CEREALS

 The word Cereal derives from Ceres, the name of the Roman goddess of harvest and
agriculture.
 Cereals are grasses (members of the monocot family Poaceae, also known as Gramineae)
cultivated for the edible components of their grain (botanically, a type of fruit called a
caryopsis), composed of the endosperm, germ and bran.
 Cereal grains are grown in greater quantities and provide more food energy worldwide
than any other type of crop, they are therefore staple crops.
 In their natural form (as in whole grain), they are a rich source of carbohydrates,
vitamins, minerals, fats, oils and protein. However, when refined by the removal of the
bran and germ, the remaining endosperm is mostly carbohydrate and lacks the majority of
the other nutrients. In some developing nations, grain in the form of rice, wheat, millet or
maize constitutes a majority of daily sustenance. In developed nations, cereal
consumption is moderate and varied but still substantial.

RICE (Oryza sativa L.)

Rice has shaped the culture, diets and economic of thousand of millions of peoples. For
more than half of the humanity “rice is life”. Considering its importance position, the United
Nation designated year 2004 as the “International Year of rice. Importance of rice is as follows:
a. Rice is an important staple food crop for more than 60 per cent of the world people.
b. Ready to eat products eg. popped and puffed rice, instant or rice flakes, canned rice and
fermented products are produced. (Puffed rice is a type of puffed grain made from rice,
commonly used in breakfast cereal or snack foods, and served as a popular street food in India. It
is usually made by heating rice kernels under high pressure in the presence of steam).
c. Rice straw is used as cattle feed, used for thatching roof and in cottage industry for preparation
of hats, mats, ropes, sound absorbing, straw board and used as litter material.
d. Rice husk is used as animal feed, for paper making and as fuel source.

Rice is primarily a high-energy or high calorie food. It contains less protein than wheat.
The protein content of milled rice is usually 6-7%. Rice, however, compares favourably with
other cereals in amino acids content. The biological value of its protein is high. The fat content
of rice is low (2.0 to 2.5%) and much of the fat is lost during the milling. Rice contains a low
percentage of calcium. Rice grain contains as much B group vitamins as wheat. Milled rice
losses valuable proteins, vitamins and minerals in the milling process during which the embryo
and the aleurone layer are removed. Much of the loss of nutrients can be avoided through
parboiling process (Parboiled rice is rice that has been partially boiled in the husk. The three
basic steps of parboiling are soaking, steaming and drying. These steps also make rice easier to
process by hand, boost its nutritional profile and change its texture).
 ORIGIN OF RICE
 Paddy grains found during excavation at Hastinapur (India) around 1000-750 B.C.
considered as an oldest sample in the world.
 Southwest Himalayas has various types and varieties and indicated probable centre of
origin.
 De Condolle (1886) and Watt (1862) mentioned south India is the centre of rice origin.
 Vavillov suggested that India and Myanmar should be regarded as the centre of origin of
cultivated rice.
 According to D. Chatterjee (1948), there are altogether 24 species of genus Oryza of
which 22 are wild and two viz., Oryza sativa and Oryza glaberrima are cultivated.
 Oryza sativa is grown in all rice growing areas, but Oryza glaberrima is confined to the
West Africa only. Thus it indicates that there might have been two centres of origin of
our cultivated rice; South-eastern Asia (India, Myanmar and Thailand) and West
Africa.

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION
 Rice is grown in more than a hundred countries, with a total harvested area
of approximately 158 million hectares, producing more than 700 million tons
annually (470 million tons of milled rice).
 Nearly 640 million tons of rice is grown in Asia, representing 90% of global production.
Sub-Saharan Africa produces about 19 million tons and Latin America some 25 million
tons. In Asia and sub-Saharan Africa, almost all rice is grown on small farms of 0.5−3
ha.
 The world’s largest rice producers by far are China and India. Although its
area harvested is lower than India’s, China’s rice production is greater due to higher
yields because nearly all of China’s rice area is irrigated, whereas less than half of India’s
rice area is irrigated.
 After China and India, the next largest rice producers are
Indonesia, Bangladesh, Vietnam, Myanmar, and Thailand. These seven countries
together account for more than 80% of world production.
 It provides about 22 per cent of the world’s supply of calories and 17% of the proteins.
 India has the largest area (43.94 million hectares (2013-14) followed by China and
Indonesia. In respect of production, India ranks second with 155.7 (106.54 million
tonnes of rice (2013-14)) million tonnes of paddy next to China (205.5 million tonnes of
paddy).
 In regard to average yield per hectare, Egypt ranks first followed by USA. Average rice
yield of India is only 2424 kg per hectare (2013-14).
 In India, rice is grown in almost all the states. West Bengal and Uttar Pradesh have the
highest rice production. The average yield per hectare is highest in Punjab (3346 kg/ha).
  Rice production in West Bengal (15.31 million tonnes), Uttar Pradesh (14.63 million
tonnes), Andhra Pradesh (13.03 million tonnes) (2013-14).
 In Jhansi Block area under rice is 8,312 ha with the production of 19,334 MT and average
productivity of 1748 kg per hectare (2013-14).

CLIMATIC REQUIREMENTS
 In India, rice is grown under widely varying conditions of altitude and climate. Rice
cultivation in India extends from 8 to 350N latitude and from sea level to as high as 3000
metres.
 Rice crop needs a hot and humid climate. It is best suited to regions which have high
humidity, prolonged sunshine and an assured supply of water.
 The average temperature required throughout the life period of the crop ranges from 21
to 370C.
 At the time of tillering the crop requires a higher temperature than for growth.
 Temperature requirement for blooming is in the range of 26.5 to 29.50C.
 At the time of ripening, the temperature should be between 20-250C.
 Photo-periodically, rice is a short-day plant. However, there are varieties which are non-
sensitive to photoperiodic conditions.
CLASSIFICATION OF RICE
Oryza sativa is a diploid species having 24 chromosomes. The sativa rice varieties of the
world are commonly grouped into three subspecies namely indica, japonica and
javanica.
1) Indica: Rice grown in India belongs to the indica subspecies.
- They are characterised by having leaves slightly pubescent and pale green colour.
- Indica are awnless or possess short or smooth awns.
- The fruit is caryopsis, elongated, thin, narrow and slightly flattened.
2) Japonica: The varieties developed in Japan belong to this subspecies.
- These varieties are adapted for cultivation in the subtropical and warm
temperature regions.
- Japonica varieties mostly have oval and round grains. They may be awned or
awnless.
- Leaves are narrow and dark green in colour.
3) Javanica: They are characterized by a stiff straw, long panicle with awned grains,
sparse tillering habit, long duration and low sensitivity to difference in day length.
These are found mainly in Indonesia.
BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION
The rice plant is a member of Poaceae (old Gramineae) family. The common cultivated
rice plant is an annual which usually grows to a height of a half meter or two meters but there are
certain varieties that grow much taller (6-9 metres). Some deep water rice varieties grow with the
gradual rise of the flood water level. Rice plant can be divided into main two parts namely root
system and shoot system:
Root system:
 When a rice grain germinates in a well drained, upland soil the sheath (coleorhizae)
emerges.
 If it germinates in submerged low lands, coleoptile emerges ahead of the coleorhizae.
 The primary, embryonic roots (radicle) comes out through the coleorhiza shortly after it
appears. This is followed by two or more secondary roots, all of which develop lateral
roots.
 The embryonic roots later die and are replaced by secondary adventitious roots produced
from the underground nodes of the culm.
Shoot System:
Collectively applies to all plant part visible above the ground level. It is mainly composed of
culms, leaves and inflorescence (panicle).
Culm:
 The culm or stem is made up of a series of nodes and internodes.
 The rice culms are usually hollows except at the nodes. Each node bears a leaf and a bud.
 Under favourable conditions buds near ground level grow into tillers.
 The primary tillers give rise to secondary tillers which give rise to tertiary tillers.
Leaves:
 The leaves of rice are sessile in nature. They are borne at an angle, on the culm in two
ranks along the stem, one at each node.
 The leaf blade is attached to the node by the leaf sheath. The rice leaf is similar to that of
wheat, but is usually distinguished from it by the length of the ligule. In the rice, ligule is
very prominent, usually more than one centimeter.
 The leaf number is more on a primary tiller than on the secondry and tertiary tillers.
Panicle: The rice inflorescence known as panicle is a group of spikelets borne on the uppermost
node of the culm. The primary panicle branch is divided into secondary and sometimes tertiary
branches. These bear the spikelet.
Spikelet:
 The individual spikelet consists of two outer glumes.
 All the parts found above the outer glumes are collectively called floret.
 It consists of a hard covering the two sections of which are known as lemma and palea
(the glumes) and the complete flower is between them.
 The lemma and palea together are known as the “hull”.
 The rice flower contains six functioning stamens (male organ) and a pistil (female organ).
At the base of the flower are two transparent structures known as ‘lodicules’.
 Rice is a self pollinated crop. When rice flower becomes ready to bloom, the lodicules
become turgid and push the lemma and palea apart, thus allowing the stamens to emerge
outside the open floret.
  Rupturing of the anthers then leads to the shedding of pollen grains. After the pollen
grains are shed on stigma the lemma and palea close.
Grain (Caryopsis):
 Rice grain develops after pollination and fertilization are completed. The grain is tightly
enclosed by the lemma and palea.
 The dehulled rice grain is known as brown rice as brownish pericarp covers it. The
pericarp is the outermost layer which envelopes the caryopsis and is removed when rice
is milled and polished.
 The embryo lies at the ventral side of the spikelet next to the lemma.
 Adjacent to the embryo is a dot like structure the hilum. The embryo contains the
plumule and radicle. The plumule is enclosed by a sheath known as coleoptile and the
radicle by the coleorhizae.
Growth Stages: The duration of a rice plant is nearly equally divided into vegetative and
reproductive phase, each of about 50-60 days.

I. The Vegetative Phase

The vegetative phase begins with germination and ends with panicle initiation. The vegetative
phase can be divided into four stages:

a) Seedling Stage

 The seedling stage begins with the emergence of the radicle and lasts until the
onset of tillering, usually a period of 15-30 days.
 The appearance of the fourth leaf is generally considered to signal the end of the
seedling stage.

b) Transplanting Stage

 The so-called transplanting stage is not really a natural stage at all but represents
the 5-10 day period of growth impairment caused by the shock to the seedling of
uprooting and transplanting.
 The transplantig stage can be shortened significantly by gentle handling of the
seedlings and by early transplanting (younger plants recover most rapidly from
the shock of uprooting because their relatively undeveloped root systems suffer
little damage).

c) Tillering Stage

 The tillering stage begins with the appearance of the first tiller or shoots from the
auxiliary bud on the lowermost internode.
 The tillering stage continues on through the formation of secondary and tertiary
tillers.
 The tittering stage continues up to the point of maximum tillering, at which all
effective tillers have been produced (an effective tiller is one which bears a
panicle on which the grains will ripen fully).

II. The Reproductive Phase: The reproductive phase begins at panicle initiation, when the
panicle begins to develop at the end of the last internode deep inside a protective covering of leaf
sheaths. The reproductive phase lasts approximately 45 days among all varieties and can be
divided into three stages:

a) The Booting Stage (Internode Elongation Stage)

 By the time the panicle becomes visible to the naked eye (as a tiny, transparent
growth less than 2 mm in length buried within the leaf sheaths near the base of the
plant), the booting stage is already underway.
 Booting stage, lasts approximately 15-20 days among all rice varieties
 b) Heading Stage

 The booting stage is followed by the emergence of the panicle from the protective
flag leaf sheath. The heading stage lasts until 90% of the panicles have emerged
from their sheaths - Generally about 10 days in most varieties.

c) Flowering Stage

 The flowering stage begins with the emergence of the first anthers from the
'uppermost spikelets on each panicle.
 Flowering begins among the uppermost spikelets and continues for approximately
15 days regardless of variety as the remaining spikelets successively open (the
lowermost spikelets flowering last).
 During flowering, pollen from the anthers is transported by wind and insects to
the stigma, which carry it down into the ovaries where fertilization of the ovules
occurs.

(Note: Never apply fertilizer or pesticide during periods of active flowering, as the
pollenization process is extremely sensitive and can easily be disrupted by the
presence of agro-chemicals).

III. The Ripening Phase

 The ripening phase begins at fertilization and continues, through grain filling and
ripening, approximately 25-35 days regardless of variety.

a) Milk Stage

 The endosperm first begins to form as a milky liquid. Rice at the milk stage is
very susceptible to attack by sucking insect pests.

b) Dough Stage

 The milky liquid begins to solidify into a sticky white

c) Maturity stage

 The grain is mature, or ripe, when the endosperm becomes hard and opaque.
While the grains ripen, the leaves of the plant begin to turn yellow.
 The full maturity stage is reached when more than 90% of the grains in the
panicles have ripened.
 Mature grains usually undergo a change in colour and turn a golden brown, but
under wet climatic conditions ripe grains may remain somewhat greenish
 d) The Over-ripe Stage

 If the grains are not harvested on time, the vegetative parts of the plant - stems,
leaves, and roots - begin to die off.
 Then the over-ripe grains fall off the panicles onto the ground in a process known
as shattering. Some rice varieties are particularly susceptible to shattering, and
serious crop losses may occur if harvesting is not completed on time.

In direct-seeded rice the entire vegetative phase in the field, while in the transplanted rice
it is about 40% (20-25 days) in the nursery and 60% in the field.

 Test weight (weight of 1000 grains) = 25 g

 Rice is self pollinated and short day plant.
 Cardinal temperature: 30-320 C
 Hulling %= 70-75%

SEASON

Rice growing seasons vary in different parts of India, depending upon temperature,
rainfall and other climatic conditions. In parts of eastern region and Peninsular India, the mean
temperatures throughout the year are favourable for rice cultivation and two or three crops of rice
are taken in a year. In northern and western parts of the country where winter temperatures are
fairly low only one crop of rice is taken during Kharif season. There are three seasons for
growing rice in India as given below:
 Crop Season Local Name Sowing Time Harvest Time
Kharif Aus (West Bengal, Bihar) May-June Sept.-Oct.
Rabi Aman or Aghani June-July Nov.-Dec.
Summer or Spring Dalua (Orissa) Nov.-Dec. March-April
Boro (West Bengal)

SOIL

 In India rice is grown under so diverse soil conditions that it can be said there is hardly
any type of soil in which it cannot be grown, including alkaline and acidic soils.
 Soils having good water retention capacity with good amount of clay and organic matter
are ideal for rice cultivation.
 Clay or clay loams are best suited for rice cultivation, such soils are capable of holding
water for long and sustain crop.
 Rice being semi aquatic crop, grows best under submerged conditions. A major part of
rice crop in India grown under ‘low land conditions’.
 Rice plant is able to tolerate a wide range of soil reaction, but it does have a preference
for acidic soils. It grows well in soils having a pH range between 5.5 and 6.5.
 It can be grown on alkali soils also after treating them with gypsum or pyrite.
RICE ECOSYSTEMS

Rice is grown on wide variety of climate-soil-hydrology regimes, which are grouped into
various ‘rice ecosystems’ or rice ‘agro-ecological zones’. In India rice is grown in all states and
union territories, from Srinagar in the north to Kanyakumari in the south and from Arunachal
Pradesh in the east to Rajasthan in the west. The rainfall varies from about 700 mm per annum to
2000 mm per annum and above, received mostly in few months (June-September) by south west
monsoon. The eastern costal area of the peninsular India receives rains also during October to
February by north-east monsoons, rather more in this part of the year than in June-September as
in the rest of the country.

Important growing ecology of rice:

Rice farming is practiced in several agro ecological zones in India. No other country in the world
has such diversity in rice ecosystems than India. Because cultivation is so widespread,
development of four distinct types of ecosystems has occurred in India, such as:

 Irrigated Rice Eco System

 Rainfed Upland Rice Eco System
 Rainfed Lowland Rice Eco System
 Flood Prone Rice Eco System
Irrigated Rice Eco System:

 Irrigated ecosystems are the primary type found in East Asia. Irrigated ecosystems
provide 75 per cent of global rice production.
 In India, the total area under irrigated rice is about 22.00 million hectares, which
accounts about 49.5 per cent of the total area under rice crop in the country.
 Rice is grown under irrigated conditions in the states of Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh,
Jammu & Kashmir, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Sikkim, Karnataka, Himachal Pradesh
and Gujarat.
 Irrigated rice is grown in bunded (embanked), paddy fields.

Rainfed Upland Rice Eco System:

 In India, the total area under upland rain fed rice in the country is about 6.00 million
hectares, which accounts13.5 per cent of the total area under rice crop in the country.
 Upland rice areas lies in eastern zone comprising of Assam, Bihar, Eastern M.P., Orissa,
Eastern U.P., West Bengal and North-Eastern Hill region.
 Upland rice fields are generally dry, unbunded, and directly seeded.
 Land utilized in upland rice production can be low lying, drought-prone, rolling, or steep
sloping.

Rainfed Lowland Rice Eco System: Rainfed low-land rice is grown in such areas as East India,
Bangladesh, Indonesia, Philippines, and Thailand, and is 25 per cent of total rice area used
worldwide.

 In India, low land rice area is about 14.4 million hectares, which accounts 32.4 per cent
of the total area under rice crop in the country.
 Production is variable because of the lack of technology used in rice production. Rainfed
lowland farmers are typically challenged by poor soil quality, drought/flood conditions,
and erratic yields

Flood Prone Rice Eco System: Flood-prone ecosystems are prevalent in South and Southeast
Asia, and are characterized by periods of extreme flooding and drought. Yields are low and
variable. Flooding occurs during the wet season from June to November, and rice varieties are
chosen for their level of tolerance to submersion.

Another very broad classification of rice environments or ecosystems used in India included 5
rice ecosystems namely:

1) Irrigated (Transplanted) kharif

2) Irrigated (Transplanted) rabi
3) Rainfed lowland
4) Rainfed upland
 5) Deep water

NOTE: Don’t go the statistics given in picture. The data is very old.

HISTORY OF DEVELOPMENT OF RICE VARIETY IN INDIA

 Rice breeding programme in India was started by Dr. G. P. Hector, the Economic
Botanist during 1911 in undivided Bengal with headquarters at Dacca (now in
Bangladesh).
 Subsequently, in 1912, a crop specialist was appointed exclusively for rice in Madras
Province.
 Prior to the establishment of the Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) in
1929, Bengal and Madras were the only provinces which had specialist exclusively for
rice crop.
 After the establishment of ICAR, it initiated rice research projects in various states of the
country and by 1950, 82 research stations in 14 states of the country were established,
fully devoted for rice research projects. These research stations, mainly by the pure line
method of selection, released 445 improved varieties. These varieties were of various
kind such as –
1. Earliness
2. Deep water and flood resistant
3. Lodging resistant
4. Drought resistant
5. Non-shredding of grains
6. Dormancy of seed
7. Control of wild rice
8. Disease resistant
9. Higher response to heavy mannuring.

After World War II, synthetic fertilizers became popular; efforts were made to
identify varieties which respond to heavy fertilization.
 After the establishment of the Central Rice Research Institute (CRRI) at Cuttak in
1946 by the Govt. of India, rice research and training received an added impetus.
 Inter-racial hybridization programme between japonica and indica was initiated during
1950-54.
 The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations with a view of improving
production of cereal on an international basis after the end of World-War II, launched a
collaborative project japonica X indica hybridization in South-East Asian countries.
 The objective of these projects was to transfer the high yielding capacity and
response to use higher dose of fertilizers into local indica varieties
from japonica varieties.
 Indica varieties were already well adapted to the local conditions and had
tolerance to diseases and pests of the region.
 A parallel project of japonica X indica hybridization was also started by ICAR with the
same objectives.
 These projects could achieve very limited success. Only four varieties, viz. -
Malinja and Mashuri in Malaysia, ADT-27 in Tamil Nadu, India
and Circna in Australia were released from more than 700 hybrid combinations.
 The Central Rice Research Institute, Cuttack also started another project in 1960 with a
view to evolve high yielding fertilizer responsive varieties with japonica in 11 states. In
this project remarkable success was achieved in the development of japonica X indica
hybrids.
 The International Rice Research Institute was established in the Philippines in 1960 and
this institute helped in evolving dwarf high yielding varieties with the concept of
improving the plant type in indica races based on the use of a gene from semi-dwarf
Chinese varieties.
 ICAR launched the All-India Co-ordinated Rice Improvement Project (AICRIP) in 1965
that helped in co-ordination of interdisciplinary and inter-institutional research results on
the country basis for improving the production, productivity and profitability of rice in
India.
  Inter-racial hybridization programme between semi-dwarf Taiwanese
types/derivatives and indica was started during 1965 onwards.
 India operated its most intensive rice breeding programmes under the AICRIP with the
development of Taichung Native (T.N. -1) from the semi-dwarf mutant and achieved
remarkable success.
 T.N. -1 = Dee-geo-woo-gen X Tasai Yung Chung
(Dwarf & N responsive) (Tall and draught resistant)
Dr. T. T. Chang brought TN-1, Dee-geo-woo-gen and I-geo-tze from Taiwan to
IRRI, Manila.
 IR-8 was evolved by breeder M. Beachell at IRRI, Manila. One of the parent of
IR-8 was Dee- geo-woo-gen
IR-8 = Dee-geo-woo-gen X Peta (from Indonesia)
 First time in India, TN-1 (2 kg in 1964-65) was introduced by G.V. Chalam (G.M.
of NSC) from IRRI.
 IR-8 was introduced in India on 1966 and IR-8 out yielded TN-1.
 Literally meaning of Dee- geo-woo-gen: Brown tipped short leg
 Padma and Jaya were the first varieties that emerged from the programme.
 Jaya = T.N. 1 X T-141 (Indian variety), evolved by Dr. Shastri, first rice variety
developed under India’s rice programme. It out yielded T. N.-1 & IR-8 both;
hence called ‘Miracle Rice in India.
 Padma is the reverse cross product of the parent of Jaya.
Padma = T-141 X T.N. 1
 Jagannath: mutant variety of T-141
 C. R. = T-90 X Urang Urangan
(Indica) (Javanica)
Released in 1988, popular in Orrisa, Andhra Pradesh and West Bengal; It is super fine
grain variety capable of yielding 3-4 tonnes/ha under submerged condition in semi-deep
water regimes.
 Pusa Basmati-1: World’s first high yielding dwarf variety under quality rice has been
developed by IARI.
 During the period of inter-racial hybridization between semi-dwarf Taiwanese
types/derivatives and indica which was started during 1965, the most significant
achievement is the prolific release of high yielding varieties. Infect 123 varieties were
released during this period in 12 years as compared to 51 high yielding varieties released
during the four decades prior to 1965. The semi-dwarf varieties have been found superior
in efficiency of grain production as compared to the tall traditional varieties.
Development of Hybrid Rice
 Research programme was initiated during 1970 to develop hybrid rice variety in the
country. There was no success in this programme during the subsequent two decades.
 However, the research programme was accelerated and intensified from 1989 with a
mission mode project.
 The first four hybrid rice varieties were released in the country during 1994.
Subsequently, two more hybrid rice varieties were also released. By the end of 2001, a
total of 19 hybrid rice varieties were released.
CULTIVATION
The traditional rice farming systems in India broadly include wet land (lowland) and
dryland (upland) systems. The method of cultivation of rice in a particular region depends
largely on factors such as situation of land, type of soils, irrigation facilities, availability of
labourers intensity and distribution of rainfalls.
A) Dry or Semi-dry upland cultivation
 Dry system of cultivation is followed in uplands.
 Uplands rice characterised by aerobic soil in which attempt is made to impound water.
 Upland rice is grown on both level and slopy fields that are not bounded and are prepared
and seeded dry and the crop depends on rainfall for its water requirement.
 Upland rice as the rice that may have no standing water on the soil surface 48 hr after
cessation of rain or irrigation.
 This system of cultivation is followed in almost all the rice growing states in India but is
mainly confined to tracts that do not have adequate irrigation facilities.
 Upland rice is called as aus in West Bengal, aus or ashu in Assam, beali in Orissa, bhadai
or kuari in Uttar Pradesh.
 Sowing of rice is usually done in May-June in case of the crop dependent on south-west
monsoon and in September for the crop dependent on north-east monsoon.
 The crop of rice is grown with the following methods:-
(a) Broadcasting the seed
(b) Sowing the seed behind the plough or drilling.
 A vast tract of Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Orissa, pats of Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh is
under upland situation.
 In such areas farmers generally grow short duration (up to 100 days) indigenous varieties
with little inputs and harvest only 10-12 quintals paddy per ha.
Selection of Varieties: Short duration varieties of 100-105 days duration should be selected.
Field Preparation: After harvesting the Rabi crops in April-May, the fields should be ploughed
with soil turning ploughed with soil turning plough. This is helpful in weed eradication as well as
improvement in the water holding capacity of the soil. The field should be prepared and bunds
should be made around the field just after the first shower of monsoon. This will check loss of
rain water by runoff.
Seeds and Sowing
a) Seed Treatment: Before sowing treat the seed at the rate of 10 kg seed with 5 g Emisan, 1 g
Streptocycline or 2.5 g Agromycine 100 or Pausamycine in 10 litres of water for 24 hrs.
b) Broadcasting: When the field is in right condition, broadcast the seeds, mix the seeds with
the help of local plough or disc harrow. Use about 100 kg seed per ha.
c) Sowing seed behind the plough or drilling: Drill the seed with seed drill or behind the
plough the help of funnel in rows after applying fertiliser. The row to row distance should be
20 cm. About 60 kg seed is sufficient for one ha.
B) Wet cultivation
 In the wet system of cultivation the crop is grown under wet season right from the start.
 In this system the field is brought to a soil puddle by repeated ploughing with 5-7 cm
standing water.
 The crop of rice is grown with the following methods:-
(a) Transplanting in puddled fields.
(b) Broadcasting sprouted seeds in puddled fields.
Raising the Seedlings in Nursery
 Select a fertile, well drained upland field near the source of irrigation.
 For transplanting on hectare area about 1000 square metre area or 1/10th area is sufficient
for nursery raising.
 In case of bold grain varieties, about 40-45 kg seed would be required, whereas for fine
grain varieties 30-35 kg seed is enough.
Soaking and Incubating of the seeds
Rice seed should be soaked in water and pre-germinated. Seeds that are germinated
before sowing will start to grow quickly in the field or seedbed. Pre-germination consists of
soaking and incubating the seeds. Put seed in some container. Then pour water slowly in the
container until it is about 10 cm above the seed. Stir the seeds for a minute or so. Unfilled
seeds would begin to float. Remove these seeds by draining water. Repeat the process till all
unfilled seeds are removed. Thereafter soak the seeds in fresh water and keep at room
temperature (27o C or higher) for 24 hours. After 24 hours wash the seeds thoroughly with
fresh water. Thereafter place the seeds in a clean and moist bag, fold the bag tightly and keep
it in a shady place. Stir the seeds every 12 hours for better air circulation and sprinkle water
over seeds while stirring. Incubation period of 24 to 36 hours is require for wet and dry bed
methods and 36 to 48 hours for Dapog' method of seedling raising.
METHODS OF RAISING SEEDLINGS

There are three major methods, i.e., wet bed, dry bed and dapog, for raising rice seedlings.
 Wet Bed Method

This is widely used in areas where water is abundant. The seed bed is usually prepared 25 to 35
days before transplanting. Steps involved in raising wet bed seedlings are as follows

 Land where both irrigation and drainage can be controlled should be selected for seed bed. The
land should be fertile and free of excess salts or other soil problems.
 The seed bed area is ploughed twice either in dry or wet conditions and then puddle by giving
two or three more ploughings. After 10 days, the field is again ploughed twice and levelled.
 When the field is brought to fine soft puddle condition, raised beds (4 - 5 cm high) of 1.2 m
wide and of convenient length with 30 cm wide in between the seed beds. Raised beds are not
necessary in areas where water logging is not a problem. Excess water is drained off to maintain
a water level just sufficient to cover the soil. The surface of the seed bed is so levelled that there
is gradual inclination toward both sides to facilitate drainage of water during the first few days.
 For each 100 m2 area of nursery bed, provide 1 kg N, 0.4 kg P2O5 and 0.5 kg K2O. Double the
P2O5 application in locations where cool temperatures retard the growth of seedlings. The
fertilizers are mixed with soil before sowing.
 Sow (broadcast) pre-germinated seeds. If seeds are sown too closely seedlings will be weak. It
will be also more difficult to pull seedlings and there will be more chances of injury to the long
roots of adjacent seedlings.
 Keep the beds saturated with water for the first five days. Do not flood the beds. When the
seedlings are about 2 cm high, keep the beds submerged in a shallow layer of water or level of
water up to 5 cm.
 Top dress the seed beds with 0.3 kg to 0.6 kg N per 100 square meter area, 6 days before
transplanting.
 Appropriate control measures should be taken for pests and diseases in the nursery if they occur.

Wet Bed System of Rice Nursery Raising

Dry Bed Method
This method is practiced in areas where water is not sufficient to grow seedlings in wet
nurseries. Plough the field three to four times till the soil is thoroughly pulverized. Prepare beds
of the same size as in wet nurseries but 15 cm high with channels (30 cm wide) between them.
Sow the seed in rows 10 cm apart in dry or moist condition of soil. Use the same seed rate and
fertilizer as in wet nurseries. The sown seeds should be taken for water management in these
beds. Allow the water to run in channels first and then raise the level of water slowly to saturate
the soil of beds. Do not flood water in beds. Keep the seed bed saturated with water although.
Maintain a thin film of water if possible after 5 days of sowing. Follow all the operations as
described for wet nurseries.

Dry Bed System of Rice Nursery Raising

Dapog Method
This method of raising nurseries has been introduced in India from Philipines. It has been
adopted by some farmers in Andhra Pradesh for raising seedlings. It saves almost half of the time
in seedling raising. The main merit of this method is that less area is needed to raise seedlings. 25
to 30 square meters of area is enough to raise seedlings sufficient for planting one hectare. The
seedlings are raised faster in this method. The seedlings raised by this method are, however, very
delicate and survive only for about two weeks. Besides, the seedlings are thin, slender and short
in height. The seedlings when allowed to remain in the bed, may dry after two weeks.
In this method, beds could be prepared on an even but slightly raised (4 to 5 centimetres)
surface in an open field or on even cement floor. About one square meter of seed bed should be
required for every three kilograms of seed. A width of 1.5 meter has been found easily
manageable. Cover the soil surface of the seed bed evenly and completely with banana leaves
with the protruding midribs removed or preferably with plastic sheets. Carefully lay strips of
banana bracts along the edge of the seed bed. Push thin bamboo pegs through the bracts into the
soil to keep bracts upright and firm.
 About 36 to 48 hours pre germinated seeds should be broadcast uniformly over plastic or
banana leaves at the rate of three kilograms per square meter. Pack the seeds to make a uniform
layer of three seeds thick. Do not press too hard on seeds. Follow this by sprinkling water gently.
Sprinkle water three to four times a day up to four days to keep the seed bed wet. Thereafter
cover it with one to two centimeters of water till end. Also press the seeds lightly once a day till
fourth day and protect them from birds. Dapog seedlings would be ready for transplanting within
11 to 14 days of sowing. The seedlings thus raised can be rolled like a carpet with roots facing
outside and carried to the transplanting site. Loosen the interlocked roots carefully before
transplanting. Three to four seedlings should be transplanted per hill instead of two.

Dapog Method of Nursery Raising

PREPARATION OF FIELD
 Plough the field 20-25 cm deep by mould board plough in summer to expose the eggs of
harmful insects, pests and rhizomes of weeds.
 Keep it flooded or saturated with water for about one fortnight before transplanting.
 This helps in decomposition of chaff and straw of previous crops.
 Puddling should begin about two weeks ahead of transplanting. Before puddling, an
earthen bund, about 30 cm high should he made around the field. The equipment which
puddles the field is called puddler. Recently, different types of bullock and tractor drawn
paddlers are being used for this purpose.

Puddling is ploughing the land with standing water so as to create an impervious

layer below the surface to reduce deep percolation losses of water and to provide soft
seedbed for planting rice.

 Puddling is a very important operation in transplanted rice. It helps to kill the weeds and
buries them in puddled layer. The rate of germination of weeds is also reduced in
subsequent growing period of crop.
  It helps to create beneficial physical, biological and chemical conditions for rice plant
growth. Soil surface is left in a more even condition Puddle the field by three to four runs
of puddler in standing water.
 Apply uniformly half of nitrogen and total quantities of phosphorus and potash on
drained surface at the time of last puddling and incorporate in the top 10-15 centimetre
deep soil.
TRANSPLANTING
 Transplanting shall be done when seedlings are ready for transplanting. The seedlings are
uprooted from the nursery at the optimum age (three to four weeks for short duration
varieties and four to five weeks for medium and long duration varieties).
 Transplanting of the healthy seedlings may be done at the four to five leaf stages or when
they are about 15-20 centimetres high. Delay transplanting leads to poor tillering, early
flowering of the main tillers and reduction in yield.
 Transplant two to three seedlings per hill at 20 x 10 centimetre distance under normal
conditions. Increase the number of seedlings per hill if old seedlings are used. For 45
days old seedlings the number of seedlings per hill should be five or six.
 In alkaline soils old seedlings (45 days old) establish better than young seedlings of 25
days age or so.
 In each case seedlings should be transplanted at 2-3 centimetre depth. Seedlings should
not be planted deeper than 2-3 centimetre as deeper planting delays and inhibits tillering.
 Planting in lines may not be necessary if adequate population is assured. There should be
on an average 50 hills per square metre to assure adequate population in rice field.

In wet or lowland cultivation of rice, transplanting is advantageous for the following reasons:

1. It enables the cultivator to have optimum plant population at desired spacing in the field.
2. It enables the cultivator to have an opportunity to give a thorough cultivation and
puddling operation to the field which keeps down the weeds.
3. Since the nurseries occupy only a small area of the field, the control of diseases and
insect pests and irrigation and manuring of young crop is easier and cheaper than a
broadcast or direct sown crop.
But now-a-days transplanting has become very expensive due to high labour cost. A number of
field experiments have shown that the productivity of direct seeded rice could be as high as from
transplanted rice provided the weeds could be controlled effectively and the management level
are high.

Brodcasting Sprouted Seeds in Puddled Soils

This method is adopted in areas where there is a shortage of labourers or otherwise labour
is very expensive for transplanting. In this method the field is prepared and puddled in the same
manner as in the case of transplanted rice About 100 kg seed is required for one hectare. Seeds
should be soaked in water and pre-germinated before broadcast. Instead of trans planting the
seedlings in the puddled field, the sprouted seeds with radical length one to two millimetre are
uniformly broadcast by hand.

Beushening: In the rainfed lowland areas of eastern India with shallow and intermediate water,
beushening is popular among farmers because they obtain stable yields with limited labour, cash,
and inputs under an uncertain water supply. Locally, this practice is known as beushen in Orissa
and Bihar, biasi in eastern Madhya Pradesh, lev in eastern Uttar Pradesh, and baug or bidauni in
Bihar.

The practice involves cross ploughing the young crop 4-6 weeks after sowing with a light
country plough in 5-10 cm standing water once or twice depending on the density of weeds and
crop stand; if there are too many weeds, it is followed by planking.

Following this operation the crop is weeded, thinned and the gaps are filled with uprooted
seedlings. This operation is called khelua. In some areas, khelua is done a week or 10 days after
Beushening has been observed to reduce the straw yield and increase the grain yield by checking
vegetative growth.

NUTRIENT MANGEMENT IN RICE

 About 10-15 tonnes of well rotted FYM or compost per hectare should be applied 4 to 6
weeks before sowing.
 Fertilizer management in transplanted paddy field is different from upland rice. Presence
of excess water in paddy field sets a series of reactions-physical, chemical and biological
in the soil.
 The root zone is converted from aerobic to anaerobic environment. It is the anaerobic
environment in the paddy soil which is responsible for gaseous loss of fertilizer nitrogen
by denitrification process and also causes changes in the behaviour of phosphorous as
well as micro-nutrients especially iron and manganese.
 Aerobic to anaerobic environment due to depletion of oxygen in the soil profile. The
flooded or water logged puddled soil develops two zone. The upper zone (1 to 10 mm)
receives oxygen periodically from fresh supplies of irrigation water turns brown in colour
called ‘oxidised zone’ and reacts like unflooded upland soil. The remaining lower portion
of puddle soil without oxygen is called ‘reduced zone’.
 Ammonical nitrogen fertilizers when applied in such a soil system get oxidised to nitrate
form (NO3-) in the oxidised zone (surface layer of soil).
 The nitrate nitrogen in turn leaches down to the reduced zone and gets denitrified to
gaseous nitrogen. This loss of nitrogen can be prevented by incorporating ammoniacal
fertilizer in to reduced zone of the soil where it is held.
 DAP is an excellent fertilizer for basal dressing in paddy fields.
 Sulphur coated urea has been found better than normal urea for paddy fields where
flooding is delayed or intermittent.
  In acid soils, rock phosphate in finely powdered form can be used as phosphorous source
with advantage but it should not be applied in neutral or alkaline soils.

Special Features of Submerged Soil Profile:

 Whatever may be the soil type, one important characteristic of rice soils is that they
remain submerged at least for some time during the growth period of the crop.
 Oxygen concentration in submerged soils gets considerably lowered. This measured as
redox potential.
 The submergence leads to gradual depletion of oxygen in the soil and this causes
reduction of a number of irons such as nitrates, sulphates, iron, manganese etc. a number
of chemical reactions follow which affect rice plant growth. Some of these are:
1. Increase in pH of acid soils and reduction in pH of sodic soils.
 The pH of the most acid and alkaline soils converges between 6-7 within 2 to
3 weeks after flooding. Alkaline soils contain mainly sodium carbonate and to
some extent CaCO3. Under submergence, carbonates release CO2 which
dissolves in water and forms weak acid known as carbonic acid. Due to its
influence, the pH of the alkaline soil is reduced.
 Acid soil contains ferric hydroxide which is insoluble. Under submergence, it
is reduced to ferrous hydroxide which is highly soluble. It ionises in soil
solution into ferrous and hydroxide ions. The hydroxides release hydroxyl
ions which increases the pH of the acid soils. Due to the favourable pH
attained with submergence, nutrient availability is increased.
2. Reduction in redox potential (reduction in concentration of O2). T
 The reduction of the compounds proceeds in the following sequence: O2, NO3-
,
MnO4-, FeO33-, SO42-, CO2, N2 and H+
 The redox potential of water and top layers of submerged soils is +3 to +5
volts. The lower layers have a stable Eh of 0.2 to 0.3 volts
3. The supply and availability of nitrogen is more in submerged soils. Reduction in
nitrates to N2O or N2 (denitrification)
 Amonium present in oxidised zone diffuses into reduced zone where it is
taken up either by plants or immobilised by microorganism.
 Major portion of the NH4-N in oxidised layer is converted in to NO3-N by
nitrification. Because of its solubility, NO3-N, quickly reaches the reduced
zone.
 It is denitrified and N2 escapes as gas
4. Reduction of sulphate to sulphide resulting in sulphide toxicity, reported from highly
reduced soils. H2S is toxic to the plants and microorganism. H2S reacts with heavy
metals viz. Fe, Zn, and Cu and forms insoluble sulphides. However due to presence of
oxidized zone in the rhizosphere of rice roots, sulphur is available to the rice.
5. Reduction of Mn+4 to Mn+2 and Fe+3 to Fe+2 resulting in Mn and Fe toxicity in rice.
Concentration of water soluble iron from 0.1 ppm shortly after submergence increases
to 600 ppm within two weeks. Later, concentration of iron decreases, but stabilizes at
a higher level than that present just before submergence. Manganous ions increases
steeply within one week after submergence and availability is higher under
submerged conditions.
6. K availability marginally increases in submerged soils. Flooding increases ferrous
and manganous ions which displaces potassium from exchange complexes. A portion
of displaced K+ is lost due to leaching
7. Iron and aluminium phosphates are predominant in acid soils and calcium phosphate
in alkaline soils.
 Availability of phosphorous increases in submerged soils due to hydrolysis of Fe
and Mn phosphate due to increase in pH.
 It is also due to reduction in insoluble ferric phosphate to soluble ferrous
phosphate.
 The solubility of hydroxyl apatite increases due to decrease in soil pH in alkaline
soils.
 Desorption of phosphates also takes place from clay and oxides of Al and Fe.
Hence phosphates availability increases considerably within two weeks after
submergence.
8. Availability of Zn is reduced under flooded conditions due to precipitation as
(Zn(OH2 )) or as ZnCO3 due to high concentration of CO2. It is also precipitated as
ZnS under much reduced conditions. Availability of Cu is also reduced due to
formation of Cu Sulphide.

Method and Schedule of Fertilizer application

 For best results, apply full dose of phosphorous and half dose of nitrogen before
the last puddling. Remaining half dose of nitrogen should be applied in to two
equal doses, first at tillering stage (25-30 DAT) and second at panicle initiation
stage (55-65 DAT).
 In case of transplanting of old age seedling, two third to three quarters of total
nitrogen should be applied at the time of transplanting and rest after 25 days later.
 Hardly 30-40% of the applied nitrogen is actually used by the rice crop, recently
some techniques have been developed which can minimise the losses,
substantially.
 Use of Pre-Incubated Urea: Mix urea with moist soil (not too wet) at the
rate of 1 kg urea with about 5 kg soils. Allow this mixture to stand in
shade for 36-48 hours before applying in the field.
 Use of Mud Balls: Prepare small balls of moist soil and put urea or any
other fertilizer in the centre of the ball. Close the opening and allow drying
 a little if possible. Use these balls in the paddy fields where it is not
possible to drain out the water from the field at the time of fertilizer
application in standing crop.
 Use of Neemseed Cake: Finely ground neem seed cake is mixed with urea
at the rate of 15-20 per cent. Karanj or mahua cakes can also be used in a
similar way. These oilcakes delay nitrate formation from urea and thus
reduce the possibility of nitrate loss through denitrification or leaching.
 Solubility of nitrogen fertilizers can be reduce by using the compounds
which are inherently less soluble e.g. Iso butylidene diurea (IBDU, 32%
N), crotonilidine diurea (CDU, 32.5% N).
 By using the coating barriers to the presently available fertilizers, e.g.
sulphur coated urea, neem coated urea, Borax, gypsum and nimin coatings
reduce the rate of N release. Among these coatings Borax is most effective
and increased the productivity of rice.
 Nitrification Inhibitors: nitrapyrin, N-serve, A.M., Thiourea, dicyan
diamide, S T etc.
 In zinc deficient soils 20-25 kg of zinc sulphate per hectare should be applied at
the time of last puddling.

Fertiliser Application in Dry or Semi-Dry Rainfed Upland Condition:

 A good crop of upland rice may be taken by applying 60 kg nitrogen, 30 kg

phosphorous and 30 kg potash per hectare.
 Total quantity of phosphorous and potash and 25% of the total nitrogen should
be applied in the soil at the time of land preparation.
 Ferti-seed drill may also be used for sowing of seed and placement of fertilizer.
After 30-35 DAS or at tillering, top dress 50% of total nitrogen. The remaining
25% nitrogen should be applied at panicle initiation stage.

WATER MANAGEMENT IN RICE

Paddy crop is strongly influenced by water supply. Water should be kept standing in the
field throughout the growth period. In water scarcity areas, saturated soil in a chemical reduced
stage is desirable. The characteristics of flooded soil which are conducive to high yields are: (i)
greater availability of nutrients such as phosphorus, iron and manganese, (ii) suppression of
weed competition, (iii) elimination of moisture stress as a limiting factor, (iv) micro‐climate
favourable to crop production.

 Rice a semi ‐ aquatic plant requires near submergence.

 Submergence helps in ‐ suppressing weed growth and more availability of certain
nutrients.
 Daily consumptive use of rice is 6 ‐ 10 mm.
  Total water requirement of rice is 1200 ‐ 1400 mm.
 2000 ‐ 3000 litres of water required to produced 1kg of rice.
 Highly saline and brakish water not good for irrigation.
 Application of FYM or incorporation of green manures reduces adverse effects of excess
salts.
 Application of FYM or compost or green manures increases water holding capacity of
light textured soils and thus saving of water.
 Thorough puddling creates impermeable layer which reduces deep percolation losses
 Perfect levelling maintains uniform depth of water throughout field
 Maintenance of water depths in field as recommended for high water use efficiency and
yield

Table 1. Water requirement of rice crop at different growth stages

Stages of growth Avg. water requirement % of total water

(mm) requirement
Nursery 50‐60 5
Main field preparation 200‐250 20
Planting to Panicle initiation (PI) 400‐550 40
PI to flowering 400‐450 30
flowering to maturity 100‐150 5
Total 1200‐1460 100
Table 2. Depth of water to be maintained during different crop growth stages of rice

Stage of crop
At transplanting Shallow (2 ‐ 3cm)
After transplanting (5 to 20 days) (4‐ 5cm)
During tillering (22 to 42 days) Shallow(2 ‐3cm)
Reproductive stage ,Panicle emergence, Booting (4 ‐5cm)
,Heading & Flowering
Ripening stage (21 days after full flowering) Drain the field gradually to Saturation
Milk stage, Dough stage & Maturity Withdraw water 15-21 days before
Harvesting

NOTE: Drain the field to saturated stage before top dressing with N and re-flood next day to
reduce N loss.

Critical Stages of Water requirement

Critical stage refers to a stage when water scarcity or deficit of water causes comparatively
greater reduction in yields which cannot be made by favourable water supply at earlier or later
stages. Hence, water deficit during these stages should be avoided. Following are the important
critical crop growth stages for water stress.
(a) Tillering

(b) Panicle initiation

(c) Boot leaf stage

(d) Heading/ panicle emergence

(f) Flowering/anthesis (Reproductive phase)

During these stages, soil moisture level should be maintained at saturation level

Moisture stress at active tillering phase ‐ 30% yield reduction

Moisture stress at reproductive phase ‐ 50 ‐ 60% yield reduction

Tillering to flowering is most critical stage when rice crop should not be subjected to any
moisture stress.

INTEGRATED WEED MANAGEMENT IN RICE

Weeds compete with rice and take away a heavy toll of energy, water and plant. Weed
flora varies from place to place due to type of rice culture, soil type hydrology, tillage, cultural
practices and irrigation pattern etc.

 Grasses are dominant in irrigated systems

 Sedges are dominant in rainfed system
 Weeds are generally more in upland rice than in lowland and irrigated rice.

The most common weed species are:

Grasses: Echinochloa colonum, Echinochloa crusgalli, Elucine indica, Dactyloctenium

aegyptium, Digitaria sanguinalis, Paspalum distichum, Cynodon dactylon

Broad leaved weeds: Commelina benghalensis, Amaranthus spinosus, Trianthema

portulastrum, Eclipta alba, Digitaria marginata, Eichnornia crassipes, Ageratum
conyzoides.

Sedges: Cyprus rotundus, Fimbristylis miliacea

Critical period for weed control

Weed competition do not occur during the entire cropping period. Control of weeds in the
critical period of competition is important.Usually it commences around 2 weeks of seeding
and may continue up to 5-8 weeks. Hence early weeding is important to reduce yield losses.

 Rice (Transplanted) 15-45 DAS

  Upland Rice Entire period

Preventive Control Measures

 Use clean seeds
 Keep seed bed weed free
 Keep leaves, bunds and irrigation canal clean
 Keep tools and machinery clean
 Keep livestock out of field
 Prevent weeds from seedlings
 Prevent vegetative reproduction in seed bed

Cultural Control Measures

 Proper land preparation
 Cultivar selection
 Crop establishment
 Water management
 Control of fertilizer application

Mechanical Control Measures

 Use rotary weeder

Manual Weed Control

 Hand weeding: Weed should be removed once at 20 days after transplanting (before first top
dressing) and second time at 50-60 days after transplanting (before second top dressing).
Chemical Weed Control Measures: A number of herbicides have been found effective in
controlling annual weeds of grassy and broad leaf nature.

Herbicides for Transplanted rice

Herbicides Trade Name Dose (kg/ha) Time of application

(DAT)
Commercial
a.i
product
Pre-emergence
2,4-D Ethyl ester Weedex 5%G 0.75 15 5-7
Butachlor Machete 50EC 1.25 2.5 5-7
Butachlor Machete 5%G 1.5 30 5-7
Thiobencarb Saturn 4 5
Pretilachlor Eraze-x 50 EC 0.5 1.00 5-7
Oxadiazon 25 EC Ronstar 0.5-1.0 3-5
Oxadiargyl Oxadiargyl 80% WP 0.1 0.125 3-5
Anilofos Anilogaurd 30EC 0.45 1.50 5-7
Quinclorac50%WP Facet 0.186 0.375 3-5
Bensulfuron methyl Londax 0.1 0.166 5
60%DF
Pendimethalin Stomp 30EC 0.9-1.0 3.0-3.5 3-5
Pyrazosulfuron ethyl 0.02-0.03 3
Post emergent
2,4-D Sodium salt Fernoxone 2.0 2.5 21-28
80% EC
Propanil 35 EC Stam 2.5 7.5 1-2 leaf stage
Triazolopyramidine 0.015-0.025 15
sulfonamide
Herbicide combinations for transplanted rice
1. Pre emergence Anilogaurd plus (Anilofos 24% +2,4-D 32%) @ 0.85kg
a.i/ha 5-7 DAT (1.50 kg/ha commercial product)
2. Pre emergent Bensulfuron methyl 0.6%G+ Pretilachlor 6.0% G @
75+750g a.i/ha (12.5 kg/ha commercial product)
3. Pre emergent Butachlor 1.5 + 2,4-D 0.5 kg/ha
4. Pre emergent Thiobencarb 1.5 + 2,4-D 0.5 kg/ha

Upland Dry Seeded Rice

Herbicide Trade Name Dose (kg/ha) Time of application (DAS)
a.i commercial
Pre-plant
Molinate Ordram 2-3 Before sowing
Trifluralin Treflan 1.0-1.5 Before sowing
Pre-emergence
Alachlor Lassso 50EC 0.5-1.0 1-2 3-5
Butachlor 1.25 2.5 5
Thiobencarb 1.5 3.0 5-7
Anilofos 0.4 1.5 5-7
Oxadiargyl Topstar 0.1 0.125 3-5
Bensulfuron methyl Londax 60%DF 0.1 0.166 5
Pendimethalin Stomp 30EC 1.0 3.0 5
Post emergence

Propanil 35 EC Stam 2.5 7.5 4 weeks after sowing

Ethoxy sulfuron 0.018 21

Triclopyr 0.5
Herbicide combinations for dry sown rice
1. Pre emergent Butachlor 1.5 + 2, 4-D 0.5 kg/ha
2. Pre emergent Thiobencarb 1.5 + 2, 4-D 0.5 kg/ha
 INSECT PEST MANAGEMENT IN RICE
a) Important Pest

Stage Pests Control measures

(Nursery Stem-borer, gall For insect-pests and nematodes, apply Phorate 10 G
midge, @ 12.5 kg/ha or Fipronil 0.3 G @ 33 kg/ha of
thrips, root-knot nursery, 5 to 7 days before pulling the seedlings
nematode, root for transplanting or spray with Chlorpyriphos 20
nematode and white EC @ 2,500 ml/ha or Quninalphos 25 EC @
tip nematode 2,000 ml/ha. In the stem-borer endemic areas,
install pheromone traps with 5 mg lure @ 8
traps/ha for pest monitoring and 20 traps/ha for
direct control through mass trapping. In gall
midge/stem-borer-endemic areas apply phorate 10
G/ha 5 to 7 days before pulling the
seedlings for transplanting.
Vegetative Stem-borer Clipping of leaf tips of the seedlings at the
stage Damaged caused by time of transplanting will help in destruction of egg
the larva of this masses. Removal of excess nursery and
insects results in incorporation into soil. Clean cultivation and
“Dead heart” and destruction of stubbles. Apply Cartap 4 G @ 25
“White head”. kg/ha or Phorate 10 G @ 10 kg/ha or Fipronil 0.3
G @ 25 kg/ha or Chlorpyriphos 10 G @ 10
“Dead heart” is kg/ha. Install pheromone traps with 5 mg lure @ 8
created in early life of traps/ha for pest monitoring or 20 traps/ha for direct
the plant before control through mass trapping. Replace lures at 25 to
flowering and “White 30 days interval during the crop period. Inundative
head” occurs at release of egg parasitoid, Trichogramma japonicum
flowering resulting in 5 to 6 times @ 100,000 adults/ha starting from 15
drying of the entire days after transplanting.
panicle.
Gall midge In midge affected tillers are transformed in to tubular
galls, resembling the leaf of onion, known as Onion
leaf or Silvery shoot. Apply Fipronil 0.3 G @ 25
kg/ha or Phorate 10 G @ 10 kg/ha
Green leaf hopper It also transmits the tungro virus disease. The
disease is characterized by slight stunting and
reduced tillering. Spray Carbaryl 50 WP @ 900
g ha or BPMC 50 EC @ 600 ml/ha or Acephate
50 WP @ 700 g/ha or Ethofenprox 10 Ec
@ 500 ml/ha or Imidacloprid 200 SL @ 125
ml/ha or Thiamethoxam 25 WG @ 100 g/ha or
Clothianidin 50 WDG30 g/ha. Alternatively, apply
Phorate 10 G @ 12.5 kg/h or Fipronil 0.3 G @ 25
kg/ha.
 Hispa Spray Triazophos 40 EC @ 400 ml/ha or Phosalone 35 EC @
850 ml/ha or Chlorpyriphos 20 EC @ 1,500 ml/ha or
Quinalphos 25 EC @ 1,200 ml/ha or Ethofenprox 10 EC @
450 ml/ha or Fipronil 5 SC @ 600 ml/ha
Leaf folder Spray Chlorpyriphos 20 EC @ 1,500 ml/ha or Cartap 50 WP
@ 600 g/ha or Quinalphos 25 EC @ 1,200 ml/ha or Acephate
50 WP @ 700 g/ha or Fipronil 5 SC @ 600 ml/ha or
Phosalone 35 EC @ 850 ml/ha or Carbaryl 50 WP @ 900 g/ha
or Triazophos 40 EC @ 400 ml/ha or apply Cartap 4 g @ 25
kg/ha. Inundative release of egg parasitoid, Trichogramma
chilonis 5 to 6 times @ 100,000 adults/ha starting from 15
days after transplanting
Whorl maggot Apply Fipronil 0.3 G @ 25 kg/ha or Chlorpyriphos 20 EC @
1,500 ml/ha
Case worm Drain water from the field and spray Carbaryl 50 WP @ 900
g/ha or apply Carbaryl dust @ 30 kg/ha
Mealy bug Spot application of Phorate 10 G granules
Reproductive Stem-borer Spray Cartap 50 WP @ 800 g/ha or Chlorpyriphos 20 EC @
Stage 2,000 ml/ha or Quinalphos 25 EC @ 1,600 ml/ha
Brown plant hopper, White backed plant hopper is common in the early crop season
(July-August) whereas BPH during later part of the crop season
White backed (October- Nov). The serious damage is called as Hopper burn.
planthopper BPH also transmits “grassy stunt virus disease”. Management is
same as Green leaf hopper.
Green leafhopper Spray Imidacloprid 200 SL @ 125 ml/ha or Thiamethoxam 25
WG @ 100 g/ha or Ethofenprox 10 EC @ 500 ml/ha or
Acephate 50 WP @ 950 g/ha or BPMC 50 EC @ 600 ml/ha or
Carbaryl 50 WP @ 900 g/ha
Leaf folder Spray Cartap 50 WP @ 800 g/ha or Chlorpyriphos 20 EC @
2,000 ml/ha or Phosalone 35 EC @ 1,100 ml/ha or Quinalphos
25 EC @ 1,600 ml/ha or Triazophos 40 EC @ 500 ml/ha or
apply Cartap 4 G @ 25 kg/ha
Ear-cutting caterpillar/ Spray Quinalphos 25 EC @ 1,600 ml/ha or Chlorpyriphos 20
cut worm EC @ 2,000 ml/ha or Carbaryl 50 WP @ 1,500 g/ha or
Phosalone 35 EC @ 1,100 ml/ha
Leaf/Panicle mite Spray Sulphur wettable powder @ 3 g/litre, Dicofol @ 5.0
/ml/litre or Profenophos 50 EC @ 2.0 ml/litre water.
Gundhi bug Both nymph and adults caused damage by sucking the plant sap
particularly the “milky juice of the developing grains in early
morning hours or at dusk.Spray Carbaryl 50 WP @ 1,500 g/ha
during afternoon hours. Dust Malathion or Carbaryl @ 30 kg of
the formulation/ha
(b) Important Diseases:
Disease/Crop States/Places endemic Control measures
stage/season
Leaf blast Leaf blast is favoured by the low night In endemic areas, adopt seed
temperature (22-28o C), high relative humidity treatment with Tricyclazole 75
Nursery and
(>95%), dew deposit, leaf wetness for more than WP @ 2 g/kg or Carbendazim 50
vegetative WP @ 1 g/kg.
10 hours and high nitrogen. The disease is a
Kharif and serious problem in upland, irrigated and hilly Spray Tricyclazole 75 @ 0.6
rabi ecosystems. In high rainfall zones (rainfall g/litre or Carpropamid 30 SC @
C.O. >1,500 mm) of north and north-eastern India, 1ml/litre. or
the disease is prevalent during June-September. Isoprothiolane 40 EC @ 1.5
Pyricularia
In Western and Central India (rainfall around ml/litre or Iprobenphos 48 EC @
oryazae 2ml/litre or Propiconazole 25 EC
1,000 mm) the disease occurs during August-
October. In Southern India blast mainly occurs @ 1ml/litre or Kasugamycin-B 3
in dry season during November-February. SL@2.5 ml/litre or Carbendazim
50 WP @ 1 g/litre.
During kharif season, the disease is prevalent
throughout the rice-growing areas in India Grow resistant/tolerant varieties
especially in Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, like Rasi, IR 64, Prasanna, IR 36,
Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Vikas, Tulasi, Sasyasree etc.
Assam, Tripura, West Bengal, Orissa, parts of
Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Kerala, Karnataka
and Tamil Nadu.
During rabi season, the disease is prevalent in
Southern States like Andhra Pradesh, Tamil
Nadu, and Karnataka. The disease is also
common on boro rice in the states of Assam,
Tripura, Eastern Uttar Pradesh, Orissa and West
Bengal.
Neck blast The neck blast phase of the disease is prevalent Spray Tricyclazole 75 WP @ 0.6
Flowering in the states like Andhra Pradesh, Asom, g/litre or Carpropamid 30 SC @ 1
Chhattisgarh, Himachal Pradesh, Karnataka, ml/litre or Isoprothiolane 40 EC
and after
@ 1.5 ml/litre or Iprobenphos 48
kharif/rabi Orissa and Uttarakhand. The disease is of
EC @ 2 ml/litre or Propiconazole
common occurrence in boro rice in the states of
Assam and Tripura. 25 EC @ 1 ml/litre or
Carbendazim 50 WP @ 1 g/litre.
Sheath blight Sheath blight is a serious problem in coastal Spray Validamycin 3 L @ 2.5
Maximum and high rainfall areas. The disease is mostly ml/litre or Thifluzamide 24 SC
tillering, panicle prevalent in areas where the relative humidity @ 0.75 g/litre or Hexaconazole 5
initiation to is very high (above 95%), the temperature is EC @ 2 ml/litre or Propiconazole
booting stage moderate (28-32 0C) and N application is high. 25 EC @ 1ml/litre or
kharif/rabi. The disease is prevalent in moderate to
Carbendazim 50 WP @ 1g/litre
C.O. Corticium severe form in states like Andhra Pradesh
(coastal), Assam, Bihar, parts of Chhattisgarh, Reduce or delay the top-dressing
sasakii or nitrogen fertilizer and apply in
Orissa, eastern Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal,
Kerala, Haryana and Punjab. In boro season the 2-3 splits
disease has been observed regularly in
moderate form in the states of Assam, Bihar,
and Eastern Uttar Pradesh.
Brown spot Brown spot i s problem mainly du ri ng In endemic area, adopt seed
Vegetative khari f season especially in uplands and hill treatment with Carbendazim
stage ecosystem. The disease also assumes a serious (12%) + Mancozeb (63%)
proportion in irrigated ecosystem especially in combination 75 WP @ 2 g/kg or
Kharif/rabi ill-managed plots. The disease is predominant Carbendazim 50 WP @ 2 g/kg or
C.O. in Jharkhand, eastern Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Mancozeb (63%) 75 WP @ 2
Helminthospo Chhattisgarh, Tarai region of West Bengal, g/litre or Mancozeb 75 WP @
rium oryzae Orissa, Assam, Tripura, Uttarakhand and 2.5 g/litre
Punjab. The boro rice the disease has been
or Growing of resistant/tolerant
recorded in the states of Assam, Bihar and
Cochliobolus varieties like Rasi, Jagnanath, IR
Eastern Uttar Pradesh. 36 etc.
miyabeanus
False smut False s m u t of rice has emerged a s a m a j o r Spray Propiconazole 25 EC @ 1
Post- disease in the recent years. The incidence of the ml/litre or Chlorothalonil 75 WP
disease is particularly more on hybrid varieties. @ 2 ml/litre or Copper
flowering
The incidence of the disease is more in those oxychloride at around flowering.
stage years when spells of wet weather coincide with
Kharif the heading stage. The disease is favoured by
C.O. the prevalence of relatively low temperature
Claviceps and high humidity with moderate rainfall well
distributed during the period of flowering. The
oryzae-sativae incidence of the disease is more in states like
Haryana, Punjab, Uttarakhand, Bihar,
Chhattisgarh, Gujarat, Jharkhand, Orissa, Uttar
Pradesh, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and
Kashmir, Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu.
Sheath rot Sheath rot and grain discolouration In endemic area adopt seed
are
and grain especially more in crops affected by stem-borer, treatment with Mancozeb 75 WP
discoloration rice tungro disease and various other biotic and @ 2.5 g/kg or Captan 50 WP


Post- abiotic stresses. In cytoplasmic male sterile lines Spray Mancozeb 75 WP @ 2.5
flowering (A lines ) where the emergence of the panicles is g/kg or Propiconazole 25 EC @
stage poor, the incidence of sheath rot is very high. 1 ml/litre or Hexaconazole 5 EC
Kharif Grain discolouration of rice has become a @ 2 ml/litre or Thiophanate
serious problem in recent years especially when methyl 70 WP @ 1 g/litre.
there is post-flowering rain. A variety of micro-
organisms, viz. Drechslera Oryzae, Sarocladium
oryzae, Alternaria padwickii, Curvularia spp.,
Epicoccum sp., Fusarium moniliforme etc. have
been found associated with the grain
discolouratrion. These problems have become
wide spread in states like Andhra Pradesh, Tamil
Nadu, Kerala, Orissa, Jharkhand, Bihar, West
Bengal, Asom, eastern Uttar Pradesh, Gujarat,
Haryana, Punjab, Uttarakhand and Chhattisgarh.

Stem rot Stem rot of rice has become an important disease Burning the rice stubbles after
Panicle of rice causing substantial loss due to increased harvest.
initiation to lodging. The disease is favoured by high N Draining out the field.
booting fertilizers, high relative humidity, high Addition of organic manure
Kharif temperature and waterlogging conditions. The reduces the disease.
C.O. disease is more in early planted crop because of Spray Iprobenphos 48 EC @ 2
Leptosphaeria high temperature and relative humidity prevailing g/litre of Carbendazim 50 WP @
salvinii during the susceptible stage of the crop. The 1 g/litre or Thiophanate methyl
disease is prevalent in Haryana, Bihar, 70 WP 1 g/litre or Isoprothiolane
Uttarakhand and Andhra Pradesh. 40 EC @ 1.5 ml/litre. Growing
of resistant varieties like
Jalmagna, Latisali, Pankaj, Rasi,
etc.

Foot rot/ Though the disease is of limited occurrence, it Seed dressing with Captafol 80%
Bakanae has potentiality to be highly serious. The disease @ 4 g/kg or Mancozeb 75 WP @
Vegetative is prevalent in Haryana, Tamil Nadu and Andhra 2.75 g/kg. When observed in
Pradesh. nursery, spray Carbendazim 50
Stage
Kharif WP @ 1 g/litre

Bacterial leaf Bacterial blight is essentially a monsoon season Apply judicious level of
blight disease. The intensity of the disease is much fertilization (60-80 kg N/ha with
Pre-tillering influenced by rainfall, cloudy, drizzling and required level of potassium)
without sacrificing the
yield.
to mid- Stormy weather and high nitrogen Apply N in 3-4 splits.
tillering and panicle fertilizer. The disease is prevalent in Avoid field to field irrigation.
initiation to booting moderate to severe form in almost all Avoid insect damage to the crop.
the rice-growing areas during the Destroy infected stubbles and
Kharif C.O. monsoon season. The disease is weeds.
Xanthomonas oryzae prevalent in coastal Andhra Pradesh, Avoid shade in the field.
Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Punjab, Haryana,
Grow resistant/tolerant varieties
Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, Gujarat,
like Ajaya, IR 64, Radha,
parts of Maharashtra, Chhattisgarh,
Bihar, West Bengal, Orissa and Pantdhan 6, Pantdhan 10.
Assam.
The ‘Kresek’ occurs in early stage of
plant growth in which the plant withers
and dries up.

Rice tungro Rice tungro disease is the most
disease Nursery, important virus disease of rice. It has
tillering Kharif been reported from many rice-growing
areas of India. The disease is prevalent
in Tamil Nadu, West Bengal, parts of
Andhra Pradesh and Orissa.
The virus is transmitted from diseased
plant to healthy plant by the nymph,
male and female of rice green leaf
hopper. After 30 minutes of feeding of
diseased plants, hoppers become
capable to transmit the virus.
Remove and destroy infected
plants and apply additional
nitrogen for early recovery.
Incorporate Phorate 10 G @ 12-
15 kg/ha or Fipronil 0.4 G @ 25
kg/ha or nursery in top 2-5 cm
layer of the soil before sowing of
sprouted seeds. If such
incorporation is not possible,
broadcast the recommended
insecticides 4-5 days after
showing in a thin film of water
and allow this water to seep
completely.
In the main crop, spray Carbaryl
50 WP @ 0.65 litre/ha or
Fipronil 5 EC @ 1 litre/ha.
Grow resistant/tolerant varieties
like Nidhi, Vikramarya, Radha,
Annapurna, Triveni etc.

HARVESTING AND THRESHING

Harvesting is the process of collecting the mature rice crop from the field. Harvesting of
paddy includes cutting, stacking, and handling, threshing, cleaning and hauling. Good harvesting
methods maximize grain yield and minimize grain damage and quality
deterioration. Harvesting can be done manually using sickles and knives or mechanically with
the using threshers or combine harvesters.
Moisture content: Grain moisture content ideally is between 20% (wet basis). Grains should be
firm but not brittle when squeezed between the teeth.
Ripe grains per panicle: The crop should be cut when 80−85% of the grains are straw (i.e.,
yellow-colored).
Number of days after sowing: Generally the ideal harvest time lies between 130 and 136
days after sowing for late, 113 and 125 for medium, and 110 days for early-maturing
varieties.
Number of days after heading: For dry season harvesting, an optimum time is 28 to 35 days
after heading. In wet season harvest, optimum time is 32 to 38 days after heading.
Other considerations: Harvesting also needs to be timed so that threshing can be done as
soon as possible after cutting to avoid rewetting and to reduce grain breakage.
If the crop has a lot of surface moisture, (e.g. from previous rainfall or early in the morning),
it is advisable to wait until the surface moisture dries off.
Harvesting methods: Depending on the size of the operation and the amount of
mechanization, rice is either harvested by hand or machine. The different harvesting systems
are as follows:
Manual harvesting: Manual harvesting makes use of traditional threshing tools such as
threshing racks, simple treadle threshers and animals for trampling or by hand using sharp
knives or sickles. Gives 55-60 % grain recovery.
Manual harvesting and machine threshing: Rice is manually threshed, then cleaned with a
machine thresher.
Machine reaping and machine threshing: A reaper cuts and lays the crop in a line.
Threshing and cleaning can then be performed manually or by machine.
Combine harvesting: The combine harvester combines all operations from paddy
harvesting to rice extraction - cutting, handling, threshing and cleaning. Gives 50 %
recovery.
Average yield: A well-managed crop of mid-late duration varieties yield about 60-70
quintals/ ha. Short duration varieties yield about 45-55 quintals. About 40-60 quintals/ ha of
fodder also becomes available per season.

Threshing: Threshing is the process of beating paddy plants in order to separate the seeds or
grains from the straw. To maintain the high quality of the harvested grains, it should be
threshed immediately after harvesting. Avoid field drying and stacking for several days as it
affects grain quality due to over drying. Stacked grains of high moisture content results in
discoloration or yellowing.
Threshing can be done manually or mechanically
Manual threshing: The manual methods of threshing are treading by feet, flail method, and
beating stalks against tubs, boards or racks. Threshing can be done by trampling using
bullocks, rubbing with bare human feet (in hills) or lifting the bundles and striking them on
the raised wooden platform. Pedal threshers are also used. Freshly threshed rice must be
dried well in the sun.
Machine threshing: Mechanical threshing removes rice grains from the rice plant, speeds
up threshing (thus reducing losses), and reduces labor requirements. Power driven stationary
threshers are also used. Freshly threshed rice must be dried well in the sun.
SYSTEM OF RICE INTENSIFICATION (SRI) CULTIVATION

It was developed in 1983 by the French Jesuit Father Henri de

Laulanié in Madagascar.

Season

 Dry season with assured irrigation is more suitable.

 Difficulty in crop establishment may be seen in areas with heavy downpour

Varieties: Hybrids and varieties with heavy tillering.

NURSERY

Seed rate: 7- 8 kg for single seedling/hill.

Preparation of nursery area:

 Prepare 100 m2 nurseries to plant 1 ha area.

 Select a levelled area near the water source. Spread a plastic sheet or used polythene
gunny bags on the shallow raised bed to prevent roots growing deep into soil.

Preparation of soil mixture:

 Four (4) m3 of soil mix is needed for each 100 m2 of nursery.

 Mix 70% soil + 20% well-decomposed pressmud / bio-gas slurry / FYM + 10% rice
hull.
 Incorporate in the soil mixture 1.5 kg of powdered di-ammonium phosphate or 2 kg
17-17-17 NPK fertilizer.
 Filling in soil mixture: Place a wooden frame of 0.5 m long, 1 m wide and 4 cm deep
divided into 4 equal segments on the plastic sheet or banana leaves.
 Fill the frame almost to the top with the soil mixture.
 Pre-germinating the seeds 2 days before sowing: Soak the seeds for 24 hr, drain and
incubate the soaked seeds for 24 hr, sow when the seeds sprout and radical (seed
root) grows to 2-3 mm long.

Sowing: Sow the pre-germinated seeds weighing 90-100 g/m2 (100g dry seed may weigh
130g after sprouting) uniformly and cover them with dry soil to a thickness of 5mm.
Sprinkle water immediately using rose can to soak the bed and remove the wooden frame
and continue the process until the required area is completed.

Watering:

 Water the nursery with rose-can as and when needed (twice or thrice a day) to keep
the soil moist. Protect the nursery from heavy rains for the first 5 DAS.
 At 6 DAS, maintain thin film of water all around the seedling mats. Drain the water 2
days before removing the seedling mats for transplanting.
Spraying fertilizer solution (optional): If seedling growth is slow, sprinkle 0.5% urea +
0.5% zinc sulfate solution at 8-10 DAS.

Lifting seedling mats: Seedlings reach sufficient height for planting at 15 days. Lift the
seedling mats and transport them to main field.

MAIN FIELD PREPARATION

 Puddled lowland prepared as described in transplanted rice.

 Perfect levelling is a pre-requisite for the water management.

Transplanting

 Single seedling of 15 days old.

 Square planting of 25 x 25 cm.
 Fill up the gaps between 7 and 10 DAT.
 Transplant within 30 minutes of pulling out of seedlings.

Irrigation management

 Irrigation only to moist the soil in the early period of 10 days

 Restoring irrigation to a maximum depth of 2.5 cm after development of hairline
cracks in the soil until panicle initiation
 Increasing irrigation depth to 5.0 cm after PI one day after disappearance of ponded
water

Weed management

 Use rotary weeder / Cono weeder

 Moving the weeder with forward and backward motion to bury the weeds and as
well to aerate the soil at 7-10 days interval from 10-15 days after planting on either
direction of the rows and column.

Nutrient managements

 As per transplanted rice.

 Use of Leaf colour chart (LCC) has more advantage in N management. N
management through LCC
 Time of application is decided by LCC score
 Take observations from 14 DAT in transplanted rice or 21 DAS in direct seeded rice.
 Repeat the observations at weekly intervals up to heading
 Observe the leaf colour in the fully opened third leaf from the top as index leaf.
 Match the leaf colour with the colours in the chart during morning hours (8-10 am).
 Take observation in 10 places.
 LCC critical value is 3.0 in low N response cultures like ‘White ponni’ and 4.0 in
other cultivars and hybrids.
  When 6/10 observations show less than the critical colour value, N can be applied @
35kg N/ha in dry season and 30kg N/ha in wet season per application.
 Green manure and farm yard manure application will enhance the growth and yield
of rice in this system approach. Other package of practices as recommended to
transplanted rice

Golden rice: Half of the world population's main food source is rice. In Asia, white rice is
eaten three times a day. The main concern about white rice is that it has insufficient
concentrations of vitamin A. It has been suggested that rice could be fortified to reduce the
level of nutritional vitamin A deficiencies. Golden rice was originally created by Dr. Ingo
Potrykus and his team in Zurich, Switzerland. This genetically modified rice is capable of
producing beta-carotene in the endosperm (grain) which is a pre cursor for vitamin A
production. In addition, Golden rice had increased iron content. Potrykus’s goal is to
distribute the rice to poor countries whose citizens suffer blindness and even death from a
lack of vitamin A. Currently, the company SynGenta owns the license for commercial
distribution of golden rice.

Super rice: In 1994, Dr Khush announced a new type of "super rice", which has the
potential to increase yields by 25 percent. High yielding rice varieties with disease and insect
resistance and superior grain quality developed under his leadership are grown on 60 per
cent of the world’s rice land. Dr Khush modified the plant by reducing its height, shortening
maturing time, and increasing response to fertilizers. Under optimal conditions, these plants
can yield up to 10 tons per hectare.

Hybrid rice is a type of rice that has been bred from two very different parents. It can
signficantly outyield other rice varieties. Yuan Longping. He was dubbed the "Father of
Hybrid Rice."