PPa

CERTIFICATE
Certified that the present dissertation entitled, ‘Geographical studies of

Zohmun and its surrounding villages’ is a bonafied work carried out by
Lalnghakmawia Thangluah, Roll No. GEOG/12/186, IV Semester, student of this
department in partial fulfillment of the Degree in M.Sc. in Geography. Relevant data
with the topic are collected with joint efforts by the students. I recommend the
dissertation for due evaluation to the examiner.
Prof. Girindra Kumar Naorem Bobby Singh

(Supervisor) (Supervisor)
Head of Department Assistant Professor
Department of Geography & RM Department of Geography & RM
Mizoram University Mizoram University
i
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
First of all, I am grateful to the Almighty God, for giving me a good health and
favourable time in order to complete this dissertation work on time.
I am very grateful to my supervisors Prof. Girindra Kumar , Prof Vishwambhar

Prasad Sati and Mr Naorem Bobby Singh for their valuable suggestions and
encouragement to successfully complete this dissertation work.
I would like to express my heartfelt thank to my respected teacher Dr. Ch. Udaya
Bhaskara Rao for his co-operation and support in this work.
I am also thankful to my group mates for their constant motivation and

encouragement.
Lastly, I would like to thank to various Government Departments for permitting me

to use their maps and statistical data.
( )
th
IV Semester, M.Sc.
Dept of Geography & RM
Mizoram University
ii
LIST OF MAPS
Map No. Title Page No.
1.1 Location Map 8

1.2 Geomorphic Map 11
1.3 Relief Map 14
1.4 Slope Map 18
1.5 Geological Map 21
1.6 Drainage Map 23
1.7 Soil Map 26
1.8 Land Use / Land Cover Map 31
iii
LIST OF FIGURES
Figures No. Title Page No.
1.1 Land Use / Land cover 28
2.1 Religious Composition 42
3.1 Size of Family 46
3.2 Marital Status by Age 50
3.3 Percentage of Main Worker 55
3.4 Occupational Structure 57
3.5 Income Group 59
4.1 Sex Ratio 66
4.2 Age Sex Pyramid 71
4.3 Literacy Rate 73
4.4 Educational Attainment Level by Sex 79
iv
LIST OF TABLES
Table No. Title Page No.
1.1 Slope Category 16

1.2 Land Use / Land Cover 27
1.3 Average Rainfall 33
1.4 Average Temperature 34
1.5 Relative Humidity 35
3.1 Size of the Family 45
3.2 Household Amenities 48
3.3 Marital Status 50
3.4 Working Population 54
3.5 Percentage of main worker 55
3.6 Occupational Structure 57
3.7 Income Group 59
3.8 Consumption 62
4.1 Sex Ratio 65
4.2 Age Sex Composition 68
4.3 Age Sex Ratio 69
4.4 Literacy Rate 73
4.5 Educational Attainment Level 76
4.6 Educational Attainment Level by Sex 78
v
LIST OF PLATES
Plate no. Title Page no.
2.1 Centenary monument of U. Sakawrdai Church 39
2.2 EFCI Church of Mauchar Village 41
3.1 House type in Tinghmun Village 47
3.2 Health Centre of Palsang Village 51
3.3 Road Linking Zohmun to Mauchar 53
4.1 Government Middle School, Zohmun 76
vi
INTRODUCTION
Geography being a science of spatial studies requires establishment of

correlations that make areas unique. It, therefore, requires, field studies and objective
observations about geographical facts and process affecting them. It must be noted
that human attributes of an area are largely affected by its physical characteristics.
Thus, by analyzing the reciprocal relationship between physical features as well as
human activities of a particular area through field survey/ field study, one may be able
to understand the characteristics of that area that make it different from other areas.
Understanding the structure, landforms, lithology, climatic conditions and

drainage system is a central theme of study for geographers in order to know the
physical and cultural settings of an area. Studying of social and economic settings
cannot be neglected as they impinge on and are impinged upon by physical attributes
bringing about spatial variations in human cultural traits.
An attempt is made in this study to understand and to establish the impact of

geographical factors to the life of the people of Darlawn Rural Development Block
which in turn is reflected on their socio-econonmic and population composition. The
nature and degree of its impact may vary from one village to another due to
differential geographical factors.
The title suggested for the present study is “Geographical Studies of Zohmun
and its surrounding areas” assigned to a group of eight students, under the supervision
of Professor G.Kumar, Mr. Naorem Bobby Singh and Professor Vishwambhar Prasad
Sati, Department of Geography and RM. Field study was conducted during
28.02.2014 – 02.03.2014 with all possible aids of data collection. The study is,
therefore, a sincere attempt in an empirical analysis to arrive at suitable conclusions.
1
SELECTION OF THE STUDY AREA
Six villages of Darlawn Rural Development Block have been identified as

study area, which are located on the northern extreme edge of the State. To
understand and explain the unique characteristics of the area is the main aim of the
present study. Studies on various details mentioned above are expected to establish
the real identity of the study area.
It may be noted that the area is under Sinlung Development Council, but
despite of its location, the area is considered to be one of the most socially and
economically backward areas of Mizoram. The area lately has been experiencing
political disturbances and is emerging as politically sensitive. It is suggested that the
root cause of the problems in the area is low level of utilization of its economic
resources and unavailability of social and physical infrastructure. It is in this light that
an attempt has been made to study the area in its totality. It is expected to identify the
available basic resources of the area and its potential to utilize them in the best
interest of the people.
AIMS AND OBJECTIVES
The main purpose of study is to understand the basic resources- physical as well
as cultural of the area. The basic aim of the present study is as follows:
1) To understand the relationship amongst the physical factors that makes the
study area.
2) To assess the impact of the physical condition on the population
characteristics.
3) To assess the economic potentials of the area.
METHODOLOGY
The study area comprises of six villages namely Zohmun, Mauchar,

Zokhawthiang, Tinghmun, Palsang and Upper Sakawrdai. These villages are under
Darlawn Rural Development Block of Aizawl District and they are located on the
northern margin of the state sharing state boundary with Assam and Manipur.
From each village except Zohmun, 15 per cent of the total households are
randomly selected as a sample. In Zohmun village 10 per cent of total household is
2
taken as sample, fewer samples are collected because of large number of household.
Data are collected through questionnaires.
Besides questionnaires, secondary data has been collected from Economic and
Statistics Department, Agricultural Department, Education Department and other
governmental bodies as well as private bodies. Age grouping, sex ratio and age
pyramid are used to analyze population composition. Bar diagram and pie chart are
used to show various data.
During the pre field works, varieties of information are collected from
different sources like books, journals, government department reports. The Survey of
India toposheet no. 83 D/15 and 83 H/3 on the scale of 1: 50,000 have been used to
delineate the study area, drainage network and relevant topographic information to
prepare slope and relief maps.
Slope map has been prepared by using the method proposed by All Indian
Soils and Land Use Survey (1971). Geological map and Soil map are obtained from
Mizoram Remote Sensing and Department of Agriculture respectively. Geomorphic
map and Land use/Land cover map are prepared from satellite image using manual
digitization method. The area of different features in Soil and Land Use/Land Cover
map are measured using Planimeter. Rainfall, temperature and relative humidity are
obtained from Directorate of Economics & Statistics, Govt. of Mizoram.
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
Rintluanga Pachuau had a geographical study on Mizoram under the title “A

study in comprehensive geography”. He studied the physical set up of Mizoram
predominantly of mountainous terrain of tertiary rocks. He also wrote the geology of
Mizoram represented in general by repetitive succession of arenaceous and
argillaceous sediments which were later thrown into approximately NNW-SSE
trending longitudinal plunging and synclines. Rivers drained the region either north to
south direction. The drainage patterns are trellis, dendritic as well as parallel drainage
patterns. Soils in Mizoram are dominated by loose sedimentary formations and are
generally young, immature and sandy and red with loamy texture. The acidity present
in the soil is high, low in potash and phosphorous. They are mainly the product of
sandstones, siltstones and shales.
3
Professor Girindra Kumar highlights the regional analysis of Mizoram in his
book titled “Dynamics of Development and Planning (Mizoram a Comprehensive
Regional Analysis)”. He stressed the physiography and acknowledges that the form of
terrain influences economic use of the land it impinges on the form of socio-cultural
organization of the group that inhabits it hence the process of development.
Concerning geology, he wrote that the lithology of the hills suggests their origin; the
oldest rocks in the state having a thickness of about 3000 meters are believed to have
a marine origin of Oligocene period. Stream channel system influences the
groundwater reservoir of the basin they occupy. Excessive rain leading to pronounced
gully erosion renders the land useless. Rivers of Mizoram are small and generally
occupy narrow north-south trending basins. The longest river in the state is R.Tlawng
traversing a distance of 185 km. He also wrote that the Drainage basins are important
topographic elements. Watershed allows estimation of run-off, magnitude of erosion
and soil loss as well as possible suitable use of the land resource in different
watersheds. Regarding climate, he wrote that Mizoram generally enjoys a sub-tropical
climate of monsoon type.
Culture is an important component of geographical studies where spatial

variations are marked by distinct beliefs, practices, and difference in social structure.
Cultural studies would not warrant its name without a focus on culture. As Hall puts
it, ‘By culture, here I mean the actual grounded terrain of practices, representations,
languages and customs of any specific society. I also mean the contradictory forms of
common sense which have taken root in and helped to shape popular life’ (Hall, 1996,
p. 439). Culture is concerned with questions of shared social meanings, that is, the
various ways we make sense of the world. However, meanings are not simply floating
‘out there’; rather, they are generated through signs, most notably those of language.
Hmar ethnic group and its clan and sub-clan were studied by Sipra Sen in the
year 1992 and he described about their distribution and their cultural traits. B.
Lalthangliana, mizo prominent historian had his study on various tribes of Mizo and
he studied the history, cultural traits, and ethnic composition of Hmar ethnic groups.
He published a book named “India, Burma & Bangladesh-a Mizo Chanchin” in the
year 2001. The historical background of the study area was not yet studied by any
schlolars or researchers.
4
Datt and Sundharam had their study on Indian Economy in the year 1965 and
published a book named, “Indian Economy”. In their study they highlighted the work
force and occupational structure of India using Census data of 1901, 1921 and 1951.
They divided the Indian economy into three main sectors describing the economic
pattern of India. Srivastava in the year 1987 studied the demographic profile of North
EAST India under which he included the economic structure as well. He analyzed the
work force and occupational structure of north East India by using Census data.
Population composition of India was studied by Prof. Hajela in the year 1979,
on which sex ratio and age sex composition of both rural and urban settlement were
included in his study. He used female population per thousand male to find out sex
ratio and age pyramid to analyze the age structure. According to his findings there
were relatively very few people who live beyond the age of 50 years. Hajela used
secondary data (Census data) to have his study. After 7 years, R C Chandna made a
study of Indian population composition using Census data. He also used the same
method and techniques to analyze population composition.
Primary data are used in analyzing the socio-economic characters and

population composition of the study area. However, secondary data are used in
describing the geographical settings of the study area due to lack of scientific
equipments.
As geography deals with micro level study, this work has been carried out
with the study of small geographical unit in order to have a clear and precise image of
the area. So, this study is believed to have higher accuracy than studies conducted in
macro level.
CHAPTERIZATION
To have better understanding on various geographical characteristics of the

study area, the work has been divided into four major sections. The first section deals
with the physical settings which will include geographical location, geology, soil,
relief, geomorphic, land use/ land cover, and climate. The second section discuss on
historical background of the study area. Different villages in the study area practice
the same cultural traits and there are no much variations on practices and beliefs.
5
Third section deals with the socio-economic status. This section examines the
social and economic characters of the study area. Ethnic composition, size of family,
marital status, income group, occupational structure, working population and
expenditure pattern are the main field of study in this section.
Fourth section is mainly the population composition including sex ratio, age
sex composition, literacy rate, educational level, teacher student ratio, health care
facilities are course of studies under this section.
6
CHAPTER - 1
GEOGRAPHICAL SETTINGS
Location
The study area i.e. Zohmun and its Surrounding Villages is located between
24̊14’37’’N to 24̊4’45’’N latitude and 92̊51’20’’E to 93˚02’38’’E longitude covering
an area of about 254 sq km. It lies in the north of Aizawl District in Mizoram and
situated in Darlawn Rural Development Block. It is bounded North Thingdawl RD
Block on the west and the state of Manipur in the east and Assam along the northern
margin. The river Tuirial forms the western boundary and Tuiruang forms the eastern
boundary that demarcates the line between the study area and Manipur.
7
Map No. 1.1
8
Physiography
The physical setup of Mizoram is predominantly of mountainous terrain of

tertiary rocks. The mountain ranges are inclined north to south direction in a parallel
series. The ranges are separated from one another by narrow deep river valleys. The
terrain of Mizoram is young and immature. It shows prominent relief features with
steep slopes, and is still undergoing denudation in response to various exogenetic
processes.
In the study area of Zohmun and its Surrounding Villages, several landforms
have been identified and these landforms are formed due to differential endogenetic
and exogenetic processes. The landforms found in the study area are:
1) Structural Landforms 2) Fluvial Landforms
1) Structural landforms: Structural landforms are structural in origin by various

endogenetic forces. The prominent Structural landforms found in the study area are
Structural Hills, Structural Valley, Escarpment, Cliff and Fault/Fracture
i) Structural Hills: Structural hills are linear to arcuate shaped hills showing definite
trend lines. These are associated with folding and faulting. In the study area structural
hills are sub divided on the basis of their elevation into – a) Medium Structural Hill
and b) Low Structural Hill.
a) Medium Structural Hill: Medium structural hills include those which range in
height from 800m to 1200m.Medium structural Hill composes of about 13.96
Sq.km which account for 5.49 % of the study area. We found this mainly in the
southeastern part of the study area. Within this geomorphic unit, Zohmun and
Tinghmun villages are located.
b) Low Structural Hill: Low structural hills include those hills which rise below
800 metres. Low structural Hill comprise about almost the whole of the study
area. This geomorphic unit comprises 233.10 Sq.km which account for 91.77% of
the study area. It is the main geomorphic unit in the study areas and the villages of
Zokhawthiang, Mauchar, Palsang Upper Sakawrdai are located in this geomorphic
unit.
9
ii) Structural Valleys: Structural Valleys are linear to arcuate shaped valleys
lying bounded by high relief controlled by structure. These are formed as a result
of faulting/fracturing. Structural valleys are found along the river valleys. It
comprises an area of about 5.96 Sq.km account for 2.3 % of the study area.
iii) Escarpments: Escarpments are steep slope or long cliff that occurs from
faulting and resulting erosion and separates two relatively levels areas of differing
elevations. Escarpments are found in the northwestern, central and southern and
southwestern part of the study area.
iv) Cliff: Cliff is a vertical, or near vertical rock, rock exposure. It is formed as
erosion landforms due to the processes of weathering and erosion that produced
them. Cliff is found in the central part of the study area.
v) Fault/Fracture: These are the features in the earth crust along the plane of
which there has been displacement of rock on one side related to the other in
horizontal/vertical movement. Faults/fractures are found almost all parts of the
study area.
2) Fluvial Landforms: Fluvial landforms are the end product of fluvial process
and are shaped by a variety of fluvial agencies. Fluvial Landforms include alluvial
plain, natural levees, valley fill, deltaic plain, flood plain, oxbow lakes etc. The
fluvial landform found in the study area is Valley Fill.
Valley fill is of fluvial origin characterized by unconsolidated sediments

deposited by streams of river in a narrow fluvial valley. It is scarcely found and
composes only about 0.98 Sq.km which account for 0.38 % of the study area. The
villages of Zohmun and Tinghmun and has this type of geomorphic unit and it is
also found in the southeastern corner of the area along the banks of Sumlung river
and along the north central part near the banks of Matai river.
The study area is traversed dominantly by Chalfilh range.. The range runs in
the north-south direction. The ridges are separated from one another by narrow
deep valleys of streams and tributaries. The maximum elevation noticed in the
study area is Sakawrdai Tlang which stood at 1098 metres above the sea level that
lies in southeastern part of the study area. As the region is young and immature in
its formation, the hill slope are moderate with low relief.
10
Map no. 1.2
11
Topography and Relief
The study area however, may be divided into four distinct physiographic units
such as:
1. High relief
2. Moderate relief
3. Low relief
4. Very low relief
1. High Relief (Above 900 metres): These are found in the south-eastern part of
the block and trends from north-east to south-west and north to south
direction. The unit occupies small part of Zohmun village and extends towards
the northern part and the other one runs from a small part of Upper Sakawrdai
and extents towards the northeastern parts. High relief features in the study
area covers only about 3.22 sq.km which is 1.26 per cent of the total area.
Some parts like Sakawrdai tlang (1098m), and Sedai tlang (1042m) are located
in this topographic unit.
2. Moderate Relief (600 – 900 metres): Moderate relief covers about 32.56
sq.km of the study area which accounts for 12.81 per cent of the total area.
The minimum relief is found to be 600 metres. The maximum altitude in this
category is about 900 meters. It stretches from northeast central parts towards
south and the southwest direction. The villages of Zohmun, Tinghmun, and
Palsang are located in the topographic unit. The slopes vary from moderately
steep to moderately sloping.
3. Low Relief (300 – 600 metres): This topographic unit covers an area of about
103.98 sq.km which accounts for 40.93 per cent of the total area. It stretches
from a northern most tip of the area towards the south and southwestern parts
of the study area. The village of Mauchar is located in this topographic unit.
The slopes vary from moderately steep sloping to very gentle sloping.
4. Very low Relief (Below 300 metres): The block is also characterized by
widely plain area with a very low relief covering an area of about 114.24
sq.km., which comprises about 44.97 per cent of the study area. These
topographic units are found along the south and the whole of western
boundary and some position of northern part and the whole boundary of
12
eastern parts. The village of Zokhawthiang is situated in this topographic unit.
One can identify from the relief map of Zohmun and its surrounding villages
that this topographic unit areas are located in the river valleys of Tuirial and
Tuiruang at both western and eastern ends respectively.
The area is occupied by very low relief features and is characterized by thick
vegetative cover dominated by bamboo. These areas are also identified by the people
for practicing shifting cultivation. Practice of shifting cultivation, however, is found to
be the vegetative cover in the vicinity of settlements.
13
Map No. 1.3
14
Slope Analysis
As the terrain of the area is young and immature, it shows prominent relief
features with steep slope and narrow valleys and the mountain ranges are separated
from one another by narrow deep river valleys. Slope represents a very significant
parameter in land resource evaluation. Slope represents the gradient of terrain over
distance in all possible directions.
For the preparation of slope map for Zohmun and its surrounding Villages we
used the method adopted by All India Soil and Land Use Survey (vide soil survey
manual, IARI, 1971) after slight modification has been used. Survey of India,
toposheet No 83 H/3 and 83 D/ 15 having a scale of 1:50,000 have been used to
prepare the slope map. The slope map based on contour spacing is presented below.
Table: Showing the slope category, percentage and lower and upper limit of
contour spacing after slight modification of All India Soil and Land Use Survey (vide
Soil survey manual, IARI, 1971).
The slope category in Zohmun and its surrounding Villages obtained from the
above table may broadly be grouped into six groups having range from nearly level
land (1-3% i.e river valley) to steep sloping (more than 35%). The area is largely
covered by moderate sloping covering about 41.89% of the total area. Very steep
sloping covers only 2.16% of the total area.
15
Table: 1.1
Slope Category
Slope Lower and Upper Lower and Area in Sq.km Percentage of
category Limit of Contour Upper Contour Area Cover
Percentage Spacing
1. 1–3% More than 1.33 25.59 10.07
cm
2. More than 3% up to More than 50.07 19.71
5% 0.8cm and up to
1.33
10% 0.4cm and up to
0.8cm
15% 0.11cm and up
to 0.26cm
35% 0.11cm to
0.26cm
6. More than 35% 0.11cm and less 5.51 2.16
1) Very gentle sloping (1 – 3%): The small patches of land in the river valleys
of Tuirial in the western border part and Tuiruang at eastern border part and the
river banks of Matai in the northern part of the study area exhibit the very gentle
sloping land which covers an area of about 25.59 Sq.km i.e about 10.7% of the
total area. This slope classes are suitable for cultivating horticultural crops.
2) Gently sloping (3 – 5%): Gently sloping occurs in the northwestern border of

the area near the Tuirial river valley and in the north eastern part up to central
eastern part near the river valleys of Rungdung lui. It covers an area of about
50.07% Sq.km which is 19.71% of the total study area. This slope category is best
suitable for sedentary agricultural practices
2) Moderately sloping (5 – 10%): This class of moderately sloping mainly

concentrated in the western part the starters from the northern up to the whole
south western parts. This class is also found in the eastern boundary near the
16
Tuiriang river. The total area extent of this slope class is about 106.42 Sq.Km
which account for 41.89% of the total area. This slope category may be
considered for the development of pastures and grazing land as well as for raising
horticultural crops.
3) Strongly sloping (10 – 15%): This class of strongly sloping starts from the
north eastern parts and then extends towards the end of southern parts. It can also
be identified in the eastern part near the tributaries of Tuiruang river. This slope
class covers about 55.22 Sq.km which is 21.74% of the total study area. The area
is suitable for horticultural practices and forest development.
4) Moderate steep to steep sloping (15 – 35%): The moderate steep sloping
exists in the north western part and south western part. This slope area covers
around 11.19 Sq.km which account for 4.40% of the total study area. The area is
suitable for forest development.
5) Very steep sloping (more than 35%): This slope area occupies only about
6.51 Sq.km which is 2.16% of the study area and are found in northeastern and
southeastern part of the study area. This slope category may not be suitable for
agricultural practices but it can provide suitability to ecologically important
natural vegetation.
17
Map No. 1.4
18
Geology
A simple meaning of geology is the science which deals with the physical
structure of the earth, surface is made, the structure of those material and the process
acting upon them.
The study area is represented by two rock form namely middle and upper
Bhuban formation of Bhuban sub group. The middle Bhuban formation comfortably
underlies the upper Bhuban formation with gradational and transitional contact. The
middle Bhuban formation is mainly argillaeous with shale as the dominant rock type.
The other rock type in this formation includes siltstones, mudstones, clay stones and
sandstones as minor constituents. The rock of upper Bhuban formation is
predominantly arenaceous and also represented in minor quantities by siltstone, shale,
clayey sand and mudstones. Sandstone is dominated in the upper Bhuban formation.
The middle Bhuban rocks are mainly exposed along the most of the anticlines while
the rocks of the Upper Bhuban formation form the limbs of the anticlines.
Geologically, the study area is characterized by sedimentary rocks belonging

to Bhuban formation of Surma group of Mio-Pilocene age, the terrain is not fully
developed in response to recent tectonism and topographical feature show prominent
relief.
Structural Unit:
The structural units mainly found in the area are:
1) Dip: Dip of an inclined rock surface is the maximum angle of slope in a vertical
plane measured downward from the horizontal plane. The direction of dip is
perpendicular to the strike. Dips are ranging from 20˚-65˚, although there are some
local variations below and above this range. The study area has been affected by a
number of dip which are found in northwestern part, southwestern and southeastern
part of the area.
2) Lineament: Lineament is a description and non genetic terms for any kind of
linear structure within or on the surface of the earth. It usually connotes relatively
straight or broadly curving lines. It usually represent fault/ fracture in the strata, it
19
may vary in length and in breadth. In the study area, lineaments are found in
southwestern, northern, southern, central and eastern part.
3) Fault (inferred): These are linear fractures without definite displacement but with
a possibility of faulting, and may cut across various litho units. In the study area, fault
(inferred) are found in northwestern part, central western part, central eastern part and
southwestern part.
4) Fault (confirmed): These are definite linear features with displacement which cut
across various litho units. It is fracture in the crust along the plane of which there has
been displacement of rock on one side relative to the other. In the study area fault
(confirmed) are found in the northern, central and south-western part.
5) Structural trend: A structural feature that is relatively parallel line which arcuate
or circular. It may be expression of litho units, parallel fold axes or faults. Structural
trend areas are found in different parts mainly on the northwestern part, northern,
southern and eastern part.
Rock Types:
Rock types of the study area are also presented here in the map. The rock
types of the study area are:
a) Sandstone: Sandstone are fine to very fine grained ash to bluish grey to light
brown in colour, compact and hard thinly bedded and are rarely yellowish brown,
medium grained and friable. Few thick beds sandstone is found in some areas.
Sandstone covers the entire area of about 117.96 Sq.km of the total area stretching
from most northern part to half of the southern part of the area.
b) Siltstone and shale: Shale and siltstone are dark grey to grey in colour and are
usually splintery. Siltstone and shale occupy about 134.58 Sq.km of the study area.
These rock types are found in the central part southern, western and eastern part of the
area. This rock type stretches from northern area towards the southwestern direction.
It is the largest rock types found in the area.
c) Clayey Sand: This units form the recent alluvium deposits. Clayey sand deposits
are found scattered all over the area of about 1.46 Sq.km along the river bank and
valley fills between the hills.
20
Map No.1.5
21
Drainage
Surface configuration like relief, slope and dissection are important factor
which affect the development and pattern of drainage system of the area. The state of
Mizoram is drained by a number of rivers, streams and rivulets of various pattern and
length. The areas receive a considerable amount of rainfall during summer, and most
of the streams are ephemeral in nature. Their volume is very limited in dry season,
whereas they swell rapidly during monsoon season. It has been observed that running
water is the most decisive agent who has sculpture landform of the region.
Most of the drainage line originated in the central part of the state; and flow
either towards north or south directed by the north-south trending ridges. The valleys
are narrow and have been carved out in softer formations. The rivers at various places
formed deep gorges, and cut across the striking ridges forming water gaps. The upper
courses of the rivers are often intervened by waterfalls.
Drainage is a channelized flow of water through streams, rivers and their

tributaries. The major rivers within the study area are Tuirial and Tuiruang. These two
major rivers are navigable during a major part of the year. The two rivers have several
perennial and non-perenial tributary streams. Tuirial rivers forms the boundary of
western side which measure about 63 kms inside the study areas with different
tributaries of which important sources are Vapualkaw lui, Matai lui, Dugan lui
,Teirangnekte lui, etc. Tuiruang is confluence from the southern side by Tuivawl
river.Tuiruang is measured as 45 kms that draining on the eastern side with many
tributaries of which the important sources are Zilthaw lui, Ruanding lui, Sumlung lui,
Sih lui,Aieng lui, Maorawp lui,Lungkulh lui, etc. These two major rivers i.e. Tuirial
and Tuiruang enter Cachar district and eventually falls into Barak river.
The highly undulating nature of topography controls the drainage and their
flowing patterns.The drainage system of the study area is characterized by dendritic
pattern. Trellis, parallel to sub parallel types is also found in different parts of the
area. The drainage channels are structurally controlled. Most of the major river and
stream courses in the study area are guided by several active faults and fractures.
22
Map No. 1.6
23
Soil
Ordinarily speaking, soil represents the loose and unconsolidated materials

derived through the breaking down of rocks. Soil is formed of rocks that have been
reduced to small fragments and have been more or less changed chemically, together
with the remains of plants or animals that live on or in it ( J.S. Joffe, 1949).
Like other parts of Mizoram the soil of the study area is dominated by loose
sedimentary formation. They are generally young immature and sandy. Derived soil
are mainly from shale, sandstone and shale rock. The colour of the soil are generally
red in colour. The red colour is due to more to the wide diffusion rather than to high
percentage of iron. Loamy texture is found with high level of laterite. The soil which
are seen in the valley parts are transported by fluvial from higher altitudes. The soil
acidity is high, low in potash and phosphorous but in an uneroded soil the content of
nitrogen is quite high fostered by accumulation of organic matters.
The brief description of soil and their classification are done on the basis of
the physiographic units.
Hill:
1) Ridge Complex (0-15%): The main characteristics of soils found in the ridges or
hilltop are dark brown to yellowish brown, deep to very deep soils, loam to clay loam,
well-drained and moderate erosion. These soils are not suitable for agriculture but
well suited for horticulture, pasture uses, sericulture and forestry. About 29.72 sq.km
of land occupies these types of soil. The main pedons found are Fine Loamy, Typic
Hapludults, Loamy Skeletal,Hyperthermic, Umbric Dystrochrepts,Fine Loamy, Typic
Paleudults. The villages of Zohmun,Tinghmun, Palsang, Mauchar and Zokhawthiang
are located under this soil association.
Side Slopes:
2) Very Very Steep (>50%): The soils are dark yellowish brown shallow to deep
soil, loam to heavy loam, well-drained, moderate erosion and skeletal. The area is
suitable for forestry and wildlife, but not suitable for cultivation. It covers about 4.25
sq km of the study area.Loamy Skeletal, Mixed, Typic Hapludults/Umbric
24
Dystrochrepts, Fine, Hyperthermic, Typic Paleudults/Typic Dystrochrepts are the
pedons found in this area.
3) Very Steep (33-50%): The soils found in the mountain slopes are very dark
grayish brown to dark yellowish brown to dark yellowish brown, very deep soil, loam
to clay loam, well drained, moderate erosion. The area is suitable for cultivating
horticultural crops, pasture, sericulture and social forestry. The pedons found are
Loamy Skeletal, Mixed, Typic Hapludults/Umbric Dystrochrepts/Typic Udorthents,
Fine, Hyperthermic, Rhodic Paleudults. This covers an area of about 45.42 sq. km of
the study area. Upper Sakawrdai is the village fall under this soil association.
4) Steep (25-33%): The main characteristic of soil found in this steep slope is dark
yellowish brown, very deep soils, loam to clay loam, well drained, moderate erosion.
The area is suitable for cultivating horticultural crops, pasture, sericultures and social
forestry. The pedons found are Loamy Skeletal, Mixed, Umbric Dystrochrepts/Rhodic
Paleudults, Loamy Skeletal, Mixed, Typic Hapludults. This covers about 90.81 sq. km
of the study area.
5) Moderately Steep to Steep (15-25%): The soils found here are dark brown to
very dark grayish brown, deep to very deep soils, loam to clay loam, well-drained,
moderate erosion and skeletal. The area is suitable for cultivating horticultural crops
or crops climatically adapted to elevation, and also the area may be suggested for
terrace cultivation. The pedons found in this area are Loamy Skeletal, Mixed, Typic
Dystrochrepts, Fine, Loamy, Mixed, Typic Hapludults, Fine, Hyperthermic, Typic
Paleudult, Loamy Skeletal, Thermic, Typic Paleudults. This covers about 80.87sq. km
of the study area.
Valley:
6) Moderately Sloping (5-10%): Soils are dark brown to very dark grayish brown,
deep to very deep soils, loam to clay loam, well-drained, moderate erosion and
skeletal. It is moderately good cultivable land, suitable for the cultivation of crops like
paddy, maize, soyabean, mustard, potato, ginger may be grown in rotation. Loamy
Skeletal, Mixed, Fluventic Umbric Dystrochrepts are pedons found in this area. This
covers about 2.93 sq. km of the study area.
25
Map No. 1.7
26
Landuse/Landcover
The term land-use and land-cover are closely related and are not mutually
exclusive they are interchangeable as land-use can be inferred based on land-cover.
Land-use referred to “Man’s activities and the various uses which are carried out on
land”, whereas land-cover referred to “natural vegetation, water bodies, rock/soil,
artificial cover and other noticed on the land” (NRSA, 1989).
The information on land-use and land-cover is pre-requisite for land and

vegetation resource utilization, conservation and management. The vegetation cover
causes the interception of rainfall which reduces the runoff and promotes the
infiltration that increases the groundwater table. The forested areas like Mizoram are
influenced by human activities. They impinge on the quality of land and soil cover.
The advanced satellite-based data provides up-to-date and accurate information on the
existing land-use and land-cover and its changing patterns with reference to time and
space. Land-use information is very important for watershed planning and
management of the available natural resources.
On the basis of information collected from the satellite imagery and field visits
there are six major land-use/land cover units have been identified in Zohmun and its
surrounding villages. They may be grouped as Built-up land, Forest, Wasteland,
Water bodies and Shifting cultivation (Current and Abandoned). The whole area is
254 sq.km.
Table: 1.2
Land use/ land cover
Sl no. Land use / Land cover unit Area in Sq Km Percentage Angle in
degree
1 Built-up land 1.85 0.72 2.62
2 Forest 219.07 86.24 310.49
3 Wasteland 0.72 0.28 1.02
4 Water bodies 4.01 1.57 5.68
5 Shifting Cultivation (Current) 15.73 6.19 22.29
6 Shifting Cultivation (Abandoned) 12.63 5 17.9
Total 254 100 360
Source: Field Survey conducted by Department of Geography & RM MZU 2014
27
Land Use / Land Cover
5.68 Built-up land

2.62
22.29
1.02
17.9 Forest
Wasteland
Water bodies
310.49
Shifting Cultivation
(Current)
Shifting Cultivation
(Abandoned)
Figure 1.1
1. Built-up land:
It is identified as an area of human habitation developed due to non-

agricultural use like buildings, transport and communication lines, industrial activities
etc. roads and settlements are the land use units under built-up land category
identified from the study area. These are six (6) villages in the study area, which are
Upper Sakawrdai, Zohmun, Tinghmun, Palsang, Mauchar and Zokhawthiang. These
settlements are connected by unmetalled road and cart tract. The total geographical
area covered by the settlements in the study area is about 1.85sq.km which is 0.72 %
of the area.
2. Forest:
It is an area bearing an association predominantly of trees and other vegetation

types capable of producing timber and other forest products. Majority of the study
area is covered by Tropical wet-evergreen and Tropical semi-evergreen forest types.
The total area covered these types of forest is 219.07 sq.km which is about 86.24% of
the total area of the study area. The most common tree species found in these area are
bamboos of different species, Ngiau (Michelia Champaca), Thlanvawng (Gmelina
arborea), Thingkha (Derris robusta), Hmunphiah ( Thysonoloena agrestis),
28
Thingdawl (Tetrameles nudi), Khiang ( Schima wallichii), Char ( Tarminalia
mycriocarpa), Zuang (Duabanga sonneratioides), Thingsia (Castanopsis tribuloides),
Bil (Protium serratum), Zairum (Anogneissey acuminate), Zawngtah ( Parkia
roxburghii), Pang ( Bombax insigne), Fartuah (Erythiana stricta), Vang ( Albizzia
Stipulate), Tei (Cedrela toona), Khaukhim (Sterculia colarata), Thingvawkpui (
Sapium baccatum), Lenhmui (Eugenia jambolona), Hlai (Quercus helferiana), Vaiza
(Hibicus macrophyllus),Tlangham (Lyonia ovalifolia), Hnahthial (Phrynium
capilatum), Tum or Meihle (Caryota urens) etc.
3. Wasteland:
Wasteland is described as degraded land which can be brought under

vegetation cover with reasonable effort, and which is currently under utilized and land
which is deteriorating due to lack of appropriate water and soil management account
of natural causes. Under wasteland category Land with/without Scrub is found the
study area. It occupy (relatively) higher topography like uplands or high grounds with
or without scrub. This land is generally prone to degradation or erosion. It is found in
the southern most part near the village of Upper Sakawrdai that occupy an area of
about 0.72 Sq.km which is 0.28% of the study area.
4. Water bodies:
Water bodies are an area of impounded water, areal in extent and often with a
regulated flow of water. It includes man-made reservoirs/lakes/tanks/cannals, besides
natural lakes, river/streams and creeks. Here we can attribute water bodies as
accumulation of water as in rivers or in streams that flows within the study area of
Zohmun and its surrounding villages.
Within the study area, as we mentioned in the drainage network chapter, river
Tuirial is flowing on the western fringe and Tuiruang river flowing on its eastern
edge; and its numerous tributaries of these two main rivers are flowing inside the area.
Water bodies occupy 4.01 sq.km (1.57 % ) of the total area.
5. Shifting cultivation:
Shifting cultivation is the result of cyclic land use practice of felling of trees and
burning of forest areas for growing crops. It is the pre-dominant agricultural practices
29
in the study area. It covers the area of about 28.35sq.km which is 11.16 % of the total
study area. Shifting cultivation is categorized into two-abandoned and current.
Abandoned shifting cultivation covered 12.63sq.km which is 4.97 % and current
shifting cultivation covered 15.72 sq. km which is 6.18 % of the total area of the study
area. In the current shifting cultivation, paddy and vegetables are the important and
most commonly grown.
30
Map No. 1.8
31
Climate
Climate is the average weather conditions and variations in both space and
time. Weather conditions over a specific length of time are taken into consideration.
The main elements of climate are temperature, rainfall, humidity, dew, frost,
hailstorm and thunderstorm.
Zohmun and its surrounding villages enjoy a moderate climate in spite of sub
tropical location because of the presence of series of hill ranges running from north to
south. It is neither very hot nor too cold throughout the year. The region falls under
direct influence of southwest monsoon. As such, the region receives an adequate
amount of rainfall. The climate is humid tropical, characterized by short winter, long
summer with heavy rainfall.
Rainfall:
In the study area, monsoon rain starts from second part of May October. The
distribution of rainfall is not uniform throughout the year. The rainiest months are
June to August while December and January are the driest months. From 2007 t0
2013 the average annual rainfall is about 203.92 cm. During this period, the rainiest
year is 2007 and the annual average rainfall is about 251.07 cm, while 2008 is the
lowest rainfall which received about an average rainfall of 157.73 cm.
Rainy season or the summer season is the longest season, hold for nearly six
months from second part of May till late October. The season starts with violent
storms which swept the area from southwest through Bay of Bengal, marking the
beginning of monsoons rains. In the study area, from 2007 to 2013 the average
summer rainfall is about 354.84 cm. During this 7 years the summer rainfall highest in
2007 and the average rainfall is 424.515 cm, while 2008 experienced the lowest
summer rainfall with an average of about 271.64 cm.
32
Table No. 1.3
Monthly Average Rainfall Of Zohmun And Its Surrounding Villages (in cm)
2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013
January 0 66.24 0.35 0 13.7 11.5 0
February 58.17 20.12 2.4 3.2 2.1 17.6 1.46
March 23.94 36.23 22.5 119.4 83.4 19.2 4.7
April 217.02 57.9 141.45 199.5 105.3 302.3 65.6
May 379.76 192.28 160.55 369.5 422.3 209.7 499.3
June 482.48 272.47 331.1 464.2 439 456.7 293.1
July 425.37 366.07 318.91 428 372.2 264 351.9
August 439.29 411.54 468.2 524.7 547.9 401.8 519.9
September 603.17 329.62 360.45 503.6 374.2 355 476
October 216.25 122.48 164.7 275.6 165.8 195 209.2
November 166.17 17.85 41.75 27.9 0.4 54.8 1.3
December 1.25 0 0 59.3 0.1 0 0
251.07 157.73 167.70 247.91 210.53 190.63 201.87
Source: Directorate of Economic and Statistics, Mizoram
The cold or the winter season starts from November and last till February. In
the study area, the annual average winter rainfall is about 53 cm from 2007 to 2013.
During this period the average winter rainfall is highest in 2010 with average rainfall
of 80.9 cm and lowest in last year i.e., 2013 as an average of 36.11 cm.
Temperature:
Since there are no proper observatory stations in Mizoram, it is not possible to

give comprehensive information about the temperature conditions of the regions. The
salient thermo-characteristics of Mizoram are that temperatures do not much fluctuate
throughout the year, excepting in the low lying areas. However it is observed that
there has been a steady increase in the annual temperature. The hottest months are
May, June and July. Thereafter, the onset of monsoon brings down the temperature.
The temperature continues to fall with the break of the monsoon rains, and it
minimized in December and January.
33
Table No: 1.4
Monthly Minimum And Maximum Average Temperature Of Zohmun And Its Surrounding
Villages (in ͦC)
MONT MAXIMUM MINIMUM
H
2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
Jan 13.33 13.7 10.9 12.8 10.55 24.42 25.9 22.8 23.24 22.83
Feb 15.56 14.6 13.6 14.15 14.60 26.99 25.7 25.5 26.13 27.70
Mar 18.80 18.8 16.2 16.96 17.37 28.85 29.4 28.3 28.71 30.04
Apr 19.57 19.0 18.1 17.11 17.22 29.67 28.7 28.6 27.35 29.46
May 19.77 19.9 18.3 19.57 17.36 28.77 26.6 27.2 28.38 26.40
Jun 20.49 20.1 20.4 19.89 20.12 27.39 26.1 27.3 26.53 27.89
Jul 21.02 19.5 20.4 20.00 19.63 27.90 25.0 27.1 27.35 27.47
Aug 20.83 20.5 20.4 19.98 19.43 27.02 27.4 27.4 27.80 26.14
Sept 20.79 20.0 20.2 19.93 19.19 28.24 27.3 27.8 27.38 26.73
Oct 19.87 19.5 19.3 18.45 18.60 28.33 28.3 27.7 25.34 25.46
Nov 17.18 16.2 16.2 15.16 15.07 26.54 26.2 27.5 23.35 28.32
Dec 13.15 12.7 13.5 11.90 11.71 24.08 24.2 24.6 24.20 23.44
In the study area, the autumn temperature usually ranges from 19.53˚C to
27.67˚C, while winter temperature records normally 13.6˚C to 23.56˚C. The summer
temperature is extends between 19.90˚C to 27.52˚C and the spring temperature varies
between 16.8˚C to 27.16˚C. The lowest temperature from 2009 to 2013 is 5.6˚C on
11th January 2013 and the highest temperature is 34.5˚C on 11th April 2013. During
the last five years 2013 is the hottest and the coldest year with an average annual
temperature of 30.70˚C and16.73˚C.
Relative Humidity:
Relative humidity is the ratio of the partial pressure of water vapour in an air-
water mixture to the saturated vapour pressure of water at a prescribed temperature.
The relative humidity of air depends on temperature and pressure of the system of
interest.
The study area is humid subtropical having annual average relative humidity
varies from 61.57% to 81.87%. From 2009 to 2013, relative humidity is highest in
2013 with an average of 82.24% and lowest in the same year accounts for 45.82%.
34
Table No: 1.5
Monthly Relative Humidity Of Zohmun And Its Surrounding Villages
MONTH RELATIVE HUMIDITY IN %
MAXIMUM MINIMUM
2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
Jan 82 82 79 81.99 34.95 52 38 38 33.11 80.9

9
Feb 70 89 73 63.08 27.82 34 42 33 27.78 66.5

6
Mar 84 96 72 71.44 24.74 20 32 36 33 60.6

3
Apr 96 98 82 87.94 N.A 44 45 41 51.16 N.A
May 98 100 95 89.37 56.50 64 72 60 55.71 86.3

3
Jun 97 100 95 95.99 N.A 75 82 68 70.92 N.A
Jul 97 98 96 95.77 61.21 74 85 75 68.90 92.4

2
Aug 100 98 96 97.87 63.88 78 88 69 68.28 89.0

6
Sept 98 100 97 97.75 63.48 70 81 69 67.81 92.4

8
Oct 96 100 96 97.44 58.67 64 69 60 61.50 90.4

2
Nov 100 96 93 95.69 33.28 55 64 43 59.81 82.7

1
Dec 86 100 80 82.32 33.71 57 52 38 33.93 80.8

3
Average 92 96 88 88.05 45.82 87 63 53 52.65 82.2

4
35
Wildlife
Mizoram, in the past, was the abode of wildlife comprising diverse species of
tropical birds, animals and reptiles. However this has dwindled considerably in recent
years due to old age practice of shifting cultivation and excessive hunting. The
Sumatran rhino and brow antlered deer were said to have existed in Mizoram in the
past. Even the elephant and bison which were quite abundant in the past have
retreated to the interiors. The destruction of habitats of plants and animals by various
detrimental factors, thus, has rendered many species of rare species of rare plants and
animals to the extent of becoming endangered and extinct.
Wildlife in Mizoram do not varied, the animals and birds found in different
parts of Mizoram are the same throughout. The study area also has the same wildlife
composition which is found in other parts of Mizoram.
Among the mammals inhabiting all parts of the study area, the existing
animals are tiger (sakei/panthera tigris), bear (savawm/selenarctos tibethanus), wild
boar (sanghal/sus scorfa), barking deer (sakhi/ muntiacus muntjak), sambar (sazuk/
servus unicilor), serow ( saza/capricornis sumatraensis), pangolin (saphu/Manis
crassicaudata), sakuh (hystrix indica),slow loris (sahuai/nycticebus
sumatraensis),squirrel (awrrang/rotufa bicolor), flying squirrel (biang/hylopetes
alboniger),tree shrew (chepa/tupaia glis),monkey (zawng/macaca asamenis), wolf
(chinghnia/cuon alpines), leopard (keite/panther pardus), lynx (sanghar/lynx
Canadensis),zamphu (Binturong arctictis), mole (bui), fox (sihal), sazaw, tlumpui,
etc. Python (saphai/python molurus), viper (rulngan/Viperta russeli), copra
(chawngkawr/naja naja) and other reptiles are also found.
There are various species of birds of varying sizes and colours. The common
birds in the study area are: Humes bartailed pheasant (vavu/syrmaticus humiae),
laughing thrust (vazar/garrulax pectoralis), jungle fowl (ramar), white checked hill
patridge (varung/arborophila atrogularis), Indian pied horn bill (vahai/anthrococeros
albirostris), great horn bill (vapual/buceros bicornis), kalij pheasant (vahrit/lophura
leucomelana lathami), pin tailed green pigeon (vahui/treron apicauda), bamboo
patridge (vahlah/bambusicola fytchii), common bustard quail (vahmim/turnix
suscicator), tlaiberh, vazun,tukloh, pit, daikat,vathu, ramparva, tawllawt, etc.
36
CHAPTER - 2
HISTORICAL BACKGROUND
There is no secondary information about the detail of history on the present

study areas. Even when we enquire about the history, settlers of these areas can
hardly able to answer and what they told was that many of the tribe/clan was migrated
from neighboring states of Manipur while some of them coming from other parts of
the state.
However, it was clear after proper investigation of each village, we can

somehow concluded that majority of these villages has Hmar tribe as dominant as it
consist probably about 85 per cent. The remaining tribes/ clans are of various such as,
Ralte, Chawngthu, Pawi, Siakeng etc.
Hmars migrated from China and settled first in Burma and scattered around
Manipur, Mizoram and Dima Hasao in Assam. They are of Mongoloid stock. They
speak their own dialect called “ hmar dilect“, same as with their tribe name.
Even after long years of migration from their original abode, the Hmars still
adhere to their traditional culture through observing their traditional festivals
connecting with agricultural cycle & other community rites & practices. Their cultural
traditions are best reflected in their folk songs & dances. Khuong (drum) is the main
part of the musical instrument. The other musical instruments are Pheiphit (whistle
made of bamboo), Theihlea (bamboo flute), Darkhuong (gong), Darbu (set of small
gong), Darmang (flat brass gong), Seki (set of mithun horn), Hna Mut (Leaf
instrument), Perkhuong (guitar made of bamboo) etc.
The festival highlighting agricultural practices is Sikpuiruoi and

Butukhuonglom. They express their happiness in Dar lam and Parton lam dances by
rhythmic beating of the drums. To honour a great hunter they perform Pheiphitlam
dance accompanied by melodious tune trilling from their flutes. To perform Fahral
Tawk lam, they use bamboo poles like the Mizos (in their famous Cheraw dance).
The Hmars perform a number of dances –the Harvest dance is called Chon
lam, the hunting dance is known as Salu lam and a privately organized festival dance
37
is popular as Thangkawngvailak. The dancers, both boys and girls, put on their
colourful traditional dresses and the boys wear headgear Tawnlairang made of bird’s
feathers or Lukhum made of bamboo, and the colourful shawl called Hmar puon. The
girls adorn themselves with ornaments like Kutsabi (ring), Banbun (bangles), Nabe
(earings), Thi (Seeded Necklace), Thi val (beaded ornaments), Thi hna (beaded
ornaments) etc, and wear exquisitely embroidered Puons, Puonbil and Zakuo.They
rejoice in drinking ‘ Zu’ (rice beer) and the oldman and woman smoke in their
‘Tuibur’ pipes at their hearts content.
The system of bride price is still prevelant & the youngest daughter usually
gets an extra price called 'Nuzum'. Earlier they practiced animism & their God was
“Pathien” & sacrifices were offered for his appeasement. Now almost the whole of
the tribe is converted into Christianity & they have built churches in their villages &
religious rites are performed according to the tenets of Christianity. The Hmars built
their villages on hill -tops & houses are constructed on wooden planks. Slash & burn
system of agricultural practices is still at large amongst the Hmars.
According to the Hmar geneology, the following are the major clans. They are
Lawitlang, Zote, Lungtau, Thiek, Khawbung, Pakhuong, Faihriem, Darngawn, Leiri,
Ngurte, Khiengte, Pautu and Ngente.
The chief of their village council is called “LAL” .He is selected from
amongst the youngest son except Leiri & Faihriem Clans.He is all-powerful and
everybody follows his leadership and directive.
The Hmar womenfolk are great weavers in their tiny loin looms. They dye
their homespun yarns into different colours and weave exquisite clothes for the
family. Man and women wear different kind of clothes. Hmar–am is finely woven
cloth for the aristocratic womenfolk, Tawn lo – puon is a breast cloth never to be
touched by a man, Tharlaikawn is a body wrapper with coloured strips on the back for
the women. Ngo – tlong is a white wrapper for women, Thangsuo – Puon is for the
great hunters and heroes who have earned the title ‘Thangsuo” for valour, Rukrak –
puon is a long wrapper for village aristocrats, Hmar – puon is a common cloth with
black and white strips, Daraki is a dhoti for the malefolk, Paihar is a chaddar for men,
38
Lukawm is a soft cloth for man’s headgear, Puondum is a chaddar for menfolk and
Puon – Kernei is the finely woven breast wrapper for the village maidens.
Plate 2.1
Centenary Monument of U.Sakawrdai Church
There are 6 villages within the study area. A brief outline of these villages
may be given as:
ZOHMUN: This village was inhabited since 1896. The first chief was
Lawmsawma. The topography of this is hilly andopened space / the place is airy, then
the village was name as ‘Zohmun’. Hmar and Lusei are the major ethnic groups and
they used their owned language. The sub-clan of Hmar-Thiak has the highest
population which accounts 17.64% of the population. The total number of household
is around 300.
TINGHMUN: Tinghmun was inhabited since 1810. Hmar is the major ethnic
group and they used their owned language. Among the Hmar sub-clan Hmar-Varte
occupied the highest population (23.8%). The total number of household is 164.
39
ZOKHAWTHIANG: Zokhawthiang was inhabited since 1940. But, it is
known as Kani. The name of the village has been change to Zokhawthiang in 1994.
Hmar-zote have the highest population which accounts for 23.8% of the total
population, and they used their own language.T he total number of household is 47.
PALSANG: This village was inhabited since 1845 and the first chief was
Sumtuahkhawli. Hmar is the largest ethnic group, among the sub-class, Hmar zote
and changsang have the highest population which accounts for 28.57%, each of these
two sub-class of the population. The total number of household is 70.
MAUCHAR: This village was inhabited since 1889 and the first chief was
Zalala and the last chief was Sangliana. The first church in Mauchar was established
in 1916. Among the sub-class, Hmar-Pakhumate has the highest population which
accounts for 41.38% of the population. The total number of household is 200.
UPPER SAKAWRDAI: Villager of Upper Sakawrdai could not properly recall
when the villages were formally occupied. However, it was known that this village
was already existed during the British period; the present settlers are migrated mostly
from Manipur and particularly Hmar. Hmar is the major ethnic group, among the sub-
class, Hmar-hnamte, Varte and Thiak have the highest population which accounts for
25% each of the population. The total number of household in this village is 30.
Religious Composition
Religion is a core component of culture, lending vivid hues to the human

mosaic. For many, religion is the most profoundly felt dimension of their identities.
For this reason it is important to clearly state what is meant by the term and provide a
sense of the many ways that religion can be manifest in people’s lives. Religion can
be defined as a relatively structured set of beliefs and practices through which people
seek mental and physical harmony with the powers of the universe (Domosh and
Newmann, 2010, p. 215).
`
The rituals of religion provide milestones along the course of our lives—birth,
puberty, marriage, having children, and death—that are observed and celebrated.
Religions often attempt not only to accommodate but also to influence the awesome
forces of nature, life, and death. Religions help people make sense of their place in the
40
world. In literal terms, the word religion—derived from the Latin religare—means
“to fasten loose parts into a coherent whole.”
Unlike most of the other constituents of India, Mizoram is marked by a

monopoly of a single religion which is Christianity (Rintluanga, 2009, p. 64). It was
brought to the region by British Missionaries in 1894. The main religion in Mizoram
is Christianity. The religion of Christianity plays in shaping the socio-cultural life of
the people of the state. The people of this state are strong followers of Christianity.
The majority of the population is Protestants. One of the significant aspects

associated with the Christian religious group of Mizoram is the Mizoram churches.
The Christians often make huge donations to these churches. The popularity of the
Christian religion at Mizoram can be understood from the statistical fact that about
83.81 % of the total population of the state in the year 1981 was Christian by faith.
Plate 2.2
EFCI Church of Mauchar Village
41
There are also some other religious groups in Mizoram, which can be termed
the minority religious groups. The people of these groups follow the religions of
Buddhism, Judaism, Hinduism and Islam. An important fact about the Jew population
of Mizoram is that about half of the total Jew population of India lives in this state.
Christian population dominates the entire study area with a percentage of 97,
Hindu (2 per cent), Muslim (0.5 per cent) and others (0.5).
Religious Composition
Christianity
Hindu
Muslim
Others
Fig No. 2.1
 The number of population of Hindu, Muslim and others are obtained from the Village
Council and also through observation.
42
CHAPTER – 3
SOCIO ECONOMIC CHARACTERIZATION
Socioeconomic status is a complex and relative concept. It is reasonable to

expect that it will mean different things in different contexts. For the purposes of this
paper, socioeconomic status is defined broadly in terms of social, cultural and
economic resources, the extent to which individuals and groups’ have access to these
resources and the relative value ascribed to the resources held by different individuals
and groups. In short, it is the field of study that examines social and economic factors
to better understand how the combination of both influences something.
The indicators of socio-economic may differ with varying aims and objectives.
However it is the field of study where social and economic condition of an area can be
highlighted using different indicators. Under this section education will not be
included while household amenities, income, occupational structure and expenditure
pattern will be the main field of study in order to know the development level of the
area.
SOCIAL STRUCTURE
Social structure is the patterned social arrangements in society that are both
emergent from and determinant of the actions of the individuals. On the macro scale,
social structure is the system of socioeconomic stratification (e.g., the class structure),
social institutions, or, other patterned relations between large social groups. On the
meso scale, it is the structure of social network ties between individuals or
organizations. On the micro scale, it can be the way norms shape the behavior of
actors within the social system.
Social structure is the distinctive, stable arrangement of institutions whereby
human beings in a society interact and live together. It is often treated together with
the concept of social change, which deals with the forces that change the social
structure and the organization of society.
43
Ethnic Groups
Ethnicity is a social classification that categorizes different groups of people

by particular cultural characteristics (Li and Skop, 2009, p. 615). An ethnicity, or
ethnic group, is a social group of people who identify with each other based on
common ancestral, social, cultural, or national experience. Membership of an ethnic
group tends to be associated with shared cultural heritage, ancestry, history,
homeland, language (dialect), or ideology, and with symbolic systems such as
religion, mythology and ritual, cuisine, dressing style, physical appearance, etc.
Ethnic groups are defined as a unique set of individuals who share common
interests based on mutual understanding, beliefs, and values, including a common
homeland, a mutual language, a shared religion, and/or other contemporary and
historical experiences (Li and Skop, 2009, p. 615).
Mizoram ethnicity comprises of a variety of social elements like the different

tribal groups, religions, rituals and festivals. The people of this region have kept alive
their age-old socio-cultural lineage. Their colorful and bright clothes and traditional
customs are still in use at these hilly parts of India. The state of Mizoram has a
number of ethnic groups, which constitute the basic structure of Mizoram society. The
names of the major ethnic groups of the state are Pawi, Lushai, Raltes, Paites, Hmars,
Maras and Kukis.
Major ethnic groups or major clans of the study area comprises of Hmar and
Lusei ethnic groups. Hmar ethnic group constitute of about 85.85 per cent of the total
population of the study area, Lusei ethnic group account for about 11.11 per cent and
others (Bengali, Assamese and Manipuri) constitutes 3 per cent of the total
population.
Among the sub-clans Hmar-Pakhumate have the highest population which

accounts 15.15 per cent of the total population, while sub-clans like Pulamte, Fimate,
Ngurte, Vankal, Hrangchal, Bawihtlung, Hauhnar, Chawngthu, Paihte, Tlau Bawl
Chhuak have constitue only 1.01 per cent. Other sub-clans includes Thiak (13.13 per
cent), Khawbung (4.04 per cent), Darngawng (3.03 per cent) Keivawm (3.03 per
cent), Varte (9.09 per cent), Pakhuang (4.04%), Zote (9.09 per cent), Lungtau (3.03
44
per cent), Changsan(7.07 per cent), Biate (8.08 per cent), Thado (2.02 per cent),
Chhakchhuak (3 per cent) and Ralte (3.03 per cent).
Size of Family
Size of the family is the number of people living in the same house. It
comprises all the members of a household reside under one roof.
Almost all of the family in the area are engaged in agricultural activities;
jhumming cultivation, and requires more workers to participate in the cultivation Due
to this reason family members of 6-8 attains the highest. Illiteracy is another factor of
high family members.
Table No: 3.1

Size of Family
No of No of Household
Family
Members Zokhawthiang Upper Zohmun Palsang Tinghmun Mauchar
Sakawrdai
0-2 0 1 4 2 1 0
3-5 0 4 10 6 7 0
6-8 6 0 16 4 13 11
9-11 0 0 3 0 4 8
≥12 0 0 2 0 0 5
45
Size of Family
14 13
12 11
10
10
0-2
8 7
3-5
6
6 6-8
5
4 4 9-11
4 3 ≥12
2 2 2
2 1 1
0 0 0 0
0
Zokhawthiang Upper Zohmun Palsang Tinghmun Mauchar
Sakawrdai
Figure 3.1
Family members between 6 to 8 is the highest with 43.56 per cent, 3 to 5

(26.73 per cent), 9 to 11 (14.85 per cent), 0 to 2 (7.92 per cent) and family members
12 and above (6.94 per cent).
Most of the family in the study area depends on primary activity. Jhum
cultivation is the dominant practice of cultivation in this area. This requires a large
number of labors throughout the year. So, most of the family opted to have large
number of children, they do not pay much attention on family planning.
House Type
Mostly three types of houses are found in our study area – RCC, Assam type
and Thatched house. RCC stands for Reinforced Cement Concrete, it is a combination
of concrete and steel to build a structure instead of using only concrete. RCC housing
pattern refers to buildings with concrete walls, floor, and roof.
Assam-type house is made largely using wood-based materials. Performance

of Assam-type houses has been extremely good in several past earthquakes in the
region. Structural strengths that influence earthquake safety of the house include good
configuration, light-weight materials used for walls and roofs, flexible connections
between various wooden elements at different levels, etc. However, the houses are
46
vulnerable to fire because of use of untreated wood-based materials. When built on
hill slopes, unequal length of the vertical posts leads to unsymmetrical shaking that
may damage the house.
Plate no. 3.1

House type in Tinghmun Village
Thatched house is a type of house or cottage that has a roof that is thatched
with straw, reed etc. Assam type accounts for 70 per cent of the total house, Thatched
house (28 per cent) and RCC (2 per cent).
Household Amenities
Amenities refer to the materials or things which are essential with daily
requirement of day to day life. Household amenities can be an indicator social
development level of the society. It signifies the standard of living.
In every village no water connection is available. People get water through

rainfall and spring. Scarcity of water is the main problem of this area. Besides water
connection, electric connection is not available in all the villages. In Mauchar village
47
no electric connection is available and Gas connection (LPG) is not available in all the
villages. Wood is the main source of cooking as well as for heating.
Table: 3.2
Household Amenities
Item No of Household
Zokhawthiang Upper Zohmun Palsang Tinghm Mauch
Sakawrdai un ar
Washing 0 0 3 0 0 0
Machine
Fridge 1 1 8 4 2 0
Septic Tank 0 0 27 4 2 2
Pit Latrine 6 5 8 8 23 28
Water 0 0 0 0 0 0
Connection
Electricity 0 5 35 12 25 0
Mobile 4 4 30 12 20 15
Phone
Gas 0 0 0 0 0 0
Connection
Computer 0 0 4 0 0 0
Television 0 0 7 5 0 0
Washing machine are found only in three houses of 35 household samples in

Zohmun village, 8 Refrigerators are found in Zohmun village, 4 in palsang village, 2
in Tinghmun village and 1 in Zokhawthiang and Upper Sakawrdai village while no
refrigerator is found in Mauchar village. Television sets(TV’s) are found only in two
villages, i.e., Zohmun(7) and Palsang(5) villages. Computer sets are found only in
Zohmun village.
Pit latrine is the most common toilet facilities and are found in every
household samples. Out of the 6 villages surveyed Septic tanks are found in Zohmun,
Palsang, Tinghmun and Mauchar while Septic tanks are not found in Zokhawthiang
and Upper Sakawrdai.
From the above table Zohmun is the most developed village in the area,
whereas Zokhawtiang and Upper Sakawrdai are the least developed in terms of
household facilities.
48
Marital Status
Marital status is the percentage distribution of the population in a given age

group by the different marital status categories. It is the personal status of each
individual in relation to the marriage laws or customs of a country.
The study of the characteristics of a population includes the study of the

distribution of persons according to their marital status. Unlike sex or age, marital
status is not a biologically ascribed characteristic, but is an acquired characteristic.
The study of a population by marital status is useful for several reasons. Marriage
involved the first step in the formation of a biological family. Since in most societies
reproduction takes place only in wedlock, the marital status is an important factor
affecting fertility, proportion of persons who never married, reproductive age groups,
the age of marriage, etc.
According to 2011 Census, 47.8 percent of the population at the National level
is reported as never married. Married population constitutes 47.0 percent of the total
population while widowed/divorced/separated constitutes 5.2 percent. The proportion
of widowed/divorced/separated female population is higher than males, and married
females recorded a higher percentage as compared to males. In Mizoram, never
married constitutes 39.0 per cent, married 52.8 per cent and
divorced/separated/widowed 8.3 per cent. Mizoram have higher percentage of married
population than National percentage.
Table 3.3 reveals the marital status of the population by age. Child marriage is
not found in the study area. Marriage is not found in an age below 17 years. Out of the
total population of different age groups 29.15 per cent never married, 67.30 per cent
are married and only 3.55 per cent are divorced/separated/widowed. There is less
percentage of divorced/separated/widowed because of the influence of Church ethics.
The dominant of Christianity in the area is believed to be the main reason of less
divorced/separated/widowed.
49
Table: 3.3
Marital Status by Age
Age Group Never Married Married Divorced/Separated/Wido
(%) (%) wed (%)
13-17 70(100) - -
18-22 56(88.89) 7(11.11) -
23-27 42(54.55) 31(40.26) 4(17.81)

28-32 4(7.27) 45(81.82) 6(10.91)
33-37 3(6) 43(86) 4(8)

38-42 2(5.41) 34(91.89) 1(2.7)
43-47 1(4.17) 23(95.83) -
48-52 - 30(100) -
52+ 1(1.39) 71(98.61) -
Total 123(29.15) 284(67.30) 15(3.55)
Marital Status by Age

120
98.61
100
100
95.83
91.89
88.89
100
81.82
86
80 Never Married
67.3
54.55
Married
60
40.26
Divorced/Separat
ed/Widowed
29.15
40
17.81
10.91
11.11
20
7.27
5.41
3.55
4.17
8
1.39
2.7
6
0
0
0
0
52+
13-17
18-22
23-27
28-32
33-37
38-42
43-47
48-52
Total
Fig no.3.2
In the age groups of 13-17, 18-22 and 23-27, never married percentage is high
than the area’s value, while other age group have lower population. 13-17 age group
have total population under never married and this indicates no child marriage in the
50
area. Married population is high in the age of 28 years and above. At this age man and
woman are matured enough to begin a new life. Divorced/Separated/Widowed
population is low in every age group. It is found in the ages 23 to 42, and is high
particularly in 23-27 age groups. The reason for divorced and separated is mainly
because of some misunderstanding between the couples.
Health Care Facilities
Health is one of the main important factors for the development. Productive
power of man and his ability to create demand for resources depend on health and
nutrition. Poor health condition and prevalence of malnutrition reduce the ability of
man and increase the cost of the resources development due to maintenance cost.
The Department of Health & F.W. is the main body in developing medical
facilities and maintaining the health condition of the State. The department also has a
role to play in establishment and maintenance of well-equipped teaching institutions,
which are the premier referral centres with state of the art equipment and technology.
Currently, Health Services in Mizoram is provided through one State Hospital (an
upgraded district hospital), 11 district hospitals, 12 Community Health Centres, 57
Primary Health Centres and 370 Sub- centres & 78 Clinics (869 Nos. of Village &
Population is 1091015 spreading across the state.
Out of 6 villages in the study area, Sub-Centre is found only in Zohmun,

Palsang, Mauchar, Tinghmun village. In all the villages, there is a Drug Distribution
Centre where medicine for malaria is distributed.
Plate 3.2
Health Centre of Palsang Village
51
The health condition of the study area is poor due to its remoteness and rugged
terrain. Transportation and communication facilities are not developed as compared to
other areas of the state and due to this supply of medical facilities are undertaken at a
low scale which is not sufficient for the villagers. Diseases like cholera, diarrhoea etc
is found in every village due to lack of hygienic water and food
Transport and Communication
Being a hilly state with difficult terrain and climatic conditions, transport
infrastructure in Mizoram is essentially road based. While there is a small metre-
gauge rail link at Bairabi (about 130 kms from Aizawl), as well as airport at Lengpui
(44 kms from Aizawl), was used for most community, business and personal purposes
in Mizoram.
Development of transport and communication are essential prerequisite for

rural development in Mizoram. Today, Mizoram is connected with a network of
primary and secondary roads having a total length of about 6840 kms. Of this, 4430
kms (64.77%) are under state PWD, 1790 kms (26.17%) under Border Roads
Organisation and the remaining 620 kms (9.06%) are specific purpose link roads
constructed by Rural Development, Agriculture, Horticulture, Soil Conservation and
Forest Departments. While there has been 7.81% increase in road density in the state
during the last ten years, the current road density of 32.43 kms / 100 sq. kms is below
India’s national average of 48.80 kms /100 sq. kms.
Transport and communication plays a vital role for the development of a

region. It is one of the basic infrastructures required for the development. The study
area shares the boundary with Manipur and Assam locating on the extreme northern
edge. Due this purpose, it is quite remote, under developed and neglected by the State
Government.
The important communication system in the study area is radio. Of course

mobile phone is available but due to poor service, it has less reliability. Supply of the
electricity is improper and due to this, communication system cannot be developed.
52
Plate 3.3
Road Linking Zohmun to Mauchar
The road in this area is not well furnished. Inter-village linkage roads are Jeep
road, narrow, zigzag with no metalled road. During rainy season, roads in these areas
are slippery and during the summer the roads are dusty.
ECONOMIC COMPOSITION
Economic composition of a population provides a fair idea about the

economic, demographic and cultural attributes of an area-the aspects that form the
bases of regional development (Kumar, 2012, p. 123). The definition of ‘worker’ may
differ in different cencuses but even then we can study the workforce and
occupational distribution of labor force.
Working Population
Workforce/working population means the people engaged in or available for

work, either in a country or area or in a particular firm or industry. Accordingly to
Census of India, work has been defined as participation in any economically
productive activity with or without compensation, wages or profit. Such participation
may be physical and/or mental in nature. Work involves not only actual work but also
includes- a) effective supervision and direction of work; b) part time help or unpaid
work on farm, family enterprise or in any other economic activity; and c) cultivation
or milk production even solely for domestic consumption.
53
The surveyed population is classified into workers and non-workers, further
workers are divided into main and marginal workers. Main Workers are those workers
who had worked for the major part of the reference period i.e. 6 months or more.
Marginal Workers are those workers who had not worked for the major part of the
reference period i.e. less than 6 months.
Table no. 3.4 shows the numbers of workers and non-workers population of
the sample villages. It has been recorded that the village of Zohmun with 68.30 per
cent stand highest participation of workers, followed by Tinghmun (64.19 per cent),
Upper Sakawrdai (61.9 per cent), Palsang (60.89 per cent) and the village of
Zokhawthiang (60 per cent) recorded the lowest among the sample villages. The total
average total workers participation of the six villages was recorded as 64.57 per cent.
This indicates that more half of the people of the surveyed houses are engaged in
economically activity.
Table: 3.4
Working Population
Village Workers Total Non-worker Total
Main Marginal worker
Up. Sakawrdai 11 2 13 8 21
Zohmun 174 7 181 84 265
Tinghmun 91 4 95 53 148
Palsang 28 3 31 16 47
Mauchar 132 5 137 88 225
Zokhawthiang 13 2 15 10 25
449 23 472 259 731
The Non-worker population of the sample houses of the study area is 35.43
per cent which is lower than the State’s non-Worker population (55.63 per cent). The
percentage of marginal workers of the state is 35.43 per cent of the total main
workers, while marginal workers of the study area are only 4.8 per cent.
54
Table: 3.5
Percentage of main worker to the total population
% of main worker to the total
Village
population
Upper Sakawrdai 52.39
Zohmun 65.67
Tinghmun 61.49
Palsang 59.58
Mauchar 58.67
Zokhawthiang 52
Percentage Of Main Worker

70 65.67
61.49
59.58 58.67
60
52.39 52
50
40
30
20
10
0
Upper Sakawrdai Zohmun Tinghmun Palsang Mauchar Zokhawthiang
Figure no. 3.3
The main workers percentage of the population can be an indicator of

development level. The study area has a percentage of 61.42 of the total population.
Almost all of the main workers are depend on primary activities. From the given
table, Zohmun is the highest with 65.67 per cent, while Zokhawthiang is the lowest
(52 per cent).
55
Occupational Structure
The occupational structure of a society is the mixture of different types of

occupations found there. It also describes the distribution of people among those
occupations, which gives some sense of which types of work predominates a society.
Occupational structure is sociologically important because of its effects on social
class and other forms of social inequality.
In the case of seasonal work like cultivation, livestock, dairying, household

industries, etc., if a person had some regular work of more than one hour a day
throughout the greater part of the working season, he was to be regarded as a worker.
In the case of regular employment in any trade, profession, service, business or
commerce the basis for work would be satisfied if the person was employed during
any of the fifteen days preceeding the day on which he was enumerated. A person
who was working but was absent from his work during the fifteen days preceding the
day of enumeration due to illness or other cause was a worker. A person who was
offered work but had not actually joined was treated as a non-worker. A person under
training as apprentice with or without stipend or wages was regarded as a worker.
An adult woman engaged in household duties but not doing any productive
work, to augment the family resources was considered as non-worker. Persons like
beggars, pensioners, etc., who received income without doing any work were
regarded as non-workers. A public or social service worker who was actively engaged
in public service activity or a political worker who was actively engaged in furthering
the political activity of his part was regard as a 'worker'. The workers are classified
into one or more of following groups.
56
Table: 3.6
Agricultural
Village Cultivator labor Household Industry Others
M F M F M F M F Total
Upper
Sakawrdai 6 3 0 0 0 0 1 1 11
Zohmun 56 38 8 3 11 8 30 20 174
Tinghmun 43 23 3 1 3 3 7 8 91
Palsang 9 8 2 1 0 2 2 4 28
Mauchar 54 34 9 6 4 6 10 9 132
Zokhawthiang 5 4 1 1 0 1 1 0 13
Total 173 110 23 12 18 20 51 42 449

100
90
80
70
60
50 cultivator
40
agriculture Labour
30
Household Industry
20
Others
10
0
Upper Zohmun Tinghmun Palsang Mauchar Zokhawthiang
Sakawrdai
Figure no. 3.4
57
The cultivator in the study area is 63.02 per cent of the total workers where as
the percentage of the cultivator in Mizoram as a whole is 48.79 per cent. Agricultural
labour in Mizoram is 6.38 per cent while the study area has a percentage of 7.79. This
clearly shows that the area is mainly depending on agricultural activity.
Percentage of household industry of the study area is 8.46 whereas Mizoram

has the household industry has only 1.32 per cent. Others include secondary and
tertiary sectors. The state has 43.51 per cent and the study area has 20.73 per cent.
Pattern of Income
Income is the consumption and savings opportunity gained by an entity within

a specified timeframe, which is generally expressed in monetary terms. However, for
households and individuals, income is the sum of all the wages, salaries, profits,
interests’ payments, rents and other forms of earnings received in a given period of
time.
When the factors of production are activated, workers are paid according to
their efficiency, worth or value. Assuming that there exist perfectly competitive
markets, that occupational group which employs the best technology will earn the
highest average income with respective equilibrium demand. This is merely the
assumption that the better technology exhibits the higher marginal productivity
according to which the reward for the factor of production is determined. But the
economy of the study area is marred by the usual researchers’ handicap of lack of
written records on the part of the economic units, and therefore the estimation of the
production functions is beyond the scope of this study.
The monthly income pattern of various income groups and their percentage
share of the total income as well as the average in each occupational group are shown
in Table 7.1.
58
Table No. 3.7
Income Group
Sl. Income group Amount Percentage No. of Average
no (in Rs.) of total persons income
income engaged
1 Cultivators 10,75,400 43.36 283 3800
2 Agricultural laborers 91,000 3.67 35 2600
3 Household Industry 1,97,600 7.97 38 5200

workers
4 Petty Traders 84,500 3.4 13 6500
5 Government Servant 8,16,500 32.9 43 18988
6 Others 215000 8.7 37 5811
Income Group
50
45 43.36
40
35 32.9
30
25
20
15
7.97 8.7
10
3.67 3.4
5
0
Cultivators Agriculture Household Petty traders Govt servant Others
Labourers Industry
workers
Figure 3.5
*Income contribution in Percentage
59
Cultivators:
All agricultural activities like jhum cultivation, livestock, hunting, lumbering

and other primary activity are included under this category. 63.03 per cent of the total
workers are engaged in this activity. Though majority of the people are engage in this
activity, it contributes only 43.36 per cent of the total income which is less than the
contribution made by occupational group of others. Average income is Rs.3800 per
persons, which is the second lowest income level.
The practice of agricultural activity is not only less-remunerative but also

severely inadequate for maintaining the family even at the subsistence level.
Agricultural laborers:
This group includes mainly the casual labor who works in every possible
manner in to earn daily requirement. The per capita income per month is the lowest
among the occupational groups which is only Rs. 2600. This group contributes
Rs.91000 or 3.67 per cent of the total income.
Household Industry workers:
This group includes those who run small scale industry conducted by one or
more members of the household at home or within the village in rural areas. The
industry is not run on the scale of a registered factory which would qualify or has to
be registered under the Indian Factories Act. Basically production of local-made
tobacco, production of broom, manufacture of wood and wood products, grinding
wheat and ginger, and service and repairing of transport equipments and other
machines are the main industry found in the study area.
Per capita income of this group is Rs. 5200 per month. They constitute 7.97
per cent of the total income which is the second lowest among the income groups.
Petty Traders:
Petty Traders includes those who run a small business or they conduct the
business in a small scale, sale of small inexpensive items. They supply the demand of
the concern village in order to meet the basic requirements. 2.90 per cent of total
60
working population is petty traders. They constitute only 3.4% of the total income.
The average income of this group is Rs. 6500 per month.
Government Servant:
A person who is a member of a service or holds a civil post under a state

government and whose services are temporarily placed at the disposal of the central
government are considered as government servant or government employee.
Most of the government servants in the area are school teachers and
policemen. They account for 9.58 of the total working population and they share 32.9
per cent of the total income. Their average income is Rs. 18988, which is more than
half of the average of other income groups.
Others:
Others include pensioners, pastors, church workers and teachers of school

owned by private and Church. They account for 8.24 per cent of the total working
population and they share 8.7 of the total income. Their average income is Rs.5811,
which is higher than agricultural laborers, cultivators and household industry workers.
EXPENDITURE PATTERN
Expenditure is an amount of money that is spent on something. It is the
process of spending money on various purposes. Expenditure will be concentrated
basically on food, education, medical, farm and clothing. Of course these are the
items where most of the money is spent for fulfillment of basic requirement.
Food
It includes food items like rice, vegetables, meat, etc. Most of the family spent
more on food items rather than on household commodities or other consumption
items. As most people can manage their requirement through agricultural land but due
to high cost of food items the expenditure on this item alone attains the highest.
Education
Education is the second highest consumption items. Despite of having lower

education institution in the area, people have to go to other places of the State to get
higher education. So, the cost of education is quite high. The cost will be thrice the
61
expenditure value if people have the opportunity to get their higher education within
the village.
Clothing
Due to lack of big shops and other departmental store in the area, people have
to do shopping to surrounding areas to purchase their needs. This rises the expenditure
level on clothing.
Farm
Majority of the people are engaged in cultivation and due to this reason people
spent greater amount for maintaining agricultural land.
Table: 3.8
Consumption
Consumption No. of Household
In Rupees
Farm % Educatio % Clothing % Food % Med %
n
0-5000 83 72.17 88 76.52 80 69.57 44 38.26 91 79.13
5001-10000 17 14.78 12 10.43 18 15.65 25 21.74 15 13.04
10001-15000 15 13.05 3 2.61 14 12.17 21 18.26 5 4.35
15001-20000 - - 1 0.87 1 0.87 14 12.17 3 2.61
20001-25000 - - 2 1.74 2 1.74 8 6.96 1 0.87
Above 25000 - - 9 7.83 - - 3 2.61 - -
62
Medical
It acquires the least as people spend fewer amounts on medical facilities. The
health condition of the area is not good but people tried to get the cheapest available
health care facilities within the village. So, expenditure on every household is not
high compared to other consumption items.
63
CHAPTER – 4
POPULATION COMPOSITION
Population composition is the description of a population according to
characteristics such as age and sex. In other words, it is the structure of the population
defined by characteristics such as age and sex. A change in the composition of the
population will generally change demand even if there is no change in the size of the
population.
Among various elements of population composition, sex composition and age

composition hold a prime place for population studies (Chandna, 1986, p.259). The
separate data for males and females are important for various types of planning and
for the analysis of other demographic characteristics. The most basic elements of
population are sex structure and age structure.
Among the villages of study area, Zohmun has the highest population of 1399
persons with 255 households. The lowest is Upper Sakawrdai which is only 144
persons of 73 households. Size of population of other villages are Mauchar (955
persons), Tinghmun (873 persons), Palsang (370 persons) and Zokhawthiang (224
persons) with 156, 134, 69 and 45 household respectively.
In Zohmun village 10 per cent of the total household is taken as a sample

while in other villages 15 per cent of the total household is collected for the sample.
Due to greater number of household in Zohmun village less sample is collected as
compared to other villages.
Sex Ratio
Sex ratio is an index of economy prevailing in an area and it is a useful tool

for regional analysis (Franklin, 1956, p. 168). It is expressed as number of female per
1000 males. The nature of sex ratio of a region determines human behavior of the
place, such as influencing socio-economic development, participation in family
decision making, differential in status between the sexes etc. It also affects various
aspects of social life, including the availability of potential marriage partners and the
composition of the labor force.
64
The numerical measurement of sex composition of a population is often
expressed in terms of sex ratio. This ratio is calculated differently in different
countries. In India, however, the sex ratio is calculated in terms of numbers of females
per thousand males. It is calculated as under:
Pf / Pm x 1000
In the Population Census of 2011 it was revealed that the country’s sex ratio
was 940 females per 1000 of males which found to be increased from 2001 census
(933 females per 1000 males). India has been experiencing decrease in the sex ratio
for many years but since the last two decades there has been in slight increase in the
sex ratio. It has been recorded that in the last five decades the sex ratio has been
recording around 930 of females per 1000 of males.
The major cause of the decrease of the female birth ratio in India is considered
to be the violent treatments meted out to the girl child at the time of the birth. The sex
ratio of India was almost normal during the phase of the years of independence, but
thereafter it started showing gradual signs of decrease. Though the sex ratio of India
has gone through commendable signs of improvement in the past 10 years, there are
still some states where the sex ratio is still low and is a cause of concern for the State
Government and the NGOs.
In Mizoram, gender ratio has also undergone a positive change and is

increasing slowly. In urban areas, the gender ratio has a perfect score, which means
there are as many females as males. The sex ratio of the total population of Mizoram
is 975 which have significantly increased if we compare with 935 of 2001. In 2011
out of 8 districts, Aizawl district recorded the highest sex ratio which was way above
1000 that is, 1009 females per 1000 males, followed by Champhai and Saiha districts
with sex ratio 981 and 978 respectively while Mamit district is in the lowest position
with 924.
65
Table No.4.1
Sex Ratio
VILLAGE Upper Zohmun Tinghmun Palsang Mauchar Zokhawthiang Average
Sakawrdai
MALE 12 146 78 30 119 14 399
FEMALE 9 119 70 17 106 11 332
Sex Ratio 750 815 897 567 891 786 832
Sex Ratio
1000
897 890
900 815 786 768
800 750
700
600
500 468
400
300
200
100
0
Figure no. 4.1
Even though Mizoram recorded an increase in the sex ratio in the last census
recorded, it is interesting to find out that the average sex ratio for households of the
sample villages were recorded much lower (832) than the state average (975). Among
the six villages, the sex ratio of Palsang village recorded the lowest with only 567
females per 1000 males; Upper Sakawrdai (750) also showed lesser sex ratio than
average of the six villages. The villagers response that low sex ratio on their villages
has nothing to do with religious or social factor, but it is believed to be the biological
factor which plays role in reproduction process. The other four villages Zohmun,
Tinghmun, Mauchar and Zokhawthiang have sex ratio higher than average of the six
villages (see Figure 4.1).
66
Age Sex Structure
Age- sex structure is one of the most important characteristics of population

composition. Almost all population characteristics vary significantly with age. Age
statistics form an important component of population analysis, as most of the analysis
is based on age-sex structure of the population. The usefulness of age data is more
noticeable when it is cross classified by variables like marital status, literacy
educational attainment, economic activity which vary with age in different patterns.
Apart from purely demographic concerns, the age- sex data structure is
required for age specific analysis of data for planning, scientific, technical and
commercial purposes. The dependency ratio, which is the ratio of economically active
to economically inactive persons, is dependent on age composition.
Age and sex are two attributes that largely influence an individual’s role in
society. An attempt will be made in this chapter to examine the various aspects of age
and sex composition of the population of the study area. Different devices have been
introduced so far to analyze the age statistics, which minimize the incidence of error
in the data pertaining to age and also to increase the reliability of age statistics. This
includes the age pyramids and the age groups.
Age structural dynamics includes fertility, mortality and as well as related

changes in family planning and social arrangements. The use of age structure goes
beyond demographic analysis to other important areas. Public polices aim to improve
the welfare of a population; population welfare in turn is determined and shaped by
the needs of present and future population; a population’s needs and its potential are
strongly shaped by its demographic composition- i.e. by age-structural transition.
Grouping of age is an important method of analyzing age structure. Out of the

total sample households, 7-13 year age group has recorded the largest population size
with 15.3 per cent and the lowest population size is registered under the age group
between 56 – 62 years (5.34 per cent). Table no. 4.2 highlights that the size of
population decline with increase in age. Higher percentage of younger age group and
low percentage in old age signifies an area as a backward region. These areas are
experiencing high birth rate, high death rate and low in longevity of life. Poor medical
67
facilities, low standard of living and rural life are some of factors for leading low
percentage of aged population and higher numbers of population in lower age groups.
Table No.4.2
Age sex composition
AGE GROUP MALE FEMALE TOTAL (%)
0-6 63 46
109(14.9)
7-13 61 51
112(15.3)
14-20 59 45
104(14.2)
21-27 53 48
101(13.8)
28-34 43 37
80(10.9)
35-41 28 25
53(7.25)
42-48 26 21
47(6.43)
49-55 22 22
44(6.02)
56-62 23 16
39(5.34)
Above 62 21 21
42(5.75)
Total 399 332 731(100)
Studying on age-sex ratio shows a clear picture in understanding the

differences of sex ratio among the different age groups. Mostly in the time of birth,
sex-ratio is recorded close to parity (i.e.1:1). But the adult sex-ratio in the rural areas
will depend on caring of health because both male and female pick same occupation
and they are also exposed in similar environment.
For analysis, the age groups have been classified to 10 different age groups
that is 0-6, 7-13, 14-20, 21-27, 28-34, 35-41, 42-48, 49-55, 56-62 and above 62. The
average sex ratio of the six sample villages is recorded as 832 females per 1000
males. It is noticed that the both the age group of 49-55 and above 62 age groups have
registered the highest sex ratio with 1000 females per 1000 males and the lowest sex
ratio is found 56-62 age group with only 696. Table 4.3 shows that out of 10 age
groups, 6 age groups (7-13, 21-27, 28-34, 35-41, 49-55 and above 62) have recorded
higher sex ratio than the average sex ratio.
68
In an age group of 0-6, the average sex ratio is 703, only Mauchar (889)
records higher than the average sex ratio of this age group. In Upper Sakawrdai no
population is found under this age group in the sample households. Under yhe age
group of 7-13, no population is found from the sample households in Upper sakawrdai
and Zokhawthiang. The average sex ratio of this group is 836, Tinghmun (1067) and
Mauchar (1133) village acquire sex ratio higher than the average while Zohmun (640)
and Palsang (500) village records lower than the average.
Table: 4.3
Age Sex Ratio
(Village wise)
Age Upper Zohmun Tinghmun Palsang Mauchar Zokhawthiang Avg. Sex
Group Sakawrdai Ratio
0-6 - 611 636 500 889 600 730
7-13 - 640 1067 500 1133 - 836
14-20 333 750 846 500 824 - 763
21-27 2000 950 1111 429 600 5000 906
28-34 500 785 2500 2500 706 500 860
35-41 - 800 714 500 1500 - 893
42-48 - 900 833 333 1000 - 808
49-55 1000 3000 1000 500 667 1000 1000
56-62 - 600 833 500 1000 - 696
≥ 63 2000 1222 - - 1333 - 1000
Sex Ratio 750 815 897 567 891 786 832
Total
In an age group of 14-20 years, the average sex ratio is 763. Tinghmun (846)
and Mauchar (824) attain sex ratio higher than the average whereas Zohmun (750),
Palsang (500) and Upper Sakawrdai (333) record lower sex ratio, no persons from this
age group is found in Zokhawthiang village. Between 21-27 years, Zokhawthiang
(5000), Upper Sakawrdai (2000), Zohmun (950) and Tinghmun (1111) have sex ratio
higher than the average (906). On the other hand, Mauchar (600) and Palsang (429)
have lower than the average in the said age group.
Tinghmun (2500) And Palsang (2500) are the highest in the age group of 28-
34. Other villages Zohmun (785), Mauchar (706), Zokhawthiang (500) and Upper
Sakawrdai (500) record lower than the average (860) sex ratio of age group 28-34. In
the age group of 35-41, only Mauchar (1500) village register higher than the average
of this age group (893). Other villages Zohmun (800), Tinghmun (741) and Palsang
(500) record lower than the average and Upper Sakawrdai and Zokhawthiang have not
69
recorded any population in this group. Mauchar (1000), Tinghmun(833) and Zohmun
(900) village have recorded higher sex ratio than average (808) in 42-48 age group.
Palsang (333) has lower than the average sex ratio but the villages of Zokhawthiang
and Upper Sakawrdai have not recorded any persons in this group.
In age group of 49-55 years, the average sex ratio (1000) is recorded as one of
the highest sex ratio. Zohmun, Upper Sakawrdai, Tinghmun, and Zokhawthiang have
higher sex ratio than the average ratio (see Table 4.3). On the other hand, Palsang and
Mauchar have lower sex ratio which is 500 and 667 respectively. In 56-62 years age
group, the average sex ratio is only 696 which come out to lowest sex ratio from all
the age groups. Tinghmun (833) and Mauchar (1000) have higher sex ratio than the
average sex ratio. Zohmun (600) and Palsang (500) have recorded lower than the
average sex ratio. No persons have enumerated from Upper Sakawrdai and
Zokhawthiang in the above mention age group. In 60 and above age group,
Zokhawthiang (2000), Zohmun (1222) and Mauchar (1333) are higher than the
average sex ratio whereas Tinghmun, Palsang and Zokhawthiang have no population
in this group.
While concerning village-wise sex ratio, it is very interesting to find that the
average sex ratio (832) of all the sample villages have been recorded much lower than
the state average (975). And the villagers’ response that the low sex ratio in their
villages has nothing to do in discrimination against the sex or with religion but it is
occurred due biological reasons. And it has been expressed in several studies that the
human sex ratio is affected by a wide range of biological and environmental factors.
The villages’ of Tinghmun (897) and Mauchar (891) have higher sex ratio than the
average sex ratio, whereas other remaining villages’ records lower than the average
sex ratio.
Age-sex structure is considered to one of the most important demographic

characteristic of a population. Though age-sex pyramids (also known as population
pyramids), one can graphically display the information to improve understanding and
it is also an easy method to compare the differences of sex ratio between age-groups.
Age-sex pyramids can be shown in percentage or actual amount of a population
broken down by gender and age.
70
Age Sex Pyramid
(From Absolute Figure)
Above 62 21 21
56-62 23 16
49-55 22 22
42-48 26 21
35-41 28 25
FEMALE
28-34 43 37
MALE
21-27 53 48
14-20 59 45
7-13 61 51
0-6 63 46
70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Fig No. 4.2

The expansive population pyramid (see Fig. 4.2) shows that larger numbers or
percentages of the population are recorded in the younger age groups. By looking
closely at the age structure diagram, it can be noticed that boys are slightly more in
the younger age groups than girls; however, the ratio tends to equalize in the upper
age groups, as the rate of decline is higher among the males than females.
Out of total surveyed population (731), it is come up that almost 60 per cent of
the total population is recorded under age of 27 years. The population decline at the
faster rate with increase in age. These types of pyramids are usually found in
populations with very large fertility rates and low level of life expectancies. In fact, all
the six sample villages are completely rural and their primary economy is still
depending on agriculture. The modern infrastructures, facilities and amenities are yet
to reach in these villages. But working age group (15-60) of the sample villages
constitutes 64 per cent which is good sign in winning the bread of their family.
71
Literacy and Educational Pattern
Literacy and level of education are basic indicators of the level of

development achieved by a society. Spread of literacy is generally associated with
important traits of modern civilization such as modernization, urbanization,
industrialization, communication and commerce. Literacy forms an important input in
overall development of individuals enabling them to comprehend their social, political
and cultural environment better and respond to it appropriately.
Higher levels of education and literacy lead to a greater awareness and also
contributes in improvement of economic and social conditions. It acts as a catalyst for
social upliftment enhancing the returns on investment made in almost every aspect of
development effort, be it population control, health, hygiene, environmental
degradation control, employment of weaker sections of the society.
India has made progress in terms of increasing the primary education

attendance rate and expanding literacy to approximately three-quarters of the
population. India's improved education system is often cited as one of the main
contributors to the economic rise of India. Much of the progress, especially in higher
education and scientific research, has been credited to various public institutions.
Early development and promotion of institutionalized education in Mizoram is

attributable largely to Christian missionaries, who established the first schools in the
area around the turn of the 20th century. By the early 21st century, Mizoram had
some 2,000 primary, middle, and secondary schools, and its rate of literacy was
among the highest of all Indian states.
The concept of literacy varies from country to country, generally refers to the
minimum level of literacy skills. This minimum level of skills varies from ability to
communicate orally, to make a check of a variety of difficult arithmetical
computations. The Population Commission of United Nations considers the ability to
both read and write a simple message with understanding in any language a sufficient
basis for classifying a person as literate.
As per Census, a person aged seven and above who can both read and write
with understanding in any language, is treated as literate. A person, who can only read
but cannot write, is not literate. In the Censuses prior to 1991, children below 5 years
72
of age were treated as illiterates. It was decided at 1991 Census that all children in the
age group 0-6, would be treated as illiterate by definition and the population aged
seven years and above only would be classified as literate or illiterate. The same
criterion has been retained in the Censuses of 2001 and 2011. Further, a person need
not receive any formal education or acquire any minimum qualification to be treated
as literate.
According to 2011 census record, literacy rate of India in 2011 is 74.04 per
cent. The male literacy rate is 82.14 per cent and female literacy rate is 65.46 per cent
according to Census 2011. Government statistics of 2001 also highlights that the rate
of increase in literacy rate is more in rural areas than in urban areas.
Until 1894, when the missionaries introduced elementary education, Mizos

were illiterate without any written language. The first primary school was set up in
1898 at Aizawl. In 1901 it was thought that literacy was only 0.9 per cent but by 2005
census it had reached to 89 per cent. Today Mizoram stands in second position only to
Kerala (93.91 per cent) in literacy of India. There are several educational
establishments under the umbrella of the Ministry of Education, including
universities, colleges and other institutions. Within Mizoram University, there are 29
undergraduate colleges including 2 professional institutions affiliated with the
university.
Table No. 4.4

Literacy Rate
Village Illiteracy Total Literacy Total %
M F M % F %
Upper 0 2 2 11 100 8 80 19 90.48
Sakawrdai
Zohmun 4 5 9 118 97.6 109 95.6 227 96.19
Tinghmun 3 4 7 72 96 58 93.5 130 94.89
Palsang 3 3 6 23 88.5 15 83.3 38 86.36
Mauchar 5 7 12 87 94.6 70 90.9 157 92.89
Zokhawthiang 2 1 3 8 80 6 85.7 14 82.35
17 22 39 319 266 585

Note: 0-6 year age group is excluded in the tabulation.
73
Literacy Rate
120
100 97.6 95.6 96.19

100 96 93.5 94.89 94.6
90.48 88.5 90.9 92.89
86.36 85.7
83.3 82.35
80 80
80
60
40
20
0
Upper Sakawrdai Zohmun Tinghmun Palsang Mauchar Zokhawthiang
Male Female Over all
Figure no 4.3
The overall literacy rate of the study area has been recorded as 93.75 per cent
which come out to be higher than the state’s average literacy rate (91.33 per cent,
2011 Census). Out of six villages, three villages have recorded higher literacry rate
than state average that is, Zohmun (96.19 per cent), Tinghmun (94.89 per cent) and
Mauchar (92.89 per cent). These three villages have considerably larger population
size than the remaining three villages. The literacy rates of remaining three villages
are as follows Upper Sakawrdai (90.48 per cent), Palsang (86.36 per cent) and
Zokhawthiang (82.35 per cent).
Educational Pattern
Patterns of educational attainment vary greatly across countries, and across
population groups within countries. Education is a complex topic for survey
measurement and the individual’s educational attainment is only a narrow snapshot of
possible measures relating to an individual’s educational experience. It is defined as
74
the highest level of education an individual has successfully completed. It is one of
important indicators of social development.
Education affects demographic behaviour concerning marriage, fertility,

mortality, migration as well as participation in the labour force (Bhende and Kanitkar,
1978, p. 168).
Education in Mizoram consists of a diverse array of formal education systems

ranging from elementary to university, from training institution to technical courses.
The Government of India imposes mandatory education at least up to the basic level.
For this public schools are made free of fees, and provided with free textbooks and
school lunch.
The general pattern of education is simply a progression from primary to

secondary education. Only after secondary level students are able to pursue their lines
of career opportunities or preferences. Industrial Training Institute for craftmenship
training courses (tailoring, mechanic, electrician, cooking, etc.) was started in Aizawl
by the state government in 1964 (Mizoram was then under Assam state). Education on
technical and vocational courses started only after 1980s. There are now various
opportunities including engineering, veterinary, business management, technology,
nursing, pharmacy, and other career oriented courses. The College of Veterinary
Sciences and Animal Husbandry, Selesih was opened in 1997 as one of the
constituent colleges of the Central Agricultural University. National Institute of
Electronics and Information Technology, Aizawl was started by the Indian Ministry
of Communications and Information Technology in 2000. The Government of
Mizoram established The Institute of Chartered Financial Analysts of India
University, Mizoram in 2006. National Institute of Technology Mizoram was
established in 2010 by the Ministry of Human Resources Development, Government
of India.
75
Table No. 4.5
Educational Attainment Level
UPPER ZOKHA
VILLAGE SAKAWRDAI ZOHMUN TINGHMUN PALSANG MAUCHAR WTHIANG Total
Primary 6 63 29 6 59 2 165
% 31.58 27.75 22.71 15.86 37.58 14.29
Middle 7 71 40 15 63 6 202
% 36.85 31.28 30.77 39.48 40.13 42.86
High
School 5 43 46 15 32 3 144
% 26.32 18.95 35.39 39.48 20.39 21.43
Class XII 1 21 7 0 5 1 35
% 5.27 9.26 74.62 0 3.19 7.15
BA/Bsc 0 17 4 4 3 0 28
% 0 7.49 3.08 10.53 1.92 0
MA/Msc 0 5 1 0 0 0 6
% 0 2.21 0.77 0 0 0
Others 0 2 0 1 1 1 5
% 0 0.89 0 2.64 0.64 7.15
literate 19 227 130 38 157 14 585
Illiterate 2 9 7 6 12 3 39
Plate 4.1
Government Middle School, Zohmun
76
The survey result shows that majority of literates are under middle standard
which is 34.53 per cent of total literates. The number of person decreases with
increase in the level of education, only 1.03 per cent attains master degree out of the
total literates. The reasons behind decline of percentage in higher educations are lack
of higher educational institutions, financial constraint, uncertain of jobs, early
marriage and poor academic performance etc.
Educational Attainment Level by Sex
Educational attainment is a term commonly used in different disciplines to

refer to the highest degree of education an individual has completed. It refers to the
highest level of schooling that a person has reached.
The study of educational attainment of males and females in the population is
important for the study of population characteristics. Educational attainment is
generally measured by the percentage distribution of various levels of educational
attainment in the literate population (Bhende and Kanitkar, 1978, p. 174).
The Global Gender Gap Index tries to measure the 'relative gaps between
women and men' across countries in four key areas - health, education, economics and
politics. India's position has improved marginally in recent years; after hovering
between positions 114 and 112 between 2007 and 2011 it has now shot to the 101st
position. But its best position so far was in 2006 - when it stood 98th. It was ranked
105th in 2012.
The political sub-index measures the gap between men and women at the apex
of the political decision-making hierarchy in terms of the ratio of women to men in
minister-level positions and in parliament. The ratio of women to men in terms of
years in executive office (prime minister or president) for the past 50 years is also
taken into consideration. But in the other three, India has not been ranked particularly
high - 124 in terms of economic participation and equality, 120 for educational
attainment and 135 for health and survival.
77
Table No.4.6
EDUCATIONAL MALE % FEMALE % Total %
LEVEL
Illiterate 17 22 39
5.06 7.64 6.25
Primary 86 79 165
25.6 27.4 26.4
Middle 109 93 202
32.4 32.3 32.4
High 75 69 144
22.3 24 23.1
Higher Secondary 22 13 35
6.55 4.51 5.61
College 19 9 28
5.65 3.13 4.49
University 4 2 6
1.19 0.69 0.96
Others 4 1 5
1.19 0.35 0.8
Total 336 288 624
100 100 100
From the survey it has been identified that 6.25 per cent (excluding 0-6 year
age group) of the population from the sample households are enumerated as illiterate.
The percentage of illiterate are recorded higher among the females (7.64) than males
(5.06). In lower educational level that is from Primary level to Secondary level,
females have recorded higher percentage than the counterpart (see Table 4.6). As the
level of education increase, the male have recorded higher and higher than female. In
university level, only 0.69 per cent of female population are able pursued it but the
corresponding figure among the male are recorded as 1.19 per cent which is almost
double from females. Generally females are assigned to look after home affairs in
every family. So, the household members do not keep much important for the females
to attain high level of education. Also acquisition of higher education is not easy for
females as institution for higher education is not available in the study area. This
signifies that females in this area must be uplifted to acquire higher status.
78
120
109
100 93
86
79
80 75
69
60 MALE
FEMALE
40
22 22
19
20 17
13
9
4 4
2 1
0
Illiterate Primary Middle High Higher College University Others
Secondary
Figure 4.4
Student-Teacher Ratio
Student-teacher ratio is the number of students who attend a school divided by

the number of teachers in the institution. For example, a student–teacher ratio of 10:1
indicates that there are 10 students for every one teacher. The term can also be
reversed to create a teacher–student ratio. It is expressed as:
Student teacher ratio= Total no. of students/ Total teachers
The student teacher ratio of Mizoram in the year 2012-13 in primary, middle,
high school and higher secondary standard is 19:1, 9:1, 9:1 and 15:1 respectively.
In the study area, there are 9 Primary Schools among which 7 schools are
under the Government while 2 of them are run by Private ownership. Among these
schools, Tinghmun Government Primary School has the lowest student teacher ratio
which is 29:1, while the highest student teacher ratio is found in 12:1 in Tinghmun
Primary School (Private). The other student teacher ratios are 23:1 in Mauchar
Government P/S, 15:1 in Government Zohmun PS I,Zohmun Government P/S II has
79
8:1. Palsang, Upper Sakawrdai and Zokhawthiang have 12:1, 23:1 and 23:1
respectively. In Zohmun Private Primary School, the student teacher ratio is 22:1
There are 9 Middle Schools in the study area, 7 are under the Government and
2 are under the Private ownership. The lowest student teacher ratio is found in
Tinghmun Government Middle School (13:1) whereas the highest is found in
Mauchar Middle School owned by Private which is only 2.5:1.
In middle schools, the student teacher ratio is high in this area. It is found that
Mauchar and Tinghmun Government Middle Schools, the 7 other schools have
around 10:1 teacher student ratio.
In the study area, there is one High School and One Higher Secondary School
under the Government in Zohmun. The student teacher ratios are turned out as 12:1
and 1:5 in High School and Higher Secondary School respectively.
Among all the Schools (Including from al the Primary Schools, Middle
Schools, High School and Higher Secondary School) Tinghmun Government Primary
School has the lowest (29:1) student teacher ratios and the highest is recorded in
Mauchar Middle School (private) which is 3:1.
80
CONCLUSION
The study area i.e. Zohmun and its Surrounding Villages is located between
24̊14’37’’N to 24̊4’45’’N latitude and 92̊51’20’’E to 93̊02’38’’E longitude covering
an area of about 254 sq km. It lies in the north of Aizawl District in Mizoram and
situated in Darlawn Rural Development Block. It is bounded North Thingdawl RD
Block on the west and the state of Manipur in the east and Assam along the northern
margin. The river Tuirial forms the western boundary and Tuiruang forms the eastern
boundary that demarcates the line between the study area and Manipur.
The terrain of Zohmun and its surrounding villages shows prominent relief
features in the area. The altitude ranges between 100 and 1098 metres. The
geomorphic elements observed in the area are structural hills, faults/fractures
structural valley, escarpment and valley fill. As the terrain of the area is young and
immature, it shows prominent relief features with steep slope and narrow valleys and
the mountain ranges are separated from one another by narrow deep river valleys. The
area is occupied by very low relief features and is characterized by thick vegetative
cover dominated by bamboo. These areas are also identified by the people for
practicing shifting cultivation. Practice of shifting cultivation, however, is found to be
the vegetative cover in the vicinity of settlements.
The study area is represented by two rock form namely middle and upper
Bhuban formation of Bhuban sub group. Geologically, the study area is characterized
by sedimentary rocks belonging to Bhuban sub group, Surma series of Miocene age,
the terrain is very much not fully developed in response to recent tectonism and
topographical feature show prominent relief. Sandstone and siltstone are the dominant
rocks found in the area.
Tuirial and Tuiruang are the major rivers that flow on the western and eastern
margin of the study area. The drainage system of the study area is characterized by
dendritic pattern. Trellis, parallel to sub parallel types is also found in different parts
of the area. The drainage channels are structurally controlled. Most of the major river
and stream courses in the study area are guided by several active faults and fractures.
The soils of Zohmun and its surrounding villages have developed from such
parent rocks as shale, sandstone and mudstone. The lateritic soil with high percentage
81
of acidity is the common characteristics of the area. The soils of the areas are
generally young, immature and sandy with red, loamy texture. They are also found
with high level of laterite.
Monsoon rain starts from second part of May to October. The distribution of
rainfall is not uniform throughout the year. The rainiest months are recorded between
June to August while December and January are the driest months. Rainy season or
the summer season is the longest season, hold for nearly six months from second part
of May till late October. The season starts with violent storms which swept the area
from southwest through Bay of Bengal, marking the beginning of monsoons rains.
The cold or the winter season starts from November and last till February.
Since there are no proper observatory stations in Mizoram, it is not possible to

give comprehensive information about the temperature conditions of the regions. In
the study area, the autumn temperature usually ranges from 19.53˚C to 27.67˚C, while
winter temperature records normally 13.6˚C to 23.56˚C. The summer temperature is
extends between 19.90˚C to 27.52˚C and the spring temperature varies between
16.8˚C to 27.16˚C. The study area is humid subtropical having annual average relative
humidity varies from 61.57% to 81.87%. From 2009 to 2013, relative humidity is
highest in 2013 with an average of 82.24% and lowest in the same year accounts for
45.82%.
Major ethnic groups or major clans of the study area comprises of Hmar and
Lusei ethnic groups. Hmar ethnic group constitute of about 85.85 per cent of the total
population of the study area, Lusei ethnic group account for about 11.11 per cent and
others (Bengali, Assamese and Manipuri) constitutes 3 per cent of the total
population. Hmars migrated from China and settled first in Burma and scattered
around Manipur, Mizoram and Dima Hasao in Assam. They are of Mongoloid stock.
They speak their own dialect called “ hmar dilect”, same as with their tribe name.
Even after long years of migration from their original abode, the Hmars still
adhere to their traditional culture through observing their traditional festivals
connecting with agricultural cycle & other community rites & practices. The main
religion in area is Christianity. The religion of Christianity plays in shaping the socio-
cultural life of the people of the state. Hindu and Muslim believers are also found in
small percentage that is believed to have migrated from Assam and Manipur.
82
The study area is marked by low socio-economic status. More than 60 per cent
of the total workers are engaged in primary sector mainly cultivation of crops.
Average income level of this group is not high as compared to other income groups.
The expenditure items are mainly on food; clothing and education while fewer
amounts are spend on medical and others like household amenities, transportation,
etc.
Size of the family is generally large in number as cultivation requires more

people to cultivate the land throughout the year. The area does not have well-equipped
household facilities; washing machine, refrigerator, television and mobile phones are
found only in few households. Gas and water connections are not found and
power/electricity supply do not reached Mauchar village and also other villages does
not have regular supply of power/electricity. PHC/Health centre are found in four
villages and the other villages depend on them. Only basic health care facilities are
available in those centers and people have to go to other places to get advanced
medical facilities. Roads are jeepable, rough, narrow and are not metalled.
It is interesting to find out that the average sex ratio for households of the
sample villages were recorded much lower (832) than the state average (975). Among
the six villages, the sex ratio of Palsang village recorded the lowest with only 567
females per 1000 males; Upper Sakawrdai (750) also showed lesser sex ratio than
average of the six villages. The villagers response that low sex ratio on their villages
has nothing to do with religious or social factor, but it is believed to be the biological
factor which plays role in reproduction process. The other four villages Zohmun,
Tinghmun, Mauchar and Zokhawthiang have sex ratio higher than average of the six
villages. It has been expressed in several studies that the human sex ratio is affected
by a wide range of biological and environmental factors.
Out of total surveyed population (731), it is come up that almost 60 per cent of
the total population is recorded under age of 27 years. The population decline at the
faster rate with increase in age. These types of pyramids are usually found in
populations with very large fertility rates and low level of life expectancies. In fact, all
the six sample villages are completely rural and their primary economy is still
depending on agriculture. The modern infrastructures, facilities and amenities are yet
83
to reach in these villages. But working age group (15-60) of the sample villages
constitutes 64 per cent which is good sign in winning the bread of their family.
The overall literacy rate of the study area has been recorded as 93.75 per cent
which come out to be higher than the state’s average literacy rate (91.33 per cent,
2011 Census). Out of six villages, three villages have recorded higher literacry rate
than state average that is, Zohmun (96.19 per cent), Tinghmun (94.89 per cent) and
Mauchar (92.89 per cent). These three villages have considerably larger population
size than the remaining three villages. The literacy rates of remaining three villages
are as follows Upper Sakawrdai (90.48 per cent), Palsang (86.36 per cent) and
Zokhawthiang (82.35 per cent).
The survey result shows that majority of literates are under middle standard
which is 34.53 per cent of total literates. The number of person decreases with
increase in the level of education, only 1.03 per cent attains master degree out of the
total literates. The reasons behind decline of percentage in higher education are lack
of higher educational institutions, financial constraint, uncertain of jobs, early
marriage and poor academic performance etc.
There are 9 Primary Schools among which 7 schools are under the
Government while 2 of them are run by Private ownership. Among these schools,
Tinghmun Government Primary School has the lowest student teacher ratio which is
29:1, while the highest student teacher ratio is found in 12:1 in Tinghmun Primary
School (Private). The other student teacher ratios are 23:1 in Mauchar Government
P/S, 15:1 in Government Zohmun PS I,Zohmun Government P/S II has 8:1. Palsang,
Upper Sakawrdai and Zokhawthiang have 12:1, 23:1 and 23:1 respectively. In
Zohmun Private Primary School, the student teacher ratio is 22:1
Despite of locating under Sinlung Hills Development Council, the area is not
well developed. There are poor infrastructure facilities, people do not get marginal
daily requirement so as live like in other parts of the state. Majority of the people are
engaged in primary activities and only few are engaged in tertiary sector. This clearly
indicates the economic backbone as well as the economic status of the area.
Good transportation network is the most important infrastructure facility

required in order to get marginal supply of goods and services. People had their
cultivation with no profit motives and even the surplus products are distributed within
84
the village area. So, only few amounts are profited in return of their hard work. The
study area needs good political administration with proper planning programs for the
development.
85
References and Bibliography
Agarwal, H. S., 1985, Simple Indian Economic, Agra, Laksmi Narain

Agarwal.
Chandna, R. C., 1986, Geography of Population: Concepts, Determinants

and Patterns, New Delhi, Kalyani Publishers.
Critchfield, H J., ed. 2010, General Climatology, New Delhi, PHI

Learning Private Limited.
Das, R. K., 1985, Manipur Tribal Scene: Studies in Society and Change,
New Delhi, Inter- Indian publications.
Datt R., & K. P. M. Sundharam, 1965, Indian Economy, New Delhi, S

Chand and Company Ltd.
Dayal, P., ed. 2007, A Textbook of Geomorphology, New Delhi, Rajesh

Publications.
Dubey, R. M., 1981, Population Dynamics in India, Allahabad, Chugh

Publications.
Hajela, P. D., 1979, Dynamics of India’s Population Growth, New Delhi,

K L Malik & Sons Pvt. Ltd.
Joshi, B. H., Changing Demographic Structure of India, Jaipur, Raj

Publishing House.
Khullar, D. R., ed. 2005, India: A Comprehensive Geography, New

Delhi, Kalyani Publishers.
Kumar G., 2012, Dynamics of Development and Planning: Mizoram a

Comprehensive Regional Analysis, Delhi, Kalpaz Publications.
Lalthangliana. B., 2001, India, Burma & Bangladesh-a Mizo Chanchin,

Aizawl, RTM Press.
Lunghnema. V., 1993, Mizo Chanchin, Aizawl, Zotlang Press.
Mitra, A., 1978, India’s Population: Aspects of Quality Control, Vol I,

New Delhi, Abhinav Publication.
86
Mizoram Remote Sensing Application Centre. 2009. Natural Resources
Atlas of Mizoram. Aizawl: Mizoram Remote Sensing Application Centre.
Rintluanga, P., 2009, Mizoram: A Study in Comprehensive Geography,

New Delhi, Northern Book Centre.
Rizvi, S. H. M., & Roy, S., 2006, Kuki-Chin Tribals of Mizoram and
Manipur, Delhi, BR Publishing Coorporation.
Saxena, H. M., ed. 2003, Environmental Geography, Jaipur, Rawat

Publicatios.
Sen, S., 1992, Tribes of Mizoram, New Delhi, Gyan Publishing House.
Singh, S., ed. 2008, Physical Geography, Allahabad, Prayag Pushtak

Bhawan.
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Mittal Publications.
87
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CERTIFICATE

Certified that the present dissertation entitled, ‘Geographical studies of

Prof. Girindra Kumar Naorem Bobby Singh

I am very grateful to my supervisors Prof. Girindra Kumar , Prof Vishwambhar

I am also thankful to my group mates for their constant motivation and

Lastly, I would like to thank to various Government Departments for permitting me

Map No. Title Page No.

1.1 Location Map 8

Figures No. Title Page No.

1.1 Land Use / Land cover 28

2.1 Religious Composition 42

3.1 Size of Family 46

3.2 Marital Status by Age 50

3.3 Percentage of Main Worker 55

3.4 Occupational Structure 57

3.5 Income Group 59

4.1 Sex Ratio 66

4.2 Age Sex Pyramid 71

4.3 Literacy Rate 73

4.4 Educational Attainment Level by Sex 79

Table No. Title Page No.

1.1 Slope Category 16

Plate no. Title Page no.

2.1 Centenary monument of U. Sakawrdai Church 39

2.2 EFCI Church of Mauchar Village 41

3.1 House type in Tinghmun Village 47

3.2 Health Centre of Palsang Village 51

3.3 Road Linking Zohmun to Mauchar 53

4.1 Government Middle School, Zohmun 76

Geography being a science of spatial studies requires establishment of

Understanding the structure, landforms, lithology, climatic conditions and

An attempt is made in this study to understand and to establish the impact of

Six villages of Darlawn Rural Development Block have been identified as

AIMS AND OBJECTIVES

The study area comprises of six villages namely Zohmun, Mauchar,

Rintluanga Pachuau had a geographical study on Mizoram under the title “A

Culture is an important component of geographical studies where spatial

Primary data are used in analyzing the socio-economic characters and

To have better understanding on various geographical characteristics of the

The physical setup of Mizoram is predominantly of mountainous terrain of

1) Structural Landforms 2) Fluvial Landforms

1) Structural landforms: Structural landforms are structural in origin by various

Valley fill is of fluvial origin characterized by unconsolidated sediments

2) Gently sloping (3 – 5%): Gently sloping occurs in the northwestern border of

2) Moderately sloping (5 – 10%): This class of moderately sloping mainly

Geologically, the study area is characterized by sedimentary rocks belonging

The structural units mainly found in the area are:

Drainage is a channelized flow of water through streams, rivers and their

Ordinarily speaking, soil represents the loose and unconsolidated materials

The information on land-use and land-cover is pre-requisite for land and

5.68 Built-up land

It is identified as an area of human habitation developed due to non-

It is an area bearing an association predominantly of trees and other vegetation

Wasteland is described as degraded land which can be brought under

Since there are no proper observatory stations in Mizoram, it is not possible to

Jan 82 82 79 81.99 34.95 52 38 38 33.11 80.9

Feb 70 89 73 63.08 27.82 34 42 33 27.78 66.5

Mar 84 96 72 71.44 24.74 20 32 36 33 60.6

Apr 96 98 82 87.94 N.A 44 45 41 51.16 N.A

May 98 100 95 89.37 56.50 64 72 60 55.71 86.3

Jun 97 100 95 95.99 N.A 75 82 68 70.92 N.A

Jul 97 98 96 95.77 61.21 74 85 75 68.90 92.4

Aug 100 98 96 97.87 63.88 78 88 69 68.28 89.0