CHNG 2803/9203

Heat and Mass Transfer

Presented by
Professor Yuan Chen
School of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering

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 Lecturer
Lecturer

Prof Yuan Chen

– Office: Room 491, Chui Building J14 (access via a bridge from
J01 Building Level 4)
– Tel: 8627 4620
– Email: yuan.chen@sydney.edu.au
– Lab website: http://yuanchenlab.weebly.com
– Consultation hours: email me to book a time

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 Tutors

– Wanyu (Emerald) Li
wali2928@uni.sydney.edu.au

– Edward Qiu
eqiu7913@uni.sydney.edu.au

– Alex Xue-Sen Reilly

arei2973@uni.sydney.edu.au

– Scott Nelson
snel5915@uni.sydney.edu.au

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 Timetable
Monday Wednesday
Lecture (2 to 4 pm) 2 hours Lecture (2 to 3 pm) 1 hour
Lab (4 to 5 pm) 1 hour Tutorial (3-5 pm) 2 hours
or Lab (4-5 pm) 1 hour
– Check Canvas site for course schedules
– 2 hour lectures (Monday 2-4 pm @ PNR LT 2)
– 1 hour lecture (Wednesday 2-3 pm @ PNR LT1)
– 2 hour tutorials (Wednesday 3-5 pm @FTS/J01)
– Lab sessions (Monday 4-5 pm and Wednesday 4-5 pm @
open space between J01 and J14 (lab1) or J01 359A (lab2)
– You will have two lab sessions in this semester
– Students are split into 18 groups (please check group list and
lab schedule on Canvas site)
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 Organization of This Module
Textbook
– Principles of Heat and Mass Transfer by Frank P. Incropera et
al. John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
The main textbook, you should have a copy. It is strongly
encouraged to read the textbook before and after our lectures so
you can better understand the course content. You may be able to
find a PDF version of this textbook online.
– Fundamentals of Momentum, Heat, and Mass Transfer. Welty, J.
R., C. E. Wicks, R. E. Wilson, and G. Rorrer. John Wiley & Sons
(more information on the mass transfer part)

Continuous Assessment (40%)

– Homework (12 times, total 15%, will use your top 10 homework
scores, 1.5% each), handwritten only except tables or
diagrams
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 Organization of This Module

Continuous Assessment (40%)

– In-class exercises (short questions or MCQs, up to 24 times, total
15%, usually will test your course contents taught in the
previous week, will use your top 15 scores, 1% each)
– Lab sessions (two sessions, total 6%, 3% each)
– Bio-heat/mass transfer essay (4%, additional 1-2% bonus
points, details will be announced later)

Final exam (60%)

– Restricted open book, 1 A4 size paper double sides
– Exam questions will be a combination of MCQs and calculation
questions

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 Chemical Engineering Fundamentals
 Unit Operation

 Reaction Engineering

– Unit Operation, Design and Process Control

– Fluid, Heat and Mass Transfer
– Chemical Engineering Preview: Mass and Energy Balance,
Thermodynamics
– Basic: Chemistry (physical, organic, inorganic, analytical),
Physics, Math, Biology
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 What will be covered?
USA PE exam test
– http://ncees.org/exams/pe-exam/
– https://ncees.org/wp-content/uploads/PE-Che-
Jan_2018_CBT-1.pdf

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 What will be covered?
USA PE exam test

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 What will you achieve?

– Understand the mechanisms of heat transfer without phase

change, including thermal conductivity, heat capacity,
conduction, convection, free/force heat transfer
coefficients/correlations, radiation, and combinations thereof.
– Understand the mechanisms of heat transfer with phase
change, including latent heat, boiling and condensation.
– Understand the mechanisms of mass transfer, including diffusion
mass transfer, transient diffusion, interphase mass transfer.
– Be able to compute heat transfer rate and/or temperature
distribution for processes involving heat transfer

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 What will you achieve?
– Be able to design heat exchange equipment using overall heat
transfer coefficient, fouling factors, LMTD, F-factor, equipment
selection, insulation.
– Be able to develop representative models of real processes
and draw conclusion from analysis of pressure drop, fouling
effects, performance evaluation (NTU), and changes in
parameters.
– Understanding the working principles of some mass transfer
based equipment and lay a good foundation for your courses
in Year 3 and 4

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 Course contents
Week 1
– Modes of heat transfer, heat diffusion equation, boundary and initial
conditions
Week 2
– Thermal resistances, conduction with heat generation
Week 3
– Extended surface (fins) and 2D conduction
Week 4
– Transient conduction, lumped capacity analysis, semi-infinite solids
Week 5
– Convection boundary layer, dimensionless equations, external flow
correlations
Week 6
– Internal forced convection, natural convection
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 Course contents
Week 7
– Condensation and boiling
Week 8
– Radiation and blackbody exchange
Week 9
– Heat transfer equipment and heat exchanger calculations
Week 10
– Tube-shell heat exchangers, design of heat exchangers
Week 11
– Introduction to mass transfer, diffusion mass transfer
Week 12
– Transient diffusion, convective mass transfer
Week 13
– Interphase mass transfer, simultaneous heat and mass transfer
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 This is a tough course

Comments from last year’s student:

– Hard
– I disliked this subject immensely
– Subject from hell
– It is a very, very challenging course

– The content is challenging and rewarding to learn. The weekly homework

was a really good tool
– I found the physics very interesting. Learning about heat exchangers in the
labs was also interesting.
– Intellectually challenging

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 Introduction and Conduction

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 Importance of heat transfer
– Why we need learn this course?
– Heat transfer in every industry
sectors.
– Daily life

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 Heat transfer vs. Thermodynamics

– Thermodynamics deals with equilibrium states of matter

– Heat Transfer deals with how fast it happens, inherently a non-
equilibrium process T(x, y, z, t)
– Steady vs. unsteady T(x, y, z)
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 Fukushima daiichi nuclear disaster – heat exchanger
failure (2011)

– Immediately after shutdown, this

decay heat amounts to
approximately 6% of full thermal
heat production of the reactor

– To safely remove this decay heat,

reactor operators must continue to
circulate cooling water over fuel
rods in the reactor core by use of
high pressure systems that pump
water through the reactor pressure
vessel and into heat exchangers.

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 Heat transfer terms

– Heat Transfer is thermal energy in transit due to a spatial

temperature difference.
– Heat is transferred from a high temperature region to a low
temperature region.
– Normally, heat transfer means rate of thermal energy
transfer expressed as Joule/second (J/s) or Watts (W).

q (J/s or W) q
Heat transfer rate: q =
''

Heat flux (heat transfer rate per unit area) A

 
Total heat transferred: Q= qdt = q '' dtdA (J)

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 Three heat transfer modes

Fourier’s law Newton’s law of cooling Stefan-Boltzmann law

dT
q" = -k q" = h (Ts -T¥ ) E(q1" ) = es T14
dx
– Difference among them lays on different media and moving
nature of media.
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 Physical mechanism of conduction

For gas, energy transfer occurs by collations of random

moving particles. For solid, energy transfers by lattice
vibration and free electrons.
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 Fourier’s law
Heat flux (W/m2)
(how fast the energy is transferred)
dT
q x = −k
''
Temperature gradient
dx (describe the difference in temperate)
Thermal conductivity (W/m·K)
Example: Transport property of a material

dT T2 − T1 dT T1 − T2
= =
dx L dx L
T2 − T1 T1 − T2
q = −k
''
x
q = −k
''
x
Pay attention to the direction. L L

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 Dream of a 21 year old

His claims to immortality:

Fourier’s Law
Fourier Transform
….

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 Physical mechanism of convection

Two mechanisms:
Superposition of energy
transport by the random
motion and bulk motion.

Forced or Natural
Depends whether flow is
caused by external means
Boiling or Condensation
Phase changes, liquid to
vapor or vapor to liquid

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 Newton’s law of cooling

Heat flux (W/m2)

(how fast the energy is transferred)
q = h(Ts − T )
''
Temperature difference
(between surface and fluid)
Convection heat transfer coefficient
(W/m2∙K)

 Any study of convection ultimately reduces to a study of the

means by which h may be determined.
 Pay attention to the heat transfer direction.

q = h(T − Ts )
''
(
q = h Ts -T¥
''
)
From fluid to solid surface From solid surface to fluid
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 Thermal radiation

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 Why matter have radiation emission?

Any matter with

nonzero (T>0K)
will emit energy.

 The result of oscillations or transition of the many electrons that

constitute matter. These oscillations are, in turn, sustained by the
internal energy, and therefore the temperature, of the matter.

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 Spectrum of electromagnetic radiation

Physicist
Nuclear Engineer Electrical Engineer

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 Stefan-Boltzmann law (ideal models)
Energy released from surface(W/m2)
Surface Temperature (K)
E = T s
4

Stefan-Boltzmann constant
5.67×10-8 W/m2K4
Emissivity (0≤ε≤1 ) Describe the
radiative ability of a surface
Energy been absorbed by the surface
Gabs = G = T 4
sur
Surrounding Temperature (K)
Irradiation
(energy released from surrounding)
Absorptivity (0≤  ≤1 )
Describe the absorptive ability of a surface
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 Radiation (simplified version)

Irradiation
Radiation

Net radiation energy flux of surface: q = E -Gabs

''

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 Net radiation energy flux

q" (W / m ) = E − Gabs =  (T − T )
2
s
4 4
sur

q" =  (Ts + Tsur )(Ts2 + Tsur

2
)(Ts − Tsur )
q" = hr (Ts − Tsur )
hr =  (Ts + Tsur )(Ts2 + Tsur
2
)

 Assume  =  for a surface (gray surface)

 Radiation heat transfer coefficient h
r

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 A analogy for the three heat transfer modes

Fourier’s law

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 What is the problem in heat transfer?

dT
q" = -k
dx
All require Temperature distribution
T (x, y, z, t)
q" = h (Ts -T¥ ) How to find an unknown T?

E(q ) = es T"
1 1
4

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 Basic tool: conservation of energy

 The first law of thermodynamics

Net work done by
E = Q −W
The change in the total tot
energy stored in the the system
st
system
The net heat transferred to the system

 Over a time Interval ( Δt ) or at an instant (t)

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 Basic tool: conservation of energy

 First choose a control volume

 At an instant (t): consider rate

dEin dEg dEout dEst

+ − =
dt dt dt dt
 Over a time Interval ( Δt )

Ein + E g − Eout = Est

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 Energy considered in heat transfer

Ein + E g − Eout = Est

- Stored thermal and mechanical energy, Est
- Thermal energy generation, Eg
- Thermal and mechanical energy transport across the control
surfaces, Ein and Eout

E tot
= KE ( mV ) + PE (mgz) + U
1 2
2
Thermal energy
Mechanical energy
Most often in heat transfer, changes are small
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 Thermal energy in heat transfer

E tot = KE ( 1 mV 2 ) + PE (mgz) + U
2

 Sensible component mc p T
 Latent component
 Chemical component mh fg
 Nuclear component

For example: water has the specific heat (cp) of 4.217 kJ/kgK at 0 oC
Heat of vaporization (hfg) 2257 kJ/kg at 100 oC

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 Open system (mass exchanges)

- Close system or open system?

Consider the energy brought in and out by mass flow

q = m c p (Tout − Tin )

More detailed when we discuss convection heat transfer

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 Surface energy balance

 The control surface include no mass and no volume

mc p DT = 0
No generation or storage in
the surface control volume

dEin dEout
− =0
dt dt

q "
cond −q "
conv −q
"
rad =0

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 Example: human skin temperature

– A nearly constant core temperature at 37oC

– Skin temperature at Ti=35oC
– Skin layer of L=3 mm
– Effective thermal conductivity k=0.3W/mK
– Total surface area A=1.8 m2
– Emissivity 0.95
– In air h=2 W/m2K (297 K)
– In water h= 200 W/m2K (297 K)

– Determine the skin temperature in air and in water

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 Example: human skin temperature

× ×
E in - E out = 0
q"cond - q"conv - q"rad = 0
Ti - Ts
k = h(Ts - T¥ ) + es (Ts4 - Tsur
4
)
L
Ts = 307.2K (in air), 34oC; Ts = 300.7K(in water), 27.5oC

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 Example: applying heat transfer principles

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 Conservation laws: methodology

 Choose the appropriate control volume

 Define the appropriate time basis
 Find the relevant energy processes, each process should be
labeled on the control volume
 Conservation equation must then be written with an
appropriate format

 List all pertinent simplifying assumptions

 Compile property values needed for calculations
 Discuss your results. Your results should be physically
feasible.

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 Heat transfer by conduction

q = −kT
''


 Plate wall
 Cylinder
k  Sphere
 Heat equation  With thermal energy generation
 Fin (extended surface)
 2-D steady state conduction
 Transient conduction

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 Fourier’s law in 3D

dT
q x = −k
''

dx

  q '' = −kT
ez ey
T  T  T 
 T = ex + ey + ez
ex x y z

Temperature gradient in three dimensional

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 Cylindrical and spherical coordinates

ez 
er
q = −kT
''

 T  1 T  T 
e T = er + e + ez
 r r  z
e  T
er  1 T  1 T 
T = er + e + e
r r  r sin  

  How to derive these? Check your Math

e course.
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 Thermal conductivity

''
kx  −
qx
kx = k y = kz  k
T x

 Thermal conductivity is a basic physical properties of a material

 For solid: electron and phonons
 For fluid: density of particles
 Isotropic materials (k is independent of the direction)
 K is also affected by temperature and pressure

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 Phonon

 The lattice vibration quanta are termed phonons.

 This is important especially when we consider heat transfer at
nanoscale.

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 Thermal conductivity

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 Thermal insulation materials (low k)

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 Thermal diffusivity
Thermal conductivity (W/m∙K)

k
Thermal diffusivity (m2/s)
= Specific heat (J/kg∙K)
c p
Density (kg/m3)

–  c p (J/m3∙K) volumetric heat capacity, measures the ability

of a material to store thermal energy Vc p T
– Thermal diffusivity: measures the ability of a material to
conduct thermal energy relative to its ability to store thermal
energy
– Materials with large diffusivity will respond quickly to
changes in their thermal environment.
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 Thermophysical properties

– Appendix of textbook
– Handbooks at library

– http://webbook.nist.gov/chemistry/fluid/
– http://properties.nist.gov/fluidsci/semiprop/gases/

– Company for measurement:

http://www.tprl.com/ at Purdue University

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 Example: temperature vs. thermal conductivity

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vqDbMEdLiCs&list=
EC16649CCE7EFA8B2F&index=4&feature=plcp

– Temperature of hard drive and book

– Ice melting on aluminum and plastic plates

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 Heat diffusion equation

dEin dEout dEg dEst

− + = At a time point
dt dt dt dt
Ein + E g − Eout = Est Over a period

– Major objective in heat conduction analysis is to determine the

temperature distribution. Then the conduction heat flux at any
point in the medium or on its surface may be computed from
Fourier's Law.
– Heat diffusion equation is an energy conservation equation
helping us to find the temperature distribution, and then we can
calculate heat flux

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 Heat diffusion equation

q z q y
q z + dz = qz + dz q y + dy = q y + dy
z y

q x
q x + dx = q x + dx
x
T
q x = −k (dydz)
x T

Est = c p dxdydz
t
T
q y = −k (dxdz) T
y q z = −k (dxdy)
z

E in = q x + q y + q z E out = q x + dx + q y + dy + q z + dz

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 Heat diffusion equation

T qx
q x = −k (dydz) qx + dx = qx + dx
x x

qx qx
qx − qx + dx = qx − ( qx + dx) = − dx
x x
T
( −k ( dydz ))
x   T 
=− dx =  k dxdydz
x x  x 

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 Heat diffusion equation: energy balance in solid

E in − E out + E g = E st
T
qx + q y + qz − qx + dx − q y + dy − qz + dz + q dxdydz = c p dxdydz
t
Substitute:   T    T    T  T
k  +  k  +  k  + q = c p

Simplify: x  x  y  y  z  z  t
 2T  2T  2T q 1 T k
If k is a constant: + 2 + 2 + = Here:  =
x 2
y z k  t c p

T   T    T    T 
Steady state =0 k  +  k  +  k  + q = 0
t x  x  y  y  z  z 

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 Heat diffusion equation in cylindrical coordinates

T  1 T  T 
T = er + e + ez
r r  z
T k T T
qr = − k
"
q = −
"
qz = − k
"

r r  z
volume : dr  rd  dz

1   T  1   T    T  T
 kr  +  k  +  k  + 
q = c
r r  r  r 2     z  z  t
p

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 Heat diffusion equation in spherical coordinates

T  1 T  1 T 
T = er + e + e
r r  r sin  

T k T k T
qr" = −k q" = − q" = −
r r  r sin  
volume : dr  r sin d  rd

1   2 T  1   T  1   T  T
 kr + 2 2  k  + 2  k sin   + q = c p
r r 
2
r  r sin      r sin      t

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 Boundary conditions
 (1) Constant surface temperature

T (0, t ) = Ts
 Constant surface heat flux
(2) Finite heat flux

T
−k = qs"
x x =0

(3) Adiabatic or insulated surface

T
=0
x x =0
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 Boundary conditions

 (4) thermal symmetry

 (5) convection surface condition

T
−k = h[T − T (0, t )]
x x =0

 (6) Radiation condition

 (7) Interface boundary conditions
 To solve the heat equation for the temperature distribution in
a medium, boundary conditions must be prescribed at the
surfaces of the medium.
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 Example: composite wall
 Chemical reactor with a composite wall of two
T2 layers, aluminum 200 W/m·K. 0.5 cm thick;
T4 concrete 1 W/m·K. 5 cm thick. Reactor inner T1 at
T1 500 oC, outer T4 at 20 oC. Find out the q”.
T3
  T 
x Assume this is the heat k  = 0 → T ( x ) = C1 x + C2 for aluminum
transfer direction x  x 
T ( x ) = C3 x + C4 for concrete

Control volume 1: T1(x=0)=500 oC, T2(x=0.5)=?

Control volume 2: T3(x=0.5)=?, T4(x=5.5)=20 oC

Equations can not be solved, not enough boundary conditions?

Assume: T2=T3, still not enough? Missing something?
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 Example: composite wall q1" = −k1
dT
dx
dT
q2 " = −k2
T3 dx
T4 T1
q1" = q2 " ; why??
T2
T ( x ) = C1 x + C2 → q1" = − k1C1
x
T ( x ) = C3 x + C4 → q2 " = − k2C3
q2 " q1"
k1C1 = k2C3

C1=-0.47976; C2=500; C3=-95.952; C4=547.7361

T2=C1*0.5+C2=T3=C3*0.5+C4=499.76 oC

Calculate q1" q2 " q"

Should the heat flux be a constant here, why?
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 Thermal resistance: conduction
Note that “I” is a constant
E1 − E2 L
R= =
E1
I
E2
I A

Ts , 2 − Ts ,1
qx = −kA
L

Ts ,1 − Ts , 2 L
Rt ,cond  =
qx kA
Should always be positive

qx must be a constant (consider energy balance)

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 Thermal resistance: convection and radiation

Ts − T 1
Rt ,conv  =
q hA qt ,conv = hA(Ts − T )

Ts − Tsur 1
Rt ,rad  =
qrad hr A

qrad = hr A(Ts − Tsur )

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 Thermal resistance: applied to composite wall

qx " should be a constant, why?

Consider: if heat flux is not
constant, can we still apply the
concept of heat resistance?

Find one sample where heat

flux is not a constant.

T ,1 − T , 4
 Rt = q
x

Unit: K/W
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 Example: thermal resistance for composite wall

 Chemical reactor with a composite wall of two

T2 layers, aluminum 200 W/m·K. 0.5 cm thick;
T4
concrete 1 W/m·K. 5 cm thick. Reactor inner T1 at
T1
T3 500 oC, outer T4 at 20 oC. Find out the q”.

x L2 5cm
For concrete: R2 = =
k2 A 1W / m  KA

L1 0.5cm
For aluminum: R1 = =
k1 A 200W / m  KA

T1 − T4
Heat flux: q " = q / A = = 9595.2 W/m2
( R1 + R2 ) A

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 Overall heat transfer coefficient: U

T ,1 − T , 4
 Rt = q Unit: K/W
x

T¥,1 - T¥,4
qx =
"
= UDT
å Rt A
1
U= Unit: W / K  m 2
Rt A
q x = UADT
qx " should be a constant, why?
Consider: if heat flux is not 1
U=
constant, can we still apply the 1 / h1 + LA / k A + LB / k B + LC / kC + 1 / h4
concept of heat resistance?
The University of Sydney Page 68
 Contact resistance

Heat transfer crossing the

RA + Rt ,c + RB interface includes two parts.

(1) Due to the contact spots

(2) Due to the gaps

Note that heat conductivity of

TA − TB gas is much smaller than that of
Rt ,c = solid materials.
qx

– Temperature drop across the interface between materials

– Due to surface roughness (gap existing at interface)
– A big issue at nanoscale devices
The University of Sydney Page 69
 Heat diffusion equation in cylindrical coordinates

1   T  1   T    T  T
 kr + 2  k  +  k  + q = c p
r r  r  r     z  z  t

The University of Sydney Page 70

 Cylinder

– Steady-state, no heat generation, 1-D, k is constant

1   T 
 kr =0
r r  r 
T
kr =C
r

T (r ) = C1 ln r + C2
T (r1 ) = Ts ,1 & T (r2 ) = Ts , 2

The University of Sydney Page 71

 Cylinder
Ts ,1 − Ts , 2 r
Solution (T distribution): T (r ) = ln  +T s , 2
ln(r1 / r2 )  r2 

T
Heat transfer rate: qr = q A = −k
"
( 2rL)
r
r

Constant in radical direction

2Lk (Ts ,1 − Ts , 2 )
qr =
ln(r2 / r1 )

Ts ,1 − Ts , 2 ln(r2 / r1 )
Thermal resistance: Rt ,cond = =
qr 2Lk
The University of Sydney Page 72
 Critical insulation radius

The University of Sydney Page 73

 Critical insulation radius

dRtotal
=0
dr
1 1
− =0
2kr 2r h 2

k
rcritical 
h

Critical insulation radius: total

ln(r / ri ) 1 thermal resistance is a minimum.
Rtotal = +
2Lk 2rLh

The University of Sydney Page 74

 Implication in thermal insulation applications

The University of Sydney Page 75

 Alternative conduction analysis method

 Steady-state, no heat generation

 One-dimensional qx = qx + dx
 Conduction rate is a constant
 Directly integrate Fourier’s equation

dT
q x = q x A = −kA
"

dx

x dx T
qx  = −  k (T )dT
x0 A( x) T0

The University of Sydney Page 76

 Sphere in application

The University of Sydney Page 77

 Sphere
x dx T
qx  = −  k (T )dT
x0 A( x) T0

A = 4r 2

qr r2 dr Ts , 2

4  r1 r 2
= −  k (T )dT
Ts ,1
 Steady-state, no heat
generation, 1-D

1 1 1 4k (Ts ,1 − Ts , 2 )
Rt ,cond =  −  qr =
4k  r1 r2  (1 / r1 ) − (1 / r2 )
The University of Sydney Page 78
 1D heat condition solutions

The University of Sydney Page 79

 Summary of 1-D conduction

Target: find q
From Fourier's law: q = −kT
''

We need temperature distribution: T(x,y,x)

Apply energy balance equation, we obtain heat diffusion

equations (solving these equations require boundary
conditions)

Two simplified shortcuts:

(1) Thermal resistance
(2) Integrate Fourier's law directly

The University of Sydney Page 80

 Conduction with heat generation

E in − E out + E g = E st

E in − E out = 0

 Steady-state E in − E out + E g = 0

For example: electrical E = I 2 R , q = I 2

E g
Re
g e =
V V

 Energy generation: exothermic chemical reaction, resistance

heating
 Don’t confuse energy generation with energy storage
The University of Sydney Page 81
 Plane wall with energy generation
 Steady-state, constant k and 1-D

 2T  2T  2T q 1 T
+ 2 + 2 + =
x 2
y z k  t

d 2T q
2
+ =0
dx k
q 2
T =− x + C1 x + C2
2k
T (− L) = Ts ,1 & T ( L) = Ts , 2

Ts ,2 − Ts ,1 q 2 Ts ,1 + Ts ,2
C1 = , C2 = L +
2L 2k 2
The University of Sydney Page 82
 Plane wall with energy generation

q 2 Ts , 2 − Ts ,1 q 2 Ts ,1 + Ts , 2
T =− x + x+ L +
2k 2L 2k 2

 With energy generation, the heat flux is no longer independent

of x
 We cannot apply thermal resistance concept

Ts ,1 − Ts ,2
Rt ,cond  q is a variable.
qx
 Fourier's law still can be applied.

The University of Sydney Page 83

 Temperature distribution in the wall

T (− L) = Ts ,1 = T ( L) = Ts , 2  Ts

qL2  x 2 
T ( x) = 1 − 2  + Ts
2k  L 
qL2
Tmax = T (0)  T0 = + Ts
2k

dT
−k = h(Ts − T )
Why this equation dx x= L
does not include
qL
energy generation Ts = T +
term? h
The University of Sydney Page 84
 Adiabatic surface (perfectly insulated surface)
– Apply Fourier's law, we can find a surface (usually in the
middle of a control volume) where the temperature gradient is
zero. No energy is transferred crossing this surface. We can
consider this surface is perfectly insulated.
– Can be applied to simplify calculation, especially in numerical
simulation

q L2  x2 
T ( x) = 1 − 2  + Ts
2k  L 

dT dT
=0 q" = −k =0
dx x =0 dx

The University of Sydney Page 85

 Heat transfer rate and flux in the wall

dT ( x ) − q x q
=
dx k
-L
L x

q”

-L
q" = q x L x
q = q xA
q L = h (Ts − T )
Can you draw the distribution of T, q and
A: cross section area q” for conditions without energy
generation?
The University of Sydney Page 86
 Radial system with energy generation
 Steady-state, constant k and 1-D
1   T  q
r + = 0
r r  r  k

q 2
T (r ) = − r + C1 ln r + C2
4k
dT
= 0 & T (r0 ) = Ts
dr r =0

Pay attention to qr02  r 2 

T (r ) = 1 − 2  + Ts
the boundary 4k  r0 
condition here
The University of Sydney Page 87
 Temperature distribution and heat transfer in cylinder

– Symmetrical conditions, at r=0, temperature gradient is zero.

no heat transfer T

qr02  r 2 
T (r ) = 1 − 2  + Ts
4k  r0 
Ts
r
qr0 0
Ts = T +
2h q

q = q r 2 L, q" = q r / 2
r
q (r02 L) = h(2r0 L)(Ts − T ) 0 r0

The University of Sydney Draw the diagram for q” Page 88

 Example: fruit handling temperature

– Biologically active materials (fruits, vegetables) require special

care.
– Glucose is catabolized to produce thermal energy generation

Apples 80 mm in diameter,
ventilated with air at 5oC and a
velocity of 0.5m/s. The
corresponding heat transfer
coefficient 7.5W/m2·K. Within each
apple thermal energy is uniformly
generated at 4000J/kg·day .
Density,840kg/m3 and thermal
conductivity 0.5W/m·K.
Determine apple center and surface
temperature.
The University of Sydney Page 89
 Example: fruit handling temperature
– Temperature distribution in sphere

1   2 T  q
r + = 0
r r  r  k
2

The University of Sydney Page 90

 How to enhance heat transfer from a solid surface

– Increasing the fluid velocity, h

– Reducing fluid temperature ,Ts-T∞
– Increasing the surface area ,A (fin)

The University of Sydney Page 91

 Fins in applications

stegosaurus
The University of Sydney Page 92
 Example: air conditioners

The University of Sydney Page 93

 Fin configurations

 Which particular extended surfaces arrangement could

improve heat transfer?
 Simplified model → evaluation → applications

The University of Sydney Page 94

 Energy balance equation in fin

– Steady-state, 1-D, k constant,

radiation negligible, no heat
generation, h is uniform over
the surface

dqconv = hdAs (T − T )

qx = qx + dx + dqconv

dAs: Surface area (the ring) of differential element

Ac: Cross-sectional area
The University of Sydney Page 95
 Energy balance equation in fin
dT
qx = −kAc
dx

dqx
qx + dx = qx + dx
dx
dT d dT
= −kAc − k ( Ac )dx (ab)’=a’b+ab’
dx dx dx
dT dAc dT d 2T
= −kAc − k( + Ac 2 )dx
dx dx dx dx

dAc dT d 2T
qx = qx + dx + dqconv k( + Ac 2 )dx − hdAs (T − T ) = 0
dx dx dx

The University of Sydney Page 96

 Energy balance equation in fin

d 2T  1 dAc  dT  1 h dAs 
2
+   −  (T − T ) = 0
dx  Ac dx  dx  Ac k dx 

– Attached to a base surface T(0)=Tb

– x, distance to the base; P is the fin perimeter
Area of cross section

dAc
Ac = wt =0
dx d 2T ( x) hP
2
− (T ( x) − T ) = 0
dAs dx kAc
As = Px =P
dx

Area of four sides exposed to fluids

The University of Sydney Page 97
 Excess temperature

d 2T ( x) hP
2
− (T ( x) − T ) = 0  ( x)  T ( x) − T
dx kAc
d 2 hP
2
− m 2
 =0 m2 
dx kAc

 ( x ) = C1emx + C2e− mx
 We need two boundary conditions:
(1) at x=0, base temperature Tb
The formula is the
same for Pin fin.  (0) = Tb − T  b
The University of Sydney Page 98
 Boundary conditions of fin

(2) the second condition for the fin tip may have four different
situations:
 Case 1: convection: − kAc dT = hAc [T ( L) − T ]
dx x=L

d
−k = h ( L)
dx x=L

d
 Case 2: Adiabatic =0
dx x =L

 Case 3: Fixed temperature  ( L) =  L

 Case 4: infinite length  ( L) = 0( L → )

The University of Sydney Page 99

 Solution for boundary condition case 1
b = C1 + C2
h(C1emL + C2e −mL ) = km( −C1emL + C2e −mL )

=
b

 Heat transferred to the entire fin: (from

the base)
qx = qx + dx + dqconv
dT d
q f = qb = −kAc = −kAc
dx x =0 dx x =0
Af : total fin surface area
include tip cross section  From energy balance of the fin:
(Ac) and surface areas
on four sides (As) q f =  h ( x )dAs =  h[T ( x ) − T ]dAs
Af Af

The University of Sydney Page 100

 Useful math formula
The hyperbolic sine “sinh" (typically pronounced /sɪntʃ/), and the
hyperbolic cosine "cosh" (typically pronounced /kɒʃ/), hyperbolic
tangent "tanh"/tæntʃ/)

e x + e− x
cosh( x ) = , cosh( − x ) = cosh( x )
2
e x − e− x
sinh( x ) = , sinh( − x ) = − sinh( x )
2
e x − e− x
tanh( x ) = x −x
, tanh(− x ) = − tanh( x )
e +e
 Table of hyperbolic functions is in Appendix B.1.

The University of Sydney Page 101

 Solutions for fins of uniform cross section

The University of Sydney Page 102

 Heat transfer rate and temperature at tip

T T
d The behavior of 1-D fin
Tb 0 with an insulated tip
dx x =L

hP
q f = M tanh mL, M = hPkAc  b , m 2 =
kAc
qf M tanh mL
= = tanh mL Dimensionless heat
M M
TL ( tip temperature), x = L flow into the fin
TL − T  L cosh m( L − L)
= 
Tb − T b cosh mL
L 1 Dimensionless
= temperature at the tip
b cosh mL
The University of Sydney Page 103
 Variation of heat transfer rate and tip temperature

Heat flow cannot be

noticeably improved by
lengthening the fin
tanh mL beyond L=3/m
qf
M L
1
b
cosh mL

The temperature
excess at the tip is less
than 1.4% beyond
L=5/m
The University of Sydney Page 104
 Temperature distribution in fin vs. mL

The behavior of 1-D fin

T T with an insulated tip:
Tb d
0
dx x =L

T − T  cosh m( L − x )
= 
Tb − T  b cosh mL

b
x
cosh mL(1 − )
= L
cosh mL

x hP
L m2 =
kAc

The University of Sydney Page 105

 Example: touching heated tube

Clamp a 20 cm or so length of copper

by one end in a horizontal position. Put
a candle flame very near to the other
end and let the arrangement come to a
steady state. Run your finger along the
rod. How does what you feel
correspond to the diagrams shown in
previous two slides?
(the diameter of the rod should no
exceed about 3 mm, a larger rod of
metal with a lower conductivity will
also work.)

The University of Sydney Page 106

 Physical meaning of mL

hP L / kAc
m2 = , ( mL) 2 =
kAc 1 / h( PL )
internal resistance in x - direction
( mL) 2 =
gross external resistance

1
→0
cosh mL
When it is big, we may neglect tip convection, because tip
temperature will be very close to the surrounding temperature.
mL>3, is sufficient for the infinite fin approximation.
When it is small, the temperature drop along the axis of the fin
becomes small. Not an efficient fin.
The University of Sydney Page 107
 Fin effectiveness

qf Fin heat transfer rate

f =
hAc ,b (Tb − T ) heat transfer rate without fin

Cross-sectional area at the fin base

Ac,b
Upper limit of effectiveness, for an infinite fin (case D)
with infinite length:
1/ 2
M hPkAc b  kP 
f = = =  
hAc ,b (Tb − T ) hAc ,b (Tb − T )  hAc 
The University of Sydney Page 108
 Implication of fin effectiveness

Take an infinite fin (case D) with infinite length as an example:

1/ 2
 kP 
 f =  
 hAc 

Design considerations: at least εf>2

 High thermal conductivity (Al, Cu), cost and weight , Al

 Ratio of the perimeter to cross-sectional area (thin)
 Small convection coefficient h (air vs. water)

The University of Sydney Page 109

 Thermal resistance of fin
Surface area of the fin
Af Tb − T 1 The whole surface
Rt , f = =
qf hAf  f

Ac,b 1 Rt ,b
Rt ,b = f =
hAc ,b Rt , f
T gradient along fin
The maximum driving potential for convection
is the temperature difference at the base.
Tb>T(x); x(0,L)
qmax = hAf (Tb − T )
This is an ideal situation, but cannot be achieved in reality.
The University of Sydney Page 110
 Fin efficiency
q f =  h[T ( x) − T ]dAs
Af

qf qf
f = =
qmax

For straight fin of uniform section and an adiabatic tip:

M tanh mL tanh mL
f = =
h( PL )(Tb − T ) mL

The University of Sydney Page 111

 Correlations for fin efficiency
For Fins with active tips (with heat convection, case A) Modified
formula for approximate predictions:
1/ 2
 2h 
 f ~ ( mLC ) ~ L 
3/ 2
c


 kAp 

Ap Corrected fin profile area Lc Corrected fin length

The University of Sydney Page 112

 Fin efficiency of straight fins

The University of Sydney Page 113

 Fin efficiency of annular fins

The University of Sydney Page 114

 Fin arrays

The University of Sydney Page 115

 Overall surface efficiency

N number of fins in
qt qt
an array 0 = =
Each fin has a qmax hAt (Tb − T )
surface area of Afa

At = NA f + Ab Ab : area of prime base surface without fins

qt = N f hAf (Tb − T ) + hAb (Tb − T )
Af
NA f
Overall efficiency: 0 = 1 − (1 −  f )
At
Ab
Tb − T
Rt ,0 =
qt
The University of Sydney Page 116
 Example: fins and bio-heat transfer

The University of Sydney Page 117

 Example: dog’s tongue

Perspiration:
In humans, sweating is primarily a
means of thermoregulation which
is achieved by the water-rich
secretion of the eccrine glands.
Maximum sweat rates of an adult
can be up to 2-4 liters per hour
or 10-14 liters per day (10-15
g/min•m²).

Yoyo: This is my fin for heat release!!!

The University of Sydney Page 118

 Two-dimensional heat conduction

 The heat flux plot

The University of Sydney Page 119

 2D conduction equation

 Steady-state, with no generation and constant thermal

conductivity

T T
2 2
+ 2 =0
x 2
y

2T = 0
 Depending on your mathematical background and the specific
problem (boundary conditions), the analytical solution can be
anything fro straightforward calculation to a considerable
challenge.

The University of Sydney

120 Page 120
 Methods for solving 2D conduction equation

 Find out whether or not the analytical solution is already

available in a heat conduction text or in other published
literature.
 Analytical approaches (separation of variables)
Good: exact mathematical solution ,obtain temperature at
any point in the medium
Bad: Solutions involve complicated mathematical series and
function, only few simple geometries and boundary conditions
can be solved
 Numerical approaches (finite-difference method)
Good: any geometries or boundary conditions
Bad: results at discrete points, limited by computer ability

The University of Sydney Page 121

 Separation of variables
T − T1  2  2
 + 2 =0
T2 − T1 x 2
y

 (0, y ) = 0  ( x,0) = 0
 ( L, y ) = 0  ( x, W ) = 1

 ( x, y ) = X ( x ) • Y ( y )
(−1) n +1 + 1
2 
nx sinh( ny / L)
 ( x, y ) =  sin
 n =1 n L sinh( nW / L)

The University of Sydney Page 122

 Nodal network

– First step: select discrete point (nodal point, nodal

network, average temperature (limiting accuracy))
– Second step: energy balance equation for each point

The University of Sydney Page 123

 Finite-difference solution
– Third step: solve multiple finite-difference equations
together using linear algebra

[T ] = [ A]−1[C ]

The University of Sydney Page 124

 Transient conductions (for example: cooking)

The University of Sydney Page 125

 Heating batch reactors

– Transient heating process to take the product from room

temperature to the desired process temperature

The University of Sydney Page 126

 Transient conductions (simplified model)
 Non-steady state: conditions change with time

Object:
1) determine the time dependence of the temperature
distribution within a sold during a transient process
2) determine heat transfer between the solid and its surroundings
The University of Sydney Page 127
 Lumped capacitance method
 Assume the temperature of the solid is spatially uniform at any
instance during the transient process, temperature gradients within
the solid are negligible

− E out = E st
dT
− hAs (T − T ) = Vc p
dt
  T − T  i  Ti − T
d Vc p  d t
− hAs = Vc p
dt hAs  i 
= −  dt
0

The University of Sydney Page 128

 Thermal time constant

Vc p i
ln = t
hAs 
 T − T   hA  
= = exp −  s 
t
 i Ti − T   Vc p  
Vc p
t =
hAs

t t   t 
Q =  qdt = hAs  dt = Vc p i 1 − exp − 
0 0
  t 
The University of Sydney Page 129
 Validity of lumped capacitance method

 Assume the temperature of the solid is

spatially uniform at any instance during
the transient process, temperature
gradients within the solid are negligible

kA
(Ts ,1 − Ts , 2 ) = hA(Ts , 2 − T )
L
Ts ,1 − Ts , 2 ( L / kA) Rcond hL
= = =  Bi
Ts , 2 − T (1 / hA) Rconv k

The University of Sydney Page 130

 Biot number

The University of Sydney Page 131

 Application of Biot number

– Before you apply the lumped capacitance method, calculate

the Biot number, it should satisfy Bi≤0.1

characteristic length
hLc V volume
Bi =  0.1 Lc 
k As surface area
 Use the above formula if you can, or alternatively
consider the following:
 Plane wall: half-thickness
 Long cylinder: r/2 or r Note: if the method to calculate Lc
 Sphere: r/3 or r have been specified, you may just
follow the specific instruction.
The University of Sydney Page 132
 Fourier number

 T − T   hA   V
= = exp −  s 
t Lc =
 i Ti − T  
  Vc p   As
hAs t ht hLc k t hLc t
= = = = Bi • Fo
Vc p c p Lc k c p Lc
2
k Lc2

t
Fo  2 dimensionless time
Lc


= exp( − Bi • Fo )
i
The University of Sydney Page 133
 More about Fourier number
 Heat conduction through a solid is concurrent with thermal
energy storage by the solid
T
Characteristic length L Temperature gradient L
Cross-sectional area A ~ L2 Volume V ~ L3
2 T  T
Energy storage Est ~ L c p
3
Heat transfer by conduction q ~ kL
L t

Provides a measure of the

q kt t relative effectiveness with which
~ = 2 = Fo
E st c p L2
L a solid conducts and stores
thermal energy over a period of
time
The University of Sydney Page 134
 Example: thermocouple

•Determine the junction diameter

needed for the thermocouple to have a
time constant of 1 s.
•If the junction is at 25 oC and is placed
in a gas stream that is at 200 oC, how
long will it take for the junction to reach
199 oC.
The University of Sydney Page 135
 Example: thermocouple

For a sphere: As = D 2
V = D 3 / 6

1 D 3 6h t
Time constant of 1 s: t =  c  D = = 7.06  10 −4
m
hD 2
6 c

Calculate Bi number: h(r0 / 3)

Bi = = 2.35  10 −3
k
Satisfy lump capacity requirement:

 (D 3 / 6)c Ti − T
t= ln = 5.2s
h(D )
2
T − T
The University of Sydney Page 136
 General lumped capacitance analysis

Transient induced by:

 Convection from adjoining fluid
 Radiation exchange
 Applying heat flux at a portion
 Energy generation inside

 dT
q As ,h + E g − (qconv + qrad ) As ( c ,r ) = Vc p
"
s
" "

dt
 dT
q As ,h + E g − [(h(T − T ) +  (T − Tsur )] As ( c ,r ) = Vc p
"
s
4 4

dt
heat flux transfer region convection radiation
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 Two simplified cases

 dT
q As ,h + E g − [(h(T − T ) +  (T − Tsur )] As ( c ,r ) = Vc p
"
s
4 4

dt
– Nonlinear, first-order, nonhomogeneous, ordinary differential
equation that can not be integrated to obtain an exact solution.

– Case 1: No imposed heat flux or generation, and convection is

negligible, only radiation

dT
− As ,r (T − T ) = Vc p
4 4
sur
dt
As ,r t T dT
Vc p  0
dt =  4
Ti T − T 4
sur
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 Simplified case 1

General solution: (time required to reach T)

Vc  Tsur + T Tsur + Ti  −1  T  −1  Ti  


t= ln − ln + 2  tan   − tan   
4As ,rTsur
3
 Tsur − T Tsur − Ti   Tsur   Tsur  

Radiation to deep space: Tsur = 0 K

As ,r t dT
T Vc  1 1 
Vc p 0 dt =Ti T 4 t=
3As ,r
 3 − 3 
T Ti 

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 Simplified case 2

• Case 2: Radiation is neglected and h is independent of time

d (T − T ) hAs ,c qs" As ,h + E g
+ (T − T ) − =0
dt Vc Vc
hAs ,c qs" As ,h + E g
a= ,b =
Vc Vc

T − T b/a
= exp( −at ) + [1 − exp( −at )]
Ti − T Ti − T

When b=0, back the condition with only convection

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 Example: heating of coal pellets
Pellets of coal: spheres of 1 mm diameter, assumed heated by
radiation
Enter a tube furnace, coal is suspended in an airflow and move
with a speed of 3 m/s, find out the length of furnace to heat the
coal center from 25 oC to 600 oC. ρ=1350 kg/m3, cp=1260
J/kg·K, k=0.26 W/m·K

dT
As (T 4
sur − T ) = Vc p
4

dt
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 Example: heating of coal pellets

Vc  Tsur + T Tsur + Ti  −1  T   T  

t= ln − ln + 2 tan   − tan −1  i  
4As ,rTsur
3
 Tsur − T Tsur − Ti   Tsur   Tsur  
t = 1.18s

Length required:

Find out whether Bi<0.1, here h=hr

When T=600 oC, Bi=0.19
When T=25 oC, Bi=0.10
At early times, when the pellet is cooler, the assumption is
reasonable but becomes less appropriate as the pellet heats.
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 Temperature gradients in media

If Bi<0.1 If Bi>0.1

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 Solutions with temperature gradients in media

Analytical solutions
E in − E out + E g = E st can be obtained for
a few simple cases.

 2T  2T  2T q 1 T
If Bi>0.1 + 2 + 2 + =
x 2
y z k  t

1   T  1   T    T  T
 kr + 2  k  +  k  + q = c p
r r  r  r     z  z  t

1   2 T  1   T  1   T  T
 kr + 2 2  k  + 2  k sin   + q = c p
r r 
2
r  r sin      r sin      t

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 Plane wall with convection

 2T 1 T
=
x 2
 t
Need an initial condition and two
boundary conditions:
T
T ( x,0) = Ti =0
x x =0

T
−k = h[T ( L, t ) − T ]
x x=L

Solution : T ( x, t , Ti , T , L, k ,  , h )

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 Non-dimensionalizing equation

Why to do this? To obtain simple and straightforward relation

between variables.
 T − T
  = *
,0   *  1 Combine variables into
 i Ti − T several dimensionless groups
Maximum
possible x T ( x, t , Ti , T , L, k ,  , h)
temperature x 
*

difference L

t  * = f ( x* , Fo, Bi)
t 
*
2
 Fo
L
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 Non-dimensionalizing equation

 2T 1 T  2 *  *
= =
x 2
 t x *2 Fo

T ( x,0) = Ti  * ( x* ,0) = 1

T  *
=0 =0
x x =0 x* x* =0

T  *
−k = h[T ( L, t ) − T ] = − Bi * (1, t * )
x x=L x* x* =1

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 Exact solutions
Separation of variables

 * = f ( x* , Fo, Bi)

 =  Cn exp(− n2 Fo ) cos( n x* )
*

n =1

4 sin  n
Cn =
2 n + sin( 2 n )
 n tan  n = Bi
Appendix B.3

Discrete values are positive roots of the transcendental equation

You are not required to derive this, just know how to use it.
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 Transcendental equation

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 Approximate solution

– When Fo>0.2, solution can be approximated by the first term of

the series. (Fo=αt/L2)

 * = C1 exp( − 12 Fo ) cos( 1 x* )
4 sin  1
C1 =
2 1 + sin( 2 1 )
when x* = 0,  0 = C1 exp( − 12 Fo )
*

 * =  0* cos( 1 x* )
T0 − T
where,  0 =
*

Ti − T
See Table 5.1 in the textbook for numerical solutions
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 Total energy transferred

– How to calculate the total energy transferred

Q = Eout = −Est = −[ E (t ) − E (0)]

Q = −  c p [T ( x, t ) − Ti ]dV
Qo = c pV (Ti − T )

Q − [T ( x, t ) − Ti ] dV 1
= =  (1 −  * )dV
Qo Ti − T V V
Q sin  1 *
= 1− 0
Qo 1
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 Transient temperature distribution in plate
Heisler charts, 1947  * = f ( x* , Fo, Bi)

x/L=0
center
x/L=1
boundary

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 Example: oil pipeline

– Steel pipeline, 1 m in diameter, 40 mm thickness

of wall. The walls at -20oC initially and insulated
outside. Hot oil at 60oC is introduced, creating
convection h=500W/m2·K at the inner surface of
the pipe.ρ=7832 kg/m3, cp=434 J/kg·K, k=63.9
W/m·K, α=18.8×10-6m2/s
oil – What are the Biot and Fourier number 8 min after
the flow is introduced?
– At t=8 min, what is the temperature of the outer
surface of pipe?
0
– What the heat flux q” to the pipe from the oil at
t=8 min?
L=40 mm – How much energy per meter of pipe has been
transferred from the oil to the pipe at t=8 min
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 Example: oil pipeline

– Lc=L
hLc t
Bi = = 0.313, Fo = 2 = 5.64
k Lc
– Bi=0.313, and Fo>0.2. C1=1.047 and ζ1=0.531
T0 − T
 0* = = C1 exp( − 12 Fo ) = 0.214
Ti − T
T (0,8 min) = T +  0* (Ti − T ) = 42.9o C
– x=L q "x ( L,480s ) = qL" = h[T ( L,480s ) − T ]
with x* = 1,  * =  0* cos( 1 )
T ( L, t ) = T + (Ti − T ) 0* cos( 1 )
T ( L,8 min) = 45.2o C , so qL" = −7400W / m 2

Q sin  1 * '
= 1−  0 , Q = −2.73 107 J / m
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Qo 1 Page 154
 Solutions for infinite cylinder


t
 =  Cn exp( − Fo ) J 0 ( n r ), Fo =
* 2
n
*

n =1 ro2
J 1 ( n )
2
Cn =
 n J 02 ( n ) + J 12 ( n ) Simplified form:
J 1 ( n ) hr0
n = Bi, Bi =  * = C1 exp( − 12 Fo ) J 0 ( 1r* )
J 0 ( n ) k
C1 and  1 are listed in Table 5.1
for a range of Biot numbers.

J1, J0 are Bessel functions of the first kind and their values
are tabulated in Appendix B.4.
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 Solutions for sphere

1 t
 =  Cn exp( − Fo ) * sin( n r ), Fo = 2
* 2 *

n =1  nr n
ro
4[sin( n ) −  n cos( n )]
Cn =
2 n − sin( 2 n )
Simplified form:
hr0
1 −  n cot  n = Bi, Bi = 1
 = C1 exp( − Fo ) * sin( 1r * )
* 2
k  1r
1

C1 and  1 are listed in Table 5.1

for a range of Biot numbers.

J1, J0 are Bessel functions of the first kind and their values
are tabulated in Appendix B.4.
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 Semi-infinite solid
– The semi-infinite solid: extends to infinity in all but one
direction with a single identifiable surface. If a sudden
changes of conditions is imposed at this surface, transient, 1-D
conduction will occur within the solid.

T ( x → , t ) = Ti

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 Semi-infinite solid

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 Solutions for semi-infinite solid

2 w

−v 2
T ( x → , t ) = Ti erf ( w) = e dv erfc( w) = 1 − erf ( w)
 0

 Case 1 constant surface T T(0,t)=Ts Gaussian error function

T ( x, t ) − Ts  x  " k (Ts − Ti ) Appendix B
= erf  , qs (t ) =
Ti − Ts  2 t  t
Similarity variable
 Case 2 constant surface heat flux qs”=q0”
2q0" (t /  )1/ 2  − x 2  q0" x  x 
T ( x, t ) − Ti = exp  − erfc 
k  4t  k  2 t 
T
 Case 3 surface convection −k
x
= h[T − T (0, t )]
x =0

T ( x, t ) − Ti  x    hx h 2t    x h t  
= erfc  − exp + 2  erfc + 

T − Ti  2 t    k k    2  t k 
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 Solutions for semi-infinite solid

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 Example: semi-infinite solid

– Two different materials, such as copper and concrete, at same

temperature 23 oC. Which one will feel colder to the touch?
Infinite solids, your hand is at 37 oC. For Cu, ρ=8933 kg/m3,
Cp=385 J/kg·K, k=401 K/m·K, for concrete ρ=2300 kg/m3,
Cp=880 J/kg·K, k=1.4 K/m·K

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 Example: semi-infinite solid

k (Ts − Ti )
q (t ) =
"

t
s

 qs" (t )  1 / kc p , where  = k / c p

Heat transfer flux at copper surface is 22.1 times that at

concrete surface, so we feel copper surface is colder.
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 Example: fire-walking

– http://skepdic.com/firewalk.html

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 Road map to conduction part
Fourier’s Law (need T distribution)
Steady
•Plate wall (thermal resistant)
•Cylinder (cylindrical coordinates)
•Sphere (alternative analysis)
•With thermal generation
Fin
2D
•Series solution
•Finite-difference equation
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Conduction Equation
Unsteady
Bi<0.1 (no T distribution)
Lumped capacitance method
Three cases
Bi>0.1 (with T distribution)
Two cases
Plane wall and radial system
Semi-infinite geometry
Page 164
 Important formula for conduction part

 Fourier’s law, Newton’s law, Stefan-Boltzmann law

 Radiation heat transfer coefficient
 Energy balance at instant of time and over a period
 Definition of diffusivity, thermal resistance
 Thermal resistance for conduction, convection and radiation
 Definition of fin effectiveness and efficiency
 Time constant for lumped capacitance method
 Biot number and Fourier number
 You need know how to simplify diffusion equations and
choose formula based on given conditions

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