Chapter 1

The Arts

I. Definition of the Arts

Arts came from the Latin term ‘ars’ which means ability or skill. It includes
those areas of artistic creativity as well as the process of creation.

The Arts can be categorized into Visual, Performing and Literary Arts. These
categories have different areas that seek to communicate beauty. The aesthetic or
beauty produced in these categories is then communicated through the senses.

In a more specialized sense, the arts applies to those activities that express the
aesthetic ideas, and these are shared and created with others through the use of skill
and imagination. Man then is involved in a process called Artistic Creativity. Thus,
there are those people who show their skill and imagination in cooking, as in culinary
arts, in metallurgy, in martial arts, among others.

II. Assumptions of Arts

Ranging from the art as an area of artistic creativity to the activities of

aesthetic expression, art is indeed many-sided and multifaceted. From a wide range
of definitions of art, the nature of the arts can be summarized in terms of its
existence, and on how it supplements fundamental human needs.

1. Art is Universal

Art has been created by people at all times. It is one of the oldest and most
important means of expression developed by man. No matter what epoch or country,
there is always art. Art lives because it is a fundamental part of man’s life (Zulueta,
2007)

Art is not confined to a boundary. It is not only seen in the process of making it, or in
the concert halls, museums and galleries. It is not only for those who can afford to
pay or those who have access to it because art is everywhere. It can be seen in the
houses, buildings, bills and coins, and in the clothes and accessories. Furthermore,
art is apparent in religion, politics, trade and industry, as well as in the government.
Its presence cannot be ignored (Ortiz et al, 1976).
2. Art is Cultural

Although art is universal, it does not necessarily follow that the arts are the
same in all cultures. It still varies as much as it is culture-bound. Art is also present
among ethnic and cultural groups. The Kankana-ey’s for example are known for their
weaving practices, and the designs have intricate details. The indigenous peoples in
the mountain provinces are also known for body tattoos, and tooth staining. Hence,
art can be seen in different form and styles because individuals have different ways of
perceiving things.

2. Art is Expression

Art has grown out of man’s need to express himself. It could be in the form of
writing or speaking, in painting or in music. The means of expression is not limited to
one’s feelings, experiences or ideas.

The social values and the underlying psychological insights are also expressed
through the artwork. The arts produced embody the unique personality of the artist
because as he is involved in the process of completing the artwork, he is consciously
and/or unconsciously affected by his environment, traditions, national traits,
religious beliefs, economic conditions and his ideals (Estolas, 2007).

3. Art is Empathy and Experience

There are at least three major kinds of experiences involved in the artistic
activity. It starts with the experience that the artist wants to communicate. Secondly,
the act of expressing this experience is also another form of experience in itself.
Finally, the artist feels another experience when the work is done and it is the sense
of accomplishment that he experiences.

John Dewey posited that art must not be separated from experience. He also
stated that the ‘aesthetic experience resides in the recognition of the wholeness of the
interrelationships among the things presented or depicted’.

But there is more into the experience that an artist experiences in the making
of his artwork. This refers to what an onlooker or listener undergoes when he
perceives the work of art. The perception may kindle an experience which is, or could
be, similar or related to that which the artist tried to express (Estolas, 2007).
7. Art and Nature

Art is not nature. A work of art is man-made. Artists make use of nature as
their inspiration and medium, but this does not mean that the artwork is
automatically nature. The nature-based artwork may closely resemble nature, but it
could never be a duplicate of nature. Through a camera, nature could be closely
resembled but the output is only a record of the subject or the scene.

8. Art is Creation

Art is a planned activity. Although an artist thinks out a design, selects his
materials and arranges them according to his design, his work is never wholly
original. He may have envisioned a particular artwork but sometimes the finished
product may not be what he originally envisioned. In the creation process, the artist
is involved in a constant correction and redirection, and this depends on the
demands of the material and the challenges it poses.

III. Philosophical Perspectives of Art

1. Art as Representation

The concept of the arts as imitation may be traced back to Plato and Aristotle.
Plato, who was an idealist, believed that art exists in the realm of ideals. Empiricist
Aristotle on the other hand believed that art is a mirror of reality. Although Plato and
Aristotle differed in their concept of the universal, both shared the same perspective
as to the idea that through imitation art portrays the universal (Maguigad, 2007).

2. Art as Expression

According to Caroll (2013), “the concept of expression that interests

philosophers of art ranges over qualities such as emotive qualities and qualities of
character”. She added, “expression is the manifestation, exhibition, objectification,
embodiment, projection or showing forth of human qualities, or, as they are also
called, “anthropomorphic properties” (properties that standardly apply only to human
persons).”
She mentioned one theory, called as the common view regarding art as
expression, to wit:
An artist expresses (manifests, embodies, projects, objectifies) x (some
human quality) if and only if (1) the artist has been moved by a feeling or
an experience of x to compose his artwork (or a part thereof); (2) the
 artist has imbued his artwork (or some part of it) with x (some human
quality); and (3) the artwork (or the relevant part) has the capacity to give
the artist the feeling or experience of x when he or she reads, listens to
and/or sees it again, and, consequently, to impart the same feeling or
experience of x to other readers, listeners and/or viewers.

3. Art as Form

Formalism arose as a reaction to the representational theories of art. The

artistic practices that were particularly relevant to the emergence of formalism were
the developments in painting and sculpture that have come to be known as modern
art or modernism. Their aim was not to capture the perceptual appearances of the
world, but often to make images noteworthy for their visual organization, form, and
arresting design.
Caroll (2013), citing Bell, stated:
According to Bell, what determines whether or not a painting is art is its
possession of significant form. That is, a painting is art if and only if it
has a salient design. Though the importance of form was made especially
apparent by the tendency of modern art toward abstraction, significant
form was a property said to be possessed by all artworks, past, present
and future. Significant form is comprised of arrangements of lines,
colors, shapes, volumes, vectors, and space (two-dimensional space,
three-dimensional space and the interaction thereof). Genuine art, on
this view, addresses the imagination like the figures of Gestalt
psychology, prompting the viewer to fill the artwork in such a way that
we apprehend it as an organized configuration of lines, colors, shapes,
spaces, vectors, and so on.
4. Art as Aesthetic Experience
A thing of beauty gives man pleasure as he perceives it. The delight that he
experiences is called Aesthetic Pleasure. ‘Man’s desire for beauty stems from a
primordial sense of order and consistency’ (Ortiz et al, 1976). We tense up and show
gestures of displeasure when we see objects or things that don’t meet our taste. But
we show contentment when we perceive, touch and hear pleasurable things and
sound.
However, what is beautiful is relative. As Ortiz stated, ‘our attitude is usually
conditioned by many factors’ and ‘this attitude is colored by some personal
preferences and biases’ (Ortiz et al, 1976).
Furthermore, as cited by Carolle (2013), the aesthetic definition of art
maintains:
 x is an artwork if and only if (1) x is produced with the intention that it
possess a certain capacity, namely (2) the capacity of affording aesthetic
experience.
5. Art as Escape
There are many things that confront man. He is confronted by the clutter of
work, personal dilemma, relationship with other people and so on. He then finds time
and other things to which he can find expression for his predicaments. Artists can
make use of art as an outlet. As stated by Immanuel Kant in his Critique of
Judgment, art in itself is fun and it is closer to play than to work. Besides, Plato
observed that art is a form of play for the artist.

IV. FUNCTIONS OF ART

Art has the general function of “satisfying our (1) individual needs for personal
experience, (2) social needs for display, celebration and communication, and (3)
physical needs for utilitarian objects and structure” (Ortiz et al, 1976).

1. Personal Function

Art helps educate man’s senses and sharpen his perception of the elements in the
environment such as color, forms, textures, designs, sounds, rhythms and
harmonies. It can also lead to an intensified awareness of the beautiful life, and it
refines and elevates an individual’s aesthetic taste. It also provides insights for other
ways of thinking, feeling and imagining those that have never occurred.

2. Social Function

Art is a powerful means to reform man, to change his deviant behavior into a socially
accepted one, and it can move man from immoral or disorderly actions (Zulueta,
2007) to an improved human condition (Ortiz et al, 1976). It tends to influence the
collective behavior of humans for a cause (Zulueta, 2007).

Art functions socially when “(1) it seeks or tends to influence the collective behavior
of people, (2) it is created to be seen or used primarily in public situations, and (3) it
expresses or describes social or collective aspects of existence as opposed to
individual and personal kinds of experiences” (Zulueta, 2007).

3. Physical Function
Whenever art has function, this function influences and often determines the form. If
an object is made for a certain function, it should be made in such a way that it can
perform its function. Functions change according to form, and if there are many
functions, there will be many forms (Zulueta, 2007).

Functional works of art can be classified as either tools or containers. Tools and
containers are objects which function to make our lives comfortable. A spoon is a
tool; so is a car. A building and a community are containers. These tools and
containers fulfill particular purpose. However, the functional works of art must not
only be aesthetically pleasing but must also perform their function efficiently (Ortiz et
al, 1976).

V. Categories of Art
The different art forms can be categorized into visual, auditory/performing arts
and literary art. The different art forms under visual arts painting, sculpture and
architecture; auditory and combined arts include music, dance, cinema and theater;
and, literary arts include essays, poetry, novel and short stories. Some authors
categorized the arts into visual arts, auditory arts and combined arts.
There are also fusions in the arts which include those that are overlapping and
interrelated. These include graffiti, poetry-performance, performance art and digital
arts.
Moreover, translations or transcreations happen in the art. These two concepts
are oftentimes used interchangeably. Translation is the process of translating what is
being said in one language into another (London Translations, 2018) while
Transcreation is the process of adapting a message from language into another while
maintaining its intent, style, tone ad context (Frankel, 2018). Moreover, there is a
process of translating and recreating in the transcreation where an original text or
material is translated and recreated into a new language or art form while making it
still appropriate in the context for which it is intended (London Translations, 2018).
Hence, music can be transcreated into text, a text into dance and dance into visual.

VI. Elements of Art

A. Elements of Visual Arts
The elements are said to be ingredients of the arts. When combined, they compose
the artwork.

1. Line. The shape of a work of art is defined by a line (De Bogart, 1968). A line is the
simplest, most ancient, and most universal means of creating visual art. The path of
a line through space suggests meaning. It symbolizes emotional expressions.
The different kinds of lines are horizontal, vertical, diagonal and curve lines. Each
line suggests different meanings. Horizontal lines imply width, quietude and
contemplation, and they give a sense of infinity. They also suggest the concept of
horizon and they also project a sense of security. Vertical lines signify poise,
aspirations, dignity, solemnity and height, and they suggest strength, exaltation and
uplift. Diagonal lines suggest action or movement. When these diagonal lines meet at
sharp angles, they suggest confusion, disturbance, quick motion, conflict, violence,
lightning, battle, war and sudden death. They also signify energy, impulse, will
power, passion as well as emotion. Curved lines are graceful, and show life and
energy. They are never harsh and stern (Zulueta, 2007).

2. Shape. It refers to the area that is clearly set off by one or more of the other
elements of art. Shapes are two dimensional which means they can be measured in
two ways: length and width. Shapes can be open or closed. It can also be geometric
and biomorphic or organic. Geometric shapes are shapes made with a ruler or drawing
tool. Squares, circles, triangles, rectangles are examples of geometric shapes. Organic
shapes are also called as free form shapes. They are not regular or even. Their
outlines may be curved or angular, or may be a combination of both.
3. Form. Form is like shapes that have length and width. Forms are used to describe
simple objects and determine the structure of these objects. For mechanical
purposes, forms show masses that are solid, have volume and are three-dimensional;
its third dimension is depth.
4. Space. Space refers to the distance between, around, above, below and within
things or objects. Space exists as an ‘illusion’ in the graph presentation while space
in sculpture and architecture is present.
5. Color. Color is a decorative element in visual arts. Color refers not only to hue but
also to value (De Bogart, 1968), and intensity (Maguigad, 2007).

1. Hue. Hue is the attribute by which one is distinguished from another. They
can be classified into primary, secondary, complementary and intermediate
colors. It is the particular identity of a color. The principal or primary hues
are red, yellow and blue and the secondary hues are green, violet and
orange. Complementary colors are those that are opposite in the scale of
colors and intermediate colors are those adjacent in the wheel.

2. Value. This term is applied to denote the lightness and darkness of a color.
It is the property of color which makes it seem light and dark. The first one
is the object itself and the second one is the creation of value through
shadows or reflection of light. Colors can be made darker by making the
 pigments thicker, adding black, or adding a little of its complement. Colors
can be made lighter by adding water or oil or white.

3. Intensity. This refers to the brightness and dullness of a color. Intensity

connotes the purity of color. Two colors may both be violet, one just as dark
as the other, but one may be more intense than the other. This is so
because colors differ in intensity or vividness.

 Color Harmony Groups

1. Monochrome. In this color harmony, there is the use of only one color. Colors are
monochromatic when there is one color with different shades.

2. Analogous Colors. Three to four colors “next-door neighbors” to each other create
analogous colors; two or more colors between primaries, except both primaries.

3. Complimentary Colors. Two colors that are directly opposite each other create a
complimentary color scheme.

4. Split-Complimentary Color. It is a complimentary color and two colors on either side

of its compliment.

5. Triadic Colors. This includes colors that are equally spaced in the color wheel.

6. Texture. Texture is the surface treatment of an artistic work in order to give

variety and beauty to any work of art. The sense of sight and touch are involved.
Variations in texture of objects, buildings and structures help avoid a monotonous
effect. Tactile (or Real) Texture is the way the surface of an object actually feels.
Implied Texture on the other hand is the way the surface of an object looks like it
feels.

B. Elements of Auditory and Performing Arts

The art forms under the category of auditory and performing arts are varied.
Hence, music has different elements compared to dance, theater and cinema.

B.1 Elements of Music

1. Rhythm. It is the most basic element of music. It is the over-all movement or

swing. It arises probably out of the fundamental movement of the human body.
Rhythm includes meter which means measure of rhythmic unit. Tempo, on the other
hand, refers to the movement of music whether fast or slow.

2. Melody. It is the succession of musical sounds or tones in an orderly manner. A

tone is a sound in music which designates the pitch and depends on the vibration
rate per second. The smallest melodic unit is the motif. The motif then expands into a
phrase which is a succession of tones easily encompassed in one breath. The phrase
usually rises to a high point from which it falls to a point of rest or cadence. An entire
melody is formed out of repeated and contrasted phrases. Melody corresponds to line
in painting.
3. Dynamics. This means the force or percussive effects; degree of loudness and
softness. Forte means loud, messoforte means very loud, piano means soft and
pianissimo-very soft.
4. Harmony. This is the simultaneous sounding of two or more tones. Harmony was
achieved before the 17th century by having two or more melodies sung or played
against each other. This is called counterpoint or polyphony which is particularly
favored by modern composers.
5. Texture. Texture refers to the number of tones that are expected to be
apprehended simultaneously. Air seems to circulate freely between the tones when
the texture is relatively thin. In this case, what each instrument is doing can clearly
be heard. This cannot be done if the texture is thick.
6. Color. This is the result of the difference in timbre or quality of tone in a variety of
voices and instruments. Familiarity with the quality of sound of the instruments used
may enable one to pick them out from a symphony orchestra even if the texture is
quite thick.
7. Form. Form is also referred to as the structure. Without form or structure the
musical work would not be in order. It would also be lacking in direction and finality.
Therefore, structure or form is necessary in music inasmuch as a blueprint to an
architect or a pattern to a dressmaker.
8. Style. This refers to the composer’s or singer’s personal way of rendering his
musical inclination. His style may be due to his temperament or training. His
personal idiom as well as the period or place where he lives in may contribute to the
development of his style (Maguigad, 2007).
Properties of Musical Sound

1. Pitch. It is the location of a tone in a musical scale in relation to high

and low. The pitch is determined by the rate of vibration. When there
is a rapid vibration, there is higher pitch. The lower the vibrations the
lower the pitch.
 2. Duration. Duration depends on the length of time over which
vibration is maintained.

3. Volume. This property of music depends on the degree of force of the

vibrations. Musical sounds are perceived as being loud and soft.

4. Timbre. It is also called as the color property of a musical sound. The

color of the musical sound helps in the immediate recognition of what
instrument being played is given a note or pitch (De long, et al, 1965;
154). Timber results from the physical qualities of the object which
vibrates, called the vibrator, and any object which amplifies the
vibration is called the resonator (Ortiz et al 1976).

5. Tone. It is the audible sound of a single note. It is also the quality of a

musical sound.

B.2 Elements of Dance

1. Content. Dances usually attempt to tell a story, convey or evoke an emotion,

or express an attitude. It uses a language which attempts to communicate. The
theme or the idea of the dance provides a unifying element to the movement of
the dancers (Ortiz et al, 1976).

2. Movement. Movement is the fundamental element of the dance. It is the

means by which the dancers can externalize an inner state or condition and
thus communicate with an audience. Dance movement must convey a kind of
quality –purposive or emotional – otherwise it will be devoid of any human
association (Maguigad, 2007). Dance movements are given form and structure
by a choreographer, which are then performed and executed by dancers
(Maguigad, 2007).

3. Music. Music is closely related to the particular dance for which it was created
(Ortiz et al, (1976). It motivates and synchronizes the movement of the dancers
(Maguigad, 2007).

4. Spectacle. The scenery and costumes play an important role in the creation of
that spell. Scenery creates or reinforces the mood and atmosphere and
provides the background for the unfolding of the events. Costumes and props
enhance visual effects of the dance. These are the elements reflective of the
customs, beliefs and environment of the people (Ortiz et al, 1976).
 5. The Dancer. It is through the body of the dancer that the art of dancing is
portrayed, and the physical, emotional and natural characteristics of the
dancer determine the quality and the nature of the dance. The trained dancer
brings his body to a high state of flexibility, control, and alertness, which make
him a better and expressive dancer than the untrained one. The trained
dancer’s body is more erect so that he can achieve the harmony of movement
which is essential in the art of dance (Estolas et al, 2007).

6. The Choreographer. He is the arranger of dances, either for a soloist or for a

group and is the most important figure of the dance history. He has a creative
mind that invents the order and combination of steps, the pattern of group
dance and the extension of dance techniques by using familiar actions in new
and more complex ways. With trained dancers, a choreographer can set them
into motion in an almost unlimited number of ways (Estolas et al, 2007).

These elements of dance work together, along with the technical skill and expressive
power of the dancers to captivate the audience in the manner that all theater art does
(Ortiz et al, 1976).

B.3 Elements of the Cinema

1. Time. It is the most important element of the cinema. The time element of the
cinema includes the physical, psychological and dramatic time (Ortiz et al,
1976). Physical time is the time taken by an action as it is being filmed and
projected on the screen. It can be distorted through slow motion, accelerated
motion, reversed motion and stopped motion (Maguigad et al, 2007).
2. Space. Space on the screen is flat and the perception of depth is just an
illusion. The cinema uses three-dimensionality. The three dimensionality and
“realness” are achieved through the use of scale, shooting angle, and lighting.
Three different sizes of shots may be taken: long shot, medium shot, and close-
up.
3. Sound. The director is free to select only those sounds that he deems useful
and relevant to the unraveling of his thoughts and ideas. Just as he limits the
focus of his camera to only those scenes that he finds significant, so he can
select sounds that he feels are equally significant and purposive. The intensity,
pitch, volume and texture of these sounds are recorded in their optical
equivalent on the strip of negatives parallel to the images (Ortiz et al, 1976).

B.4 Elements of Theater

 1. The Actor. The Actor is the chief medium of the director. Being an actor
requires essential qualities. These include imagination, fluent emotional nature
and mobility of inner constitution.

2. The Director. The director is the pivotal element in theater. The director, like
the actor, should also possess essential qualities inasmuch as he has to make
the presentation of the show successful and maintain a better working
relationship among the members.

3. The Audience. In the way the subject or story of the theatrical presentation is
being conveyed, the interaction between the stage actors and the audience
arises. It will not be possible for a theatrical presentation if there is no
audience. Furthermore, without the desired interaction between the stage
actors and the audience, the theater presentation is considered a failure.

4. The Text or Script. The script does not serve only as a copy of the whole story
of the play but also a guide for the whole team of the presentation to make the
theatrical presentation organized. It is in the script that an actor knows what
character he has to carry and enliven. It is in accordance to the script or text
that he knows what to do. The staff, including the soundman, stage managers
and lights director, also use the script as their cue.

5. Theater Space. The theater space is commonly called as the set. It is the place
where the performers and audience come together. It includes any space that
can be turned into an acting area so that the theater presentation would be
made conducive for a logical interaction between the audience and the actor

6. Design. The theatrical design is dependent on what the script is all about. In
this case, the design includes the costume, make-up, props and properties,
and lights and sounds.

C. Elements of Literary Arts

Just like the auditory and performing arts, the different literary arts have
different elements

C.1 Elements of Short Story

 A short story is a prose fiction which has its early beginnings in parables,
fables, tales, allegory and folklores. It is a work of fiction short enough to be read in a
single setting (Estolas et al, 2007). The elements of a short story are the plot,
character, setting, theme and point of view.

1. Plot. It is the artistic arrangement of actions. This refers to the sequence of

events from the beginning to an end. The basis of the plot is the struggle with an
opposing force. Villanueva stated that a fully developed plot has exposition,
development, turning point, climax and denouement.
2. Characters. These are the persons who display moral, emotional and
intellectual qualities (Estolas et al, 2007). According to Arroyo and David (1985), as
quoted by Estolas, the characters may be persons, abstract ideas or other natural
objects. The principal character is called the protagonist. The protagonist undergoes
the conflict and meets with the antagonist.
3. Setting. It refers to the place and time of the short story. It may be used to
create an atmosphere that is symbolic to enhance the meaning of the story. The
setting can also be used to describe the characters in the story.
4. Theme. It sums up the meaning of the story. The theme is not directly
stated but revealed in the totality of the literary piece. It is a vision of life conveyed to
the reader by the elements that make up the story.
5. Point of View. It affects in varying degrees the reader’s feeling of
involvement in the action. It contributes to the significance and to the meaning of the
story. The writer therefore chooses the point of view or may shift to another point of
view he thinks appropriate for the story.

C.2 Elements of Narrative Poetry

Poetry is the art of rhythmic composition written or spoken. It is written in

metrical or patterned composition. It is a poetic composition in verse that is
characterized by highly developed artistic form, the use of rhythm and the
employment of heightened language to express an imaginative interpretation of a
situation or idea. Poetry is usually divided into epic, lyric, ballad and dramatic poetry
(Estolas et al, 2007). The elements of poetry are meaning, imagery, figurative
language, rhythm and meter.
1. Meaning of technical terms, idioms, slang and provincialism, allusion, or
denotation and connotation produce aesthetic feelings.
2. Imagery is the representation of basic experience through language. Images are
formed as they are seen, heard of, tasted, smelled and touched. According to Dudley,
the image is the mental duplication or associated meaning. The most common type to
imagery is visual. However, according to Estolas, imagery is not all visual, that is,
other senses may be duplicated by means of images.
3. Figurative language quickens the imagination and it also stimulates the
emotions of readers. The common figures of speech are simile, metaphor,
personification, hyperbole, oxymoron, irony and metonymy.
4. Meter in language refers to the number of accented syllables in a line of poetry
that occur at apparently equal intervals of time.
5. Rhythm is the movement or space in poetry which is achieved through the
regular accentuation of syllables in a line. It is the regular succession of sounds or
motion (Estolas et al, 2007).

C.3 Elements of Essay

An essay is a piece of prose writing. Essay may be an expression of personal

thoughts, attitudes, opinions or observations on a subject matter. It also introduces
new ways of looking at things, or perhaps at life. Essay has two types – formal and
informal essay. The formal essay is serious, informative and intellectually
stimulating. Its mood is serious, descriptive, argumentative and expository. In
addition, the style in a formal essay is impersonal. The informal essay, on the other
hand, is light, humorous and entertaining. Humorous, witty and satirical are the
predominant mood in an informal essay. An informal essay can be fanciful and
conversational (Estolas, 2007).

According to Estolas (1995), there are three elements of essay. These are:
1. The writer’s purpose in introducing the issue. He may either inform the
readers of new things or ideas or he may persuade his readers of what has to be done
regarding certain things or phenomena.
2. The writer’s view point or stand on the issue he has presented. Estolas
stated that if the essay is supported adequately by facts and it reflects clear and
unbiased thinking, the readers tend to respond and feel with the writer.
3. The relevance of the theme of the issue to the lives of the readers. The
essayist writes not solely to inform. Although there are essays that are light and
humorous, those essays are still read because of the theme.

C.4 Elements of Novel

The novel is a long prose fiction which deals with characters situations and
scenes that represent real life. It involves a series of actions and characters which
show why a character does certain thing and accomplishes them through the choices
he makes (Estolas et al, 2007).
 The important elements of novels are:
1. Plot. Just like in the other literary types, is the skeleton or framework of the
novel. It can be the story itself, the actual event or happenings.
2. Setting. It is the time, place and background of the story. It includes
geography and the beliefs, habits and values of a particular place.
3. Characters. They are those who show the moral, emotional and intellectual
qualities endowed to them by the writer.
4. Theme. It refers to the main idea or topic and it is the universal truth found in
the novel. It differs from the moral lesson that teaches the readers.
5. Moral lesson. It is the part of the story that tells whether they are bad or good
(Estolas, 2007).

VII. ORGANIZATION OF VISUAL ARTS

The different elements of the visual arts should be used accordingly in order to
form combinations that are correct and beautiful. This is the function of organization.
The organization of the different elements of the visual arts should be governed
by the different principles of design. These principles aid the artist in producing a
pleasing and interesting pattern (Sanchez et al, 1982). More so, the design is the
overall organizational visual structure of the formal elements in a work of art
(Zulueta, 2007).

Principles of Design

1. Unity and Harmony

It is said to be the most essential of all the principles of design. It is the art
principle which gives an impression of unity and so the “Law of Order” is always
followed. Applying harmony in the visual arts refers to the adaptation of the visual
elements to each other, the agreement between the parts of a composition which
results in unity. Some of the possible ways to achieve harmony are repetition,
contrast and transition (Zulueta et al, 2007).

2. Balance

It is a feeling of equality in weight, attention, or attraction of the various

elements of design. It is the quality of two contrasting forces having two opposite
directions. In this principle, the “Law of Rest” is always applied. It suggests stability,
security, rest and peace (Zulueta et al, 2007). The different types of balance include
symmetrical balance, approximately symmetrical balance, asymmetrical balance and
radial balance.

3. Proportion

In this principle, the “Law of Relationships” is applied. It is determined by a

comparison of the size of the different parts of an object or of an arrangement. It
deals with the proper or significant relation between two things or parts. This is
expressed in size, number and position (Zulueta et al, 2007).

4. Rhythm

Rhythm in visual arts is achieved by the regular or harmonious recurrence of

lines, forms and colors (Sanchez et al 1982). It means an easy, connected path along
which the eye may travel in any arrangement of lines, forms or colors. Rhythm is
obtained through the repetition of shapes, through the progression of sizes, and
through an easily connected or continuous line movement (Zulueta et al, 2007).

5. Emphasis and Subordination

This quality of design is also called as subordination. It is produced by the

design or form that catches attention while the rest are subordinated. It may also be
defined as giving proper importance to the parts or to the whole (Sanchez et al, 1982).

6. Contrast and Variety

This principle of design offers some variation in value that produces of creates
a “visual discord in a composition”. It may who differences between shapes and
colors or other elements of the arts. This principle of design can also be used to
create an area of emphasis (Bartel, 2004). Hence, variety and contrast are considered
so that visual interest of the work is increased.

Rule of Thirds
The rule of thirds is referenced more often in videography, photography or
graphic design. It is a set of guidelines displayed visually with a grid pattern laid over
the image, showing two vertical lines that break the image into thirds vertically and
two horizontal lines that break the image into thirds horizontally (Digital Trends,
2018). Moreover, the use of the rule of thirds allows that artist to place the subject
not in the center of the image so that the main focal point is somehow placed at one
side.
VIII. Subject and Content
Form or Subject and Content are two different things in the arts. The first refers
to the objects the artist depicts, and the second refers to the meaning the artist
expresses or communicates. The content would not always be seen, but it is
transmitted by the way the form or subject interacts in a work.

A. Subject in Art

Subject Type
As mentioned, subject refers to any person, object, scene, or event described or
represented in a work of art. A work of art can be representational or non-
representational. The former, which is sometimes called objective art, affirms that the
arts have subject; the latter, sometimes called, non-objective art, affirms that the arts
do not have a subject. In addition, nonrepresentational art “do not present
descriptions, stories or references to identifiable objects or symbols. Rather, they
appeal directly to the senses because of the satisfying organization of their sensuous
and expressive elements” (Ortiz, Restain, Guillermo, Montano and Pillar, 1976).

Sources of Subject
According to Dudley, Faricy and Rice (1978), “the subjects used in art are
usually clear and obvious”. They further added that “the number of subjects is
limitless. Any artist may use any subject from any source and it is impossible ever to
know all the subjects of art. Even the scholar who has devoted a life-time to their
study never expects to know all of them. There are, however, few sources which are
part of the background of every cultivated person”.

Nature

Though art is not nature, different aspects of nature like animals, people and
landscapes have been the most popular source of inspiration and subject matter for
art. Fernando Amorsolo’s Rice Planting and Pieter Bruegel’s Fall of Icarus are visual
arts whose subject is nature. Nature can also be the subject in literacy pieces such
as William Shakespeare’s When Icicles Hang by the Wall and Robert Frost’s Birches.

History
Arts whose subject is history is numerous; Dudley et al (1978) however,
maintained, “we do not call a subject historical unless it refers to specific places,
persons, or events”. There are various art works which have historical value: one,
because “rulers like to have themselves and the great deeds of their time perpetuated;
consequently, statues and paintings of the great are found in each civilization”; two,
“artists are sensitive to the events taking place in the world around them”. An
example of the latter is the French lithographer and caricaturist Honore Daumier’s
Rue Transnonian.
This subject also includes legends and folklores. Though historical subjects are
clear and easy to find through records and references, legend is not or cannot be
authenticated. For instance is Richard Strauss’s poem Till Eulenspiegel’s Merry
Pranks which describes Till Eulenspiegel as the legendary bad boy of medieval
Germany.

Greek and Roman Mythology

The influence of Greek and Roman Mythologies permeated even the arts that
their influence on Western civilization can be traced in two sources: first, the works
of Greece and Rome during the period of Greek and Roman civilization from the sixth
century before Christ to the fifth century after Christ; second, the arts of Europe
during the Renaissance, the period of revived interest in things Greek and Latin
between the fourteenth century and sixteenth centuries (Dudley et al, 1978).
Moreover, Greek and Roman Mythologies have permeated the architecture,
drama, poetry, sculpture and painting. The building called Erechtheum and the
poems of Homer and Sappho all belong to the first period as described above; and the
Italian artist Sandro Botticelli’s Birth of Venus belongs to the second period.

The Judeo-Christian Tradition

Religion and Art

According to Dudley et al (1978), “religion has played an enormous role in
inspiring works of visual art, music, architecture, and literature through ages”. Pre-
historic people in fact painted the caves; in fact, “in some periods, such as the
prehistoric and the medieval, there was really no difference between religion and art”.
A good example of this is the caves at Altamira, Spain. According to Dudley et al
(1973), the painters “were performing a religious rite that was supposed to help them
hunting”.
During the Renaissance period, “European artisans became “artists” and
conscious of their role in a way that had never been true before”. He added, “with this
change of attitude in the artist, art itself changed from the spontaneous expression of
a universal feeling to a more studied, artificial, and individual expression: the art of
the Renaissance”. Hence, religious art did not only become self-conscious and
individual, it even became more intellectual and philosophical. The Sistine Chapel is
a good example of this, which according to Dudley et al (1973): “it took on a new set
of values and dimensions”. It was also during this period that art “became a kind of
private status symbol”. Examples of this were Giotto’s Arena Chapel frescoes and the
church of S. Maria Novella; the former was sponsored by a wealthy Paduan and the
latter by a wealthy Florentine family.
Religious art during the Renaissance period therefore, took on a broader
meaning in which “artists wandered somewhat from biblical texts to produced
increasingly humanistic interpretations” (Dudley et al, 2018).
Other Judaeo-Christian sources of art include The Bible, The Apocrypha, and
ritual of the church.

Sacred Oriental Text

Sacred oriental texts, especially from China, India and Japan, have become
apparent and important particularly the texts and traditions of Hinduism and
Buddhism. Examples of these were the Mahabharata and the Jataka tales. Others
include the Vedas, Tao Te Ching, Upanishads, Bhagavad-Gita (section of
Mahabharata) and Buddhist Sutras.
The Bhagavad-Gita, which is translated as “Song of the Blessed” is perhaps the
most widely read book of India. The Jataka tales have their inspiration from the life of
Buddha. The Vedas, which means knowledge, are composed of four texts which
include Rigveda, Yajurvdea, Sama-Veda and Atharva-Veda. The verses are comprised
of hymns and prose that are explained by the Brahmanas. Another is Tao Te Ching
which is a classic Chinese text which was composed in a flowing style of Calligraphy.
This has been believed to have influenced Legalism, Confucianism and Chinese
Buddhism. The Upanishads which can be translated to “sitting near, laying siege to a
Teacher” is regarded to be an extension of the Vedas (historylist.org, 2016).

Kinds of Subject
This can be categorized into landscapes, seascapes and cityscapes, still life,
animals, portraits, everyday life, history and legend, religion and mythology, and
dreams and fantasies.

1. Landscapes, seascapes and cityscapes. Landscapes and seascapes have been the
favorite subjects of Chinese and Japanese painters. Filipino painters have also
captured the countryside and the sea. Painting of pure landscapes was unknown in
Europe until the Renaissance period; though it served only as backgrounds for
figures just like the Mona Lisa or as setting for religious scenes. In modern times,
traffic jams, high-rises and skylines have served as inspirations for visual artists like
Vicente Manansala, Arturo Luz and Mauro Malang Santos (Ortiz et al, 1976).

2. Still life. This includes inanimate objects that are arranged in an indoor setting.
This includes fruits and flowers and “dishes of food on a dining table, pots and pans
on a kitchen table, or musical instruments and music sheets” (Ortiz et al, 1976).
Examples of these were the works of Cezanne and Picasso, and some of the works of
Manasala and Ang Kiu Kok.

3. Animals. This is another popular subject that even the earliest representation of
animals is on the walls of caves. These have also inspired writers like William Blake
who “wrote about the symmetry of the tiger and the meekness of the lamb” (Ortiz et
al, 1976). In the Philippines, artists like Romeo Tabuena and Napoleon Abueva have
made carabao (water buffalo) as their favorite animal subject, the sarimanok for the
Maranaws

4. Portraits. Other than the face, which is capable of showing variety of moods and
feelings, the subject’s hands, attire and accessories can also reveal much about the
person and his time. Not only is that portrait a realistic likeness of a person in a
sculpture, painting, drawing or print, it is also a used to mark a milestone in a
people’s lives just like the painting og jan Van Eyck’s The Marriage of Jan Arnolfini.

5. Figures. The chief subject of sculptors is the human body. Whether it is nude or
clothed, “the body’s form, structure and flexibility offers the artist a big challenge to
depict in in a variety of ways ranging from the most idealistic, as in the classical
Greek sculptures, to the most abstract, as in Henry Moore’s reclining figures”.

6. Everyday life. This kind of subject shows the life around the artists. Arts about
everyday life record artists’ “observation of people going about their usual ways,
performing their usual tasks”. It may include genre paintings like the works of
Fernando Amorsolo (Planting Rice), Anita Magsaysay-Ho (Catching Chickens) and
Vicente Manansala (Candle Vendors).

7. History and Legend. The former consists of verifiable facts while the latter consists
of unverifiable facts but many of them are accepted because it has been part of their
tradition. On one hand, Juan Luna’s Spoliarium depicts a scene during the days of
the early Roman empire while the story of Urduja has been doubted since “no one
has conclusively proven that she existed” (Ortiz et al, 1976).

8. Religion and Mythology. According to Ortiz et al (1976), many of the world’s

religions have used the arts to aid in worship, to instruct, to inspire feelings of
devotion and to impress and convert non-believers”. Among the Christians, many
craftsmen were commissioned to tell stories of biblical characters like Christ and
even the saints in pictures, but other religions like Judaism and Islam forbid the
representation of divinity as human beings like Shiva the Destroyer, which is shown
as a four-armed god and Buddha is symbolized by his footprints, a wheel or a three.
Religious beliefs and mystical experiences like Dante Alighieri’s Divina Commedia are
also popular subjects of art. In the Philippines, Solomon Saprid has shown folk
beliefs in his statue Tikbalang.

B. Content in Art
The subject matter may have different levels of meaning. A subject matter may
have factual, conventional, and subjective meaning as Cleaver had classified (Ortiz et
al, 1976).
‘The factual meaning is the literal statement or the narrative content in the work
which can be directly apprehended since the objects presented are easily recognized.
The conventional meaning refers to the special meaning that certain object or color has
for a particular culture or group of people. The subjective meaning is any personal
meaning consciously or unconsciously conveyed by the artist using a private
symbolism which stems from his own association of certain objects, actions, or colors
with past experiences’ (Ortiz et al, 1976).
From here we can deduce the four basic relationships on art which are the
subject matter, the artist, audience and form. These relationships are then the bases
for the four approaches to arts criticism and appreciation. If it was based on subject
matter, the approach used is mimetic; on the artist, expressive; on the audience,
pragmatic; and, formal or aesthetic, on the form.

IX. Reading the Image

The four planes of analysis include basic semiotic, the iconic, the contextual
and the evaluative planes.
1. Basic Semiotic Plane. Semiotics is the study of signs. Sign is composed of a
signifier and signified; the former pertains to the materials or physical aspect and the
latter pertained to the non-material aspects as concept and value. As cited by
Guillermo (2013), “the basic semiotic plane covers the elements and the general
technical and physical aspects of the work with their semantic”, and these are the
visual elements and how they are used, the choice of medium and technique, the
format of the work and other physical properties and marks of the work.
As stated by de Saussure, as cited by Guillermo (2013),
meaning is produced from the interplay of the signifiers of the work.
Following this, a number of observations arise. The first is that artistic
analysis takes into account not only the elements but also other material
aspects, such as dimension, format, medium, frame, and techniques, as
signifiers or conveyors of meaning. The second is that there is developed
a finer and more sensitive perception of the elements as they are
 specifically and materially found in a particular work. Line, for instance,
is not just seen in its vertical, horizontal, or diagonal orientation, but is
examined in its particular properties of density, porosity, relative
sharpness, etc. Third, the elements are not studied in a sequential and
compartmentalized manner but in a highly relational and interactive way
in which the use of line, color, texture, composition in space confirm or
verify meanings or create semantic relationships of similarity or contrast.
And fourth, the signifiers go hand in hand with their signifieds, and thus
one does not limit oneself to a description of the elements in the way they
are used but links their particularities of usage with their primary
significations, as well as with their intellectual and emotional
associations within the society. In the images of art and the media, the
use of the elements affects us subliminally or unconsciously and,
especially in the media are part of what have been called the "hidden
persuaders" that influence choice and behavior. However, it is through
art criticism that we become highly conscious of the means and their
effects and what they signify. It is also in semiotic analysis that we work
within the specific language of art. In contrast, the classical approach
often overlooks the basic language of art and bears heavily on the image,
its iconography and descriptive details, as well as its iconology and its
narratives.
2. The iconic plane or the image itself. This is still part of the semiotic approach, only
that what are dealt are not the material elements of the work but the particular
features, aspects and qualities of the image which are the signifiers. It can include
the choice of the subject which has social and political implications. In this particular
plane, one may ask “is the subject meaningful in terms of the socio-cultural context
and does it reflect or have a bearing on the values and ideologies arising in a
particular place and time?”.
Other than the choice of subject, one may consider the presentation of the
image and its relationship to the viewer. Hence, one may ask “does it address the
viewer directly; is it self-contained or self-absorbed? What kind of subject-viewer
relationship is implied by the subject through his facial expression, body language,
costume and accessories, natural or social background? Is it a relationship of peers
or one of dominance and subordination? Is it a friendly, ironic, aggressive, or hostile
relationship, and all possible nuances thereof?
Another to consider is the positioning of the figure or figures whether these are
frontal, in profile, or three-fourths as well as the significance that arise from these
different presentations. One may ask, “Does the painting show strong central
focusing with the principal figure occupying the center space or is it decentered and
the painting asymmetrical in composition? How do these presentations contribute to
different meanings? Does the subject or subjects have a formal or a casual air? How
does one describe the central figure's stance: poised, relaxed, indifferent, provocative,
or aloof? How much importance is given to psychological insight into character? to
costume and accessories? to the setting, natural, social or domestic? What is the
relative scaling of the figures from large to small? What bearing does this have to the
meaning of the work? How do the postures of the man and the woman convey their
emotional attitudes?”
One can also take into account the relationship of the figures to one another.
Furthermore, as stated by Guillermo (2013),
The style of figuration is an important part of the iconic plane. The
figurative style is not mere caprice, passing fashion, or the artist's
personal ecriture; beyond these, it implies a particular re-presentation or
interpretation of the world, a world view, if not ideology. Classical
figuration basically follows the proportion of 7 1/2 to 8 heads to the
entire figure in its pursuit of ideal form, as in a formal studio portrait
with the subject enhanced by make-up, all imperfections concealed.
Realist figuration is based on the keen observation of people, nature, and
society in the concern for truth of representation, thus creating true
portraits of individuals or exposing the poverty and squalor that arise
from social inequities. Impressionist figuration is fluid and informal,
often catching the subject unawares like a candid camera. Expressionist
figuration follows emotional impulses and drives, thus often involving
distortion that comes from strong emotion. However, the viewer should
not be too anxious to find precise stylistic labels, for contemporary art
has seen the development of highly original styles that have gone far
beyond the School of Paris. It is important to be sensitive to the meaning-
conveying potential of highly individual styles. In the basic semiotic plane
which deals with the material aspect of the work and in the iconic plane
which deals with the features of the image itself, one can see that as the
signifier cannot be separated from the signified, concrete fact or material
data cannot be divorced from value; in other words, fact is value-laden
and value or ideological meaning is derived from material fact.

3. The contextual plane. In this plane, one resituates the work in its context in order
to bring out the full meaning of the work in terms of human and social implications.
As stated by Guillermo (2013), “the viewer draws out the dialogic relationship of art
and society. Art sources its energy and vitality from its social context and returns to
it as a cognitive force and catalyst for change. If one does not view the work in
relation to its context, but chooses to confine analysis to the internal structure of the
work, one truncates its meaning by refusing to follow the trajectories of the work into
the larger reality that surrounds it. One prevents the work from reverberating in the
real world”. Hence, “it is called upon in the contextual plane a broad knowledge of
history and the economic, political and cultural conditions, past and present, of a
society” and that it also “situates the work in the personal and social circumstance of
its production”.
Guillermo further stated,
a single work of art is often more completely understood when it is
viewed in the context of the artist's entire body of work, when it is
juxtaposed and compared on the semiotic, iconic, and contextual planes
with works of the artist in the same period, in different periods of his/her
career, and then with the work of contemporaries. This is because the
meaning of one work may become part of a larger body or work or of an
integral artistic vision. In comparative intertextuality, the work of art
reveals its numerous ramifications of meaning.
4. The Axiological or Evaluative Plane. In this plane, values of a work are analyzed.
As Guillermo (2013), “after the understanding of the work is the difficult task of
evaluating it”. He added,
It becomes clear that, on one hand, the artist is not or should not be a
mere technician but expresses a view of life in his or her work. On the
other hand, the viewer/critic is also not a mere technical expert confined
to the analysis of the elements, techniques, and processes alone. The
mature viewer or critic is one who must have, after long expression and
experience, arrived at the formulation of his own value system, his or her
view of the world and humanity which he or she has come to feel deeply
and strongly about. As the artist enjoys artistic independence, the
critic/viewer also enjoys a measure of autonomy. For, to be sure, the
critic is not an appendage of the artist or a promoter or publicist, but one
who vitally contributes to the dynamic dialogue, interaction, and debate
in the field of art and culture as these intersect with other human
concerns, among them the political, social, and economic. The
viewer/critic, as also the artist should, places a value on the capacity of
art to influence and transform society.