chamalang/Ghazij and Kahan groups should be used in the western Kohat sub-basin.
Chamalang (Ghazij) Group represents Shaheed Ghat (shale), Toi (sandstone, shale, rubbly limestone
and coal), Kingri (red shale/mud, grey and white sandstone), Drug (rubbly limestone, marl and
shale), and Baska (gypsum beds and shale) formations. Laki Group represents Sohnari (lateritic clay

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and shale, yellow arenaceous limestone pockets, ochre and lignitic coal seams) and Laki (limestone
with subordiante shale) formations. The Early-Middle Eocene Kuldana Group (named by Malkani
and Mahmood 2016b) consists of Chorgali (shale and limestone and dolomite) and Kuldana (shale
and marl with minor sandstone, limestone, conglomerate and bleached dolomite) formations.
Kuldana Group is correlated with the Kahan Group of Sulaiman basin and western Kohat sub-basin
and Kirthar Group of western Kirthar basin and Laki Formation (mainly limestone with subordinate
shale) of Laki Group of Laki Range and vicinity areas of eastern Kirthar basin. Kahan Group
represents Habib Rahi (limestone, marl and shale), Domanda (shale with one bed of gypsum), Pir
Koh (limestone, marl and shale) and Drazinda (shale with subordinate marl) formations. The Early
to Middle Eocene Kahan Group consists of Habib Rahi (limestone, marl and shale), Domanda
(shale), Pirkoh (white marl, limestone and shale) and Drazinda (shale) formations, this group is well
exposed in Sulaiman basin and Kohat sub-basin. Kirthar Group represents Kirthar (limestone, marl
and shale) and Gorag (resistant and peak forming limestone with negligible shale and marl in
western Kirthar; limestone with negligible shale and marl in eastern Kirthar) formations. The
Miocene-Pliocene Potwar Group (=Siwalik Group) was named by Malkani and Mahmood 2016b)
include the Chinji (red and maroon muds), Nagri (sandstone) and Dhok Pathan (alternation of
sandstone and red/maroon/brown muds) formations. The Potwar Group is correlated with the middle
and upper part of Vihowa group (except Oligocene Chitarwata Formation) of Sulaiman basin, Gaj
Formation of Gaj Group and whole Manchar Group (Litra and Chaudhwan formations) of Kirthar
basin and Murree Formation of northern Potwar (Murree and surrounding areas and Kala Chita
Range) and southern Azad Kashmir (Muzaffarabad-Kotli-Mirpur). Kamlial formation is included in
the upper part of Murree formation (alternating sandstone and red/maroon mud units). Oligocene-
Pliocene Vihowa Group represents Chitarwata (grey ferruginous sandstone, conglomerate and mud),
Vihowa (red ferruginous shale/mud, sandstone and conglomerate), Litra (greenish grey sandstone
with subordinate conglomerate and mud), and Chaudhwan (mud, conglomerate and sandstone)
formations. The Oligocene terrestrial Chitarwata Formation of Sulaiman basin is correlated with the
marine Nari formation of Gaj Group. The terrestrial Vihowa Formation of Sulaiman basin is
correlated with the marine estuarine and subkha type supratidal evaporitic Miocene Gaj Formation
of Gaj Group. The Oligocene-Miocene Gaj Group consists of Oligocene Nari (sandstone, shale,
limestone) and Miocene Gaj (shale with subordinate gypsum, sandstone and limestone) formations.
Late Miocene-Pliocene Manchar Group represents Late Miocene Litra (greenish grey sandstone with
subordinate conglomerate and mud), and Pliocene Chaudhwan (mud, sandstone, conglomerate)
formations. The Pleistocene-Holocene Soan Group (named by Malkani and Mahmood 2016b) for
the Pleistocene coarse clastic Lei (Mirpur/Kakra) Conglomerate (massive conglomerate) and then
Holocene mixed fine and coarse clastic of Soan Formation. Soan Group consists of coarse clastic
with relative to Potwar Group. Soan Group is correlated with the Sakhi Sarwar Group of Sulaiman
and Kirthar basins. Sakhi Sarwar Group represents Dada (well developed conglomerate with
subordinate mud and sandstone) and Sakhi Sarwar (poorly developed conglomerate with subordinate
mud and sandstone, while in centre of valleys the mud is dominant) formations (Malkani 2012,
Malkani et al. 2017a,b,c,d,e,f,g,j). Further correlation at formation level can be seen in Fig.1.

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GREENHOUSE (WARM) AND ICEHOUSE (COLD) PALEOCLIMATES OF PAKISTAN;
CLOSURE OF TETHYS FROM PAKISTAN

The greenhouse (warm) paleoclimates were dominant in Pakistan except the Early Permian
Tobra/Talchir beds in Salt Range of Upper Indus Basin and some Quaternary deposits in northern
Pakistan which show icehouse (cold) climate/glaciations (tillites-cemented angular to sub angular
pebbles, cobbles and boulders with faceted, smoothed, polished, striated and pitted rock fragments).
The Mesozoic and Paleogene deposits of Pakistan show no evidences of Icehouse climate. The Early
Cretaceous the marine environments deposited the Sembar (shale), Mekhtar (commonly called
Lower Goru sandstone), Goru (marl, shale and limestone) and Parh (limestone) formations. During
Late Cretceous the see regression deposited the Mughalkot (marine marl, shale, mudstone,
sandstone), Fort Munro (limestone), Pab (coastal sandstone in the east and deltaic black to grey
sandstone with subordinate shale in the west) and Terrestrial Vitakri Formation (red muds which is
the host of dinosaurs and associated vertebrates as overbank deposits and alternated sandstone of
meandering river channel deposits). During Early Paleocene the sea transgressed in these areas.
During Late Paleocene the sea regressed from the western Sulaiman, northern Balochistan, upper
and uppermost Indus basins due to further uplift and continued collision of subcontinent. This first
collision is responsible for the birth of Paleo Indus River Systems generally flows from north to
south and northwest to southeast. As a result by collision the northwestern margin of Indo-Pak
became elevated creating a terrestrial environments for the deposition of Latest Cretaceous Vitakri
Formation (overbank red muds and meandering sandstones) in the lower and middle Indus while the
Indus Formation (bauxite and laterite) in the upper and uppermost Indus basins. However during
Early Eocene the Northern Indus Suture and surrounding areas were uplifted enough to originate the
Paleo Indus River systems supplying first time detritials/clasts from northwest and north and
generally flows from northwest to southeast in Sulaiman (middle Indus) and north to south in
Khyber-Hazara-Kashmir (uppermost Indus) and Kohat-Potwar (upper Indus) basins. It further
regressed and permanently closed from uppermost, upper and middle Indus basins of Pakistan during
Late Eocene while the Lower Indus basin was under Tethys sea. From Lower Indus basin the Tethys
closed permanantly during Early Miocene.

PALEOENVIRONMENTAL AND SEA LEVEL CHANGES-LAND-OCEAN LINKAGES

The strata of Pakistan have diverse paleoenvironments like deep marine to neritic/shallow
marine, tidal, deltaic, sabkha type supratidal evaporitic, terrestrial/continental, lacustrine, colluvial
and eolian.

Depositional environments and Sea level changes of Mesozoic and Cenozoic strata of Kohat-
Potwar (Upper Indus) Basin: The Kohat-Potwar basin (located in the northern part of Indus basin)
consists of exposed Precambrian to Recent sedimentary rocks. The Precambrian Salt Range
Formation (terrestrial salt and gypsum, marine marl,); Cambrian Khewra (terrestrial sandstone),
Kussak (marine-terestrial dolomite, siltstone and sandstone), Jutana (marine/terestrial dolomite),
Baghanwala (terrestrial red shale alternated with flaggy sandstone) and Khisor Formation (thick
gypsum in the base and shale in the upper part); Early Permian Tobra (terstrial glacieated, Tillitic

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facies in eastern Salt Range, fresh water facies of siltstone and shale with pollen and spore flora, and
a complex facies of diamictite, sandstone and boulder beds increase in westernsalt range and Khisor
range), Warcha (marine speckled sandstone with some shale, Dandot is synonym) and Sardhi
(marine greenish grey clay with some sandstone, siltstone and limestone); and Late Permian Amb
(marine sandstone), Wargal (marine limestone) and Chidru (marine shale, quartzose sandstone with
minor limestone). The Precambrian and Paleozoic rocks may extends into middle and Lower Indus
basins. The Triassic Mianwali (marine shale, limestone and sandstone), Tredian (terrestrial
sandstone) and Kingriali (marine dolomite and limestone with minor shale) formations, Jurassic
Datta (fluvial sandstone with minor shale), Shinawari (marine shale, limestone and sandstone) and
Samana Suk (marine limestone with subordinate shale) formations, Cretaceous Chichali (marine
glauconitic sandstone and shale), Lumshiwal (coastal marine white sandstone and shale) and
Kawagarh (marine limestone, marl and shale) formations, Latest Cretaceous-Infra Tertiary Indus
Formation (terrestrial to lacustrine pisolitic, oolitic bauxite, laterite), Early Paleocene Hangu
(lagoonal, deltaic; shale, sandstone and coal; Patala is synonym), Lockhart (marine limestone with
minor shale) formations, Early Eocene Nammal (marine marl with subordinate shale), Sakesar
(marine limestone with subordinate shale and marl), Panoba (deltaic, marine shale), Chashmai
Formation (deltaic sandstone and green shale), Gurguri Formation (terrestrial sandstone and brown
shale), Shekhan (marine, deltaic limestone and shale), Bahadurkhel (continental with marine linkage,
evaporitic, halite salt), Jatta (continental with marine linkage, evaporitic, gypsum with minor clay),
Early to Middle Eocene Chorgali (marine limestone and shale), Kuldana (marine shale with minor
sandstone and limestone), Habib Rahi (marine limestone with marl and shale), Domanda (marine
shale), Pirkoh (marine shale, limestone and marl) and Drazinda (marine shale) formations. At the
Late Eocene/Earliest Oligocene the Tethys Sea permanently closed from the area now called
Himalaya and Upper Indus/Kohat-Potwar and middle Indus/Sulaiman basins and molasse Terrestrial
environment especially fluvial environment started. The trend of rivers toward south is compensated
with Paleo Indus River, while the trend of flow toward east was the birth of Ganges. In this way
Himalaya is originated by the Late Eocene/Earliest Oligocene. The strata deposited by the
continental environments are Miocene-Pliocene Murree (sandstone, conglomerate and shale:
Kamlial is synonym) Formations, Chinji (red clays, sandstone and conglomerate), Nagri (sandstone
with minor shale and conglomerate) formations and Dhok Pathan (clays with subordinate sandstone
and conglomerate) formations, Pleistocene-holocene Lei (conglomerate) and Soan (clays,
conglomerate and sandstone) formations, Subrecent and Recent surficial (alluvium, colluvium and
eolian) deposits.

Depositional environments and Sea level changes during Mesozoic and Cenozoic of Sulaiman
(Middle Indus) Basin: The Sulaiman basin show exposed rocks from Triassic to Recent. The
Triassic Khanozai group (marine Gwal and Wulgai formations) includes the minor exposures in the
contact of Sulaiman and Western Indus Suture. The Western Indus Suture and Northern Indus suture
are the western and northern boundary of Indo-Pakistan subcontinent with Tethys and Asia (Eurasia,
Laurasia). The Jurassic Sulaiman Group includes Spingwar, Loralai/Anjira, and Chiltan/Takatu/Zidi
formation show marine shelf deposits and Dilband formation (J/K disconfirmable boundary). The
Early Cretaceous Parh group consists of continental to marine ironstone and red shale of Sembar,
Goru, Mekhtar and Parh formations show marine shelf, slope and also platform open sea deposits.
The Late Cretaceous Fort Munro Group show uplift of the Indo-Pakistan shield and ultimate sea

96
regression represented by marine and sea shore clastic Mughal Kot (mudstone), carbonate Fort
Munro (limestone) and clastic Pab (sandstone with shale) formation, and continental Vitakri
formation (latest Cretaceous to K/T boundary). The clastic source was in the east (Indo-Pakistan
shield). During Latest Cretaceous there is no or negligible deposition in the Western Indus Suture
zone indicates geanticline and high land, showing collision with Laurasia, which is further
strengthen by the Cretaceous Chagai and Raskoh magmatism. Further volcanics of Western Indus
Suture enters in the Early Cretaceous Parh group and Late Cretaceous Mughalkot/Bibai formation
also indicating journey. The Paleocene Sangiali group show marine clastic shale and sandstone, and
carbonate limestone of Sangiali Formation, marine clastic sandstone and shale of Rakhi Gaj
Formation, and marine carbonate Dungan limestone. The Early Eocene Chamalang (Ghazij) Group
show marine shelf shale with some clastic marine sandstone of Shaheed Ghat Formation, deltaic
sandstone, shale and marl of Toi Formation, continental fluvial sandstone and red mudstone of
Kingri Formation, continental shale and sabkha type supratidal evaporitic gypsum of Baska
Formation, and marine marl, shale and limestone of Drug Formation. The Late Eocene Kahan Group
show marine shale, marl and limestone of Habib Rahi, Domanda, Pirkoh and Drazinda formations.
The Oligocene to Pliocene Vihowa Group shows molase type (source from North/Himalaya) clastic
mudstone, siltstone, sandstone and conglomerate of Chitarwata, Vihowa, Litra and Chaudhwan
formations. The Pleistocene-Holocene Dada and Sakhi Sarwar formations show fluvial
conglomerate, sandstone and mudstone. The Subrecent and Recent are represented by fluvial
surficial deposits.
Triassic to Paleocene is mostly represented by marine strata except the J/K and K/T
boundaries which represent disconformities. The J/K disconformity show major sea regression and
uplift of the area forming Jacobabad-Dilband (Kalat District) highlands with southeast-northwest
general trend, which is the boarder line of middle and lower Indus basin. After this J/K boundary the
sea again transgressed and covered this highland. At K/T boundary the sea was regressed from the
Fort Munro (D.G.Khan)-Vitakri (Barkhan)-Ziarat east west belt and formed the highland with
terrestrial environments (Vitakri formation and Ziarat laterite). Fort Munro-Vitakri region represent
the Late Cretaceous Park of Pakistan which has preserved the latest Cretaceous dinosaurs from
Pakistan. These J/K and K/T disconformities suggest for high lands in the northwestern part of Indo-
Pakistan subcontinent, otherwise marine environments were dominant.
At Latest Cretaceous Indo-Pak plate collided with Afghan block of Asia, as a result
terrestrial environments appeared. Until now latest Cretaceous dinosaurs (and other archosaurs) are
reported from the Vitakri Formation of in the middle Indus basin. Vitakri Formation represents
fluvial meandering river and over bank system. It consists of red, green muds with alternated
subordinate whitish grey to white, poorly sorted, trough cross and planner cross stratified, muddy
matrix to quartzose sandstone and minor lag conglomerate (graded bedded). This is the classic fining
upward sequence of a meandering river system. The coarse strata, like sandstone are deposited as
lateral accretion by meandering river. The fine strata, like red muds are deposited as flood plain
vertical accretion process. The sandstone on the top of Vitakri formation is thin to thick bedded,
slightly calcareous to non calcareous, poorly sorted and have ferruginous nodules and rusty brown
weathering on bivalve fossils. The Vitakri Formation thickness varies from 15 to 35 m is increasing
toward WSW and decreasing ENE directions. The four main facies of Latest Cretaceous strata of
Vitakri Formation and coeval upper part of Pab Formation identified in the middle Indus basin are;
Facies F1 (trough cross and planner laminated/bedded sandstone), Facies F2 (massive reddish brown

97
to red muds), Facies F3 (carbonaceous shale) and Facies F4 (tabular/planner and trough cross
bedded sandstone interlayered with the subordinate greenish grey and minor reddish brown muds).
These facies formed by a range of sand transporting mechanisms that includes meandering river and
overbank flood flows, oxbow and crevasse splays lakes, storm and river flood generated flows, and
high and low energy tractional flows. Three facies associations identified are meandering river and
overbank flood association well exposed in the central part, oxbow lake and Crevasse splays
lacustrine association found in the northern part, and alluvial delta fan beach association (mostly
submarine and rarely sub aerial) located in the southern part of middle Indus basin. Facies
association patterns demonstrate the existence of three depositional systems. Sand bodies with
subordinate muds formed in westward prograding mostly submarine and partly subaerial dominate
north and south systems, while the central system like meandering river and associated flood bank,
oxbow and crevasse splays lacustrine and lagoonal environments deposited the sandstone, reddish
brown muds, coal, carbonaceous shale and green muds in the central part of middle Indus basin
(Malkani 2006c). Quartzose nature of sandstone and paleoflow suggest supply from eastward high
lands of Indo-Pak Shield. Sediment gravity flow generally evolved from east-west. The lateral
extension (70km E-W, and 40 km N-S) of Latest Cretaceous Vitakri Formation has been observed in
four major anticlinoria’s like Vitakri-Mari Bohri, Dhaola-Andari, Pikal-Siah Koh and Fort Munro.
The K-T boundary in the western side of central part of middle Indus basin is represented by Latest
Cretaceous laterite (2-5m) of Vitakri Formation, while eastern part is terrestrial Vitakri Formation
(15-35m: meandering rivers sands (each unit 2-15m alternated with red muds of flood plain 2-15m
each unit). At early Paleocene the transgression of sea emerged, which deposited the carbonate
shallow marine limestone and shale (fossil bearing like bivalves, nautiloids and gastropods) of
Sangiali Formation, which is followed by the deltaic siliciclastic Rakhi Gaj Formation and coral reef
deposits of Dungan Limestone. At Late Paleocene the Tethys Sea gradually regressed and marine to
deltaic, terrestrial and evaporitic paleoenvironments remained dominant. From Oligocene to recent
terrestrial environments remained dominant (Malkani 200d) (Fig.2,3,4).

Depositional environments and Sea level changes during Mesozoic and Cenozoic of Kirthar
(Lower Indus) Basin: The Kirthar basin shows mostly the same lithological units like the Sulaiman
basin during Mesozoic and but vary in Cenozoic strata such as; Paleocene Ranikot Group represents
Khadro (marine sandstone, shale, limestone and volcanics), Bara (marine, deltaic sandstone with
minor limestone, coal and volcanics) and Lakhra (marine limestone and shale) formations; Eocene
Laki Group represents Sohnari (continental and lateritic clay) and Laki (=Tiyon; deltaic shale,
limestone, sandstone and coal) and Kirthar Group represents Kirthar (marine shale and shale) and
Gorag (marine resistant limestone with some shale) formations and Oligocene Gaj Group represents
Nari (marine sandstone, shale, limestone) and Gaj (marine shale with subordinate sandstone and
limestone) formations. At the Late Oligocene or Early Miocene the Tethys Sea permanently closed
from the area now called Lower Indus/Kirthar Basin and molasse Terrestrial environment especially
fluvial environment started (Fig.1). The strata deposited by the continental environments are
Miocene-Pliocene Manchar/Vihowa (sandstone, conglomerate and mud of Vihowa, Litra and
Chaudhwan formations) group, Pleistocene-Holocene Sakhi Sarwar Group (conglomerate, sandstone
and mud of Dada and Sakhi Sarwar formations), subrecent and recent deposits.

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GEOHERITAGE AND PALEOBIOHERITAGE OF PAKISTAN; MUSEUMS, NATIONAL
AND GLOBAL GEOPARKS-A MEDIA FOR PUBLIC EDUCATION

Pakistan is lucky to include vast spatially and temporally and well exposed Geodiverse
heritage like Gondwanan, Laurasian and Tethyan blocks, also three major tectonic elements like
Convergence of Asian continental plate and Indo-Pakistan continental plate, convergence and
subduction of Arabian sea plate in Balochistan basin a part of Tethys, subduction of Tethys in
Kohistan, Chaman-Nal Transform fault boundary and major divergent zone located off shore in the
sea. Pakistan is also lucky to include vast spatially and temporally diverse igneous, metamorphic and
sedimentary rocks, minerals, gemstones, coal, radioactive minerals and petroleum; and biodiverse
heritage include flora (fossil woods) and fauna (invertebrates and vertebrates). Some most important
vertebrate from Pakistan are titanosaurian sauropod and theropod dinosaurs, mesoeucrocodiles,
walking whale, basal whale (Basilosauridae-king of basal whale), baluchithere-the largest land
mammals, large proboscideans, etc. All these diverse minerals, rocks and bioheritage are hosted by
the Museum of Geological Survey of Pakistan, Quetta and Pakistan Museum of Natural history,
Islamabad, etc. But in Pakistan National geoparks are rare while there is no any global Geoparks. It
is also suggested to increase the National geoparks installations and also some global Geoparks like
Vitakri dome (graveyards of dinosaurs just below the K/T boundary), Fort Munro-D.G.Khan section,
etc which are laboratory for researcher, entertainment and knowledge for public. It is no doubt, the
museums, National and global Geoparks are source of informations on past life, history, minerals,
rocks, nature, etc for visitors like researcher, scientists, students, children, public/peoples, etc. All
the diverse geoheritage demands for protection as large museums, national and global Geoparks,
which is an innovation for the sustainable development of Pakistan and also source of informations
for visitors.
The geological museums helps scientists, public, even a lay-man to study and know the
history of earth, evolution and past history of paleobiota, past history of large and small animals,
type of rocks, the extinction of dinosaurs, belemnites, ammonites, study of fossils,
paleoenvironments, mountain building process/plate movements, fossilization process, exposure to
scientists and public by geodynamic and tectonic uplift, minerals, sedimentary, igneous and
metamorphic rocks, etc. Museums preserve and promote the natural and cultural heritage of
scientists and humanity for the benefit of scientists/researcher, public society and their
developments. To preserve the geoheritage and bioheritage, the museums, national and global
geoparks are considered best. Pakistan has best nature’s classrooms like the Museum of Geological
Survey of Pakistan (GSP Museum), Quetta, and Pakistan Museum of Natural History, Islamabad,
and many sections and mountain ranges like Vitakri Dome, Fort Munro-D.G. Khan sections,
Mughalkot section, Nammal gorge, Khewra, Malakhel, Khisor, Vihowa-Chitarwata, Taunsa-Gulki
(Sanghar), Zinda Pir, Kaha Harrand, Mula Zahri, Gaj-Nari, Porali, Kech, Shagala, Zhob, Gomal,
many places in northern areas, etc. Museum of Geological Survey of Pakistan, Sariab Road, Quetta
has five remarkable galleries like vertebrates (unique skulls of advanced titanosaurs, snouts of
mesoeucrocodiles, etc), invertebrates, minerals, marbles/construction materials and gemstones.
Further the soft copies of published material on dinosaurs, whale, baluchithere, etc (Malkani
2003,2006,2008,2009,2010a,b,c; 2011,2013,2014a,b,c; Malkani et al. 2013, etc) is also available in
our museums. Our museums hosting significant past and recent discoveries for correlation,

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phylogeny, and other research topics. Museum of Vitakri Dome in Pakistan is a richest graveyard of
Titanosauria (Sauropoda, Dinosauria) in Asia. D.G. Khan-Fort Munro section is a unique laboratory
and museum of geology, paleontology, stratigraphy, minerals, gypsum, uranium, clays, quartzite,
sandstone, marbles, etc.
Pakistan has wonderfully exposed diverse tectonic elements like convergent collision of
Indo-Pakistan with Asia (continent-continent collision), Chaman-Uthal regional transform fault and
active subduction like convergent of Arabian sea plate with Balochistan basin of Tethys sea plate,
different types of igneous, metamorphic and sedimentary rocks, sedimentary rocks with book type
many sedimentary and tectonic structures, diverse topography like sea coast in the south, plain areas
in the central east, some world class peaks more than 29000 feet above sea level such as K2, Nanga
Parbat, broad peak (Falchan Kangri)and Tirich Mir, many Muztagh (group of maintains) from east to
west in Karakoram are Batura, Hispar, Panmah, Baltaro, Siachen, Rimo and Saser, many glaciers
(more than 1km deep) like Siachen (74km) Baltaro (62km), Batura (58km), Godwin Austin, Biafo,
Chogolisa, Gondokhoro, Hispar (53km), Yazgil etc. many mountainous peaks surrounded by
pleasant and heaven valleys in the north and west, many localities of Paleozoic to recent flora and
invertebrates, Mesozoic and Cenozoic vertebrates, rich mineral, gemstone, petroleum and other
natural resources, variable four season (summer, autumn, winter and spring), severe summer in plain
while pleasant in mountainous areas, pleasant winter in plain and severe in mountainous areas; many
glacier bearing mountains, remnant of older Sharda University in Neelam valley, Azad Kashmir
(Fig.7 including many plates), Benjusa Lake in Azad Kashmir(Fig.7) and many rivers like Indus,
Jhelum, Zhob, Kech, etc offer unmatched opportunities for research, exploration and development.
The Pakistan represents both Gondwanan as well as Laurasian geo-heritage. The Karakoram basin
belongs to Laurasian and Tethyan, Balochistan basin to Tethyan, and Indus Basin to Gondwanan
fragments. Further Pakistan is now a part of Peninsula but in the past (Jurassic) it was a part of
Gondwanalands. Pakistan has well exposed marine as well as terrestrial strata (with different
extinction boundaries) deposited on the northwestern slope of Indo-Pakistan subcontinent now
known as Khyber-Hazara-Kashmir (uppermost/northernmost Indus), Kohat and Potwar
(upper/northern Indus) basin while western slope known as Sulaiman (Middle Indus) and Kirthar
(Lower/southern Indus) basins. The Khyber-Hazara-Kashmir basin and Kohat and Potwar basin
represent variable marine to continental Precambrian to recent rocks, while the Sulaiman and Kirthar
basins show variable marine to terrestrial Triassic to Recent rocks.
The flora like algae, pollen, spores and wood fossils from Paleozoic to Cenozoic of Pakistan
have been reported. Dinosaurs eat tall conifers (Baradarakht goeswangai), which may be the reason
of neck elongation besides the ferns, angiosperms, gymnosperm, etc which may be the origin of
Latest Cretaceous Kingri coal of Vitakri Formation (Malkani 2014c). The invertebrates like
Protozoa, Foraminifera (started from Cretaceous-Goru Formation like Globigerina, Rotaliapora,
Globotruncana, and onward Cainozoic-Nummulites, Alveolina, Assilina, etc), Coelenterata
(Anthozoa-corals, sea anemones, stony and horny corals; Hydrozoa-Jellyfish); Stromatoporoidea,
Scaphopoda, Bryozoa, Brachiopoda (Productus, fusilinids, etc), Echinodermata (Crinoids, etc),
Conodonts, Mollusca, Cephalopoda (Ammonites and belemnites became extinct at Cretaceous-
Tertiary boundary while nautiloids survived during extinction), Gastropoda, Pelecypoda/Bivalves
and Arthropoda (many insect, etc, Trilobites-Proetus chitralensis-Early Devonian of Chitral-Extinct)
have been reported from Pakistan so far. The Pakiring kharzani (the sub ring type bivalve/pelecypod
Mollusca) is found from the Cretaceous Tertiary (K-T) boundary laterite/thin rust (3km north of

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Kharzan town) on the last bed of Pab sandstone in the Kharzan area of Khuzdar district, Balochistan,
Pakistan. The Pakiwheel vitakri-the stocky type nautiloids and Pakiwheel karkhi-the slender type
nautiloids are found just after the K-T boundary in Sangiali Formation close to east of Vitakri town,
Barkhan District and close to Karkh town, Khuzdar District, Balochistan respectively. The Mulastar
zahri-a star fish is found from the Late Paleocene-Early Eocene Shaheed Ghat Formation, Kharzan
area of Khuzdar district, Balochistan, Pakistan (Malkani 2014c).
The vertebrate paleontological evidences reported from Pakistan are fishes, reptiles and
mammals so far. India was the only source of information on Mesozoic vertebrates until 2000. Since
2000 Pakistan is appeared first time in the world map (dinosaur wise). Pakistan yielded the taxa of
largest land animals like sauropods. The Kirthar (lower Indus) basin yielded Brohisaurus kirthari
Malkani 2003a titanosauriforms/early titanosaurian sauropod. About 3000 fossils collected from
more than 30 localities in fluvial two red mud horizons alternated by two sandstone horizons of
Vitakri Formation include Khetranisaurus barkhani, Sulaimanisaurus gingerichi, and Pakisaurus
balochistani of herbivorous Pakisauridae (slender) and Marisaurus jeffi, Maojandino alami and
Balochisaurus malkani of herbivorous Balochisauridae (stocky), Gspsaurus pakistani and
Saraikimasoom vitakri of Gspsauridae, and Nicksaurus razashahi of Saltasauridae titanosaurian
sauropods, large bodied Vitakridrinda sulaimani of abelisaurian, and Vitakrisaurus saraiki of
Vitakrisauridae noasaurian theropods, and Sulaimanisuchus kinwai of Sulaimanisuchidae,
Pabwehshi pakistanensis and Induszalim bala of Induszalimidae Mesoeucrocodiles, and
Khuzdarcroco zahri mesocrocodiles, and Saraikisaurus minhui of Saraikisauridae pterosaurs. A herd
of more wide gauge titanosaurian sauropods (Malakhelisaurus mianwali) confronted by a running
narrow gauge theropod (Samanadrinda surghari), and an isolated tracks of a couple of small
theropods (Himalayadrinda potwari) reported from the Middle Jurassic Samanasuk Limestone of
Baroch ichno type, Malakhel area, Mianwali District, Punjab, Pakistan (Malkani 2003a,b,c, 2004a,b,
2006a,b,c,d, 2007a,b,c,d,e, 2008a,b,c,d,e,f, 2009a,b,c,d,e,f, 2010a,b,c,d,e,f, 2011a,b,c,
2012b,c,d,e,f, 2013a,b,c,d,e,f,g, 2014a,b,c,d,e, 2015a,b,c,d,e,f,g,h,I,j,k,l; 2016a,b,c; Malkani and Sun
Ge 2016; Malkani et al. 2015; Wilson et al. 2001, 2005).
Very Recently the Latest Cretaceous Vitakri Formation of westernmost Sulaiman basin
yielded the trackway of Pashtosaurus zhobi Malkani 2014a terminal titanosaurian sauropods.
Pashtosaurus zhobi footprints from the Sor Muzghai-an ichno type site Qila Saif Ullah district, Zhob
division (western Sulaiman basin) reveals some new and interesting morphologies of this group
which are also supported by bone fossils found in the same horizon and same basin. The footprints
and track forming animals were wide gauge locomotors-titanosaurian sauropod dinosaurs named as
Pashtosaurus zhobi Malkani 2014a. Pashtosaurus zhobi were living during the Terminal Cretaceous
67 Million years ago. These became extinct at 66 million years ago. Pashtosaurus zhobi estimated
weight may be round about 50 tons. The total height of Pashtosaurus zhobi was on standing rearing
back about 35-40 feet. Its length of leg is about 10 feet. Its neck (long and thick neck) may be 15-20
feet long and back 10-15 feet long and tail 10-15 feet long (short and stocky tail may have distal
most thick trispinous ball). In this way total length of this animal was about 40-50 feet. Due to its
heavy weight and slippery nature of sand, these animals became slipped i.e. its legs slipped
especially the hind limb legs because the impression of toe reveals this information.This footprints
reveals unique information like this titanosaur was tridactyles but every digit was very stocky and
very widely spaced because its prints show upto 1 meters length and width also same. Titanosaurs
are commonly considered as 5 digits animals, so from these footprints its pes show very thick tri

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digits very widely spaced/oriented with tri claws. But its manus was relatively less in size reaching
close to ½ meter or one half meter in width (transverse) and slightly less than 1/2m in length
(anteroposterior) and have no any claw in these manus, this character fix this animal to the titanosaur
group. Thanks to nature which preserve these footprints for about 67 million years but now we also
strongly wish to remain safe these footprints for researchers, visitors, etc.
The possible fishes (Karkhimachli sangiali) found from Paleocene Sangiali group (including
marine Sangiali, Rakhi Gaj and Dungan formations). The Quettacyonidae (Bolanicyon Shahani) is
found in the Early Eocene Toi Formation of southwestern Mach area. Pakistan yielded the
archaeocete like walking whales and their descendants, Basilosauridae-the king of basal whale, and
baluchithere-the largest land mammals. The baluchithere reported from the Dera Bugti areas of
Sulaiman basin and also recently from Early Eocene Shagala formation of Shagala area
(Pakitherium shagalai Malkani et al. 2013) of northern Balochistan basin and from Oligocene
Chitarwata Formation of Taunsa-Gulki section (Buzdartherium gulkirao Malkani 2014c-honouring
the host buzdar tribe and Rao Ayub-very fond of fossils). The Gulki area is hosted by Buzdar tribe
(Taunsa) in north eastern Sulaiman foldbelt. Further a jaw of Asifcroco retrai Malkani 2015d-an
Oligocene crocodile is found from Taunsa-Gulki section of D. G. Khan District. The recent
discoveries of Sulaimanitherium dhanotri Malkani et al. 2013-Basilosauridae (the king of basal
whale) found from the Middle Eocene Drazinda shale of Sulaiman basin (Zamri area, Musakhel
district, Balochistan). When baluchithere became extinct, the proboscideans evolved as largest land
mammals. The Gomphotherium buzdari Malkani 2014c-a big proboscidean (Mammalia) remains are
recently collected from Miocene Litra Formation of Vihowa group in the just north of Mahoi, Zinda
Pir anticline of Taunsa area, located in the easternmost extremity of Sulaiman fold and thrust belt
(Malkani 2015a). Pakistan has a unique blend of Tertiary mammals of Asian affinity like
rhinocerotoids and antharacotherids with few proboscideans, carnivores, chalicotheres, deinotheres,
bovids, suids, Creodonta, ruminantia, amynodontiae, and crocodilians and Tertiary whales. All these
geodiverse and biodiverse heritage of Pakistan demands for protection as national and global
Geoparks which is an innovation for the sustainable development of Pakistan (Malkani 2015i).
Pakistan is also lucky to include vast spatially and temporally diverse rocks, minerals, gemstones,
coal, marble, radioactive minerals, petroleum, etc. There is no any Global geoparks, I strongly
suggest to establish at least one or two Global Geoparks especially in Vitakri Dome which is a
graveyard of dinosaurs aged as just below the Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary, and Fort Munro
section-an excellent geological museum for marine and continental strata ranging in age from
Cretaceous to Recent. It is no doubt, the museums, National and Global Geoparks are source of
informations on past life, history, minerals, rocks, nature, etc for visitors like researcher, scientists,
students, children, public/peoples, etc. All the diverse geoheritage and paleobioheritage demands for
protection as large museums, national and global Geoparks, which are source of informations for
visitors/researcher and also an innovation for the sustainable development of Pakistan.

MAJOR BIOEVENTS, EXTINCTION OF LAND VERTEBRATES, CRETACEOUS-

TERTIARY AND OTHER MAJOR BOUNDARIES IN INDO-PAKISTAN SUBCONTINENT
(SOUTH ASIA)

The four major bioevents and extinction of terrestrial vertebrates are found in Indo-
Pakistan subcontinent. The first major bioevent occurred at the Permo-Triassic boundary from where

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the land vertebrates initiated. After the Permo-Triassic boundary the dinosaurs-largest land animals
along with mesoeucrocodiles and pterosaur-the flying reptiles were occurred during the Mesozoic of
Indo-Pakistan. The Triassic-Jurassic and Jurassic-Cretaceous boundaries both marine and terrestrial
are well exposed in Indo-Pakistan especially in Indus basin of Pakistan. The second bioevent is
found at the Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary where these dinosaurs, mesoeucrocodiles and pterosaur
became extinct and the mammals (also birds) became dominant. Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary
terrestrial sections are rare in the world and only well exposed in the western North America,
Mongolia, India and Pakistan. In India and Pakistan the dinosaurs are found on and close to
Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary which show abrupt extinctions. After the Cretaceous-Tertiary
boundary disaster the Baluchitheria-largest land mammals were found on the Sulaiman/middle Indus
basin (the eastern flank of Western Indus Suture), and Kakar-Khorasan/Katawaz/northern
Balochistan basin (western flank of Western Indus Suture). These Baluchitheria originated and
migrated from Indo-Pakistan subcontinent to Eurasia via western Indus Suture. The third bioevent
occurred at the Oligocene-Miocene boundary from where the Baluchitheria became extinct. After
this third bioevents the rhinocerotoids, anthracotherids, proboscideans, carnivores, chalicotheres,
deinotheres, bovids, suids, Creodonta, ruminantia, amynodontiae, and crocodilians were found in the
Indo-Pakistan subcontinent. The fourth bioevent is found on the Pleistocene-Holocene boundary
from where the man civilization evolved.

GEODYNAMIC AND TECTONIC EVOLUTION OF INDO-PAKISTAN PENINSULA

(SOUTH ASIA): EVIDENCES FROM SULAIMAN BASIN

Indo-Pak is a peninsula but in the past it was a part of Gondwanalands, and during northward
journey it was an island. During the Late Triassic (ca. 220 Ma) the lands united as Pangea. The
breakup of Pangaea started in the Middle Jurassic (170 Ma) while the breakup of Gondwana started
in the Late Jurassic (160 Ma). Indo-Pakistan separated from Madagascar during the Late Jurassic
and started northward journey during the Early Cretaceous (135Ma). Most of Cretaceous passes as
journey and island. It migrated rapidly covering about 6000 km in a period of 68 million years (from
135Ma to 67Ma) with average speed of about 8-10cm/year. Its northwestern corner collided first
time with Afghan block of Tethys and Asia at the latest Cretaceous about 67 Ma ago. This corner
acts as a pivot point for counterclockwise rotation. When Indo-Pak plate came close to Asian plate,
the stress created subduction of Tethys plate (at the line of Karakoram Suture) under Hindukush-
Karakoram resulted in the form of Karakoram magmatic arc. Further stress at later created
subduction of Tethys sea plate (at the line of Northern Indus Suture) under Kohistan-Ladakh belt
resulted in the form of Kohistan-Ladakh magmatic arc. Due to first collision, uplift took place
resulted in the birth of Paleo Indus river systems and end of Paleo Vitakri river systems. During the
Paleocene the sea transgressed and deposited the marine Sangiali Group (Sangiali limestone, shale
and sandstone, Rakhi Gaj sandstone and shale and Dungan limestone) in the Sulaiman basin and
Nisai group (Akhtar Nika limestone and shale 1000-1500m thick, Jabrai mudstone/shale with
alternation of thin marl/limestone beds 500-1000m thick and Nisai massive limestone unit separated
by shale unit 100m thick) in the Balochistan basin, and Hangu shale, sandstone and coal and
Lockhart limestone in the Kohat-Potwar basin. During the late Paleocene the sea regressed from the
western Sulaiman basin and northern Balochistan basin due to further uplift and collision by
continued movements of subcontinent. Consequently the Western Indus Suture, close to the Zhob-

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Waziristan-Kurram and its adjoining western areas of Afghan block uplifted more. This uplift
provided the lands for the migration of the Eocene vertebrates like baluchithere-the largest
rhinoceros from Asia to Indo-Pakistan subcontinent or vice versa. This rising ended the Paleo
Vitakri River systems of Sulaiman foldbelt flowing from east to west (Indo-Pakistan shield toward
Neotethys) and started the birth of Paleo Indus River systems flowing from northwest to southeast
and north to south. It deposited the deltaic and terrestrial molasse Late Paleocene-Early Eocene
Chamalang (Ghazij) Group (Shaheed Ghat shale, Toi sandstone and green shale, and Kingri
sandstone and red muds) in the Sulaiman basin, Panoba Group (Panoba shale, Chashmai sandstone
and shale, Gurguri red sandstone and mud) in the Kohat sub-basin and Shagala Group (Murgha
Faqirzai shale 2000 m thick, Mina green shale unit and sandstone unit 3000 m thick and
Shagala=Shagalu terrestrial red shale unit and sandstone unit 3000 m thick) in Balochistan (fore arc
or arc-trench gap, arc, back arc) basin. This molasse shows the beginning of Neotethys closure from
NW of Indo-Pakistan subcontinent. Further the clastic material of Early Eocene Nammal Group
(Nammal shales and Sakesar limestone and shale) of Potwar and Hazara-Kashmir basins were
deposited by the influence of Paleo Indus River systems. The late Early-middle Eocene is
represented by a major transgression of sea in the westward and also eastward. As a result the
transition period of this transgression is represented by the deposition of upper Ghazij Group (Drug
limestone and Baska/Jatta evaporitic gypsum, and shale show rhythmic off and on sea water), and
upper Panoba Group (Shekhan limestoe and shale, Bahadurkhel salt and Jatta gypsum) and major
transgression is represented by the deposition of Kahan Group (Habib Rahi limestone, Domanda
shale, Pirkoh limestone and Drazinda shale) in the Sulaiman and Kohat sub-basin, Kuldana Group
(Chorgali dolomite/limestone and shale, and Kuldana dolomite, red shale and sandstone) in the
Potwar and Hazara-Kashmir basins, while the northern Balochistan/Kakar Khorasan basin was under
erosion. At the latest Eocene (40-35Ma) the northern part of Indo-Pakistan collided with Karakoram
and Tibetans parts of Asia. This collision resulted in the uplift, folding and faulting (mainly south
verging thrusts) in the northwestern Foreland (Hindukush-Karakoram belt and Kohistan-Ladakh
magmatic arc) and its adjoining northern part of Hinterland now called Himalaya. Consequently
Tethys Sea was permanently closed by the end Eocene tectonic episode which is responsible for the
birth of Himalaya. This collision started the terrestrial/continental fluvial facies and Neotethys
permanently closed from Hindu Kush-Karakoram belt, Kohistan magmatic arc, Khyber-Hazara
(uppermost Indus), Kohat and Potwar (northern/upper Indus) and Sulaiman (Middle Indus) basins,
while the Kirthar (southern/lower Indus) basin was remained undersea as the Oligocene marine Nari
and Gaj formations were deposited in Kirthar basin. This episode/uplift increases the gradient of
Indus River generally flowing from north to south and also created the birth of Ganges River
systems generally flowing from west to east and northwest to southeast. This uplift is responsible for
the molase deposition of Siwalik, Potwar and Vihowa groups in Indo-Pakistan Subcontinent.
Consequently the Neotethys closed from the area presently called Himalaya. The main geoevents
occurred at the Pliocene-Pleistocene boundary time resulted for the further retreat of sea from the
Kirthar (lower/southern Indus) basin as the terrestrial Vihowa/Manchar Group deposited. So far the
last major episode occurred at the end Pleistocene, resulted in the deposition of Soan Group (Lei
conglomerate and flowing Soan sandstone, muds and conglomerate) in Potwar basin and Sakhi
Sarwar Group (Dada conglomerate and Sakhi Sarwar sandstone, mud and conglomerate) and further
retreat of sea in the south and folding and faulting (Malkani and Mahmood 2016a). The northward
movements of Indo-Pakistan plate are continuing so far. This tectonic orogeny is responsible for

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creating highest peaks and present morphology. The Neotethys remained in the east, south and
mostly in the west of Indo-Pakistan subcontinent but now named as Indian Ocean. Due to the closure
of the Neotethys from north, northwest and some part of west of Indo-Pakistan subcontinent, shaped
it as Peninsula. Due to contact and collision of Indo-Pakistan subcontinent with the southern part of
Asia it is being called as South Asia. Mesozoic vertebrates show close affinities with Gondwanan
landmasses. The Cenozoic vertebrates show Eurasian affinity and migrated from Indo-Pak
subcontinent to Eurasia or vice versa via Paleo Indus River systems along the Western Indus Suture,
after the first collision of the Indo-Pak subcontinent with Asia occurred at terminal Cretaceous,
however the baluchithere-the largest land mammals show Indo-Pak origin. The present
paleobiogeographic study would also be beneficial for the related study in China, particularly for the
study in the Tibet and Xinjiang regions (Sun 1987, 1993; Sun et al. 2014; Martin et al. 2010).

GEOBIOLOGICAL EVOLUTION OF INDO-PAK PENINSULA (SOUTH ASIA)

The Indo-Pakistan Plate has a unified geological history from the time of its separation with
Madagascar to its collision with Asia some 40 million years later and is best understood as an
integrated geodynamic system of the Subcontinent. This planetary event has far reaching biotic
consequences: a common inherited biota when the subcontinent was attached to Madagascar and
was part of Gondwanaland, the Tertiary Type Sections which are mostly in Pakistan, the Indo-
Pakistani origin of whales and their consequent spread throughout the globe, the withdrawal of the
Neotethys, the India-Asia collision process and the development of Neogene foreland sediments.
However, political boundaries have made the task of an integrated study difficult if not impossible.
This paper is a small attempt to re-emphasize and perhaps to lament the fact of this “artificial
isolation” and how a small beginning is being made by giving a unified perspective in looking at
Jurassic and Cretaceous terrestrial vertebrates from India (Malkani and Sahni 2015; Sahni 2001) and
Pakistan to underline the common geological heritage. The Indus Basin of Pakistan represents a
large part of the western margin of the Indian Plate. As a case in point: the terrestrial vertebrate
bearing Maastrichtian Vitakri Formation of Balochistan, Pakistan are distal fluvio-deltaic and
continental deposits that are sediment-sourced from the erosion of the Indo-Pakistan shield, Deccan
Volcanics and co-eval beds. These beds have produced the mesoeucrocodiles and sauropod and
abelisaurian dinosaurs with distinct Gondwana affinity and are in common with those known from
India. The Jurassic dinosaurs of Pakistan are currently represented by some spectacular trackways
and a few dinosaurs. Pterosaurs have also been reported from the Cretaceous of Pakistan and India
and need to be better studied. More data is needed from Pakistan from the smaller-sized vertebrates
comprising, frogs, snakes, lizards, turtles and mammals to make an accurate assessment of the
palaeo-biogeographic affinities. During the initial drift stage, biotic relationships were with faunas of
Madagascar, South America and Africa. During the Palaeocene and Lower Eocene, there are definite
indications of linkages to northern Africa and Europe. By the Middle Eocene, Central Asia faunas
were the main immigrants to the Indian Plate (Malkani and Sahni 2015).
Paleobiogeography can be deduced from geological and paleontological data. Some time the
geological data is sufficient, some time paleotological data is added. However the geological data by
their very nature hold priority over paleontological data or vice versa. Chaudhrey et al. (1994)
interpretation like timing of uplift at K-T boundary in Pakistan gives same clues as present author.
However the ideas of Ali and Krause (2011) are relatively close to the present study. Ali and Krause

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(2011) mentioned throughout the Late Cretaceous there was no intervening, continuous causeway
through Antarctica, and associated land bridges between South America to the west and Indo-
Madagascar to the east; and mid to large sized obligate terrestrial forms gained broad distribution
across Gondwanan Land masses prior to fragmentation and were isolated on Indo-Madagascar
before the end of the Early Cretaceous, but the present study show isolation of Indo-Pakistan
subcontinent from Madagascar at J-K boundary time. Searle et al. (1988) mentioned the terminal
collision of Indo-Pakistan subcontinent and Asia is deduced from the ending of marine
sedimentation and beginning of continental molasse sedimentation in the Indus Suture Zone, ending
of Andean type calc-alkaline magmatism along the Trans-Himalaya (Kohistan-Ladakh-Ganges)
batholith, and the initiation of major collision related thrust systems in the Himalayan Ranges. Most
researcher fever initiation around 50-55 Ma (Hodges 2000, Molnar and Tapponnier 1975, Patriat and
Achache 1984, Searle et al. 1987). Although Ding et al (2005), Yin (2006) and Yin and Harrison
(2000) prefer an even earlier time ~70 Ma which are close to present investigation. The models for
tectonic and climatic evolution associated with the Himalaya-Tibetian orogenic system in which
timing of initiation T0 boundary condition of 50-55 Ma is assumed (e.g. Beaumont et al. 2001, 2004;
Jamieson et al. 2004) but the present research show T 0 at 75-70 Ma of western margin of Indo-
Pakistan subcontinent. The rate of Indo-Pakistan’s northward progression toward Asia was
~6.6cm/yr between 120 and 73 Ma, increasing to ~21.1cm/yr between 73 and 57 Ma. At 57 + 3 Ma,
there was then an abrupt and massive slowdown to 9.5cm/yr until 20-30 Ma, when there was a
further major slowdown (Acton 1999). The change of rate at 73 Ma indicate first collision in western
part and increasing rate may be due to rapid anticlockwise rotation of subcontinent at pivot point
(Zhob and Afghan block). Aitchison et al. (2007) mentioned the reasons of collision evidence before
35 Ma like Neotethys was a large ocean in which intraoceanic island arcs, plateaus, seamounts and
other bathymetrically positive features exist which have created the 55 Ma event but not actual
collision of Indo-Pakistan and Asia. Neotethys was obviously more complex than originally
envisaged as another intraoceanic island arc system, remnants of which are represented by the
Kohistan-Dras arc, collided to the north with Eurasia well before the ocean closed (Aitchison et al.
2007). The creation of Kohistan-Laddakh magmatic arc at Cretaceous shows the collision of Indo-
Pakistan subcontinent with Asia.
Detritial sedimentary records along convergent plate margins are widely regarded as key
repositories, for precisely containing the timing of both major and minor tectonic events (Lundberg
and Dorsey 1990) and here Early Eocene Chamalang group molasse are studied. The investigation
permit the discrimination of various conglomerate units attributable to different tectonic events
(Davis et al. 2004) and Marap conglomerate and upper Toi formation conglomerate also show the
uplift of Western Indus suture near the Kalat area just south of Zhob area which is uplifted first and
then Kalat and its western vicinity areas. Fluvial sedimentation in the Himalayan foreland did not
begin until the Oligocene (Najman et al. 2004). The Indo-Pakistan and Asia collision is of global
significance and widely regarded as being implicated in the late Cenozoic initiation of global climate
change. It has been argued that the shift in ocean geochemistry (e.g., Sigma &18 O and Sr isotope
records) implicated in global climate change can be connected with Indo-Pakistan and Asia collision
(Raymo and Ruddiman 1992, Ruddiman and Kutzbach 1989). Ophiolitic obduction in Pakistan
along Western and Northern Indus Suture were take place in late Paleocene (Sarwar 1992, Beck et
al. 1995) or at Latest Cretaceous. Aitchison et al. (2007) pointed about the imprecise nature of age
determination, so here in the present study the age is confirmed and correct, e.g., Gingerich et al.

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(2001) discovered the walking whale in the transition strata of Habib Rahi limestone and Domanda
shale and aged about 47 Ma (Berggren et al., 1995; Hardenbol et al. 1998). In this way the
Chamalang/Ghazij group ranges from 55-48 Ma. Hong and Lee (2012) reported cold during Early
and Late Cretaceous based on low atmospheric CO2 and hot middle Cretaceous based on high
atmospheric CO2 which is related to major geoevents. The oldest sediments that contain detritus
from both sides of Western Indus Suture are Early Eocene to recent. The marine and terrestrial
molasse strata just east of Western Indus Suture provide an important constraint on the initiation of
collision at 67 Ma. The hard contact occurred at the Eocene-Oligocene (35-33 Ma) boundary which
is responsible for the rising of northern part of Pakistan (Himalaya) which was the clastic source of
Potwar group (Siwalik group) in Kohat and Potwar basin, Vihowa group in Sulaiman and Kirthar
basins. The third orogeny occurred after the 20 million years of second orogeny. In this way the
second orogeny also needs 20 million years (75-55 Ma) for rising of Hinterland (Zhob-Afghan
block) to supply the clastic materials. During early Eocene East and southeastern part of Sulaiman
foldbelt remained under sea, where marine Shaheed Ghat (shale) and Drug formation (rubbly
limestone, marl and shale) was deposited, which were followed by wide spread platform type
evaporitic deposits (Baska gypsum), in turn followed by marine Kahan group (Habib Rahi,
Domanda, Pir Koh and Drazinda formations). In the Oligocene the Tethys Sea was permanently
regressed from the upper and middle Indus basins, however southward of Jacobabad high the sea
remained in the Oligocene and regressed in the Miocene and later further southward. The second
major orogeny occurred at the Pliocene-Pleistocene boundary resulted the further folding and
faulting.
The long journey in long period of Indo-Pakistan has affected its biota, paleoclimates, etc. So
far Pakistan has produced a few fossils of Late Jurassic titanosauriforms/early titanosaur
Brohisaurus kirthari Malkani 2003a and about 3000 fossils (some articulated, some associated and
some isolated) of cranial, vertebral and appendicular elements of latest Cretaceous dinosaurs and
crocodiles, collected from fluvial two red mud horizons (alternated by sandstone horizons; Malkani
2006d) of Vitakri Formation. This include Khetranisaurus Malkani 2006a referred some vertebrae
by Malkani (2009a), Sulaimanisaurus Malkani 2006a referred femur by Malkani and Anwar (2000)
and some vertebrae Malkani (2009a) and Pakisaurus Malkani 2006a referred crania, postcrania and
osteoderms by Malkani (2010a,c;2006c;2003b;2015a) of herbivorous Pakisauridae Malkani 2006a
(slender titanosaurians) and Marisaurus Malkani 2006a referred crania, postcrania and osteoderms
by Malkani (2003a,b; 2006c; 2008a,b; 2010c; Wilson et al. 2005 ), Maojandino alami Malkani
2015b and Balochisaurus malkani Malkani 2006a referred crania, postcrania and osteoderms by
Malkani (2003b; 2006c; 2009; 2010c;2015a,b) of herbivorous Balochisauridae Malkani 2006a
(stocky titanosaurians), Nicksaurus razashahi Malkani 2015b of Saltasauridae and Gspsaurus
pakistani Malkani 2014a and Saraikimasoom vitakri of Gspsauridae sauropods, and noasaurian
Vitakrisaurus Malkani 2010b with some detail by Malkani (2011b,2014b,2015a) of Vitakrisauridae
Malkani 2010b and abelisaurian Vitakridrinda Malkani 2006a referred and detail description of
holotypic materials by Malkani (2006a, 2014b,2015a) theropod dinosaurs, and Pabwehshi Wilson et
al. 2001 referred some materials by Malkani (2007d) and Induszalim bala Malkani 2014b of
Induszalimidae, and Sulaimanisuchus kinwai Malkani 2010b of carnivorous Sulaimanisuchidae
Malkani 2010b mesoeucrocodiles were documented so far. Further the trackways from the Middle
Jurassic Samanasuk Limestone of Kohat and Potwar basin represent a group of wide gauge
Malakhelisaurus mianwali Malkani 2007a titanosauriforms/early titanosaurian sauropods and a

107
narrow gauge running Samanadrinda surgahri Malkani 2007a theropod based on only ichnotypes
(Malkani, 2007a, 2008a; 2011c). Further recently the Latest Cretaceous Vitakri Formation of
westernmost Sulaiman basin yielded the trackway of Pashtosaurus zhobi Malkani 2014a terminal
titanosaurian sauropods.
Dinosaurs from Pakistan are reported upto K-Pg (Cretaceous-Paleogene) boundary. But after
this K-Pg boundary no any fossil of dinosaur is reported from any parts of Pakistan (and also among
world), showing mass extinction of dinosaurs at K-Pg boundary (2010a,e). A major extinction of
archaic birds at K-Pg boundary provided an ecological release, permitting the radiation of modern
birds in the Paleogene (Longrich, et al. 2011). The Oligocene Chitarwata Formation is the host of
continental largest land mammals Balochitherium, Bugtitherium, etc. The Vihowa and Litra
formations are also rich in continental vertebrates. The fossil record (e.g., Thewissen et al. 2001,
Karanth 2006) and present day amphibian catalogue (e.g., Daniels 1992, Bossuyt and Milinkovitch
2001, Biju and Bossuyt 2003) which informs us that Indo-Pakistan had also developed endemic
forms prior to its glancing contact (~57Ma) followed by hard collision (~35Ma) with Asia (Ali and
Aitchison 2008). Some opinions show the contact of Indo-Pakistan subcontinent and Madagascar
during the Late Cretaceous but the latest Cretaceous fauna of Pakistan do not show such highest
degree of resemblance with Madagascar and South America as it should be if connected (Malkani
2007b, 2011a). The trispinous distal most caudal centra and moderately inclined skull of Pakistani
titanosaurs show so far endemic characters. The dinosaurs and crocodiles in Gondwanalands got
broad distribution prior to fragmentation. The record of Late Cretaceous terrestrial vertebrates from
Gondwana is spotty at best and therefore difficult to analyze and interpreted in a biogeographic
context (Krause et al. 2006), however in the present study it is strengthened by lithostratigraphy,
geological history and tectonics data.
The Gondwanan and Laurasian vertebrates show Pangean heritage, but after separation
during Jurassic both show fauna with distinct Characters. In this way Indo-Pakistan Subcontinent
show Gondwana heritage but after long migration and isolation from 160 Ma to 70 Ma, the
continental vertebrates acquired distinct characters. The configuration of Gondwana changed
dramatically during the Late Jurassic and Cretaceous as it broke apart into isolated landmasses. The
dispersion of these landmasses undoubtedly had profound consequences for the geographic
distribution and subsequent evolutionary trajectories of the resident terrestrial vertebrates’ fauna.
Further Gondwana terrestrial fossil record on crocodyliforms, non avian dinosaurs and mammals are
better than for most other vertebrate clades (Krausse et al., 2006).
The latest Cretaceous fauna of Pakistan do not show such highest degree of resemblance with
Madagascar and South America as it should be if connected. Generally there is a community
development in the world, at places some group is well developed and at places some other groups
are developed. The dominance of some group in southern landmasses and some other groups in
Laurasian landmasses are one of the tools for paleobiogeographic connections. In a number of
ecosystems, noasaurid abelisauroids were small bodied counterparts to their large bodied cousins,
the abelisaurids, in a manner parallel to small bodied maniraptorian coelurosaurs and large bodied
tyranosaurids in many Late Cretaceous Laurasian ecosystems (Krause et al., 2006). The record of
Late Cretaceous terrestrial vertebrates from Gondwana is spotty at best and therefore difficult to
analyze and interpreted in a biogeographic context (Krause et al. 2006), however in the present study
it is strengthened by stratigraphy, geological history and tectonics data. The anteriorly orientation of
antorbital fenistra, Chin in the anterior dentary rami, number of teeth, less dorsal slope/inclination of

108
skull and wheel like armor bones of Rapetosaurus, and broad distal caudal vertebrae of Malagasy
Texon B of Madagascar are different from Balochisauridae and Pakisauridae titanosaurian
sauropods. The Pakistani titanosaurs also show affinity with Nemegtosaurus, Quaesitosaurus and
Alamosaurus etc of Laurasia. So far the trispinous distal caudal centrum and anteroposterior
moderate/medium inclination of dorsal skull of latest Cretaceous Gspsauridae show endemic
characters.
The latest Cretaceous Pakistani fauna is slightly less provincial than previously associated
Gondwana landmasses, while it is relatively more provincial than Laurasia and other regions of
Gondwana. In this way the orogeny/tectonics, stratigraphy and fauna of Pakistan show isolation of
Indo-Pakistan as island during Cretaceous. Indo-Pakistan shows association with Madagascar and
South America (via Antarctica) before Early Cretaceous, and early seed radiation and common
heredity show relatively high degree of similarity between Latest Cretaceous fauna of Indo-Pakistan,
Madagascar and South America. In this way titanosaurians show cosmopolitan due to common seed
radiation and heredity due to united continents as Pangea (Late Triassic; 220 Ma) and also at the
breakup of Pangea (Middle Jurassic; 170 Ma). In general the Mesozoic vertebrates show relative
close affinity to Gondwana than Laurasia. The Cenozoic vertebrates show Eurasian affinity and
migrated from Indo-Pak subcontinent to Eurasia to or vice versa via Paleo Indus River systems along
Western Indus Suture, after the first collision of Indo-Pak subcontinent with Asia occurred at the
terminal Cretaceous. The baluchitheres and some other fauna may have Indo-Pakistan origin.
With the fragmentation of Gondwana, which is generally agreed to have commenced in
earnest in the Late Triassic to Early Jurassic (Lawver et al., 1992; Torsvik et al., 2001; de Wit 2003;
Wells, 2003)? Madagascar, as part of “East Gondwana” (also including the Indo-Pakistan
subcontinent, Antarctica, and Australia), began to separate from “West Gondwana” (South America
and Africa)(Krause et al., 2006). Initial rifting between the Indo-Pakistan-Madagascar block and
Africa began during the Permo-Triassic, and seafloor spreading between the conjugate-rifted margin
of southern Somalia, Kenya and Tanzania (Western Somali Basin) and northern Madagascar
commenced by the late Middle Jurassic (Lawver et al., 1992; Wells, 2003). By the Late Jurassic
(approximately 160 Ma; Fig.1h), in a narrow seaway separated the east coast of Africa from
Madagascar and the rest of the East Gondwana block (Krause, et al., 2006). When major faults or
rifts occurred, these have many subsidiary faults or rifts. In this way the rifting between east and
west Gondwana created both rift on the west and also in the east of Madagascar. Consequently
Madagascar is separated from Africa and also Indo-Pakistan subcontinent during Early Cretaceous.
Indo-Pakistan started northward journey during Early Cretaceous and migrated rapidly covering
more than 6000km in about 60 million years, and contacted with Laurasia at Late Cretaceous about
67 Ma. From 67 to 55 Ma, the area of Hinterland in the north and northwest of Sulaiman basin,
began to rise first and provided the clastic of Chamalang group (Shaheed Ghat, Toi and Kingri
formations) in the central, north and west of Sulaiman basin and northern Kirthar basin, and clastic
materials of Murgha Faqirzai shale, Mina shale and sandstone and Shagala continental sandstone and
red muds of Northern Balochistan basin. In the east and southeast of Sulaiman basin remained under
sea and marine Drug formation was deposited, which were followed by wide evaporitic deposits
(Baska gypsum).

109
 Beginning of Paleo Indus River system
and closure of Tethys
Vitakri-Ziarat Sea line at Late
Paleocene
land bridge
A
Sea line at Early
Eocene
Neotethys
Marine Sea line at Late
environments Indo-Pakistan Early Eocene B
shield Tethys Sea
line/coast line at
Continental/ Late Oligocene
Terrestrial
environments
Tethys Sea line at
Late Pliocene

Zhob Zhob . Afghan

Afghan block
block Laurasia
Laurasia
Afghan
Tethys Block Indo-Pakistan Sub
55
55 Ma
Ma
Indo-Pakistan Sub

Loralai Vitakri D. G.Khan

Ziarat high Quetta Indo-Pakistan
Indo-Pakistan Sub.
Sub.
Quetta
Northern
Northern
Hemisphere
Hemisphere
Jacobabad
Equator
Equator

Khuzdar Khuzdar
Jacobabad high

Southern
Southern
Karachi D Hemisphere
Hemisphere
C
E
E
Indo-Pakistan
Indo-Pakistan Sub.
Sub.
Madagascar
Madagascar
135
135 Ma
Ma

Figure 1. A, Latest Cretaceous Sea Level, depositional model and bifurcation of Tethys sea and origin of Vitakri-Ziarat Land
Bridge in Pakistan: B, Late Paleocene to Late Pliocene sea line or coast line of Tethys, closure of Neotethys from Pakistan and
adjoining Afghanistan and birth of Paleo Indus, Paleo Ganges and Paleo Brahmaputra River Systems: C, Paleo-Vitakri River
systems flows from East to west (Indo-Pak shield to Tethys) during Late Cretaceous. Black thick line shows sea level: D,
Paleo-Indus River systems flows generally from north to south. Black broken line shows Western Indus Suture (Northern
Indus and western Indus Suture are the northwestern and western boundary of Indo-Pak subcontinent): E, Geological
Evolution Indo-Paki Subcontinent. Arrows show direction of continental clastic movements and river systems.

110
Age Kirthar (Lower Indus) Sulaiman (Middle Indus) Kohat-Potwar (Upper Indus)
Recent A l l u v i u m, e o l i a n and c o l l u v i u m
Holocene Sakhi Sarwar (sst,cl) Sakhi Sarwar (sst, cl, cong) Soan (cl, sst, cong).
Pleistocene Dada (cong, sst, cl). Dada (cong, sst, cl). Lei (cong, sst, cl).
--------------------------------disconformity--------------------------------------------------------------
Pliocene Chaudhwan (sst,cong,cl) Chaudhwan(sst,cong, cl) Dhok Pathan (sst, cong, cl).
Miocene Litra (sst) Litra (sst) Nagri (sst)
Gaj (sh,lst, gyp,sst) Vihowa (red cl, sst) Chinji (red cl, sst), Murree (cl, sst)
Chitarwata (sst, cl, cong)
OLIGOCENE Nari (sh, sst, lst)
-----disconformity----- ----disconformity-------------------
Laki/Kirthar/Gorag (lst) Drazinda (sh) Drazinda (sh)
Pir Koh (lst, sh) Pir Koh (lst, sh) Kuldana(sh,lst,sst)
Domanda (sh) Domanda (sh)
Habib Rahi (lst, sh) Habib Rahi(lst, sh) Chorgali(sh,lst)
Eocene Baska (gypsum) Sakesar(lst)
Sohnari Jatta (gypsum)
(laterite, Drug (lst) Bahadurkhel (salt) Shekhan (cl, sst)
Kingri (red cl, sst) Kingri (red cl, sst) Gurguri(sst,br.sh)
cl)
Toi (sst, cl) Toi (sst, cl, coal) Chashmai (sst, green shale)
Saheed Ghat shale Shaheed Ghat shale Panoba (sh) Nammal (shale)
Lakhra (lst) Dungan (lst)
Paleocene Bara (sst, sh) Rakhi Gaj (sst, sh) L o c k h a r t (lst)
Khadro (sst, lst) Sangiali (lst, sst) Hangu/Patala (shale, coal, sst)
Latest Cretaceous ---- Vitakri (red cl, sst) --------------- Vitakri (red cl, sst) -------- Indus (laterite, bauxite) -----disconformity-------------

Pab (sst) Pab (sst) Kawagarh (lst)

Fort Munro (lst) Fort Munro (lst)
Cretaceous Mughal Kot (sh,sst) Mughal Kot (sh, sst) L u m s h i w a l (sst)
Parh Limestone Parh Limestone
Mekhtar&Goru (sst, marl, sh) Mekhtar&Goru (sst, marl, sh)
Sembar (sh) Sembar shale C h i c h a l i (green sst, sh)
Jurassic-Cretaceous boundary-------------Dilband Iron Formation------

Zidi Limestone Chiltan Limestone S a m a n a s u k Limestone

Jurssic Anjira (sh, lst) Loralai Limestone S h i n a w a r i (sh, lst)
Spingwar (lst, sh) Spingwar (sh, lst). Datta (sst)
---------------------------------------disconformity---------------------------------------------------------
Wulgai (sh) Wulgai (sh) K i n g r i a l i (lst)
Triassic Gwal (sh, lst) Gwal (sh, lst) Tredian (sst)
M i a n w a l i (sst, sh)
Figure 2. Mesozoic and Cenozoic stratigraphy and Marine to Non-marine Correlation of Kirthar (Lower Indus),
Sulaiman (Middle Indus) and Kohat-Potwar (Upper Indus) Basin, Pakistan. Abbreviations; cl-clay, cong-
conglomerate, lst-limestone, sh-shale, sst-sandstone.
Marine Mesozoic Marine Cenozoic Non-marine Mesozoic
and Cenozoic

111
 Chronostratigraphy
Age Eastern&Western (Lower Indus) Sulaiman (Middle Indus) Kohat – Potwar (Upper Indus)
Chronostratigraphy
Kirthar
Recent Alluvium,Eolian,Colluv. Alluvium A l l u v i um
Holocene Sakhi Sarwar Sakhi Sarwar Soan
Pleistocene Dada Dada L e i
…… …… ……
Pliocene Chaudhwan Chaudhwan Dhok Pathan / Murree U
…… Litra Litra Nagri / Murree M
Miocene Gaj Vihowa …… Chinji / Murree L
Oligocene Nari ……Chitarwata
Drazinda Drazinda Kuldana
Laki U/ Gorag Pir Koh Pirkoh
Domanda Domanda
Eocene Laki L/ Kirthar Habib Rahi Habib Rahi Chorgali
Sohnari U /Baska Baska Bahadurkhel,Jatta

Sohnari M/ Drug Drug Shekhan Sakesar

Sohnari M/ Kingri Kingri Gurguri
Sohnari L/ Toi Toi Chashmai
…Sohnari L/Shaheed Ghat Shaheed Ghat Panoba Nammal
Lakhra/Dungan Dungan Lockhart
Paleocene Bara/Rakhi Gaj Rakhi Gaj
Khadro/Sangiali Sangiali H a n g u
……Disconformable Boundary... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ..
Vitakri Vitakri Indus
Pab Pab Kawagarh
Fort Munro Fort Munro
Cretaceous Mughal Kot Mughal Kot
Parh Parh L u mshiwal
Goru Goru
Mekhtar Mekhtar
Sembar Sembar C h i c h ali
…… Dilband Dilband
Chiltan Chiltan Samanasuk
Jurassic Anjira Loralai Shinawari
Spingwar. Spingwar. Datta
Triassic Wulgai Wulgai Kingriali/Chalk Jabi
Gwal Gwal Tredian
Mianwali
Sandstone Limestone Dolomite Conglomerate Shale Marl Gypsum/salt Alluvium

Sauropod dinosaur Theropod dinosaur Mesoeucrocodile Pterosaur-flying reptile

Figure 3. Revised Stratigraphic Correlation of Lower Indus (Eastern and Western Kirthar),
Middle Indus (Sulaiman) and Upper Indus (Kohat-Potwar) basins of Pakistan.
Abbreviations; L-Lower, M-Middle, U-Upper.

112
Age Middle Indus Basin Sea level Rising Upper Indus Basin Sea level Rising
Chronostratigraphy Chronostratigraphy
Recent Alluvium,eolian,Colluv. Alluvium
Holocene Sakhi Sarwar Soan
Pleistocene Dada Tethys Lei
……………… Sea
closed Tethys
Pliocene Chaudhwan Dhok Pathan/Murree Sea
permane
Litra Nagri/Murree closed
ntly
Miocene Vihowa Chinji/ Murree permane
Oligocene Chitarwata ntly
Drazinda Drazinda/Kuldana .
Pir Koh Pirkoh/Choregali
Domanda Domanda
Eocene Habib Rahi HabibRahi
Baska Jatta
Drug Bahadurkhel
Kingri Shekhan /Sakesar/Margala
Toi

Shaheed Ghat Panoba/Nammal

Dungan
Paleocene Rakhi Gaj Lockhart
Sangiali Hangu

……Disconformable Boundary...
Vitakri Indus
Pab Kawagarh

Cretaceous Fort Munro .

Mughal Kot Lumshiwal
Parh .
Goru
Sembar Chichali
-------- Dilband . Samanasuk
Chiltan . Shinawari
Jurassic Loralai . Datta
Spingwar. Kingriali
Triassic Wulgai Trediani
Gawal Mianwali

Sandstone Limestone Dolomite Conglomerate Shale Marl Gypsum/salt Alluvium

Figure 4. Mesozoic and Cenozoic Sea level Curves of Sulaiman (Middle Indus) and Kohat-
Potwar (Upper Indus) Basin of Pakistan.

113
Age Sulaiman (Middle Indus) Basin Balochistan Basin Karakoram Basin
Recentnostratigraphy Chronostratigraphy
Alluvium,eolian,Colluv. Alluvium
Holocene Sakhi Sarwar Sakhi Sarwar
Pleistocene Dada Bostan/Dada
Pliocene Chaudhwan Chaudhwan/Parkini/Chatti
Litra Litra/Talar
Miocene Vihowa Vihowa
Oligocene Chitarwata Chitarwata
Drazinda
Pir Koh
Domanda Shagala Not deposited
Eocene Habib Rahi
Baska
Drug Mina
Kingri
Toi Murgha-
Shaheed Ghat Faqirzai
Dungan
Paleocene Rakhi Gaj Nisai
Sangiali

Vitakri Darband
Pab Jabrai Reshun/Tupop
Cretaceous Fort Munro Akhtar Nika
Mughal Kot Reshit
Parh Sinjrani
Goru Chagai
Mekhtar Yashkuk
Sembar
Dilband Ashtigar
Chiltan
Jurassic Loralai
Spingwar Aghil
Triassic Gwal &Wulgai
Sandstone Limestone Dolomite Conglomerate Shale Marl Gypsum Alluvium Igneous

Sauropod dinosaur Theropod dinosaur Crocodile Pterosaur-flying reptile

Figure 5. Mesozoic and Cenozoic Lithostratigraphic Correlation of Sulaiman (Middle Indus-
a part of Gondwana) Basin, Balochistan Basin (a part of Tethys) and Karakoram (Pamir)
Basin (a part of Laurasia) of Pakistan.

114
 Mesozoic Terrestrial strata
Hindu Kush-Karakoram basins

Kohistan-Ladakh magmatic arc

Khyber-Hazara-Kashmir basin

Kohat-Potwar basin

Sulaiman basin

Kakar-Khurasan (North Balochistan)

Chagai-Raskoh arc

Continental/ Terrestrial
Hamun-e- (Indo-Pakistan shield)
Mashkel

Wazhdad
arc

Makran
basin

Figure 6. Basin architectures/configurations and Sea level in Triassic, Jurassic and

Cretaceous of Pakistan. Generalized Sea level during Early Triassic to Early Jurassic is
shown as full line and in Middle Jurassic to Late Cretaceous is shown as broken line.

115
 Figure 7. Row 1, 1st photo from right to left shows different strata like Nammal shale and marl, Sakesar limestone, Chorgali green shale and
Kuldana red shale and uppermost Murree sandstone, 2nd photo shows Indus Formation (bauxite and laterite) and 3rd photo pisolites of Indus
Formation, eastern limb of Tatta Pani anticlinorium (Kotli district); 4th photo Indus Formation (laterite, iron) and 5th photo nodular Sakesar
Limestone, Muzaffarabad. Row 2, 1st photo Tanawal quartzite of Kaghan area; 2nd photo beautiful parallel structures on boulder in Nausehri area
of lower Neelum, 3rd photo Benjusa lake near Rawlakot, 4th photo a beautiful mosque tower in a Palandri/ Sadnoti district, 5th photo Mangla Dam,
6th and 7th water fall in northern areas of Pakistan and 8th photo Holocene Soan (Sakhi Sarwar Fm). Row 3, 1st photo Neelam hydel project, 2nd
Chikar model of earthquake ruined some clusters of houses; 3rd photo Sharda valley, 4th, 5thand 6th photo remnants of old Sharda University,
Neelam valley, Azad Kashmir. Row 4, 1st photo Muzaffarabad-Balakot-Tatta Pani active thrust, 2nd Murree Formation and 3rd and 4th photos
Samanasuk Limestone of Lamnian (Reshian valley) and 5th photo dinosaur in national park of Mir Pur (Azad Kashmir). Row 5, 1st photo Toi
Formation of Chamalang coalfields in Balochistan Province. 2nd photo Tatta Pani anticlinorium core in Goi area of Kotli district, Azad Kashmir,
2nd and 3rd photo Pleistocene-Holocene Bentonite (white) host Quaternary Soan Formation (alluvium) in northwestern Potwar (Attock District).

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Leake R.C. et al. 1989. Origin and tectonic setting of stratabound tungston mineralization within the Hindukush of Pakistan. J.Geol.
Soc. Lond. 146, 1003-1016.

LeFort P., Gaetani M. 1998. Introduction to the geological map of western central Karakoram, North Pakistan Hindu Raj, Ghamubar
and Darkot areas 1:250,000 scale. Geologica 3(1), 1-68.

LeFort P., Pechner A., 2001. An introduction to the geological map of the area between Hunza and Baltistan, Karakoram-Kohistan-
Ladakh-Himalaya region, northern Pakistan 1:150,000 scale. Geologica 6), 1-40.

LeFort P., Tongiorgi M., Gaetani M. 1994. Discovery of a crystalline basement and Early Ordovician marine transgression in the
Karakoram mountain range, Pakistan. Geology 22, 941-944.

Lexique stratigraphque international. 1956. Vol.3, Asie, fasc. 8, (a) India, Pakistan, Nepal, Bhutan. Centre Nail. Recherche Start.,
Paris, 404p.

Lindsay E.H., Downs W.R. 2000. Age assessment of the chitarwata formation. Himal. Geol. 21, 99-107.

Lydekker R. 1878. Notes on the geology of Kashmir, Kishtwar and Pangi. GSI Rec. ii, 30-63.

Madin I.P., Lawrence R.D., Rehman S. 1989. The north western Nanga Parbat-Haramosh Massif: evidence for crustal uplift at the
northwestern corner of the Indian craton. In; Malinconico and Lillie eds.) Tectonics of the western Himalaya. Geological Amer . Spec.
Pap. 232, 169-182.

Malkani M.S. 2000. Preliminary report on gypsum deposits of Sulaiman Range, Pak. GSP, IR (706): 1-11.

Malkani M.S. 2002. First note on the occurrence of Fluorite in Mula area, Khuzdar District, Balochistan, Pakistan, GSP IR (766): 1-11.

Malkani M.S. 2003a. First Jurassic dinosaur fossils found from Kirthar range, Khuzdar District, Balochistan, Pakistan. Geol.
Bul.Univ.Peshawar 36, 73-83.

Malkani M.S. 2003b. Pakistani Titanosauria; are armoured dinosaurs?. Geol. Bul. Univ. Peshawar 36, 85-91.

Malkani M.S. 2004a. Stratigraphy and Economic potential of Sulaiman, Kirthar and Makran-Siahan Ranges, Pakistan. In abstract
volume of Fifth Pakistan Geological Congress, Islamabad, Pakistan, 63-66.

Malkani M.S. 2004b. Discovery of Fluorite deposits from Mula-Zahri Range, Khuzdar District, Balochistan, Pakistan. In abstract
volume of Fifth Pakistan Geological Congress, Islamabad, Pakistan, 20-22.

Malkani M.S. 2004c. Coal resources of Chamalang, Bahney Wali and Nosham-Bahlol areas of Kohlu, Barkhan, Loralai and Musa
Khel districts, Balochistan, Pakistan. In abstract volume National Conference on Economic and Environmental sustainability of
Mineral resources of Pakistan, Baragali, Pakistan, 44-45.

Malkani M.S. 2004d. Mineral potential of Siahan and north Makran ranges, Balochistan, Pakistan. In abstract volume National
Conference on Economic and Environmental sustainability of Mineral resources of Pakistan, Baragali, Pakistan, 46-47.

Malkani M.S. 2004e. Saurischian dinosaurs from Late Cretaceous of Pakistan. In abstract volume of Fifth Pakistan Geological
Congress, Islamabad, Pak, 71-73.

Malkani M.S. 2006a. Biodiversity of saurischian dinosaurs from the latest Cretaceous Park of Pakistan. Journal of Applied and
Emerging Sciences, 1(3), 108-140.

Malkani M.S. 2006b. Cervicodorsal, Dorsal and Sacral vertebrae of Titanosauria (Sauropod Dinosaurs) discovered from the Latest
Cretaceous Dinosaur beds/Vitakri Member of Pab Formation, Sulaiman Foldbelt, Pakistan. Jour.Appl. Emer.Sci. 1(3), 188-196.

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Malkani M.S. 2006c. Lithofacies and Lateral extension of Latest Cretaceous Dinosaur beds from Sulaiman foldbelt, Pakistan. Sindh
University Research Journal (Science Series) 38 (1), 1-32.

Malkani M.S. 2007a. Trackways evidence of sauropod dinosaurs confronted by a theropod found from Middle Jurassic Samana Suk
Limestone of Pakistan. Sindh University Research Journal (Science Series) 39 (1), 1-14.

Malkani M.S. 2007b. Cretaceous Geology and dinosaurs from terrestrial strata of Pakistan. In abstract volume of 2nd International
Symposium of IGCP 507 on Paleoclimates in Asia during the Cretaceous: theirvariations, causes, and biotic and environmental
responses, Seoul, Korea, 57-63.

Malkani M.S. 2007c. Lateral and vertical rapid variable Cretaceous depositional environments and Terrestrial dinosaurs from
Pakistan. In abstracts volume of IGCP 555 on Joint Workshop on Rapid Environmental/Climate Change in Cretaceous Greenhouse
World: Ocean-Land Interaction and Deep Terrestrial Scientific Drilling Project of the Cretaceous Songliao Basin, Daqing, China,
Cretaceous World-Publication, 44-47.

Malkani M.S., 2007d. First diagnostic fossils of Late Cretaceous Crocodyliform (Mesoeucrocodylia, Reptilia) from Vitakri area,
Barkhan District, Balochistan, Pakistan. In; Ashraf, M., Hussain, S. S., and Akbar, H. D. eds. Contribution to Geology of Pakistan
2007, Proceedings of 5th Pakistan Geological Congress 2004, A Publication of National Geological Society of Pakistan, Pakistan
Museum of Natural History, Islamabad, Pakistan, 241-259.

Malkani M.S. 2007e. Paleobiogeographic implications of titanosaurian sauropod and abelisaurian theropod dinosaurs from Pakistan.
Sindh University Research Journal (Science Ser.) 39 (2), 33-54.

Malkani M.S. 2008a. Marisaurus (Balochisauridae, Titanosauria) remains from the latest Cretaceous of Pakistan. Sindh University
Research Journal (Science Series), 40 (2), 55-78.

Malkani M.S. 2008b. First articulated Atlas-axis complex of Titanosauria (Sauropoda, Dinosauria) uncovered from the latest
Cretaceous Vitakri member (Dinosaur beds) of upper Pab Formation, Kinwa locality of Sulaiman Basin, Pakistan. Sindh University
Research Journal (Science Series) 40 (1), 55-70.

Malkani M.S. 2008c. Mesozoic terrestrial ecosystem from Pakistan. In Abstracts of the 33rd International Geological Congress,
(Theme HPF-14 Major events in the evolution of terrestrial biota, Abstract no. 1137099), Oslo, Norway, 1.

Malkani M.S. 2008d. Titanosaur (Dinosauria, Sauropoda) osteoderms from Pakistan. . In abstract volume of the 3rd International
Symposium of IGCP 507 on Paleoclimates in Asia during the Cretaceous: their variations, causes, and biotic and environmental
responses, Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia, 56-60.

Malkani M.S. 2008e. Mesozoic Continental Vertebrate Community from Pakistan-An overview. Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology
Volume 28, Supplement to Number 3, 111A.

Malkani M.S. 2009a. New Balochisaurus (Balochisauridae, Titanosauria, Sauropoda) and Vitakridrinda (Theropoda) remains from
Pakistan. Sindh University Research Journal (Science Series), 41 (2), 65-92.

Malkani M.S. 2009b. Terrestrial vertebrates from the Mesozoic of Pakistan. In abstract volume of 8 th International Symposium on the
Cretaceous System, University of Plymouth, UK, 49-50.

Malkani M.S. 2009c. Basal (J/K) and upper (K/T) boundaries of Cretaceous System in Pakistan. In abstract volume of 8 th International
Symposium on the Cretaceous System, University of Plymouth, UK, 58-59.

Malkani M.S. 2009d. Cretaceous marine and continental fluvial deposits from Pakistan. In abstract volume of 8th International
Symposium on the Cretaceous System, University of Plymouth, UK, 59.

Malkani M.S. 2009e. Dinosaur biota of the continental Mesozoic of Pakistan. In Proceedings of the 4th International Symposium of the
IGCP 507 on Paleoclimates of the Cretaceous in Asia and their global correlation, Kumamoto University and Mifune Dinosaur
Museum, Japan, 66-67.

Malkani M.S. 2010a. Updated Stratigraphy and Mineral potential of Sulaiman (Middle Indus) basin, Pakistan. Sindh University
Research Journal (Science Series). 42 (2), 39-66.

Malkani M.S. 2010b. New Pakisaurus (Pakisauridae, Titanosauria, Sauropoda) remains, and Cretaceous Tertiary (K-T) boundary from
Pakistan. Sindh University Research Journal (Science Series). 42 (1), 39-64.

Malkani M.S. 2010c. Osteoderms of Pakisauridae and Balochisauridae (Titanosauria, Sauropoda, Dinosauria) in Pakistan. Journal of
Earth Science, Vol. 21, Special Issue 3, 198-203; doi: 1007/s12583-010-0212-z.

Malkani M.S. 2010d. Pakisauridae and Balochisauridae Titanosaurian Sauropod Dinosaurs from the Non Marine Mesozoic of
Pakistan. In Proceedings of the 5th Symposium of IGCP 507 on Paleoclimates of the Cretaceous in .Asia and their global correlation,
October 7-8, Yogyakarta, Indonesia, extended abstract no 61, 13p.
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Malkani M.S. 2010e. Lithostratigraphy and Vertebrates from the Indus Basin of Pakistan. In Proceedings of the 5th Symposium of
IGCP 507 on Paleoclimates of the Cretaceous in Asia and their global correlation, October 7-8, 2010, Yogyakarta, Indonesian,
extended abstract no 65, 4p.

Malkani M.S. 2010f. Dinosaurs and Cretaceous Tertiary (K-T) boundary of Pakistan-a big disaster alerts for present disaster advances.
Proceeding volume of International Conference of Disaster Prevention Technology and Management (DPTM; Chongqing, China,
October 23-25, Journal Disaster Advances 3 (4), 567-572.

Malkani M.S. 2011a. Stratigraphy, Mineral Potential, Geological History and Paleobiogeography of Balochistan Province, Pakistan.
Sindh University Research Journal (Science Series). 43 (2), 269-290.

Malkani M.S. 2011b. Vitakridrinda and Vitakrisaurus of Vitakrisauridae theropoda from Pakistan. In Proceedings of the 6th
Symposium of IGCP 507 on Paleoclimates of the Cretaceous in Asia and their global correlation, August 15-16, 2011, Beijing,
China, 59-66.

Malkani M.S. 2011c. Trackways: Confrontation Scenario among A Theropoda and A Herd of Wide Gauge Titanosaurian Sauropods
from Middle Jurassic of Pakistan. In Proceedings of 6th Symp. of IGCP 507 on Paleoclimates of the Cretaceous in Asia and their
global correlation, August 15-16, Beijing, China, 67-75.

Malkani M.S. 2012a. A review of Coal and Water resources of Pakistan. Journal of “Science, Technology and Development” 31(3),
202-218.

Malkani M.S. 2012b. Discovery of fluorite deposits from Loralai District, Balochistan, Pakistan. Abstract Volume and Program, Earth
Sciences Pakistan, Baragali Summer Campus, University of Peshawar, June 23-24, Pakistan, Journal of Himalayan Earth Sciences, 45
(2), 69.

Malkani M.S. 2012c. Discovery of celestite deposits in the Sulaiman (Middle Indus) Basin, Balochistan, Pakistan. Abstract Volume
and Program, Earth Sciences Pakistan, Baragali Summer Campus, University of Peshawar, June 23-24, Pakistan, Journal of Himalayan
Earth Sciences, 45 (2), 68-69.

Malkani M.S. 2012d. Natural Resources of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Gilgit-Baltistan and Azad Kashmir, Pakistan. Abstract Volume and
Program, Earth Sciences Pakistan, Baragali Summer Campus, University of Peshawar, June 23-24, Pakistan, Journal of Himalayan
Earth Sciences, 45 (2), 70.

Malkani M.S. 2012e. A review on the mineral and coal resources of northern and southern Punjab, Pakistan. Abstract Volume and
Program, Earth Sciences Pakistan, Baragali Summer Campus, University of Peshawar, June 23-24, Pakistan, Journal of Himalayan
Earth Sciences, 45 (2), 67.

Malkani M.S. 2012f. New Look of titanosaurs: Tail Special of Pakisauridae and Balochisauridae, Titanosauria from Pakistan. In
abstract volume of 11th Symposium on “Mesozoic Terrestrial Ecosystems (MTE 2012), Biota and Ecosystem and their Global
Correltion” August 15-18, Gwanju, Korea.

Malkani M.S. 2012g. New Styles of locomotion: Less wide gauge movement in Balochisauridae and More Wide gauge movement in
Pakisauridae (Titanosauria) of Pakistan. In abstract volume of 11th Symposium on “Mesozoic Terrestrial Ecosystems (MTE 2012),
Biota and Ecosystem and their Global Correltion” August 15-18, Gwanju, Korea.

Malkani M.S. 2012h. Paleobiogeography and Wandering of Indo-Pakistan Subcontinent. In abstract volume of 11th Symposium on
“Mesozoic Terrestrial Ecosystems (MTE 2012), Biota and Ecosystem and their Global Correltion” August 15-18, Gwanju, Korea.

Malkani M.S. 2012i. Paleobiogeography and first collision of Indo-Pakistan subcontinent with Asia. Abstract Volume and Program,
Earth Sciences Pakistan, Baragali Summer Campus, University of Peshawar, June 23-24, Pakistan, Journal of Himalayan Earth
Sciences, 45 (2), 71-72.

Malkani M.S. 2012j. Biodiversity of Dinosaurs from the Mesozoic of Pakistan. In abstract volume of International Conference on
“Climate Change: Opportunities and Challenges” May 9-11, 2012, Islamabad, Pakistan, 83-84.
Malkani M.S. 2013a. Natural resources of Southern Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and FATA regions (Kohat sub-basin and part of northern
Sulaiman Basin and Western Indus Suture), Pakistan-A review. Abstract Volume, Sustainable Utilization of Natural Resources of the
Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and FATA, February 11, Peshawar, Pakistan. Journal of Himalayan Earth Sciences, Special volume 2013, 30-
31.

Malkani M.S. 2012k. Revised lithostratigraphy of Sulaiman and Kirthar Basins, Pakistan. Abstract Volume and Program, Earth
Sciences Pakistan, Baragali Summer Campus, University of Peshawar, June 23-24, Pakistan, Journal of Himalayan Earth Sciences, 45
(2), 72.

Malkani M.S. 2013b. Coal and petroleum resources of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and FATA (Pakistan)-An overview. Abstract, Sustainable
utilization of Natural Resources of the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and FATA. Abstract Volume, Sustainable Utilization of Natural

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Resources of the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and FATA, February 11, Peshawar, Pakistan. Journal of Himalayan Earth Sciences, Special
Volume 2013, 27-29.

Malkani M.S. 2013c. New pterosaur from the latest Cretaceous Terrestrial Strata of Pakistan. In; Abstract Book of 9th International
Symposium on the Cretaceous System, September 1-5, Metu Congress Center, Ankara, Turkey, 62.

Malkani M.S. 2013d. Dinosaurs and Crocodiles from the Cretaceous Terrestrial Ecosystem of Pakistan. In; Abstract Book of 9th
International Symposium on the Cretaceous System, September 1-5, Metu Congress Center, Ankara, Turkey, 114.

Malkani M.S. 2013e. Geodynamics of Indo-Pakistan Subcontinent (South Asia). In; Abstract Book of 9 th International Symposium on
the Cretaceous System, September 1-5, Metu Congress Center, Ankara, Turkey, 36.

Malkani M.S. 2013f. Paleobiogeographic implications of Cretaceous dinosaurs and mesoeucrocodiles from Pakistan. In; Abstract
Book of 9th International Symposium on the Cretaceous System, September 1-5, Metu Congress Center, Ankara, Turkey, 35.

Malkani M.S. 2013g. Depositional environments of Cretaceous strata of Indus basin (Pakistan). In; Abstract Book of 9 th International
Symposium on the Cretaceous System, September 1-5, Metu Congress Center, Ankara, Turkey, 66.

Malkani M.S. 2013h. Major Bioevents and extinction of land vertebrates in Pakistan; Cretaceous-Tertiary and other boundaries. In;
Abstract Book of 9th International Symposium on the Cretaceous System, September 1-5, Metu Congress Center, Ankara, Turkey, 44.

Malkani M.S. 2013i. Latest Cretaceous land vertebrates in Pakistan; a paradise and a graveyard. In; Abstract Book of 9 th International
Symposium on the Cretaceous System, September 1-5, Metu Congress Center, Ankara, Turkey, 41.

Malkani M.S. 2014a. Mineral resources of Sindh Province, Pakistan. Abstract Volume, Earth Sciences Pakistan, Baragali Summer
Campus, University of Peshawar, August 29-31, Pakistan, Journal of Himalayan Earth Sciences, abstract volume, 57-58.

Malkani M.S. 2014b. Mineral and gemstone resources of Azad Kashmir and Gilgit-Baltistan (Pakistan). Abstract Volume, Earth
Sciences Pakistan, Baragali Summer Campus, University of Peshawar, August 29-31, Pakistan, Journal of Himalayan Earth Sciences,
abstract volume, 58-59.

Malkani M.S. 2014c. Titanosaurian sauropod dinosaurs from the Latest Cretaceous of Pakistan. In abstract volume; 2nd symposium of
International Geoscience Program 608 (IGCP 608) “Cretaceous Ecosystem of Asia and Pacific” September 04-06, 2014, Tokyo,
Japan, 108-111.

Malkani M.S. 2014d. Theropod dinosaurs and mesoeucrocodiles from the Terminal Cretaceous of Pakistan. In abstract volume; 2nd
Symposium of International Geoscience Program 608 (IGCP 608) “Cretaceous Ecosystem of Asia and Pacific” September 04-06,
2014, Tokyo, Japan, 169-172.

Malkani M.S. 2014e. Records of fauna and flora from Pakistan; Evolution of Indo-Pakistan Peninsula. In abstract volume; 2nd
symposium of International Geoscience Program 608 (IGCP 608) “Cretaceous Ecosystem of Asia and Pacific” September 04-06,
2014, Tokyo, Japan, 165-168.

Malkani M.S. 2014f. Dinosaurs from the Jurassic and Cretaceous Systems of Pakistan: their Paleobiogeographic link. In Abstract
Volume of 1st Symposium of IGCP 632 “Geologic and biotic events on the continent during the Jurassic/Cretaceous transition” and 4 th
International Palaeontological Congress, September 28 to October 03, 2014, Mendoza, Argentina, 872.

Malkani M.S. 2014g. Terrestrial Ecosystem from the Mesozoic Geopark of Pakistan. In Abstract Volume of 6th Symposium of
UNESCO Conference on Global Geoparks, September 19-22, Stonehammer Geopark, Saint John, Canada, 56.

Malkani M.S. 2015a. Mesozoic tectonics and Sedimentary Mineral Resources of Pakistan. In: Zhang Y., Wu S.Z., Sun G. eds., abstract
volume, 12th Symposium on “Mesozoic Terrestrial Ecosystems (MTE 12), and 3 rd Symposium of International Geoscience Program
(IGCP 608) “Cretaceous Ecosystem of Asia and Pacific”, August 15-20, 2015, Paleontological Museum of Liaoning/Shenyang
Normal University, Shenyang, China, 261-266.

Malkani M.S. 2015b. Geodiverse and biodiverse heritage of Pakistan demands for protection as national and global Geoparks: an
innovation for the sustainable development of Pakistan. In: Zhang Y., Wu S.Z., Sun G. eds., abstract volume, 12th Symposium on
“Mesozoic Terrestrial Ecosystems (MTE 12) and 3 rd Symposium of International Geoscience Program (IGCP 608) “Cretaceous
Ecosystem of Asia and Pacific” August 15-20, 2015, Paleontological Museum of Liaoning/Shenyang Normal University, Shenyang,
China, 247-249.

Malkani M.S. 2015c. Dinosaurs, mesoeucrocodiles, pterosaurs, new fauna and flora from Pakistan. Geological Survey of Pakistan,
Information Release No. 823: i-iii,1-32 (Total 35 pages).

Malkani M.S. 2015d. Titanosaurian sauropod dinosaurs from Pakistan. In: Zhang Y.,Wu S.Z., Sun G. eds., abstract volume, 12th
Symposium on “Mesozoic Terrestrial Ecosystems (MTE 12), and 3 rd Symposium of International Geoscience Program (IGCP 608)

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“Cretaceous Ecosystem of Asia and Pacific” August 15-20, 2015, Paleontological Museum of Liaoning/Shenyang Normal University,
Shenyang, China, 93-98

Malkani M.S. 2015e. Footprints and trackways of dinosaurs from Indo-Pakistan Subcontinent-Recent Advances in discoveries from
Pakistan. In: Zhang Y., Wu S.Z., Sun G. eds., abstract volume, 12th Symposium on “Mesozoic Terrestrial Ecosystems (MTE 12), and
3rd Symposium of International Geoscience Program (IGCP 608) “Cretaceous Ecosystem of Asia and Pacific” August 15-20, 2015,
Paleontological Museum of Liaoning/Shenyang Normal University, Shenyang, China, 186-191.

Malkani M.S. 2015f. First Trackways of Titanosaurian sauropod dinosaurs from Asia found from the Latest Cretaceous of Pakistan:
Recent Advances in discoveries of dinosaur trackways from South Asia. In abstract volume of 2nd Symposium of IGCP 632 “Geologic
and biotic events on the Continent during Jurassic/Cretaceous transition” September 12-13, 2015, Shenyang, China,86-88.

Malkani M.S. 2015g. Osteoderms and dermal plates of titanosaurian sauropod dinosaurs found from Pakistan; Reported first time in
Asia. In: Zhang Y., Wu S.Z., Sun G. eds., abstract volume, 12th Symposium on “Mesozoic Terrestrial Ecosystems (MTE 12), and 3 rd
Symposium of International Geoscience Program (IGCP 608) “Cretaceous Ecosystem of Asia and Pacific” August 15-20, 2015,
Paleontological Museum of Liaoning/Shenyang Normal University, Shenyang, China, 250-254.

Malkani M.S. 2015h. Titanosaurian (Sauropoda, Dinosauria) Osteoderms: First Reports from Asia. In abstract volume, 2nd Symposium
of IGCP 632 “Geologic and biotic events on the continent during the Jurassic/Cretaceous transition” September 12-13, 2015,
Shenyang, China, 82-85.

Malkani M.S. 2016a. New Coalfields of Balochistan, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, FATA and Azad Kashmir. Abstract Volume, Qazi, M.S.,
Ali, W. eds., International Conference on Sustainable Utilization of Natural Resources, October 03, National Centre of Excellence in
Geology, University of Peshawar, Peshawar, Pakistan. Journal of Himalayan Earth Sciences, 53-54.

Malkani M.S. 2016b. Petroleum and construction stone resources of Balochistan, Sulaiman and Kirthar basins (Pakistan). Abstract
Volume, Earth Sciences Pakistan 2016, 15-17 July, Baragali Summer Campus, University of Peshawar, Pakistan, Journal of
Himalayan Earth Sciences, 104.

Malkani M.S. 2016c. Vitakri Dome of Pakistan-a richest graveyard of Titanosaurian Sauropod Dinosaurs and Mesoeucrocodiles in
Asia. In: Dzyuba, O.S., Pestchevitskaya, E.B., and Shurygin, B.N. Eds., (ISBN 978-5-4262-0073-9) Cretaceous Ecosystems and Their
Responses to Paleoenvironmental Changes in Asia and the Western Pacific: Short papers for the Fourth International Symposium of
International Geoscience Programme IGCP Project 608, August 15-20, 2016, Trofimuk Institute of Petroleum Geology and
Geophysics, Siberian Branch, Russian Academy of Science (IPGG SB RAS), Novosibirsk, Russia, 129-132.

Malkani M.S. 2016d. Revised stratigraphy of Indus Basin (Pakistan): Sea level changes. In: Dzyuba, O.S., Pestchevitskaya, E.B., and
Shurygin, B.N. Eds., (ISBN 978-5-4262-0073-9) Cretaceous Ecosystems and Their Responses to Paleoenvironmental Changes in Asia
and the Western Pacific: Short papers for the Fourth International Symposium of International Geoscience Programme IGCP Project
608, August 15-20, 2016, Trofimuk Institute of Petroleum Geology and Geophysics, Siberian Branch, Russian Academy of Science
(IPGG SB RAS), Novosibirsk, Russia, 96-99.

Malkani M.S. 2016e. Pakistan Paleoclimate under greenhouse conditions; Closure of Tethys from Pakistan; Geobiological evolution of
South Asia (Indo-Pak subcontinent). In: Dzyuba, O.S., Pestchevitskaya, E.B., and Shurygin, B.N. Eds., (ISBN 978-5-4262-0073-9)
Cretaceous Ecosystems and Their Responses to Paleoenvironmental Changes in Asia and the Western Pacific: Short papers for the
Fourth International Symposium of International Geoscience Programme IGCP Project 608, August 15-20, 2016, Trofimuk Institute of
Petroleum Geology and Geophysics, Siberian Branch, Russian Academy of Science (IPGG SB RAS), Novosibirsk, Russia, 59-61.

Malkani M.S., Alyani M.I. Khosa M.H., Tariq S., Buzdar F.S., Khan G., Faiz J. 2016. Mineral Resources of Pakistan-an update.
Lasbela University Journal of Science & Technology Volume 5, 90-114.

Malkani M.S., Alyani M.I. Khosa M.H., Buzdar F.S., Zahid M.A. 2016. Coal resources of Pakistan; new coalfields. Lasbela University
Journal of Science & Technology Volume 5, 7-22.

Malkani M.S., Alyani M.I. Khosa M.H. 2016. New Fluorite and Celestite deposits from Pakistan: Tectonic and Sedimentary Mineral
Resources of Indus Basin (Pakistan)-an overview. Lasbela University Journal of Science & Technology Volume 5, 27-33.

Malkani M.S., Anwar C.M. 2000. Discovery of first dinosaur fossil in Pakistan, Barkhan District, Balochistan. Geological Survey of
Pakistan Information Release 732: 1-16.

Malkani M.S., Dhanotr M.S.I. 2014. New remains of giant Basilosauridae (Archaeoceti, Cetacea, Mammilia) and Giant baluchithere
(Rhinocerotoidea, Perissodactyla, Mammalia) found from Pakistan. In Abstract Volume of 1st Symposium of IGCP 632 “Geologic and
biotic events on the continent during the Jurassic/Cretaceous transition” and 4 th International Palaeontological Congress, September 28
to October 03, 2014, Mendoza, Argentina, 884.

Malkani M.S., Dhanotr M. S. I., Latif A., Saeed, H. M., 2013. New remains of Basilosauridae-the giant basal whale, and baluchithere-
the giant rhinoceros discovered from Balochistan Province (Pakistan). Sindh University Research Journal (Science Series). 45 (A-1),
177-188.

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Malkani M.S., Haq M. 1998. Discovery of pegmatite and associated plug in Tor Ghundi, Shabozai area, Loralai Distt., Balochistan.
GSP, IR 668, 1-19.

Malkani M.S., Mahmood Z. 2016a. Mineral Resources of Pakistan: A Review. Geological Survey of Pakistan, Record Volume 128: i-
iii, 1-90.

Malkani M.S., Mahmood Z. 2016b. Revised Stratigraphy of Pakistan. Geological Survey of Pakistan, Record Volume 127: i-iii, 1-87.

Malkani M.S., Mahmood Z. 2016c. Coal Resources of Pakistan: entry of new coalfields. Geological Survey of Pakistan, Information
Release No. 981: 1-28.

Malkani M.S., Mahmood Z. 2016d. Fluorite from Loralai-Mekhtar and Celestite from Barkhan, Dera Bugti, Kohlu, Loralai and
Musakhel districts (Sulaiman Foldbelt) and Karkh area of Khuzdar district (Kirthar Range): a glimpse on Tectonic and Sedimentary
Mineral Resources of Indus Basin (Pakistan). Geological Survey of Pakistan, Information Release No. 980: 1-16.

Malkani M.S., Mahmood Z. 2016e. Clay (ceramic) mineral resources of Pakistan: recent advances in discoveries. Abstract Volume,
Earth Sciences Pakistan 2016, 15-17 July, Baragali Summer Campus, University of Peshawar, Pakistan, Journal of Himalayan Earth
Sciences, 101.

Malkani M.S., Mahmood Z. 2016f. Coal resources of Pakistan: new coalfields of Balochistan, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and Azad
Kashmir. Abstract Volume, Earth Sciences Pakistan 2016, 15-17July, Baragali Summer Campus, University of Peshawar, Pakistan,
Journal of Himalayan Earth Sciences, 102.

Malkani M.S., Mahmood Z. 2016g. Mineral Resources of Azad Kashmir and Hazara (Pakistan): special emphasis on Bagnotar-Kala
Pani (Abbottabad, Hazara) new coalfield. Abstract Volume, Earth Sciences Pakistan 2016, 15-17July, Baragali Summer Campus,
University of Peshawar, Pakistan, Journal of Himalayan Earth Sciences, 103.

Malkani M.S., Mahmood Z. 2016h. Revised stratigraphy of uppermost Indus (Khyber-Hazara-Kashmir) basin, Pakistan. Abstract
Volume, Earth Sciences Pakistan 2016, 15-17 July, Baragali Summer Campus, University of Peshawar, Pakistan, Journal of
Himalayan Earth Sciences, 105.

Malkani M.S., Mahmood Z. 2017. Mineral Resources of Pakistan: provinces and basins wise. Geological Survey of Pakistan, Memoir
Volume 25, 1-179.

Malkani M.S., Mahmood Z., Alyani M.I., Shaikh S.I. 2017a. Mineral Resources of Sindh. Geological Survey of Pakistan, Information
Release 994: 1-38.

Malkani M.S., Mahmood Z., Shaikh S.I., Alyani M.I. 2017b. Mineral Resources of north and south Punjab. Geological Survey of
Pakistan, Information Release 995: 1-52.

Malkani M.S., Mahmood Z., Alyani M.I., Siraj M. 2017c. Mineral Resources of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and FATA, Pakistan.
Geological Survey of Pakistan, Information Release 996: 1-61.

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