Acta Orientalia Academiae Scientiarum Hung.

Volume 64 (3), 325 – 343 (2011)

DOI: 10.1556/AOrient.64.2011.3.5

TWO CHINESE BUDDHIST TEXTS WRITTEN BY UIGHURS

KŌICHI KITSUDŌ

Research Center for Buddhist Cultures in Asia (BARC), Ryūkoku University

2F Hakua-kan, Ōmiya Campus, 125-1 Daiku-Chō, Shichijō Ōmiya Shimogyō-ku,
Kyōto, 600-8268, Japan
e-mail: kitsudou@ad.ryukoku.ac.jp

In the Mongol period, the Uighurs who settled around the Turfan region not only translated Chinese
Buddhist works into the Uighur language, but also directly copied them in Chinese characters or
composed original works with the combination of arbitrary quotations from Chinese works. The In-
sadi-Sūtra is such a work in question. The author of this paper succeeded in identifying two Chi-
nese Buddhist texts written by Uighurs. They will help us better understand the background in which
these Uighur – Chinese mixed texts came about.
Key words: Uighur Buddhism, Chinese characters written by Uighurs, Insadi-Sūtra, Foshuo Fabaoli
佛説法寶礼, Mile Qiqingli 弥勒啓請礼.

Introduction1

In connection with the study of Uighur Buddhism the Insadi-Sūtra (Tezcan 1974) has
great importance. The manuscript which consists of four sections begins with an
introduction followed by a hymn to Maitreya along with a dhāraṇī. The second part
outlines the pravāraṇā ceremony, some Chinese sentences are quoted or freely ren-
dered together with an Uighur translation (Zieme 1988, 2006). The third part is an
alliterative hymn for Maitreya based on some Chinese Maitreya texts (Zieme 2010).
The last section is a Maitreya dhāraṇī which parallels a Shangshengli 上生礼 attested

1
This paper is based on my lecture entitled “Sino-Uigurica I” given in the series Collegium
Turfanicum in Berlin on the 2nd of September, 2010. I would like to express my sincere gratitude
to all the colleagues of the project Turfanforschung for giving me the opportunity. Especially many
heartfelt thanks are due to Dr. Peter Zieme, Dr. Desmond Durkin-Meisterernst, Dr. Simone-Chris-
tianne Raschmann and Dr. Yukiyo Kasai for valuable advice and for improving my English. This
work is a result of a project of the Research Center for Buddhist Cultures in Asia, Ryūkoku University.
0001-6446 / $ 20.00 © 2011 Akadémiai Kiadó, Budapest
326 KŌICHI KITSUDŌ

in Dunhuang manuscripts (Zieme 2010). Thus the manuscript can be regarded as an

example of Uighur Buddhist literature deeply rooted in Chinese Buddhism and its
scriptures.
Among the Turfan manuscripts, especially among those discovered by the Ger-
man expeditions, we often come across Chinese scribbles. We may suppose that such
Chinese characters were written by Uighurs. Here I want to draw attention to the Chi-
nese characters written by the Uighurs (hereafter CU) as important material for under-
standing Uighur Buddhism. I would like to establish the following criteria to distin-
guish these Uighur scribbles.
1. Unskilled Chinese characters with typical features.
2. Lines running from left to right, i.e. in the reverse way to the Chinese writing
2. system.
3. Chinese sentences with defective grammar.
As to the first group, we may recall some Uighur texts using Chinese charac-
ters in a mixed system, such as the Insadi-Sūtra, Abhidharma texts (Shōgaito 2008)
and Āgama texts.2 So far I have been able to recognise only some features of CU
(Kitsudō 2010). The general analysis of CU texts will need further study.
In this paper, two Buddhist works which bear decisive evidence for CU will
be examined. The purpose of this study is to show some aspects of Uighur Buddhism
based on Chinese sources.

The ‘Worship of the Dharma Treasure’

Ch 2980 (Figures 1 and 2)3 is a small booklet4 entitled Foshuo Fabaoli 佛説法寶礼
‘Worship of the Dharma Treasure, preached by Buddha’ in the first line. Judging from
the very disordered writing style and the Uighur word burxan ‘Buddha’ at the bottom
of lines 15 to 17 we can safely attribute this booklet to an Uighur hand.
This booklet includes quotations from a translation of the Saṃyukta-āgama 別
譯雜阿含經 (=SA) and the Saddharmapuṇḍarīka-sūtra 妙法蓮華經 (= SP), which
concern epithets or peculiarities of the Buddha or the essence of Buddhism. After each
quotation, the names of Buddhas or Bodhisattvas are enumerated. At first I would like
to present the text and translate it section by section.

佛説法寶 [礼]5也一卷
“Worship of the Dharma Treasure, preached by the Buddha. One scroll.”

2
So far many fragments have been identified as Āgama texts. Among them the best pre-
served manuscript is the Uighur Saṃyukta-āgama preserved at the Museum of Calligraphy, Tokyo.
See Shōgaito (2003, pp. 261 – 309).
3
These are the images of the first and the last pages. All of the digitised images are avail-
able on the IDP web site. http://idp.bl.uk/database.
4
The scroll of a Chinese Mahāparinirvāṇa-sūtra was cut and reshaped for this booklet. Cf.
Thilo (1985, p. 64).
5
Only one part of the Chinese character is preserved.
Acta Orient. Hung. 64, 2011
 TWO CHINESE BUDDHIST TEXTS WRITTEN BY UIGHURS 327

§1 (ll. 02–09, SA, 2nd scroll, Taishō vol. 2, 387a16–23)

有諸出家者. 以修不放逸. 長夜入寂定. 修最上梵行. 捨棄於三毒. 能得解脱
法. 有如是等法. 我今恭敬礼. 諸大阿羅漢. 遠離於欲者. 能滅無明闇. 斷除諸結使.
并在家修善. 不作惡業者. 如是正法子. 今我皆敬礼.
“All who leave home and become monks are – through training without lazi-
ness, entering into dhyāna for a long night, by practising the supreme pure way of
living and the abandonment of the three poisons – able to attain the enlightened dhar-
ma. There are such dharmas. Now I humbly worship all the great Arhats who abstain
from desires, who are able to destroy the darkness of ignorance, to eradicate the causes
of all bondages, as well as the laymen who cultivate goodness and do not cultivate
evil. Now I pay reverence to such a son of the true law.”

§ 2 (ll. 10– 14, SA, 5th scroll, Taishō vol. 2, 402a8–10)

敬礼十力波伽梵, 敬礼佛陀如來至真等正覺. 真金色[身體. 方整]圓光一尋
如尼拘陀[樹. 説法]第一. 第七仙聖. 解脱世雄, 我世尊.
“Homage to the Bhagavat (who possesses the) ten powers. Homage to Bud-
dha, the Tathāgata (the Possessor of the) Supreme truth (= Arhat), (Possessor of) the
uniform and correct Awakening (= samyaksaṃbuddha), (having a) golden (body from
which the rays spread in square) and circle shapes like from a nyagrodha(tree), the
best (preacher), the Seventh Sage (= Śākyamuni), Enlightened world hero, my Bha-
gavat.”

§ 3 (ll. 15–19, names of Buddhas)

南无清浄法身佛 burxan. 南无圓滿報身佛 burxan. 南无千百億化身佛 bur-
xan. 南无當來化時弥力尊佛. 南无十二上願薬師佛.

§ 4 (ll. 20– 22, SP, 1st scroll, Taishō vol. 9, 8b25–26)

諸法従本來. 常自寂滅相. 佛子行道已. 來時得作佛.
“All things are from the beginning and forever of nirvāṇa nature. When a son
of the Buddha completes the way of Buddha, he will become Buddha in his future
life.”

§ 5 (ll. 22– 39, names of Buddhas and Bodhisattvas)

南无十方一切諸仏. 南无大悲観世音菩薩. [南无虚空]蔵菩薩. [南无☐☐]
蔵菩薩. 南无薬王菩薩. 南无薬上菩薩. 南无日光菩薩. 南无月光菩薩. 南无妙光
菩薩. 南无無6別菩薩. 南无金光蔵菩薩. 南无地蔵菩薩. [南无☐☐]大菩薩. [我今
敬礼]東方佛. [我]今敬礼南方佛. [我]今敬礼西方佛. 我今敬礼上方佛. 我今敬礼
下方佛.

§ 6 (l. 40, SA, 4th scroll, Taishō vol. 2, 399c18)

央伽大王畜7寶鎧供礼下

6
There is a place left vacant.
7
The character chu 畜 is identical to xu 蓄.
Acta Orient. Hung. 64, 2011
328 KŌICHI KITSUDŌ

“The king Aṅgarāja (Akanuma 1931, p. 38) stores jewels and armour offering
them and worshiping.”

§ 7 (ll.41–45, SA, 8th scroll, Taishō vol. 2, 432b28)

南无如来應供正遍[知]. 明行足. 善逝. 世間解. 无上[士. 如]来. 應供. 正遍
知. 明行足. [善逝. 世間]解. 无上士. 調御丈夫. [天人師．佛]世尊也.
“Homage to the Tathāgata, Arhat, completely (enlightened), knowledge-con-
ducted perfect one, well-departed, knower of the world, the peerless (nobleman, Ta-
thāgata), Arhat, completely enlightened, knowledge-conducted perfect one, (well-
departed), knower (of the world), the peerless nobleman, the controller, (teacher of
devas and men, Buddha) Bhagavat.”

§ 8 (ll. 46– 47, SA, 6th scroll, Taishō vol. 2, 413c)

[諸]行無常. 是生滅法. 生滅[滅]已. 乃名涅盤.
“(All) of the created things are impermanent by nature. It is the nature of things
to come into existence and non-existence. It is called nirvāṇa, when the existence
and non-existence disappear.”

§ 9 (ll. 48–51)
南无如来應供正遍知. 明行足. 善逝. 世間解. 无上士. 調御大夫. 天人師.
佛世尊.
“Homage to the Tathāgata, Arhat, completely enlightened, knowledge-con-
ducted perfect one, well-departed, knower of the world, the peerless nobleman, the
controller, teacher of devas and men, Buddha Bhagavat.”

§ 10 (ll. 52–54, SA, 6th scroll, Taishō vol. 2, 413c)

雙樹入涅盤. [枝]條四遍布. 上下而雨花. [繽紛]散佛上. 所以雨[花者. 世]
尊入涅盤.
“When [the Bhagavat] entered into Nirvāṇa [under] the śāla tree, its (branches)
and twigs spread out in the four directions. Flowers rained up and down, and (those
flowers) showered down on the Buddha. The reason why it rained (flowers) is that
the Bhagavat entered into Nirvāṇa.”

§ 11 (ll. 55–57, SP, 4th scroll, Taishō vol. 9, 9a24–258)

[☐☐☐☐]心. 入[☐]寺於. [☐☐]見. 南無佛一稱. 皆已成佛道.
“… entering into a temple (?) …, by uttering ‘Homage to Buddha’ once, all
have completed the way of the Buddha.”

§ 12 (ll. 58–60, names of Buddhas)

南無釋迦牟尼如来. 南无陀 [= 多] 寶塔中二如来.

8
This sentence seems to be incorrect. It should be ‘若人散亂心. 入於塔廟中. 一稱南無佛.
皆已成佛道’.
Acta Orient. Hung. 64, 2011
 TWO CHINESE BUDDHIST TEXTS WRITTEN BY UIGHURS 329

§ 13 (ll. 61–72, colophon)

我比丘足之中着之上字須弥山如. 身中之上字門之果. 師名人[業]受也止
名出所[☐☐]道智焉[☐☐☐]彼也. [☐☐]於中着之上[字須]弥山. [我比]丘足於
着之上字須弥山如. [身]之中之上字門之果. 師[☐]人業受也. [☐☐☐]法[☐]道智
[☐].
“The characters written above and beneath of my, the Bhikṣu’s, feet resemble
Mount Sumeru. The characters written above are the fruits of the Gate [to the teach-
ing of the Buddha]. The names of the masters [= Buddhas and Bodhisattvas] are ‘the
Receptor of the (karma) [produced by the] human beings’. What these names produce
is the wisdom of the way of the dharma (?).”

Judging from the quotations and the colophon, the title fabao ‘dharma treas-
ure’ may designate the names of Buddhas or the essence of Buddhism mentioned in
§ 4 and § 8. The compiler wanted to emphasise the merits of the names of Buddhas
for entering into Nirvāṇa. The names of Buddhas and Bodhisattvas are the main theme
of our text. It is thought that one can confess and become impeccable by reciting the
names of Buddhas. Indeed, the compiler says: “The names of the masters [= Buddhas
and Bodhisattvas] are ‘the Receptor of the (karma) [produced by the] human beings’.
What these names produce is the wisdom of the way of the dharma (?)”.
The compiler collected his sentences from the SA and SP, but the order of the
SA quoted in this booklet is different.
Furthermore, the quotation in § 6 is too short and unfinished. It is unrelated to
the contents of the Fabaoli itself. Probably the copyist felt discomfort and arranged its
meaning according to the contents by adding the three characters gonglixia 供礼下
‘offering and worshiping’ which are not in the original text.
§ 4 is very interesting. This is a popular verse from the SP which preaches an
essence of Buddhism. This verse is also attested in the Uighur version of the SP trans-
lated from Chinese.
alku nomlar tözintinbärü
uzatıözin ök öčmäk amrılmak bälgülüg ol
burxan oglanı nomča yorıyu tükätsärlär
ken käligmä üdlärdä burxan kutın bulırlar
“Alle Dharmas sind von ihrem Ursprung her
stets von sich aus mit dem Merkmal des Verlöschens und Verschwindens.
Wenn die Buddha-Söhne dem Dharma gemäß (den Weg) zu gehen vollenden,
werden sie in den zukünftigen Zeiten die Buddhaschaft erlangen.”
(Zieme 1991)
This verse penetrated deeply into the minds of the Uighurs. The Uighur contract
document *U 9003 (cf. Raschmann 2009, pp. 65–66, no. 328)9 contains the same Chi-

9
The contract *U 9003 was written on the verso of a Chinese (Buddhist) scroll: bo t(a)vgač
küin-tä. But the fragment is lost and no photo of the recto is preserved. It is possible that the Chi-
nese text of the SP was written on the recto side.
Acta Orient. Hung. 64, 2011
330 KŌICHI KITSUDŌ

nese verse transcribed into Uighur script: CW V’P SWNK PYN L’Y 諸法從本來
SW SY SYK PYR SW 常自寂滅相. S.-Ch. Raschmann proposes that the essential
verse from the SP was probably used to establish a relation between the business of
the contract and the Buddhist society in which it took place and to transfer öčmäk
amrılmıš bälgülüg to the contract (Raschmann 2008, p. 141). A close look at the up-
per blank margin of § 5 reveals the following Chinese characters: 法本來常自寂滅
相佛子行. Moreover we can see the same verse in some other CU sources (SI O 81).
Thus we may conclude that this essential verse from the SP was very popular among
the Uighur Buddhists.
Most of the names of Buddhas and Bodhisattvas are attested in other sūtras,
but the sequence in our text is very arbitrary. In the light of the names of Buddhas, it
is obvious that our text is closely related to the ‘Worship and Confession’ texts from
Dunhuang. Indeed, Huanghun lichan 黄昏禮懺 (S. 5620) and Jizhujing lichanyi 集
諸經禮懺儀 (Taishō no. 1982, vol. 85) from Dunhuang transcribed in Uighur script
were identified by M. Shōgaito (SI O 105, SI 4bKr. 175 and SI 4bKr. 176).10 These
texts were recited in the inherited Uighur pronunciation of Chinese (hereafter IUPC).
Most notably, the Fabaoli and ‘Worship and Confession’ texts have some similarities
in phraseology and the order of the names. A table comparing the names of Buddhas
follows here:11

Fabaoli Chinese reconstructed IUPC transcribed in Uighur

from IUPC script
南无佛清淨法身佛 敬禮清淨法身毘盧遮那佛 kyly tsy tsy v’psyn
pwlwcy’d’vr
南无圓満報身佛 敬禮圓満報身毘盧遮那佛 kyly vynm’n pwwsyn
lwwsy’t’vr
南无千百億化身佛 敬禮千百億化身同名釋迦 kyly tsyn p’q yyk qwsyn
牟尼佛 twnkmy sykymwny vr

Interestingly, the Chinese original texts of the Huanghun lichan and the Jizhu-
jing lichanyi do not have explanations about the three natures of the Buddha, namely
Qingjing fashen 清淨法身 “the pure dharma-kāya”, Yuanman baoshen 圓満報身
“the perfectly completed saṃbhoga-kāya” and Qianbaiyi huashen 千百億化身 “thou-
sand hundred millions of nirmāṇa-kāyas”. But these names are very common in other
‘Worship and Confession’ texts from Dunhuang manuscripts. For example, the Fa-
shenli 法身禮 and the Shierguangli 十二光禮 as well as the Qijieli 七階禮 commence
with these phrases (Wang 1998). Therefore the Fabaoli also should be classified as a
‘Worship and Confession’ text.

10
Yoshida (1996) had already pointed out that these two fragments are IUPC sources and
belong to the‘Worship and Confession’ texts.
11
As to IUPC and its reconstructed Chinese form, see Shōgaito (2003, pp. 31 – 32).
Acta Orient. Hung. 64, 2011
 TWO CHINESE BUDDHIST TEXTS WRITTEN BY UIGHURS 331

Besides, Milizunfo 弥力尊佛 in § 3 also reflects IUPC mili 弥力 is identical

with mile 彌勒. In IUPC, 力 <liək> and 勒 <lək> both can transcribe the syllable lyk
(Shōgaito 2003, p. 135).
The most distinctive feature of CU in this booklet can be seen in the colophon
(ll. 61– 72). It is difficult to understand the sentences as Chinese. Therefore I would
like to read this colophon as an Uighur text. In the Uighur language, the position of
the predicate is usually at the end of a sentence. So far a few Uighurised Chinese sen-
tences are known to us. One example is the Chinese text of the colophon to the
Uighur Abhidharmakośabhāṣya preserved in the Museum of Fujii Yūrinkan (Kudara
1984). When such an approach is applied here, the difficulties in our booklet can al-
most entirely be solved. Some sentences in our text can be reconstructed into Uighur
sentences as below. The translation presented above, however, is still tentative.

Chin. 上 字 須弥山 如

Uigh. üzäki üžik-läri sumer taγ täg

Although the Fabaoli arbitrarily combines quotations from two Chinese Bud-
dhist texts, we should regard this text as a literary work by an Uighur Buddhist. This
kind of literary activity seems to be similar to the second section of the Insadi-Sūtra
which also quotes some verses from Chinese Āgama texts.

The ‘Ritual of Summoning Maitreya’

Most of the CU materials are written on the verso sides of Chinese Buddhist manu-
scripts. In this case, fortunately the distribution of the text on the verso side can be
reconstructed according to the text on the recto side which can mostly be identified
with works of the Taishō Tripiṭaka. One example is the Chinese Madhyama-Āgama
from the Khitan Tripiṭaka (Taishō vol. 1, no. 26, 691c01–692a22). To date we have
confirmed nine fragments as belonging to this manuscript.12 On its verso side an
unknown Buddhist text is written in nearly illegible and distorted Chinese characters.
I would like to evaluate it as CU material. Figure 3 is the reconstructed image of the
verso side.
Through the procedure mentioned above, I succeeded in reconstructing the text
on the verso side. Unfortunately the text remains damaged and patchy, but neverthe-
less, it is sufficient to recognise that the text is concerned with a praise of Bodhisattva
Maitreya. Reference is made to meeting Maitreya in the Tuṣita heaven. The text is
written twice at least, because lines 41 to 46 are parallel to lines 01 to 06. Therefore,

12
These are Ch 957, Ch 2100, Ch 2115, Ch 2285, Ch 2892, Ch 2310, Ch 2311, Ch 2703
and Ch 3394. High quality images are available from the IDP web site (http://idp.bl.uk).
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332 KŌICHI KITSUDŌ

Mile Qiqingli 弥勒啓請礼 ‘The ritual for summoning Maitreya’ written on line 34
seems to be the title of this hymn. In addition to these fragments, there are some beau-
tiful pustaka type manuscripts (Figures 4 and 5) which parallel the Mile Qiqingli pre-
served in Berlin.13 Accordingly it is certain that the Mile Qiqingli was originally com-
posed by a Chinese poet. The whole text, however, has not been found yet. In the fol-
lowing I present the reconstructed text referring also to the group starting with Ch 433.

01 [願遊諸佛法殿中]14 共諸行人為等流 Ch 2100

02 [唯求無上菩提道] 得佛金色手摩頭
03 [寶樹寶林行相當] 枝葉荘厳甚薫香
04 [金龍玉鳳鈴鐸響] [宣]陳六度四諦15章
05 [四十九層重閣]堂 號日法殿處當陽
06 [牢度]跋提願力作 屈請弥勒住中央
07 ☐☐實樹有八☐ 屈曲宮遍圍囲繞
08 上浄法堂梁棟間 ☐☐各蓮☐☐☐
09 ☐☐弥勒☐讃☐ [☐☐☐☐☐☐☐] Ch 957
10 礼☐歸☐☐法☐ [☐☐☐☐☐☐☐]
11 ☐☐☐☐☐☐☐ [☐☐☐☐☐☐☐] Ch 957/Ch 2311
12 ☐業共命☐池☐ 金階主道處☐☐
13 [☐☐☐☐☐☐☐] 責佞精勤不失間
14 [☐☐☐☐☐☐☐] 證☐☐深陀羅尼
15 [☐☐☐☐☐☐☐] 下生蠰佉住人間
16 [☐☐☐☐☐☐☐] ☐亦隨佛龍華園
17 何[☐☐☐☐☐☐] ☐聞八鼓☐☐☐ Ch 2703
18 二佛前得☐☐☐ ☐中號[☐☐☐☐] Ch 2703/Ch 2311
19 兜率天中弥勒[尊] 巧説三持十行門
20 令諸天子入[聖位]16 各種無上菩提因 Ch 2703/Ch 2310
21 王在七寶蓮☐☐ ☐☐☐尊法眼開
22 與諸菩薩為等流 親食佛記断滅碍 Ch 2703/Ch 3394/Ch 2310
23 十方世界皆有佛 我令使願見弥勒
24 [☐☐☐☐☐☐☐] 聞法精勤不暫息
25 [☐☐☐☐☐☐☐] 願得智慧證明了
five lines are missing
31 [☐☐☐☐☐☐☐] [堪與衆生爲]依仗 Ch 2285
32 [☐☐☐☐☐☐☐] 面見真容親供養::
33 [☐☐☐☐☐☐☐] ::
34 弥勒啓請礼17 Ch 2892/Ch 2285
35 願得臨終不乱悩 正念弥勒兜率主

13
Ch 433, Ch 260 and Ch 1220. The images are also available from the IDP web site.
14
The blanks (ll. 01 – 06) of the upper part of this manuscript are reconstructed from Ch 433.
15
四諦 is miswritten as 諦四 with correction mark between these two characters.
16
This blank is reconstructed from Ch 260.
17
The title in Ch 260 differs from Mile Qiqingli. The counterpart in Ch 260 is written as li
mile pusa 礼弥勒菩薩.
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 TWO CHINESE BUDDHIST TEXTS WRITTEN BY UIGHURS 333

36 願見彼佛来迎接 随佛往生兜率[☐]18
37 衆和願共衆生[☐] [☐]生兜率見弥勒
38 我今所作諸☐☐19 [☐]用廻向見弥勒
39 ☐臺安[☐☐☐☐] [☐☐☐☐☐☐☐]
40 ☐☐[☐☐☐☐☐] [共諸行人為等流]
41 [☐☐☐☐☐☐☐] 得佛金[色手摩頭] Ch 2892/Ch 2115
42 [☐☐☐☐☐☐☐] 枝[葉荘厳甚薫香]
43 [☐☐☐☐☐☐☐] 宣陳六度四諦章
44 [☐☐☐☐☐☐☐] [號日法殿]處當陽
45 [☐☐☐☐☐☐☐] 屈20請弥勒住中央
46 [☐☐☐☐☐☐☐] [屈曲宮遍囲繞]

(01– 02) “[May I walk around the dharma palace of the Buddhas], and flow
along with practitioners. [Only seeking the supreme way to attain to the Buddha-
hood], may the Buddha touch our head with his golden hand. (03–04) [Trees and
groves of jewels], which are beset with fragrantly scented branches and leaves, [make
lines and make contact each other]. [A golden dragon and a jade-coloured phoenix
sound bells] preaching the six pāramitās and four truths. (05– 06) The palace [with
forty-nine floors] is called Dharma Palace in a sunny place. [This palace] was made
by the power of the vow of deva[Ṛddhi]bhadra. Falling on my knees I beg Maitreya
to live in the centre of the palace. (07–08) There are eight … on the jewel trees. We
bend down and surround the palace. Between the upper beam of the pure Dharma Pal-
ace … each Lotus … (09–10) … … Maitreya … praise … … worship … Dharma …
(11–12) … …karma … common life … pond … Golden floor and main corridor …
(13–14) … Blaming[?] the adulation and attending regularly without interval. … We
will attain … deep dhāraṇīs. (15– 16) … (Maitreya) descends to be born in Śaṅkha’s
realm and lives a life among human beings. … Also following Buddha to the Garden
of puṃnāga tree. (17–18) What … hear eight drums … In the presence of two Bud-
dhas (?) … … is called … (19–20) Venerable Maitreya in the Tuṣita heaven skilfully
explains three kinds of precepts and ten (good) acts.21 (Bodhisattva Maitreya) makes
Deva’s sons enter into the [sacred stage] and plant the seeds of causes to attain
Buddhahood. (21– 22) The king (Śaṅkha) stands on the Lotus flower with seven
jewels … let the eyes of Dharma open (?) … … becomes the one who flows with all
the Bodhisattvas. In the presence of the Buddha, he is told that he will attain enlight-
enment and extinguish the obstructions. (23–24) The Buddhas exist in all worlds in

18
This blank could be filled by tian 天 or gong 宮.
19
The missing two characters could be gongde 功徳 ‘merits’.
20
On the right side of this line, the Uighur letters can be read ‘d’//ty k’ly p///’. But the
connection to the Chinese text is uncertain.
21
In the Foshuo guan Mile pusa shangsheng doushuo tian jing 佛説觀彌勒菩薩上生兜率
天經 (Taishō vol. 14, no. 452), it is explained that the monks or laymen who want to be born in the
Tuṣita heaven should observe three kinds of precepts, namely the five precepts, the eight precepts
of abstinence and the precepts for the monks and nuns. 若有比丘及一切大衆. 不厭生死樂生天者.
愛敬無上菩提心者. 欲為彌勒作弟子者. 當作是觀. 作是觀者應持五戒八齋具足戒. 身心精進不
求斷結. 修十善法 (Taishō vol. 14, p. 419c).
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334 KŌICHI KITSUDŌ

all directions. I will make (all beings) wish to see Maitreya. … They eagerly hear the
Dharma without interval. (25) … Hopefully, they may obtain the wisdoms and prove
clearly. … (five lines missing) … (31–33) … May I together with all living beings
support … In the presence of (the Buddha?), I want to show veneration for him by
myself. … (34) ‘THE WORSHIP OF SUMMONING MAITREYA’. (35– 36) May I
not become incoherent in my last extremity meditating on (my) Maitreya, the Lord of
the Tuṣita heaven. May that Buddha receive me. I will follow him and be born in the
Tuṣita (heaven). (37–39) Hopefully, with all human beings, I will be born in the
Tuṣita heaven and meet Maitreya. Transferring [the merits of good deeds] which
were cultivated by me, I will meet Maitreya. … … … (ll. 01–07 are repeated in ll.
40–46).”
It is obvious that this text is composed according to the content of the Foshuo
guan Mile pusa shangsheng doushuo tian jing 佛説觀彌勒菩薩上生兜率天經 (Tai-
shō vol. 14, no. 452) as a whole.
Compared to the group including Ch 433, we notice that two set phrases have
been completely omitted in our text, namely 志心歸命礼弥勒世尊 ‘I take refuge in
the world-honoured Maitreya wholeheartedly’ and 願共諸衆生兜率見弥勒 ‘May I
be born in the Tuṣita heaven and meet Maitreya together with all human beings’
which are inserted every four verses.
We could fill in the missing part of about 5 lines between lines 26 and 31 with
text from the Shangshengli 上生礼 ‘The Ritual for Rebirth in the Tuṣita Heaven’ from
Dunhuang manuscripts (Wang 1998, pp. 246– 247). According to Wang’s study, we
can see three kinds of manuscripts of the Shangshengli. Among them S. 4451 and
P. 3840 have additional lines before the dhāraṇī. Of these additional lines, the second
verse 願得知慧心明了 and the last verse 面見真容親供養 both are identical with
verses in lines 25 and 32 respectively. Moreover the estimated number of verses in
the missing portion corresponds to the additional part of the Shangshengli. Here the
reconstructed text of ll. 25 –32 follows. Underlined portions designate extant charac-
ters in the Mile Qiqingli.

25 願滅三障諸煩惱 願得智慧證明了
26 普願罪障並消除 世世常行菩薩道
27 願生彌勒天宮院 蓮開親禮慈尊面
28 白毫照我罪消除 生死漂流從此斷
29 惟願不逆群生意 無始時來難爲値
30 我今各發志誠心 願見慈尊親項禮
31 身嚴福智黄金相 堪與衆生爲依仗
32 我今廻願往天宮 面見真容親供養

Thus we can reconstruct 80% of this hymn. It contains a text parallel to the
Shangshengli. In addition, the Insadi-Sūtra also quotes the dhāraṇī from the Shang-
shengli (Zieme 2011). As is well known, there were two types of Maitreya devotees.
The first follow the doctrine of ‘The rebirth in Bodhisattva Maitreya’s Tuṣita Heaven’,
i.e. Maitreya’s Ascension Cult, 上生. The second that of the ‘Meeting with the future

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 TWO CHINESE BUDDHIST TEXTS WRITTEN BY UIGHURS 335

Buddha Maitreya in this world’, i.e. Maitreya’s Descension Cult, 下生. The Uighurs
held to both beliefs. The Uighur Maitrisimit translated from Tokharian A represents
the latter belief.
As Jan Nattier pointed out, the notion of an encounter with Maitreya Bodhi-
sattva in the Tuṣita Heaven in the life time of a believer is linked with the Yogācāra
(Nattier 1988, p. 29). Later in China, the famous Tripiṭaka master Xuanzang, who
himself contributed to the translation of the Yogācāra scriptures, sought to ascend to
the Tuṣita Heaven after his death.22 In fact, an Uighur phrase üč türlüg yogačari-lar
‘(three kinds of Yogācārin)’ is attested in the hymn for Maitreya (Zieme 1994, p. 223).
Recently Y. Kasai demonstrated that Maitreya’s Ascension Cult among the Uighurs
was also influenced by the Yogācāra school (especially the Faxian school in China)
that took root in the areas of Dunhuang and Turfan around the 8th– 11th centuries
(Kasai 2011). Although both types of faith appear in our text, the prayer or the com-
piler of this hymn seems to have been more inclined toward Maitreya’s Descension
Cult judging from the opening lines (ll. 34–37).
The Uighur Buddhists probably recited this text in IUPC at certain Buddhist
services. On the other hand, they tried to understand the accurate meaning of this
hymn. The Uighur manuscript U 5923 (Figures 6 and 7)23 is a literal translation of the
Mile Qiqingli. A short comment on U 5923 in BTT XIII enabled me to identify this
manuscript with its Chinese version (Zieme 1985, p. 117). Unfortunately U 5923 is not
a complete manuscript. The Chinese counterpart to the first 16 verses and about 20
verses in the last part are lost. Most notably, two set-phrases are translated properly,
whereas ll. 07– 19 of the Chinese text including the explanation about Maitreya as the
future Buddha are not recorded. This fact indicates that either the Uighur translator
used another version of the Chinese hymn or consciously omitted the portion in ques-
tion. At any rate, it may be said that this Uighur text puts greater emphasis on Maitre-
ya’s Ascension Cult than on Maitreya’s Descension Cult.

Transliteration of U 5923 (T III Y.17)

(recto)
01 01 [ ]n ky[ ]
02 02 l’rk[ ]
03 03 ’’ltw[ ]
04 04 wč sw[ ] q[ ]
05 05 l’r pyrl’ [ ]
06 06 yq kwyrk’ly : kyrtw []kwlyn ’y[]p m’ytry
07 07 ’’ty kwytrwlmys [ ] ywkw[ ]mn : ’rdyny

22
Xuanzang’s faith in Maitreya is reflected in the Uighur version of Xuanzang’s Biogra-
phy. See Zieme (1993).
23
The images are available from Turfanforschung web site.
http://www.bbaw.de/bbaw/Forschung/Forschungsprojekte/turfanforschung/de/DigitalesTurfanArchiv.
Acta Orient. Hung. 64, 2011
336 KŌICHI KITSUDŌ

08 08 swykwt lwk ’’ryqypyr ’ykyntys k’ twsly

09 09 ’wl . pwdyqy y’lpyrq[]y ’ytyk[ ]k’dkw yyd
10 10 l’ry pwr’ twrwr l’r : ’lt[] ’wynklwk lww
11 11 l’ry . q’š ’wynklwk k’rwtwkry: qwnkr’qw
12 12 l’ry ’tdwkd’ ’’lty pr’m[ ]t l’ryq nwml’ywr .
13 13 twyrt kyrtw l’ryk swyzl’ywr . kwys’ywr
14 14 mn ’’lqw q’m’q tynlq l’r pyrl’ ..
15 15 twžyt tnkry yyrynt’ky m’ytry pwdystv
16 16 yq kwyrk’ly .. kyrtw kwnkwlyn ’yn’nyp
17 17 m’ytry ’’ty kwytrwlmys k’ ywkwnwr mn :
18 18 rydyp’dry tnkry nynk qwt qwlm’qy24’wyz’
19 19 ’ytylmys twqwz ’lyk synklyq . q’t q’t
20 20 ’ylyk q’lyq lyq drm’pr’s’t
(verso)
21 01 twt’lym yyty ’rdynyn ’ytyklyk
22 02 lynqw ’ č’č’klyk ’wyrkwn ’wyz’ .. ’dkw
23 03 ’wykly kwnkwl lwk ’’y’q q’ t’kymlyk
24 04 yk tytrw kwyrwp .. nwm lwq kwyzwm
25 05 ’’čylzwn .. ’’lqw q’m’q pwdystv
26 06 l’r pyrl’ t’nk twyz ’ys tws pwl’lym
27 07 kntw ’wyzwmwz ’s’yw pwrq’n l’r
28 08 nynk y’rlyqyn .. ’ykyrčkw syzykymz
29 09 ’wyzwlzwn .. kwys’ywr mn ’’lqw q’m’q
30 10 tynlq l’r pyrl’ twžyt tnkry yyrynt’ky
31 11 m’ytry pwdystv y[ ] kwyrk’ly .. kyrtw
32 12 kwnkw[ ]yn ’yn’nyp m’ytry ’’ty kwytrwlmy[ ]
33 13 k’ ywkwnwr mn ’wn[ ]nk’r yyrtynč[]
34 14 d’ pwrq’n l’r p’rc[ ]t’ p’r ’rwr ..
35 15 [ ]m’qy [ ]
36 16 pwdy[ ]
37 17 ’[ ]
38 18 [ ]dyp [ ]

Transcription, translation and notes

01 [ ]n ky[ ]
02 l’rk[ ]
03 altu[n ]
04 wč sw[ ]
[küsäyürm(ä)n alku] k[amag tınl(ı)g]-05-lar birlä [tužit t(ä)ŋri yerintäki maitri bo-
dıstv-]06-ıg körgäli ,, kertü [kö]ŋülin ı[nanı]p maitri 07 atı kötrülmiš[kä] yükü[nür]-

24
The l-hook is missing.
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 TWO CHINESE BUDDHIST TEXTS WRITTEN BY UIGHURS 337

m(ä)n ,, ärdini 08 sögütlüg arıgı bir ikintiškä tušlı 09 ol , butıkı yalpırg[ak]ı etig[li]g
ädgü yıd-10-ları bura tururlar ,, alt[un] öŋlüg luu-11-ları , kaš öŋlüg garutugri ,, koŋ-
ragu-12-ları ätdükdä altı p(a)ram[i]tlarıg nomlayur , 13 tört kertülärig sözläyür ,

küsäyür-14-m(ä)n alku kamag tınl(ı)glar birlä ,, 15 tužit t(ä)ŋri yerintäki maitri bo-
distv-16-ıg körgäli ,, kertü köŋülin ınanıp 17 maitri atı kötrülmiškä yükünürm(ä)n :
18 ridibadri t(ä)ŋriniŋ kut kolmakı üzä 19 etilmiš tokuz älig sıŋlıg , kat kat 20 ilig
kalıklıg d(a)rmaprasat 21 tutalım yeti ärdinin etiglig 22 lenxua čäčäklig örgün üzä ,,
ädgü 23 ögli köŋüllüg ayagka tägimlig-24-ig tetrü körüp ,, nomlug közüm 25 ačılzun
,, alku kamag bodistv-26-lar birlä täŋ tüz eš tuš bolalım 27 k(ä)ntü özümüz ašayu
burxanlar-28-nıŋ yarlıgın ,, ikirčgü sezikim(i)z 29 üzülzün ,,

küsäyürm(ä)n alku kamag 30 tınl(ı)glar birlä tužit t(ä)ŋri yerintäki 31 maitri bodist-
vı[g] körgäli ,, kertü 32 köŋü[l]in ınanıp maitri atı kötrülmi[š]-33-kä yükünürm(ä)n
on[tın sı]ŋar yertinč[ü]-34-dä burxanlar barč[a]ta bar ärür ,,
35 [ ]m’qy [ ]
36 bodi[stv ]
37 ’[ ]
38 [ ]dyp[ ]

Notes

06–07) kertü [kö]ŋülin ı[nanı]p maitri atı kötrülmiš[kä] yükü[nür]m(ä)n ‘Believing

true heartedly I venerate Maitreya whose name is exalted’: 志心歸命禮彌勒
世尊.
07–09) ärdini sögütlüg arıgı bir ikintiškä tušlı ol ‘Their groves of jewel trees are fac-
ing each other’: 寶樹寶林行相當.
09–10) butıkı yalpırg[ak]ı etig[li]g ädgü yıdları bura tururlar ‘Their branches and
leaves are decorated, they emitgood fragrant scents’: 枝葉荘厳甚薫香.
10–12) alt[un] öŋlüg luuları , kaš öŋlüg garutugri ,, koŋraguları ätdükdä ‘When the
golden dragons, the jade-coloured powerful phoenix and the bells sound’: 金
龍玉鳳鈴鐸響. A problematic word is garutugri. It is certain that it corre-
sponds to phoenix 鳳 in the Chinese text. In the Weiwuer guan Yi-yu 畏兀児
館譯語, the phoenix 鳳凰 is transcribed as 禿里台噶魯的 which can be re-
constructed as tulitay γarudi (Shōgaito 1983, p. 145).25Also garudi in the Insa-
di-Sūtra (lines 250, 980 and 1000) may mean ‘phoenix’ (Tezcan 1974, pp. 39,
69, 70, see also Zieme 2011). Therefore the first component garut corresponds
to garudi (< Tokh. ? < Skt. garuḍa ‘a mystic bird’). As to the second compo-
nent -ugri, P. Zieme tentatively suggested to me that ugri may be derived from
Skt. ugra ‘mighty, terrible’. But the reason why the adjective follows the noun
is unclear.

25
Mong. tuulitai means ‘legendary’.
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338 KŌICHI KITSUDŌ

12–13) altı p(a)ramitlarıg nomlayur, tört kertülärig sözläyür ‘It preaches the six pā-
ramitās and announces the four truths’:宣陳六度四諦章.
13–16) küsäyürm(ä)n alku kamag tınl(ı)glar birlä tužit t(ä)ŋri yerintäki maitri bo-
distvıg körgäli ‘May I together with all human beings see [Bodhisattva Maitre-
ya in the Tuṣita heaven]’: 願共諸衆生兜率見弥勒. tužit < Tokh. tuṣit < Skt.
tuṣita.
18–20) ridibadri t(ä)ŋriniŋ kut kolmakı üzä etilmiš tokuz älig sıŋlıg, kat kat ilig ka-
lıklıg d(a)rmaprasat ‘The Dharma-palace with forty-nine floors built by God
Ṛddhibhadra’s vow’: 四十九層重閣堂. 號日法殿處當陽. 牢度跋提願力作.
sıŋlıg < Chin. 層 (Tezcan 1974, p. 98). ridibadri < Skt. *ṛddhibhadra, Chin.
牢度跋提, the name of a deva. A similar expression arranged in alliterative
verses is known from the Uighur manuscript Ch/U 3909: tokuz kay-lıg tužit-ta
tokuz äliginč kat bavan-ta tolun-takı ay täŋri yaŋınča toyuŋuz-ta tokı-lıg y(a)r-
lıkar-lar “Im neunstöckigen Tuṣita, im Palast des neunundvierzigsten Stock-
werkes geruht Ihr nach der Weise des Vollmondes in Eurer Schar schön zu
sein” (Zieme 1985, p. 117, fn. 19.43).
21–22) tutalım yeti ärdinin etiglig lenxua čäčäklig örgün üzä ‘Let us stay on the
throne of lotus flowers decorated with seven jewels’: 王在七寶蓮☐☐.
22–24) ädgü ögli köŋüllüg ayagka tägimligig tetrü körüp ‘Gazing at the venerated
One who has the mind of a good friend’. The Chinese counterpart is lost.
24–25) nomlug közüm ačılzun ‘Let my dharma-eye be opened’: ☐☐☐尊法眼開.
25–26) alku kamag bodistvlar birlä täŋ tüz eš tuš bolalım ‘May we become com-
rades equal to all Bodhisattvas’: 與諸菩薩為等流.
26–29) k(ä)ntü özümüz ašayu burxanlarnıŋ yarlıgın ,, ikirčgü sezikim(i)z üzülzün ‘Let
ourselves enjoy the prophecy of the Buddhas, may our doubts crack’: 親食佛
記斷滅碍.
33–34) on[tın sı]ŋar yertinč[ü]dä burxanlar barčata bar ärür ‘Buddhas universally
exist in the world in the ten directions’: 十方世界皆有佛. The reading p’rc’t’
is obscure.

Concluding Remarks

CU materials tell us that the Uighurs did not necessarily have enough knowledge to
enable them to use Chinese characters and Chinese grammar freely. Therefore they
quoted some sentences from several Chinese Buddhist scriptures and combined them
arbitrarily. If they forgot the sentences or did not have the relevant sources for quota-
tion, they composed Uighurised Chinese sentences. Why did they adhere to writing
Chinese characters? Among the CU and IUPC materials, there are some ‘Worship
and Confession’ texts 禮懺文 (Shōgaito 2003).
I suppose that the Buddhist rituals among Chinese Buddhists in the Turfan or
Dunhuang areas at that time must have prevailed in Uighur Buddhist society. Actually
such texts were recited at certain Buddhist rituals. The CU and IUPC materials pro-
vide us some clues towards reconstructing Buddhist rituals among the Uighurs. If the

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 TWO CHINESE BUDDHIST TEXTS WRITTEN BY UIGHURS 339

Uighurs could not understand the meaning of scriptures recited in IUPC, they trans-
lated the hymns into Old Uighur. The Mile Qiqingli can be regarded as a good ex-
ample.26
Let us compare the Insadi-Sūtra. As for the literary activities of the Uighurs
depicted in it P. Zieme pointed out as follows: “Die uigurischen Maitreya-Hymnen
lassen sich, wenigstens gilt dies für diejenigen der Insadi-Handschrift, nicht auf einen
einzigen und schon gar nicht auf einen bestimmten Text zurückführen. Sie sind zu
werten als das gelungene Ergebnis uigurischer Maitreya-Buddhisten, die sich nicht
nur in der Maitrisimit auskannten, sondern auch in anderen Texten der Maitreya-
Literatur, aus denen sie ihre Bausteine nahmen, zu strophenalliterierenden Versen
formten und so neue Werke schufen” (Zieme 2011).
I quite agree with him. At any rate, Chinese Buddhist scriptures or hymns were
one of the sources for the compiler of the Insadi-Sūtra. This fact holds true for the
two works discussed above, too. Use of quotations, free compiling and reshaping the
text as alliterative verses are features of the Insadi-Sūtra that are also partly reflected
in the two Chinese texts discussed above.

References

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Figure 4 (Ch 433r) Figure 5 (Ch 433v)

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Figure 6 (U 5923r) Figure 7 (U5923v)

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