1 Gen Science PDF

RAS MAINS - 2018
PAPER -I
SCIENCE AND TECH PART - I
RAS MAINS Scie. & Tech. 2
 States of Matter
 Allotropes of carbon.
 pH Scale and importance of pH in daily life.
 Corrosion and its prevention
 Catalyst
 Soap and Detergents – Cleansing action of soap.
 Polymers and their uses
 General awareness of digestive, respiratory, circulatory, excretory, coordination and
reproductive system of Humans
 Application of Biotechnology and concerned Ethical and Intellectual Property Right Issues.
 Food and Human Health : General Awareness of Balanced and Unbalanced Food, Malnutrition,
Intoxicants, Blood, Blood Group and Immunity (Antigen, Antibodies), Blood Transfusion,
Immunization & Vaccination.
 Human diseases : Communicable & Non Communicable Diseases, Acute and Chronic Diseases;
Causes and Prevention of Infectious, Genetic and Lifestyle Disease.
 Water quality and water purification..
 Ecosystem : Structure and Function.
 Atmosphere : Composition and Basic nutrient cycling (Nitrogen, Carbon and Water Cycles)
 Climate Change; Renewable and Non-Renewable Energy.
 Environmental Pollution and Degradation; Waste Management.
 Biodiversity and its conservation with special reference to the state of Rajasthan.
 Agriculture, Horticulture, Forestry, Dairy and Animal Husbandry with special reference to
Rajasthan.
 Public Health Initiatives with special reference to the State of Rajasthan
 Water Conservation with special reference to the Traditional Systems in the State of Rajasthan.
 Contribution of Indian Scientists in Science and Technology.
SP-21, Above Canara Bank, Riddhi-Siddhi Chauraha, Gopalpura Bypass, Jaipur : Contact : 9875170111, 9414988860
Chapter 1
States of Matter
States of matter : Matter is broadly divided Crystalline solids also exhibit anisotropy.
into three categories, viz. Solid, Liquid and Gas. This means that properties such as refractive index
Due to the strongest intermolecular force of (how much light bends when passing through the
attraction in solids, they are tough and have a substance), conductivity (how well it conducts
definite shape and size. This force is relatively electricity) and tensile strength (the force required
weak in liquids and so the shape is easily changed to break it apart) will vary depending on the
but liquids have a definite volume. In gases, the direction from which a force is applied.
intermolecular force of attraction is minimum and Crystalline solids also exhibit cleavage; when
hence, they do not have a definite shape, size and broken apart, the pieces will have planed surfaces,
volume. or straight edges.
There is also a fourth and fifth state of matter
viz. (ii) Amorphous or Glassy Solids: They have
Plasma- These are super energetic and super irregular arrangement of particles. Hence, they do
excited particles in the form of ionised gases e.g. not have a definite external geometrical shape and
in fluorescent tube (helium or some other inert sharp melting point. They are isotropic i.e. their
gas), neon glow-signs etc. Plasma state is physical properties have the same value in all
common in stars and is the reason behind their directions e.g glass, cement, rubber, paraffin,
glow. plastic, etc.
Bose- Einstein Condensate- Nobel prize in 2001 Amorphous solids have no characteristic
to Eric Cornell, Wolfgang Ketterle and Carl E. It symmetry, so they do not have regular planes of
is formed by cooling a gas of extremely low cleavage when cut; the edges may be curved.
They are called isotropic because properties such
density (About one hundred-thousandth of normal
as refractive index, conductivity and tensile
air) to super low temperature. strength are equal regardless of the direction in
which a force is applied.
SOLIDS (iii) Metallic Solids: Metals are opaque,
In a solid, particles are packed tightly lustrous solids that are both malleable and ductile.
together so they are unable to move about very Malleable means they are soft and can be shaped
much. Particles of a solid have very low kinetic or pressed into thin sheets, while ductile means
energy. The electrons of each atom are in motion, they can be pulled into wires. In a metallic bond,
so the atoms have a small vibration, but they are the valence electrons are not donated or shared as
fixed in their position. Solids have a definite they are in ionic and covalent bonding. Rather, the
shape. They do not conform to the shape of the electron clouds of adjacent atoms overlap so that
container in which they are placed. They also have electrons become delocalized. The electrons move
a definite volume. The particles of a solid are with relative freedom from one atom to another
already so tightly packed together that increasing throughout the crystal.
pressure will not compress the solid to a smaller A metal may be described as a lattice of
volume. Solids are of two categories : positive cations within a "sea" of negative
(i) Crystalline Solids: They have a regular electrons. This electron mobility means that
pattern of constituent particles in three metals are highly conductive of heat and
dimensional space. Hence, they have a definite electricity. Metals tend to have high melting
external geometrical shape and a sharp melting points, though notable exceptions are mercury,
point. They are an isotropic i.e. their physical which has a melting point of minus 37.84 degrees
properties like conductivity (thermal and Fahrenheit (minus 38.8 Celsius), and
electrical), refractive index, mechanical strength phosphorous, with a melting point of 111.2 F (44
etc. have different values in different directions C).
e.g. rice, sugar, quartz, diamond, rocksalt, most of An alloy is a solid mixture of a metallic
metals & their compounds, etc. element with another substance. While pure
metals can be overly malleable and heavy, alloys
are more workable. Bronze is an alloy of copper either equal to or more than their respective
and tin, while steel is an alloy of iron, carbon and weights whereas the weight of water displaced by
other additives. the pin is less than the weight of the pin. Due to
LIQUIDS the same reason, a metallic bowl can float on the
Pressure due to a liquid column depends upon water surface.
its density and height.  An iceberg having an iron pin floats on the
P= hδg water surface but the pin sinks in ater after
Where h = height of liquid column and d = melting the iceberg. This is because the density of
density of liquid. ice is less than that of water and the weight of
If equal amounts of a liquid are kept in two water displaced by the iceberg is more than the
containers one with broad base and another with a weight iceberg containing an iron pin but the
narrow base, the height of liquid column will be weight of water displaced by the iron pin is less
more in the container with the narrow base and than the weight of the pin.
hence, the liquid pressure exerted will be more on  Initially, a balloon filled with helium gas
the narrow base than that on the broad base. rises in the air because the weight of the air
Pascal’s Law: ‗If the effect of gravity is displaced by the balloon is greater than the weight
neglected the pressure at every point of a liquid in of the balloon. As it goes up, the weight of air
equilibrium of rest is the same.‘‘ It means, in a displaced decreases due to decrease in the density
liquid content, the effect of pressure is equally of air and hence, the balloon halts at a height
transmitted through out the liquid system. where the weight of air displaced by the balloon
Hydraulic lift, Hydraulic press or Brahma press, becomes equal to the weight of the balloon.
etc. work on the Pascal‘s law. Scientists reported in April 2016 they had
Pressure is equal to the force acting per unit created a bizarre state of matter, one that had been
area i.e. pressure= Force/Area. Let a liquid system predicted to exist but never seen in real life.
having two open surfaces one with a narrow cross Though this type of matter could be held in one's
sectional area and other with a broad cross section hand as if it were a solid, a zoom-in on the
and provided with pistons. Since pressure remains material would reveal the disorderly interactions
the same in every section of the liquid system, of its electrons, more characteristic of a liquid. In
hence, by putting a small load on the piston of the new matter, called a Kitaev quantum spin
small cross section a heavy load placed at the liquid, the electrons enter into a sort of quantum
piston of the broad cross-section can be uplifted. dance in which they interact or "talk" to one
Buoyancy: Whenever a body is immersed in another. Usually when matter cools down the spin
a fluid, the displaced fluid has a tendency to of its electrons tends to line up. But in this
occupy the original position. Hence, an upward quantum spin liquid, the electrons interact so that
force is experienced by the body. This upward they affect how the others are spinning and never
force acting on the body inside a fluid is called align no matter how cool the material gets. The
buoyancy or buoyant force or upthrust. material would behave as if its electrons,
Archimedes Principle: ‗When a body is considered indivisible, had broken apart, the
partially or completely immersed in a fluid, it researchers reported April 4, 2016, in the journal
loses some of its weight which is equal to the Nature Materials.
weight of the fluid displaced by the body.‘‘ Properties of Liquids
Law of Floatation: A body will float in a Viscosity is a measure of how much a liquid
liquid, if weight of liquid displaced by the resists flowing freely. A liquid that flows very
immersed part of the body is at least equal to or slowly is said to be more viscous than a liquid that
greater than the weight of the body. flows easily and quickly. A substance with low
Applications: viscosity is considered to be thinner than a
 A wooden block or a big ship can float but substance with higher viscosity, which is usually
an iron pin sinks in water because the weight of thought of as being thicker. For example, honey is
water displaced by a wooden block or a ship is more viscous than water. Honey is thicker than
water and flows more slowly. Viscosity can the volatility and flammability of liquids in order
usually be reduced by heating the liquid. When to help prevent accidents from occurring.
heated, the particles of the liquid move faster,
allowing the liquid to flow more easily. Gas
Evaporation: Because the particles of a Gas particles have a great deal of space between
liquid are in constant motion, they will collide them and have high kinetic energy. If unconfined,
with one another, and with the sides of the the particles of a gas will spread out indefinitely;
container. Such collisions transfer energy from if confined, the gas will expand to fill its
one particle to another. When enough energy is container. When a gas is put under pressure by
transferred to a particle at the surface of the liquid, reducing the volume of the container, the space
it will eventually overcome the surface tension between particles is reduced, and the pressure
holding it to the rest of the liquid. Evaporation exerted by their collisions increases. If the volume
occurs when surface particles gain enough kinetic of the container is held constant, but the
energy to escape the system. As the faster temperature of the gas increases, then the pressure
particles escape, the remaining particles have will also increase. Gas particles have enough
lower average kinetic energy, and the temperature kinetic energy to overcome intermolecular forces
of the liquid cools. This phenomenon is known as that hold solids and liquids together, thus a gas
evaporative cooling. has no definite volume and no definite shape.
Volatility: Volatility can be thought of as
how likely a substance will be to vaporize at Physical change
normal temperatures. Volatility is more often a
Adding energy to matter causes a physical change
property of liquids, but some highly volatile solids
— matter moves from one state to another. For
may sublime at normal room temperature.
example, adding thermal energy — heat — to
Sublimation happens when a substance passes
liquid water causes it to become steam or vapor —
directly from solid to gas without passing through
a gas. Taking away energy also causes physical
the liquid state.
change, such as when liquid water becomes ice —
When a liquid evaporates inside a closed
a solid — when heat is removed. Physical change
container, the particles cannot escape the system.
also can be caused by motion and pressure.
Some of the evaporated particles will eventually
Melting and freezing
come into contact with the remaining liquid and
When heat is applied to a solid, its particles begin
lose enough of their energy to condense back into
to vibrate faster and tend to move farther apart.
the liquid. When the rate of evaporation and the
When the substance, at standard pressure, reaches
rate of condensation are the same, there will be no
a certain point — called the melting point — the
net decrease in the amount of liquid.
solid will begin to turn into a liquid. The melting
The pressure exerted by the vapor/liquid
point of a pure substance can often be determined
equilibrium in the closed container is called
to within 0.1 degrees C, the point at which the
the vapor pressure. Increasing the temperature of
solid and liquid phases are in equilibrium. If you
the closed system will increase the vapor pressure,
continue to apply heat to the sample, the
according to Purdue University's department of
temperature will not rise above the melting point
chemistry. Substances with high vapor pressures
until the entire sample has been liquefied. The
can form a high concentration of gas particles
heat energy is being used to convert the solid into
above the liquid in a closed system. This can be a
the liquid form. Once the entire sample has
fire hazard if the vapor is flammable. Any small
become a liquid the temperature will begin to rise
spark, even one occurring from the friction
again. Compounds that are otherwise very similar
between the gas particles themselves, can be
can have different melting points, so melting point
enough to cause a catastrophic fire or even an
can be a useful way to distinguish among them.
explosion. The U.S. Occupational Safety and
For example, sucrose has a melting point of 367 F
Health Administration (OSHA) requires Material
(186.1 C) while the melting point of glucose is
Safety and Data Sheets to give information about
294.8 F (146 C). A solid mixture, such as a metal
alloy, can often be separated into its constituent transference has little net effect beneath the
parts by heating the mixture and extracting the surface, but when enough energy is transferred to
liquids as they reach their different melting points. a particle near the surface; it may gain enough
The freezing point is the temperature at which a energy to be knocked completely away from the
liquid substance is cooled enough to form a solid. sample as a free gas particle. This process is
As the liquid is cooled, particle motion slows. In called evaporation and it continues as long as
many substances, the particles align in precise, liquid remains. It is interesting to note that a liquid
geometric patterns to form crystalline solids. Most cools as it evaporates. The energy transferred to
liquids contract as they freeze. One of the surface molecules, which causes their escape, is
important characteristics of water is that it carried away from the remaining liquid sample.
expands when it freezes, so ice floats. If ice didn‘t When enough heat is added to a liquid that vapor
float, there would be no liquid water underneath a bubbles form below the surface of the liquid, we
frozen body of water and many forms of aquatic say that the liquid is boiling. The temperature at
life would be impossible. which a liquid boils is variable. Boiling point is
The freezing point is often nearly the same dependent upon the pressure the substance is
temperature as the melting point, but is not under. A liquid under higher pressure will require
considered to be characteristic of a substance, as more heat before vapor bubbles can form within
several factors can alter it. For example, adding it. At high altitudes, there is less atmospheric
dissolved substances, or solutes, to a liquid will pressure pressing down on the liquid, so it will
depress the freezing point. An example of this is boil at a lower temperature. The same amount of
using salt slurry to lower the temperature at which liquid at sea level is under a greater atmospheric
water freezes on our roads. Other liquids can be pressure and will boil at a higher temperature.
cooled to temperatures well below their melting Condensation and deposition
point before they begin to solidify. Such liquids Condensation is when a gas transforms into a
are said to be ―super cooled‖ and often require the liquid. Condensation occurs when a gas has been
presence of a dust particle or ―seed crystal‖ to cooled or compressed to the point where kinetic
start the process of crystallization. energy of the particles can no longer overcome the
Sublimation: When a solid is converted directly intermolecular forces. An initial cluster of
into a gas without going through a liquid phase, particles initiates the process which tends to
the process is known as sublimation. Sublimation further cool the gas so that condensation
occurs when kinetic energy of the particles is continues. When the gas transforms directly into a
greater than atmospheric pressure surrounding the solid, without going through the liquid phase, it is
sample. This may occur when the temperature of called deposition or desublimation. An example of
the sample is rapidly increased beyond the boiling this occurs when subfreezing temperatures convert
point (flash vaporization). More commonly, a water vapor in the atmosphere into frost or ice.
substance can be "freeze dried" by cooling it Frost tends to outline solid blades of grass and
under vacuum conditions so that the water in the twigs because the air touching these solids cools
substance undergoes sublimation and is removed faster than air that is not touching a solid surface.
from the sample. A few volatile substances will
undergo sublimation at normal temperature and ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE
pressure. The best known of these substances is
CO2 or ―dry ice.‖ Air content above the earth exerts force due
Vaporization to its weight on the ground. This force on the
Vaporization is the conversion of a liquid to a gas. ground gives rise to the atmospheric pressure. At
Vaporization can occur through either evaporation the sea level the value of atmospheric pressure is
or boiling. one atmosphere.
Because the particles of a liquid are in constant 1 atmosphere = 760 mm of Hg = 76 cm of Hg
motion they frequently collide with each other, = 1.013 × 105 N/m2 = 1.013 × 105 pascal = 760
transferring energy when they do so. This energy torr.
Barometer is a device that measures pressure. of elasticity. The modulus of elasticity is a

Mercury barometer is the most common type. measure of elasticity of a body.
Pressure: Pressure is equal to the normal Ductile Materials : These materials show a
force acting per unit area. If the handles of the large plastic range beyond the elastic limit. They
bags and suitcases are broad, the pressure on the are used in making springs and sheets e.g.
hand carrying them will be small. Railway tracks coppers, iron, silver, aluminium, etc.
are laid on large sized wooden, iron or cement Brittle Materials : These materials show a
sleepers so that the thrust due to weight of train is very small plastic range beyond elastic limit e.g.
spread over a large area. This reduces the pressure glass, cast iron, etc.
on the ground which would prevent the yielding
Elastomers : These materials have no plastic
of ground. Pins and nails are pointed so that on
range. In such materials even a small stress can
pressing on a surface they exert high pressure on
produce a large strain e.g. rubber, the elastic tissue
the surface and hence, easily penetrate the surface.
of aorta in the human blood circulatory system,
The pointed end has least the surface area and
etc.
it provides greater pressure on applying a normal
Safety factor= Breaking stress/ working stress
force because pressure is equal to force divided by
When a material is used in a certain
area. Due to the same reason, it is painful to walk
construction, the working stress is kept much
bare footed on a road covered with edgy pebbles.
lower than that of breaking stress so that the safety
Vander Waal Force of Attraction: It is the
factor may have a large value. The metallic parts
minimum force of attraction between any two
of the machinery are never subjected to a stress
neutral particles (atoms or molecules). It may be
beyond the elastic limit, otherwise they will get
of two types viz. cohesive force (between similar
permanently deformed.
molecules) and adhesive force (between dissimilar
The bridges are designed in such a way that
molecules).
they do not bend much or break under the load of
heavy traffic, force of strongly blowing wind and
ELASTICITY its own weight. In order to minimise the
depression in the beam of given length and
The ability of a body to regain its original material the depth of the beam is kept large as
configuration after removal of an applied compared to its breadth. However, too large a
deforming force is called elasticity and the body is depth of the beam may cause bending, called
termed elastic. Quartz and phospher bronze are buckling. Hence, a compromise between breadth
nearly perfectly elastic bodies. Steel is more and depth of a beam is made by using an ‗‘I
elastic than rubber. Most of the metals are elastic. shaped girder‘‘ with a large load bearing surface.
When a body does not regain its original A hollow shaft is found to be stronger than a
configuration at all on the removal of the solid shaft made of the same equal material. The
deforming force, it is called a plastic body. e.g. material used to construct a spring should be of
plastic paraffin, putty, etc. When a deforming higher elasticity. Hence, steel having higher
force is applied on an elastic body, its elasticity is used to construct a spring. Rubber is
configuration changes and after the removal of the of lower elasticity and hence, it cannot be used to
force the body regains the original form. The force construct a spring. If a material is subjected to
applied per unit area is called stress and the ratio repeated strains, it loses its elasticity over a long
of the change in configuration to the original period of time. After a long use, the bridges are
configuration is called strain. declared unsafe.
Hooke’s Law : Within the elastic limit, the Some facts related to states of matter-
stress developed is directly proportional to the  The modulus of elasticity has the same
strain produced in a body i.e. stress a strain or units and dimensional formula as that of stress or
stress = E × strain or E= stress/strain. pressure.
Where E is a constant for a given body and  The material is more elastic if its value of
known as the co-efficient of elasticity or modulus modulus of elasticity is large.
 Young‘s modulus of elasticity-Y and  The wooden rod cannot float vertically in a
modulus of rigidity h exist only for solids as pond of water because centre of gravity lies above
liquids and gases cannot be deformed along one the metacentre.
dimension only and also cannot undergo shear  The cross-section of the water stream from
strain. Young‘s modulus of the material of a wire a tap decreases as it goes down in accordance with
is numerically equal to the stress that doubles the the equation of continuity.
length of a wire. However, the bulk modulus of  We cannot sip a drink with a straw on the
elasticity K exists for all the three states of mater; moon, because there is no atmosphere on the
viz; solid, liquid and gas. moon.
 The solids are more elastic and gases are  The line joining the centre of gravity and
least elastic. It is so because for the given stress centre of buoyance is called central line.
applied the gases are more compressible than that  The point where the vertical line through
of solids. centre of buoyancy intersects the central line is
 Reciprocal of bulk modulus is called called metacentre.
compressibility.
 The floating body is in stable equilibrium
 Hooke‘s law is obeyed only for small
values of strain (say of the order of 0.01). when the metacentre is above the centre of
 Higher values of the elasticity (modulus) gravity. (Centre of gravity is below the centre of
means greater force is required for producing a buoyancy).
given change.  The floating body is in unstable
 Breaking stress does not depend on the equilibrium when the metacentre lies below the
length or area of cross section of the wire. centre of gravity. (Centre of gravity is above the
However it depends on the material of the wire.
centre of buoyancy).
 Breaking force depends on the area of
cross section. Breaking stress of a wire is called  The floating body is in the neutral
tensile strength. equilibrium when centre of gravity coincides with
 Elastic after effect is temporary absence of the metacentre. (Centre of gravity coincides with
the elastic properties. Temporary loss of elastic the centre of buoyancy).
properties due to continuous use for a long time is  If a body just floats in a liquid (density of
called elastic fatigue. the body is equal to the density of liquid) then the
 Thermal stress in a rod is independent of body sinks if it is pushed downwards.
the area of cross section or length of the rod.  The hydrometer can be used to measure
 When a body is sheared, two mutually density of the liquid or fluid.
perpendicular strains are produced. They are  When a gale blows over a roof, the force
called longitudinal strain and compressional on the roof is upwards.
strain. Both are equal in magnitude.  Sudden fall in atmospheric pressure
 Quartz is the best available example of predicts possibility of a storm.
perfectly elastic material.  If two bodies have equal upthrust in a
 The pressure is perpendicular to the liquid, both have the same volume.
surface of the fluid.  If one floats on one‘s back on the surface
 The upthrust on a body immersed in a of water, the apparent weight is zero.
liquid does not depend on the mass, density or  Diamond and carborundum are the nearest
shape of the body. It only depends on the volume approach to the rigid body. Elasticity is
of the body. meaningless for the rigid bodies. That is, the
 The weight of the plastic bag full of air is elastically is the property of the non rigid bodies.
same as that of the empty bag because the upthrust
 Gases cannot be liquefied above the
is equal to the weight of air enclosed.
critical temperature. Above critical temperature a
substance is in gaseous state and below critical It can also be expressed as-
temperature it can be in vapour state.
 The branch of thermal physics that
dealswith measurement of the amount of water
vapours present in the atmosphere is called
hygrometry.
 Saturated and unsaturated air : (i) The air
is said to be saturated when the maximum The relative humidity is generally expressed
possible amount of water vapours are present in it. in percentage.
(ii) If the air contains vapours less than the  Dew point- It is the temperature at which
maximum possible amount possible in the air, the amount of water vapour actually present in a
then it (air) is said to be unsaturated. certain volume of the air is sufficient to saturate
 The humidity refers to the presence of that volume of air. At the dew point the actual
water vapours in the atmosphere. It is defined in vapour pressure becomes the saturation vapour
the atmosphere. It is defined in the following two pressure.
ways.  Relative humidity can also be defined as-
Absolute humidity: It is the amount of water
vapour present in 1m3 of the air.
Relative humidity:
 Hygrometer : It is the device to measure

the amount of water vapours in the air or the
relative humidity.
Chapter 2
Allotropes of Carbon
The presence of one element in various structures, demonstrates allotropy. The different allotropic
having distinctive physical properties, however types of carbon can be extensively characterized into
comparable chemical properties are known as two classes, namely: Crystalline
Allotropy. Diverse types of an element are called form and Amorphous form.
"Allotropes" or Allotropic Structures. Carbon
Crystalline Form
There are two types of crystalline forms: Diamond and Graphite.
Diamond
 Diamonds are mainly found in the Union of South Africa, Brazil, the Belgian Congo,
Brazil, India, British Guiana, and so forth.
 Diamond was found without precedent for India. The well known 'Kohinoor precious
stone'(186 - carat) and the 'Regent or Pitt' (studded in Napoleon's state sword, 136.2 carat)
were found close Kishna waterway in South India.
 The 'Cullinan diamond', the biggest ever discovered weighed 3025.75 carat (around 600
g) was mined in South Africa in 1905.
 Diamonds exist as transparent octahedral precious stones mostly having bended surfaces
and don't sparkle much in their characteristic natural frame. To give them their standard
splendid sparkle they are cut at an appropriate point in order to offer ascent to huge total
internal reflections.
 Moissan (1893) developed the first artificial diamond by warming pure sugar charcoal
and iron in a graphite pot to a temperature of around 3000°C in an electric circular segment
furnace.
SP-21, Above Canara Bank, Riddhi-Siddhi Chauraha, Gopalpura Bypass, Jaipur : Contact : 9875170111,
9414988860
Structure of Diamond It is because of this, that diamond is hard,

and has high melting and boiling points. In
diamond, every carbon particle is bonded to
the next through customary covalent
bonds. The electrons in this way are held
firmly between the cores, and there are no
portable electrons for the conduction of
electricity i.e. all the valence electrons of
carbon are spent in framing the covalent
bonds. Subsequently diamond is not a
conductor of electricity. Diamond is
likewise denser than graphite (thickness:
Diamond = 3.52 g cm-3 Graphite =2.25 g
cm-3) as the Diamond structure is a firmly
pressed structure, while the layer-to-layer
extensive separation makes graphite to have
In diamond, the carbon molecules an open structure.
are organized tetrahedrally (sp3
hybridisation of C): every C ion is Uses of Diamond
connected to its neighbors by four single
 As a lubricant at higher temperatures
covalent bonds. This prompts to a three-
 As a refractory material of making
dimensional system of covalent bonds
cauldrons and terminals for high-
temperature work.
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 In electrotyping and in the fabrication  Extensive amounts of graphite are

of gramophone records: Graphite is additionally made from coke or
utilized for making the non- conductor anthracite in electric furnaces.
(for the most part wax) surface, so that  Diamonds and graphite are two
electroplating becomes possible. crystalline allotropes of carbon.
 For producing lead pencils and stove Diamond and graphite both are covalent
paints. gems. Be that as it may, they vary
significantly in their properties.
Graphite - Graphite is discovered broadly
dispersed in nature, viz., in Sri Lanka,
Siberia, Canada, USA.
Structure of Graphite additionally a good conductor of electricity. In

graphite, carbon iotas in every layer are bonded to
In graphite, the carbon molecules are displayed three other carbon molecules by unique covalent
in level parallel layers as consistent hexagons. bonds. This gives some double bond character to
Every layer is bonded to contiguous layers by weak the C-C bonds. This gives it the nearness
Vander Waals strengths. This permits every layer of delocalized p-electron framework.
to slide over the other effectively. Because of this These versatile electrons lead to the electrical
sort of structure graphite is delicate and slippery, conductivity of graphite.
and can go about as a lubricant. Graphite is
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 For the manufacture of water gas and

producer gas, which are utilized as fuel gases?
 For fabricating coke, coal tar and coal gas.
 Anthracite coal is utilized for producing
graphite.
 For the fabrication of manufactured
petrol by catalytic hydrogenation of coal.
Wood Charcoal
At the point when wood is warmed emphatically in
an exceptionally constrained supply of air, wood
Uses of Graphite charcoal is acquired. This is termed as
the destructive distillation of wood. The volatile
 As a lubricant at higher temperatures. items are permitted to get away.
 As a refractory material of making cauldrons
and terminals for high-temperature work. Charcoal is a dark, permeable and weak solid. It
acts as a good adsorbent. Charcoal powder adsorbs
 In electrotyping and in the fabrication of
shading matter from solutions and harmful gasses
gramophone records: Graphite is utilized for
from the air. Charcoal is likewise a good reducing
making the non- conductor (for the most part
agent.
wax) surface, so that electroplating becomes
possible. Uses
 For producing lead pencils and stove paints.
 As a fuel.
Amorphous Forms of Carbon  As an antiperspirant and in gas masks to
Coal filter contamination.
 As a staining operator for decolorizing oils
Coal is shaped in nature by the carbonization of and so on.
wood. Change of wood to coal affected by high
 In making gun powder.
pressure, high temperature and without air is
named carbonization. Animal Charcoal
Animal charcoal (or Bone charcoal) is acquired by
destructive distillation of bones. It consists of
about 10-12% of amorphous carbon.
Among coal assortments, anthracite is the purest
frame. It consists of about 94-95% of carbon. The Gas Carbon and Petroleum Coke
basic assortment is bituminous coal; it is dark, hard
and ignites with smoky fire Carbon scratched from the dividers of the retort
utilized for the destructive refining of coal is
Uses of Coal called Gas Carbon. Amid refining of crude
petroleum, petroleum coke is stored on the dividers
 As a mechanical fuel in steel, power of the refining tower. Both, gas carbon and
generating plants and so on. It is additionally petroleum coke are utilized for making terminals in
a domestic fuel to a restricted degree. dry cells and are great conduits of power.
Fullerenes
Fullerenes are as of late discovered (1985)
allotropes of carbon. They have been found to exist
in the interstellar dust and in addition inland
developments on earth. They are substantial cage-
like round particles with formulae C32, C50, C60,
C70, C76, C84 and so forth. The most ordinarily
referred to fullerene is C60 which is named as
'Buckminster fullerene' after the creator of the
geodesic vault, American modeler Buckminster.
Structure of C60 Particle

C60 particle has gloriously symmetrical structure. It
is an intertwined ring of aromatic framework
containing 20 hexagons and 12 pentagons of sp2 Appearance and Applications
hybridized C iotas. The structure twists around and
closes to frame a soccer ball molded particle. C60 is  C60 fullerene does not look the same as
along these lines, called buckyball too. The width diamond and graphite. It is a yellow fine
of ball confine is around 70 pm. It is around 6-10 substance, which becomes pink on
times as huge as H molecule may be. The cages of disintegration over solvents like toluene.
ball are very stable and don't separate till 1375 K. It It polymerizes on introduction to U.V.
is an exceedingly symmetrical structure in which all radiations.
the carbon molecules possess indistinguishable  They are good lubricants on the grounds that
position. the balls can move between the surfaces.
 Alkali compounds of C60 (A3C60) are super
conductor materials even at high temperatures
of the order of 10-40 K.
Diamond Graphite
It occurs naturally in free state It occurs naturally and is manufactures
artificially.
It is the hardest natural substance known It is soft and greasy to touch
It has high relative density (above3.5) Its relative density is 2.3
It is transparent and has high refractive index It is black in color and opaque.
(2.45)
It is bad-conductor of heat and electricity Graphite is a good conductor of heat and
electricity.
It burns in air at 900oC to give CO2 It burns in air at 700-800oC to give CO2
It occurs as octahedral crystals It occurs as hexagonal crystals
It is insoluble in all solvents It is insoluble in all ordinary solvents
Chapter 3
pH scale and its importance in daily life
A scale for measuring hydrogen ion The pH of a neutral solution is 7. Value less
concentration in a solution, called pH scale has been than 7 on the pH scale represents an acidic solution.
developed. The p in pH stands for ‗potenz‘ in As the pH value increases from 7 to 14, it represents
German, meaning power. On the pH scale we can an increase in OH- ion concentration in the solution,
measure pH generally from 0 (very acidic) to 14 that is increase in the strength of alkali (Fig 2.6).
(very alkaline). pH should be thought of simply as a Generally paper impregnated with universal indicator
number which indicates the acidic or basic nature of a is used for measuring pH.
solution. Higher the hydronium ion concentration,
lower is the pH value
The strength of acid and bases depends on the antacid react with excess acid in the stomach and
number of H+ ions and OH- ions produced, neutralizes it. The two common antacids are Milk of
respectively. If we take hydrochloric acid and acitic Magnesia (Magnesium Hydroxide) and Sodium
acid of the same concentration, say one molar, then Bicarbonate (Baking Soda).
these produce different amounts of hydrogen ions.
Acids that give rise to more H+ ions are said to be 2. pH change as the cause of tooth decay
strong acids.
When we eat food containing sugar, then the
bacteria present in our mouth break down the sugar
Importance of pH in Everyday Life
to form acids. This acid lowers the pH in the mouth.
1. pH in our digestive system
Tooth decay starts when the pH of acid formed in
Our stomach produces hydrochloric acid. This the mouth falls below 5.5. this is because then the
dilute hydrochloric acid helps in digesting our food acid becomes strong enough to attack the enamel of
without harming the stomach. Sometimes excess of our teeth and corrode it. This sets in tooth decay.
acid is produced in the stomach. The excess acid in The best way to prevent tooth decay is to clean the
the stomach causes indigestion which produce pain mouth thoroughly after eating food.
and irritation. In order ro cure indigestion, we can
take bases called antacids. Being basic in nature,
3. Plants and animals are sensitive to pH wasp stings, it injects an alkaline liquid into the
change skin, then rubbing with a mild acid like vinegar on
the stung area of the skin gives relief.
Soil pH and plant growth: Most of the plants grow
best when the pH of the soil is close to 7. If the soil 5. Acid in muscles
is too acidic or basic, the plants grow badly or do
not grow at all. The soil pH is also affected by the As a result of physical exercise, stiffness and pain in
use of chemical fertilizers in the field. Chemicals the muscle starts due to the formation of lactic acid.
can be added to soil to adjust its pH and make it The supply of oxygen in the muscle is reduced. This
suitable for growing plants. If the soil is too acidic causes difficulty in the release of energy leading to
then it is treated with material like quicklime or increase in the rate of anaerobic metabolism. As a
slacked lime. If the soil is too alkaline then result, lactic acid gets accumulated in the muscle.
alkalinity can be reduced by adding decaying
organic matter.
6. To restore the brilliance of a tarnished
4. Self defence by animals and plants through
copper vessel
chemical warfare.
In order to clean a copper vessel, we rub it with the
Many animals and plants protect themselves from
piece of a lemon. The tarnish on the vessel is caused
enemies by injecting painful and irritating acids and
by the formation of a layer of basic copper oxide.
bases into their skin. When honey bee stings a
Since lemon juice contains citric acid, it reacts with
person, it injects an acidic liquid into the skin.
the copper oxide to form copper citrate and is
Rubbing with mild base like baking soda solution
washed away. The vessel then regains its shining
on the stung area of the skin gives relief. When a
appearance.
Chapter 4
Corrosion and its prevention
Corrosion
Most commonly used metals are strong, ductile and metal is more stable than the pure metal, so, when
malleable. When in use, these get exposed to the exposed to things like seawater or oxygen, the pure
environment. Many of them lose their shine and get metal reverts back to its stable form.
covered with colored layer on them. Some even lose Types of Corrosion
their strength and become weak and brittle. This 1. Uniform corrosion
happens due to chemical interaction between the a. Due to direct chemical attacks
metals and their environment. The spontaneous b. Also called as general attack corrosion.
destruction of metals and their environment is called c. It is predictable, manageable and even
corrosion. Corrosion takes place on the exposed can be prevented.
surface. When the upper layer of the metal gets 2. Galvanic corrosion
corroded, then the inner surface of the metal gets a. An electrochemical reaction that occurs
exposed, and the corrosion then continues up to between two different metals which are
certain depth. Corrosion is said to have taken place in contact to one another.
when for example, silver gets tarnished, i.e. it loses b. Also called as dissimilar metal corrosion.
its shine, iron gets coated with a brittle brown colored c. Presence of electrical contact and
layer, copper and brass get a green colored deposit, electrolyte is needed in this condition.
aluminum surface becomes dull, and loses its shine d. It takes faster at anode i e the sire of
and so on. General corrosion afftects the entire oxidation.
surface of the metal; while the local corrosion is 3. Concentration cell corrosion
confined to certain localized spot on the surface. a. It takes place when two metal surfaces
Corrosion causes enormous damage to the buildings, are in contact with different
bridges, ships and many other things made of iron. concentration of the same solution.
Causes of Corrosion b. Presence of electrolyte affects it.
 Reactivity of metal-Highly reactive metals Harmful effects of corrosion
corrode faster.  Metal loses its natural efficiency
 Presence of impurity-Presence of salts  It contaminate pure metal/material sample.
like NaCl etc acts as catalyst to corrosion.  Damaging of equipment‘s like motor parts etc.
 Presence of air, moisture, gases  Blockage of pipes
like SO2 and CO2 near metal.  Accidental damages seen in defected bridges,
 Presence of electrolytes rail tracks etc.
 Characteristics of water in contact.(Like  A source of pollution due to the different types
alkalinity of it / presence of ions / hardness / pH of gas evolving due to it.
etc.)  Depletion of metal natural resorce.
 Bacteria in surrounding (It‘s presence  Corrosion of prosthetic medical implants like
increase O2 concentration near it.) tooth braces, pacemaker, rods or clips is
Process dangerous to health.
Naturally, metals are found attached to other  Corrosion can destroy historical monuments like
elements in compounds. In order to get a pure metal the one we see on iron pillar in Delhi which was
from a compound, energy must be used to refine it. built in mogul era.
When this pure, refined metal is placed in the  Release of toxic products from corroded tanks in
environment, the energy is released - this is chemical industries.
corrosion. In other words, the corroded version of the
Merits of Corrosion Copper/brass can be protected by

 Some corrosion on surface forms oxide layer coating it with a thin layer of tin.
on it and this layer act like a film or barrier for Tinning of brass utensils is a very
air or moisture thus protecting the metal below common practice in our country.
it. 2. By connecting metal to more electropositive
 Few metals like zinc behave like sacrificial metal: a metal can be protected from corrosion
anodes to avoid corrosion to other metals. by connecting it to more electropositive metal.
 Galvanic corrosion is the fundamental basis As long as the more electropositive metal is
behind use of batteries. Here, two metals rods there, the given metal does not get corroded. For
like that of zinc and carbon are knowingly example, iron can be protected from corrosion
mixed together in an electrolyte solution where by connecting it to a block/plate of zinc or
zinc corrodes faster in order to generate magnesium. This method of corrosion
electrical charge. protection is called cathodic protection.
 Metal like aluminum undergoes surface 3. By forming insoluble phosphate or chromate
corrosion and produce an oxide layer on it coating: metal surfaces are treated with
which protects the metal from being consumed phosphoric acid to form an insoluble phosphate
by corrosion. coating on the surface. This phosphate coating
protects the metal from corrosion. Formation of
Preventing Corrosion a thin chromate layer also prevents the corrosion
of metals.
The common ways to avoid corrosion in metals are
4. Other methods are also used like:
as follows:
a. Electroplating
1. By surface coating: corrosion of metals can be b. Cathodic protection
prevented by coating with any of the following c. Anodic protection
a. By applying oil, grease, paint or varnish d. Metal selection and surface condition
on the surface. e. Controlling temperature, chloride
b. By coating/depositing a thin layer of any concentration and pH
other metal which does not corrode. For f. Use of better alloys like ASTM G-48
example, iron surface can be protected g. Addition of corrosion inhibitors
from corrosion by depositing a thin layer h. Organic or polymeric coating
of zinc, nickel or chromium on it.
Chapter 5
Catalyst
Example, Acetanilide prevents oxidation of Na2SO3
Catalyst by air so it acts as negative catalyst here.
Catalysis is the phenomenon in which the rate of
any reaction is altered (accelerated or retarded) by Auto catalyst: In this type of catalysis, one of the
the presence of a substance, which itself remains products of the reaction acts as catalyst. Example,
unchanged chemically in the reaction. Catalytic In the oxidation of oxalic acid by KMnO4, Mn2+ ion
reactions are of two types: formed act as catalyst and increases the rate of
Homogenous Catalysis: When the reactants reaction. This is why when KMnO4 solution is
and catalysts are in the same physical state i.e. added into warm solution of oxalic acid containing
catalyst is in the same phase as the reactant is called small amount of dil. H2SO4, initially there is a time
homogenous catalysis. For example: lag before de-colorization occurs but the process
 Lead Chamber Process becomes almost instantaneous as more KMnO4 is
added.
Catalyst is a substance which alters the rate of Induced catalyst: When a chemical reaction
chemical reaction (may increase or decrease the increases the rate of another chemical reaction, it is
rate) without being consumed itself during the called induced catalysis. Example: Sodium arsenite
course of reaction. solution is not oxidised by air, but when air is
Heterogeneous Catalysis: A catalytic process passed through a mixture of the solution of sodium
in which the catalyst and the reactants are in arsenite and sodium sulphite, simultaneous
different phases is called heterogeneous catalysis. oxidation of both takes place. Thus the oxidation of
This process is also known as surface catalysis or sodium arsenite is induced by oxidation of sodium
contact catalysis. For example: sulphite.
 Decomposition of H2O2:
Characteristics of Catalytic Reactions
 The catalyst remains unchanged in amount and
 Haber‘s process chemical composition at the end of the
reaction; it may, however, undergo
considerable change in physical form.
 Catalysts are highly efficient i.e. a small
Types of Catalysts quantity of the catalyst is capable of producing
Catalysts are divided into four categories: the desired effect.
Positive catalyst: The substance which increases  The action of a catalyst is specific to a large
the rate of reaction is known as positive catalyst. It extent.
acts by decreasing the activation energy for  The catalyst does not initiate a reaction; only
reaction. An example of positive catalyst is the accelerates the reaction that is already
V2O5 used in contact process: occurring.
 A catalyst does not alter the final state of
Negative catalyst (Inhibitor or equilibrium in a reversible reaction.
retarder): The substance which decreases the rate  A certain minimum energy must be possessed
of reaction is known as positive catalyst. It acts by by the reactants so that they may react and
increasing the activation energy for reaction. produce the products. This is called the
activation energy (Ea) for the reaction. A Catalytic Poison

catalyst lowers the activation energy which
increases the rate of the reaction. Thus, a The substance whose presence decreases or destroys
catalyst increases the rate of a reaction by the activity of a catalyst is called catalytic poison.
providing a pathway whose activation energy is Ex. The Haber‘s process, CO and H2S acts as
lower than the activation energy of the poison for Fe catalyst.
uncatalysed reaction.
Activity of Catalyst
Adsorption Theory of Catalysis
Activity of a catalyst is the ability of catalyst to
Adsorption theory of catalysis explains the accelerate a chemical reaction. The degree of
mechanism of heterogeneous catalysis mainly. acceleration can be as high as 10 10 times in certain
The old point of view was that when the catalyst reactions.
is in solid state and the reactants are in gaseous
state or in solutions, the molecules of the reactants Reaction between H2 and O2 to form H2O in
are adsorbed on the surface of the catalyst. presence of platinum as catalyst takes place with
Adsorption being an exothermic process, the heat explosive violence. In absence of catalyst, H2 and
of adsorption is taken up by the surface of O2 can be stored indefinitely without any reaction.
catalyst, which is utilized on enhancing the
Shape-Selective Catalysis by Zeolites
chemical activity of reacting molecules.
The catalytic reaction that depends upon the
The modern adsorption theory is the combination
structure of pores of the catalyst and the size of the
of intermediate compound formation theory and
reactant and product molecules is called
the old adsorption theory.
shape/selective catalysis. Zeolites are good
 The catalytic activity is located on the surface shape/selective catalysts because of their
of the catalyst. The mechanism involves five honeycomb-like structures. Zeolites are
steps. aluminosilicates i.e., three dimensional network
 Diffusion of reactant on the surface of silicates in which some silicon atoms are replaced
catalyst. by aluminium atoms. They are found in nature as
 Adsorption of reactant molecules on the well as synthesized for catalytic selectivity.
surface of catalyst. Zeolites, before using as catalysts, are heated in
vacuum so that the water of hydration is lost. As a
 Occurrence of chemical reaction on the
result, zeolite becomes porous i.e., the cavities in
catalyst surface through formation of
the cage-like structure which were occupied by the
intermediates.
water molecules become vacant. The size of the
 Desorption of reaction products away from
pores is generally 260 pm to 740 pm, because of
the catalyst surface.
which only those molecules can be adsorbed in
 Diffusion of reactant products away from the these pores whose size is small enough to enter
catalyst surface. these cavities and also leave easily.
Catalytic Promoters The reactions taking place in zeolites depend upon
the size and shape of reactant and product
Those substances which do not themselves act as
molecules as well as upon the pores and cavities of
catalyst but their presence increases the activity of a
the zeolites. That is why these types of reactions are
catalyst are called catalytic promoters. Ex. in the
called ‗shape-selective catalysis‘ reactions.
Haber‘s process, Fe is the catalyst while Mo acts as
a promoter.
Industrial Process Catalyst Used

Haber‘s process for manufacture of ammonia Finely divided iron + Mo as promoter
Ostwald‘s process for manufacture of nitric acid Platinised asbestos
Lead chamber process for manufacture of H2SO4. Nitric oxide
Contact process for manufacture of H2SO4. Platinised asbestos or vanadium pentoxide
Deacon‘s process of manufacture of chlorine Cupric chloride
Bosch‘s process for manufacture of hydrogen Ferric oxide + chromic oxide as promoter
Synthesis of methanol Zinc oxide + chromic oxide as promoter
Hydrogenation of vegetable oils Nickel
Bergius process for synthesis of petrol Ferrix oxide
Manufacture of ethyl alcohol from molasses Yeast (invertase and zymase)
Chapter 6
Soap and Detergents
Soap
Soap is a sodium salt or potassium salt of long chain
fatty acids having cleansing action in water. They
are using as cleaning agents to remove dirt, oil from
the skin and clothes. Examples Sodium stearate,
sodium oilate and sodium palmitate formed using
stearic acid oleic acid and palmitic acid.
Commercial production of soap:
 It involves mixture of oil or fat and a strong
solution of sodium hydroxide is boiled in an
iron tank which leads to the formation of a
sodium salt of fatty acid or soap and glycerol.
The Micelle has two ends:
 Once the soap is formed, it is separated with
the help od sodium chloride. Sodium chloride 1. Hydrophilic end: The end which dissolves in
also reduces the solubility of soap. Since the water is called hydrophilic end.
soap is lighter, it floats like cream on the 2. Hydrophobic end: The end which dissolves
solution. in hydrocarbons (oily substances) is called
 It is separated from the solution, suitable hydrophobic end.
chemicals are added for color and odors and Differences between hydrophilic end and
then it is cast into moulds. hydrophobic end:
 When the soap cools and solidifies, it is cut out
into desired shapes and packed. Glycerol, Hydrophilic end
which exists in a dissolved state in the solution, i) It dissolves in water.
is separated with the help of distillation. ii) This is ionic end
 It is possible to prepare different types of soaps iii) The ionic ends are on the surface of the
from different salts of fatty acids. cluster.
 Glycerol is by product formed in the
Hydrophobic end
saponification reaction. This is used in the
preparation of cosmetics, paints and even i) It dissolves in hydrocarbons.
explosives. ii) This is not ionic end.
iii) The hydrophobic tails are in the interior
Micelles: When soap is at the surface of water, of the cluster.
inside water these molecules have a unique
orientation that keeps the hydrocarbon portion out Micelle properties:
of the water. This is achieved by forming clusters i. A micelle as soap is able to clean.
of molecules in which the hydrophobic tails are in ii. The micelles stay in solution as a colloid.
the interior of the cluster and the ionic ends are on iii. These are not precipitated due to ion-ion
the surface of the cluster. This formation is called repulsion.
micelle. iv. Soap micelle can disperse light.
v. The micelles of soap help to dissolve oily
scum in the water.
The cleaning action of soap: Detergents

The cleaning process is characterized by Detergents have almost the same properties as soaps
soap micelle. The ionic end of soap is dissolved in but they are more effective in hard water.
water and other end dissolves in oily scum and thus Detergents are generally ammonium or suphonate
forms structures of micelles. Thus micelles are able salts of long chain carboxylic acids. The charged
to clean as soap because oily scums gather in the ends of these compounds do not form insoluble
center of micelles. These forms emulsion in the precipitates with the calcium and magnesium ions
water. The micelles stay in solution as a colloid and in hard water. Thus they remain effective in hard
will not come together to participate because of ion- water.
ion repulsion. Thus, the dirt suspended in the
Detergents are usually used to make shampoos and
micelles is also easily removed away and our
products for cleaning clothes.
clothes are cleaned.
The soap does not form foam with hard
water:
When we wash hand with soap in hard water, we
can see that foam formed with vey difficulty and an
insoluble substance scum remains after washing
with water. This is caused by the reaction of soap
with the calcium and magnesium salts, which cause
the hardness of water. Hence you need to use a
larger amount of soap.
Differences between soap and detergent:

Soap Detergent
 The molecules of soap are sodium or potassium  Detergents are generally ammonium or
salts of long chain carboxylic acids. sulphate salts of long chain carboxylic acids.
 It does not form foam in hard water.  It forms foam in hard water.
 In increases the hardness of water.  In increases the softness of water.
 It forms micelle during cleaning process  It does not form micelle during cleaning
process.
Chapter 7
Polymers and their uses
Polymer
Large molecules having high molecular
mass formed by combination of number of small
units called monomers. The process of formation of
polymers from respective monomers is called
polymerization.
Natural polymers: found in plants and animals.
Examples proteins, cellulose, starch.
Synthetic polymers: synthesized in laboratory
from natural material. Examples nylon 6, 6, Buna-S
At the doubly bonded carbons – the vinyl groups –
Addition polymers: formed by repeated addition of
and is called vinyl polymerization. A wide variety
monomers having multiple bonds.
of unsaturated monomers may be used, to yield
Copolymers: Addition polymers formed from two polymers with different pendant groups (G)
different monomeric species. attached to the polymer backbone. For example:
Condensation polymers: formed by repeated
condensation of different bi or tri-functional
monomer units.
Homopolymers: addition polymers formed from
single monomeric species.
Formation of polymers
Formation of polymers is done is two general ways:
1. In chain-reaction polymerization
Rad. + CH2 = CH2 → RadCH2CH2→
RadCH2CH2CH2CH2× → so on
2. Free-radical vinyl polymerization
3. Copolymerization:
Addition polymers formed from two different monomeric species is called a co-polymer and this process is
called copolymerization.
4. In step reaction polymerization
Classification of Polymers based on aligned but return to their original random

Molecular forces conformations.
Thermoplastic polymers: Soften on heating and
Fibers
stiffen on cooling. E.g. polythene, polystyrene,
It is long thin threadlike bits of material that are PVC.
characterized by great tensile (pulling) strength in
Thermosetting polymers: Do not soften on heating
the direction of the fiber. The natural fibres –
and cannot be remoulded. Example Bakelite.
cotton, wool, silk are examples.
The lining up is brought about by drawing – Classification of Polymers based on
stretching – the return to random looping and source of origin
coiling is overcome by strong intermolecular 1. Natural polymers
attractions. 2. Synthetic polymers: ex. Polythene, synthetic
Elastomers rubber, PVC, nylon-66, Teflon, orlon etc.
3. Semi-synthetic polymers: obtained by
Possesses the high degree of elasticity that is making some modification in natural
characteristic of of rubber: it can be greatly polymers by artificial means. Ex. Cellulose
deformed – stretched to eight times its original acetate (rayon), vulcanised rubber etc.
length eg buna N and buna S.
When the stratching force is removed, the molecular
chains of an elastomer do not remain extended and
Classification of Polymers based on 1. Natural rubber:

structure a. Addition polymer of isoprene (2-methyl-1,3-
butadiene)
1. Linear polymers These are the polymers in
b. An average chain can length of 5000
which the monomer units are linked to one
monomer units of isoprene.
another to form long linear chains. These
c. The rubber in which the arrangement of
linear chains are closely packed in space.
carbon chain is trans with respect to the
The close packing results in high density
double bond is known as Gutta Percha and
polythene, nylon and polyesters are linear
this is the natural rubber obtained from bark of
polymers.
various trees.
d. Vulcanisation of rubber involves addition of
sulphur to rubber and heating the mixture to
increase the strength of natural rubber.
Sulphur forms shor chains of sulphur atoms
that link two hydrocarbons (isoprene) units
2. Branched chain polymers: in such together.
polymers, the monomer units are linked to
form long chains with some branched chains
of different length with source. As a result
of branching, these polymers are not closely
packed in space. Thus they have low
density, low tensile strength as well as low
melting and boiling points. Some common
examples of such polymers are low density e. Vulcanised rubber is thus stronger and less
polyethene, starch, glycogen etc. sticky than the natural rubber.
2. Synthetic rubber:
a. Polychloroprene or neoprene
b. It is obtained by free radical polymerization of
chloroprene
3. Cross linked polymers or network

polymers In such polymers, the monomer
units are linked together to form three
dimensional network. These are expected to
c. A thermoplastic and need not to be vulcanised
be wuite hard, rigid and brittle. Examples
d. It is a good general purpose rubber and
are Bakelite, gyptal, melamine-
superior to natural rubber as it is resistant to
formaldehyde polymer etc. the reaction of fire, heat, light chemicals,
alkalis and acids below 50% strength.
e. It is used for making transmission belts,
printing rolls and flexible tubing employed for
conveyence of oil and petrol.
3. Buna-S or GRS
a. General purpose styrene rubber
Some Important polymers:
b. It is a copolymer of three moles of butadiene 6. Low density polythene (LPD)

and one mole of styrene and is an elastomer. a. It is tough, flexible, transparent, chemically
c. It is obtained as a result of free radical inert as well as poor conductor of electricity. It
copolymerisation of its monomers. has moderate tensile strength but good tearing
strength.
d. It is generally compounded with carbon black

and vulcanised with sulphur. It is extremely
resistant to wear and tear and finds use in
manufacture of tyres and other mechanical b. It is used in the insulation of electricity
carrying wires and manufacture of squeeze
rubber goods.
bottles, toys and flexible pipes.
4. Teflon
a. It is polymer of tetrafluorethylene
7. High density polyethylene (HOP)
(F2C=CF2) which on polymerisation gives
Teflon
a. It has high density due to close packing. It is

also chemically inert and tougher and harder.
b. It is thermoplastic polymer with a high
b. It is used for making containers, house wares,
softening point (600K). bottles, toys, electric insulation.
c. It is very tough and difficult to work. It is inert
to most chemicals except fluorine and molten 8. Polystyrene
alkali metals.
d. It withstands high temperatures. Its electrical
properties make it an ideal insulating material
for high frequency installation.
5. Nylon- 66
a. A condensation polymer formed by reaction
between adipic acid and hexamethylene
a. Monomers are styrene molecules. It is
thermoplastic. It is used for making toys, radio
diamine.
and TV Cabinets
b. It is a thermoplastic polymer.
9. Polyvinylchloride (PVC)
a. it is used to make rain coats, toys, electrical
insulation. It is hard and resistant to heat and
chemicals.
c. It is used in bristles for brushes and in textile.
10.Polypropylene (PP) Bottles, toys, containers, trays, disposable

a. It is obtained by polymerising propylene in the glasses and plates, TV cabinets and lids are
presence of Ziegler-Natta catalyst. some of the daily-used products made up of
polystyrene. It is also used as an insulator.
 The most important use of polyvinyl chloride is
the manufacture of sewage pipes. It is also used
as an insulator in the electric cables.
 Polyvinyl chloride is used in clothing and
furniture and has recently become popular for
the construction of doors and windows as well.
Some other Polymers It is also used in vinyl flooring.
 Polypropene, also known as polypropylene, is  Urea-formaldehyde resins are used for making
made up of monomer propene. adhesives, moulds, laminated sheets,
unbreakable containers, etc.
 Polystyrene is an aromatic polymer, naturally
transparent, made up of monomer styrene.  Glyptal is used for making paints, coatings, and
lacquers.
 Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) is a plastic polymer
made of monomer vinyl chloride.  Bakelite is used for making electrical switches,
kitchen products, toys, jewellery, firearms,
 The urea-formaldehyde resin is a non-
insulators, computer discs, etc.
transparent plastic obtained by heating
formaldehyde and urea. Biopolymers and Biodegradable Polymer
 Glyptal is made up of monomers ethylene Synthetic polymers are mostly non-biodegradable ie
glycol and phthalic acid. it is very difficult to dispose off the polymeric
 Bakelite or waste, eg polythene bags. Nature has provided us a
polyoxybenzylmethylenglycolanhydride is a variety of polymers which can be produced by the
plastic which is made up of monomers phenol biological systems in plants and animals. These are
and aldehyde. called biopolymers, ex. Polysaccharides, proteins,
Uses of polymers nucleic acids etc. in the biological system, these
polymers decompose or hydrolyse in the presence
 Polypropene finds usage in a broad range of of different enzymes. This means that they are
industries such as textiles, packaging, biodegradable. Nylon-2-Nylon-6 is an alternating
stationery, plastics, aircraft, construction, rope, polyamide copolymer of glycine (H2N2-CH2-
toys, etc. COOH) and amino caproic acid [H2N(CH2)5COOH]
 Polystyrene is one of the most common plastic, and is biodegradable.
actively used in the packaging industry.
Chapter 8
Human Body
Integumentary System
The human skin (integumentary) is composed of a Buccal cavity or Oral Cavity – Teeth,
minimum of three major layers of tissue, the tongue, Saliva
epidermis, dermis and hypodermis.  With the help of teeth the food is chewed.
Epidermis Teeth are of four types
Incisors (for cutting)
The top layer of skin is made up of epithelial cells Canines (for tearing)
and does not contain blood vessels. Premolars (for chewing)
Dermis Molars (for chewing and grinding)
 The numbers of teeth are different in different
 It gives elasticity to the integument, allowing animals. These are represented by dental
stretching and conferring flexibility, while also formula as
resisting distortions, wrinkling and sagging. 1 C Pm M – upper half jaw
 Nails grow 1mm per week on an average. 1 C Pm M – Lower hf jaw
 Protein, kjeratin stiffens epidermal tissue to Where I – incisors, C- Molars
form finger nails.  Premolars and Molars are called cheek teeth.
Hypodermis Milk teeth do not include molar teeth.
 In humans, first teeth come in between 6 and 8
It is made up of adipose tissue. It performs several months. By age of 6, milk teeth are gradually
important functions: replaced by permanent teeth.
1. Protect against invasion by infectious  Hardest part in the body is tooth enamel.
organisms.  In elephants, the tusks are the incisors of upper
2. Protect the body from dehydration. jaw.
3. Maintain homeostasis.  Maximum numbers of teeth are present in
4. Act as a receptor for cold touch, pressure, pain, horse and pig.
heat and cold.
5. Protect the body against sunburns by secreting Tongue
melanin.  Saliva, secreted by the salivary glands, is
6. Generate vitamin D through exposure to mixed with the chewed food by the tongue.
ultraviolet light.  Tongue also contains taste buds due to
7. Store water, fat, glucose and vitamin-D. which we sense bitter, sour, salty or sweet
Human Digestive system taste.
The human digestive system consists of alimentary Alimentary Canal

canal and digestive glands. The alimentary canal  The food passes through a continuous canal
consists of mouth, (having teeth and tongue) called alimentary canal. The canal can be
oesophagus, stomach, small intestine and large divided into various compartments: (1) the
intestine. buccal cavity, (2) foodpipe or oesophagus, (3)
stomach, (4) small intestine, (5) large intestine
ending in the rectum and (6) the anus.
 The activities of the gastro-intestinal tract  Gastric and intestinal secretions are also,
[alimentary canal] are under neural and similarly, stimulated by neural signals.
hormonal control for proper coordination of
 The muscular activities of different parts of the
different parts.
alimentary canal can also be moderated by
 The sight, smell and/or the presence of food in neural mechanisms.
the oral cavity can stimulate the secretion of
saliva.
Food pipe/Esophagus thorax from the abdomen in mammals] and

 The oral cavity leads into a leads to a ‗J‘ shaped bag like structure called
short pharynx which serves as a common stomach.
passage for food and air. The oesophagus and  Mucus in saliva helps in lubricating and
the trachea (wind pipe) open into the pharynx. adhering the masticated food particles into a
 A cartilaginous flap called epiglottis prevents bolus. The bolus is then conveyed into the
the entry of food into the glottis during pharynx and then into the oesophagus by
swallowing. swallowing or deglutition.
 The swallowed food passes into the food pipe  The bolus further passes down through the
or oesophagus. The oesophagus is a thin, long oesophagus by successive waves of muscular
tube which extends posteriorly [further back in contractions called peristalsis. The gastro-
position] passing through the neck, thorax [the oesophageal sphinctercontrols the passage of
part of the body of a mammal between the neck food into the stomach.
and the abdomen] and diaphragm [separates the
Stomach  Villi are supplied with a network of capillaries

and a large lymph (a colourless fluid
 The inner lining of the stomach containing white blood cells) vessel called
secretes mucous, hydrochloric the lacteal.
acid and digestive juices.
 The absorbed substances are transported via the
o The mucous protects the lining of the
blood vessels to different organs of the body
stomach.
where they are used to build complex
o The acid kills many bacteria that enter
substances such as the proteins required by the
along with the food and makes the medium
body. This is called assimilation.
in the stomach acidic.
 In the cells, glucose breaks down with the help
o The digestive juices break down
of oxygen into carbon dioxideand water,
the proteins into simpler substances.
and energy is released.
 A muscular sphincter (gastro-
 The food that remains undigested and
oesophageal) [a ring of muscle surrounding
unabsorbed then enters into the large intestine.
and serving to guard or close an opening]
regulates the opening of oesophagus into the Large intestine
stomach.
 The large intestine is wider and shorter than
 The stomach, located in the upper left portion
small intestine. It is about 1.5 metre in length.
of the abdominal cavity, has three major parts –
Its function is to absorb water and some salts
a cardiac portion into which the oesophagus
from the undigested food material.
opens, a fundic region and a pyloric
portion which opens into the first part of small  The remaining waste passes into the rectum
intestine. and remains there as semi-solid faeces. The
faecal matter is removed through the anus from
Small intestine time-to-time. This is called egestion.
 Small intestine is distinguishable into three Ingestion → Digestion → Absorption →
regions, a ‘C’ shaped duodenum, a long Assimilation → Egestion
coiled middle portion jejunum and a highly
 It consists of caecum, colon and rectum.
coiled ileum. Caecum is a small blind sac which hosts
 The opening of the stomach into the duodenum some symbiotic micro-organisms.
is guarded by the pyloric sphincter. Ileum
 A narrow finger -like tubular projection, the
opens into the large intestine.
vermiform appendix which is a vestigial organ
 The small intestine is highly coiled and is [small remnant of something that was once
about 5 meters long. It receives secretions more noticeable], arises from the caecum.
from the liver and the pancreas. Besides, its
 The caecum opens into the colon. The colon is
wall also secretes juices.
divided into three parts – an ascending, a
 The digested food passes into the blood vessels transverse and a descending part. The
in the wall of the intestine. This process is descending part opens into the rectum which
called absorption. opens out through the anus.
 The inner walls of the small intestine have  No significant digestive activity occurs in the
thousands of finger-like outgrowths. These are large intestine. The functions of large intestine
called villi (singular villus). The villi increase are: absorption of some water, minerals and
the surface area for absorption of the certain drugs; secretion of mucus which helps
digested food. in adhering the waste (undigested) particles
together and lubricating it for an easy passage.
 The undigested, unabsorbed substances called

faeces enters into the caecum of the large
intestine through ileo-caecal valve, which
prevents the back flow of the faecal matter. It is
temporarily stored in the rectum till defecation.
Digestive Glands
 The digestive glands associated with the
alimentary canal include the salivary glands,
the liver and the pancreas.
Salivary glands
 Saliva is mainly produced by three pairs of
salivary glands, the parotids (cheek), the sub-
Pancreas
maxillary (lower jaw) and the sub-linguals  The pancreatic juice acts on carbohydrates
(below the tongue). and proteins and changes them into simpler
 These glands situated just outside the buccal forms.
cavity secrete salivary juice into the buccal  The partly digested food now reaches the lower
cavity. part of the small intestine where the intestinal
 The saliva breaks down the starch into sugars. juice [succus entericus] completes the digestion
of all components of the food.
Liver  The pancreas is a compound (both exocrine
 The liver is a reddish brown gland situated in and endocrine) elongated organ situated
the upper part of the abdomen on the right side. between the limbs of the ‗U‘ shaped
 It is the largest gland in the body. duodenum.
 It secretes bile juice that is stored in a sac  The exocrine portion secretes an alkaline
called the gall bladder. pancreatic juice containing enzymes and the
 The bile plays an important role in endocrine portion secretes hormones, insulin
the digestion of fats. and glucagon.
 It has two lobes. The hepatic lobules are the Digestion – Enzyme action in Stomach
structural and functional units of liver
containing hepatic cells.  The stomach stores the food for 4-5 hours. The
 The bile secreted by the hepatic cells passes food mixes thoroughly with the acidic gastric
through the hepatic ducts and is stored and juice of the stomach by the churning
concentrated in a thin muscular sac called movements of its muscular wall and is called
the gall bladder. the chime.
 The duct of gall bladder (cystic duct) along  The proenzyme [inactive precursor of an
with the hepatic duct from the liver, forms enzyme] pepsinogen, on exposure to
the common bile duct. hydrochloric acid gets converted into the active
 The bile duct and the pancreatic duct open enzyme PEPSIN, the proteolytic (breakdown
together into the duodenum as the of proteins or peptides into amino
common hepato-pancreatic duct which is acids) enzyme of the stomach.
guarded by a sphincter called the sphincter of  Pepsin converts proteins into proteoses and
Oddi. peptones (peptides).
 The mucus and bicarbonates present in the above catabolic reactions. It is, therefore,
gastric juice play an important role evident that O2 has to be continuously provided
in lubrication and protection of the mucosal to the cells and CO2 produced by the cells have
epithelium from excoriation by the highly to be released out. This process of exchange of
concentrated hydrochloric acid. HCl provides O2 from the atmosphere with CO2 produced by
the acidic pH (pH 1.8) optimal for pepsins. the cells is called breathing, commonly known
 Rennin is a proteolytic enzyme found in as respiration.
gastric juice of infants which helps in  Mechanisms of breathing vary among different
the digestion of milk proteins. groups of animals depending mainly on their
habitats and levels of organization.
Disorders of Digestive System  Lower invertebrates like sponges, coelenterates,
 The inflammation of the intestinal tract is the flatworms, etc., exchange O2 with CO2
most common ailment due to bacterial or by simple diffusion over their entire body
viral infections. surface.
 The infections are also caused by the parasites  Earthworms use their moist cuticle and insects
of the intestine like tapeworm, roundworm, have a network of tubes (tracheal tubes) to
threadworm, hookworm, pin worm, etc. transport atmospheric air within the body.
 Jaundice: The liver is affected, skin and eyes  Special vascularized structures called gills are
turn yellow due to the deposit of bile pigments. used by most of the aquatic arthropods and
 Vomiting: It is the ejection of stomach molluscs whereas vascularised bags called lungs
contents through the mouth. This reflex action are used by the terrestrial forms for the
is controlled by the vomit centre in exchange of gases.
the medulla. A feeling of nausea precedes  Among vertebrates, fishes use gills whereas
vomiting. reptiles, birds and mammals respire through
 Diarrhoea: The abnormal frequency of bowel lungs. Amphibians like frogs can respire
movement and increased liquidity of the faecal through their moist skin Mammals usually have
discharge is known as diarrhoea. It reduces the a well-developed respiratory system.
absorption of food. Respiratory system
 Constipation: In constipation, the faeces are
retained within the rectum as the bowel  We have a pair of external nostrils opening out
movements occur irregularly. above the upper lips. It leads to a nasal chamber
 Indigestion: In this condition, the food is not through the nasal passage. The nasal chamber
properly digested leading to a feeling of opens into the pharynx, a portion of which is
fullness. The causes of indigestion are the common passage for food and air.
inadequate enzyme secretion, anxiety, food  The pharynx opens through the larynx region
poisoning, over eating, and spicy food. into the trachea. Larynx is a cartilaginous box
which helps in sound production and hence
Respiratory System called the sound box.
Exchange of Gases  During swallowing glottis can be covered by a
thin elastic cartilaginous flap called epiglottis to
 Oxygen (O2) is utilized by the organisms to prevent the entry of food into the larynx.
indirectly break down nutrient molecules like  Trachea is a straight tube which divides into a
glucose and to derive energy for performing right and left primary bronchi. Each bronchi
various activities. Carbon dioxide (CO2) which undergoes repeated divisions to form the
is harmful is also released during the secondary and tertiary bronchi
and bronchioles ending up in very thin terminal  The conducting part transports the atmospheric
bronchioles. The tracheae, primary, secondary air to the alveoli, clears it from foreign
and tertiary bronchi are supported particles, humidifies and also brings the air to
by incomplete cartilaginous rings. body temperature. Exchange part is the site
 Each terminal bronchiole gives rise to a number of actual diffusion of O2 and CO2 between
of very thin, irregular-walled and vascularised blood and atmospheric air.
bag-like structures called alveoli. The branching  The lungs are situated in the thoracic chamber
network of bronchi, bronchioles and alveoli which is anatomically an air-tight chamber. The
comprise the lungs. thoracic chamber is formed dorsally by
 We have two lungs which are covered by a the vertebral column, ventrally by
double layered pleura, with pleural fluid the sternum [breastbone], laterally by the ribs
between them. It reduces friction on the lung- and on the lower side by the dome-
surface. The outer pleural membrane is in close shaped diaphragm.
contact with the thoracic lining whereas the  The anatomical setup of lungs in thorax is such
inner pleural membrane is in contact with the that any change in the volume of the thoracic
lung surface. cavity will be reflected in the lung (pulmonary)
 The part starting with the external nostrils up to cavity. Such an arrangement is essential for
the terminal bronchioles constitute the breathing, as we cannot directly alter the
conducting part whereas the alveoli and their pulmonary volume.
ducts form the respiratory or exchange part of
the respiratory system.
Steps involved in respiration 4. Diffusion of O2 and CO2 between blood and

1. Breathing or pulmonary ventilation by which tissues.
atmospheric air is drawn in and CO2 rich 5. Utilisation of O2 by the cells for catabolic
alveolar air is released out. reactions and resultant release of CO2.
2. Diffusion of gases (O2 and CO2) across
alveolar membrane.
3. Transport of gases by the blood.
Mechanism of breathing breathing movements can be estimated by using

a spirometer which helps in clinical assessment
 Breathing involves two of pulmonary functions.
stages: inspiration during which atmospheric
air is drawn in and expiration by which the Exchanges of Gases
alveolar air is released out.
 Alveoli are the primary sites of exchange of
 The movement of air into and out of the lungs is gases. Exchange of gases also occur
carried out by creating a pressure gradient between blood and tissues. O2 and CO2 are
between the lungs and the atmosphere. exchanged in these sites by
 Inspiration can occur if the pressure within the simple diffusion mainly based on
lungs (intra-pulmonary pressure) is less than the pressure/concentration gradient.
atmospheric pressure, i.e., there is a negative  Partial pressure of gasses, Solubility of the
pressure in the lungs with respect to gases as well as the thickness of the membranes
atmospheric pressure. Similarly, expiration involved in diffusion are some important factors
takes place when the intra-pulmonary pressure that can affect the rate of diffusion.
is higher than the atmospheric pressure.
 Pressure contributed by an individual gas in a
 The diaphragm and a specialized set of mixture of gases is called partial pressure.
muscles – external and
internalintercostals between the ribs, help in Transport of gases
generation of such gradients.
 Blood is the medium of transport for O2 and
 Inspiration is initiated by the contraction of CO2.
diaphragm which increases the volume of
 About 97 per cent of O2 is transported
thoracic chamber in the antero-posterior axis.
by RBCs in the blood. The remaining 3 per cent
The contraction of external inter-costal muscles
of O2 is carried in a dissolved state through the
lifts up the ribs and the sternum causing an
plasma.
increase in the volume of the thoracic chamber
 Nearly 20-25 per cent of CO2 is transported
in the dorso-ventral axis. The overall increase
by RBCs whereas 70 per cent of it is carried
in the thoracic volume causes a similar
as bicarbonate. About 7 per cent of CO2 is
increase in pulmonary volume.
carried in a dissolved state through plasma.
 An increase in pulmonary volume decreases the
intra-pulmonary pressure to less than the Transport of Oxygen
atmospheric pressure which forces the air from
outside to move into the lungs, i.e., inspiration.  Haemoglobin is a red coloured iron containing
pigment present in the RBCs. O2 can bind with
 Relaxation of the diaphragm and the inter-costal
haemoglobin in a reversible manner to
muscles returns the diaphragm and sternum to
form oxyhaemoglobin.
their normal positions and reduce the thoracic
volume and thereby the pulmonary volume.  Each haemoglobin molecule can carry a
This leads to an increase in intra-pulmonary maximum of four molecules of O2. Binding of
pressure to slightly above the atmospheric oxygen with haemoglobin is primarily related
pressure causing the expulsion of air from the to partial pressure of O2.
lungs, i.e., expiration. We have the ability to  Partial pressure of CO2, hydrogen ion
increase the strength of inspiration and concentration and temperature are the other
expiration with the help of additional muscles in factors which can interfere with this binding.
the abdomen.
 On an average, a healthy human breathes 12-16
times/minute. The volume of air involved in
Transport of Carbon dioxide substances can activate this centre, which in turn
can signal the rhythm centre to make necessary
 CO2 is carried by haemoglobin as carbamino- adjustments in the respiratory process by which
haemoglobin (about 20-25 per cent). This these substances can be eliminated.
binding is related to the partial pressure of CO2.
Partial pressure of O2 is a major factor which Disorders of Respiratory System
could affect this binding. RBCs contain a very
 Asthma: Asthma is a difficulty in breathing
high concentration of the enzyme, carbonic causing wheezing due to inflammation of
anhydrase and minute quantities of the same bronchi and bronchioles.
are present in the plasma too. Nearly 70 per cent
 Emphysema: Emphysema is a chronic disorder
of carbon dioxide is transported as bicarbonate
in which alveolar walls are damaged due to
(HCO3) with the help of the enzyme carbonic
which respiratory surface is decreased. One of
anhydrase.
the major causes of this is cigarette smoking.
 At the tissue site where partial pressure of CO2
 Occupational Respiratory Disorders: In certain
is high due to catabolism [the breakdown of
industries, especially those involving grinding
complex molecules in living organisms to form
or stone-breaking, so much dust is produced that
simpler ones, together with the release of
the defence mechanism of the body cannot fully
energy], CO2 diffuses into blood (RBCs and
cope with the situation. Long exposure can give
plasma) and forms HCO3 and H+-.
rise to inflammation leading
 At the alveolar site where pCO2 is low, the to fibrosis (proliferation of fibrous tissues) and
reaction proceeds in the opposite direction thus causing serious lung damage. Workers in
leading to the formation of CO2 and H2O. such industries should wear protective masks.
 Thus, CO2 trapped as bicarbonate at the tissue
level and transported to the alveoli is released Circulatory System
out as CO2. Every 100 ml of deoxygenated The English physician, William
blood delivers approximately 4 ml of CO2 to the Harvey (A.D.1578–1657), discovered the
alveoli. circulation of blood. The circulatory patterns are of
two types – open or closed
Regulation of Respiration
1. Open: Open circulatory system is present
 Human beings have a significant ability to in arthropods and molluscs in which blood
maintain and moderate the respiratory rhythm to
pumped by the heart passes through large
suit the demands of the body tissues. This is
vessels into open spaces or body cavities
done by the neural system.
called sinuses
 A specialised centre present in the medulla 2. Closed: Annelids and chordates have a closed
region of the brain called respiratory rhythm circulatory system in which the blood pumped
centre is primarily responsible for this by the heart is always circulated through a
regulation. closed network of blood vessels. This pattern is
 Another centre present in the pons region of the considered to be more advantageous as the flow
brain called pneumotaxic centre can moderate of fluid can be more precisely regulated.
the functions of the respiratory rhythm centre.
Neural signal from this centre can reduce the All vertebrates possess a muscular chambered
duration of inspiration and thereby alter the heart. Fishes have a 2-chambered heart with an
respiratory rate. atrium and a ventricle. Amphibians and
 A chemo sensitive area is situated adjacent to the reptiles (except crocodiles) have a 3-
the rhythm centre which is highly sensitive to chambered heart with two atria and a single
CO2 and hydrogen ions. Increase in these ventricle, whereas crocodiles, birds and
mammals possess a 4-chambered heart with two atria respectively passes on to the ventricles of the
atria and two ventricles. same sides. The ventricles pump it out without any
mixing up, i.e., two separate circulatory pathways
In fishes the heart pumps out deoxygenated
are present in these organisms, hence, these animals
blood which is oxygenated by the gills and supplied
have double circulation. Let us study the human
to the body parts from where deoxygenated blood is
circulatory system.
returned to the heart (single circulation).
Does sponges and hydra also have blood?
In amphibians and reptiles, the left atrium
Animals such as sponges and Hydra do not possess
receives oxygenated blood from the gills/lungs/skin
any circulatory system. The water in which they
and the right atrium gets the deoxygenated blood
live brings food and oxygen as it enters their bodies.
from other body parts. However, they get mixed up
The water carries away waste materials and carbon
in the single ventricle which pumps out mixed
dioxide as it moves out. Thus, these animals do not
blood (incomplete double circulation)
need a circulatory fluid like the blood.
In birds and mammals, oxygenated and
deoxygenated blood received by the left and right Heart
 The heart has four chambers. The two upper  Human circulatory system, also called the blood
chambers are called the atria (singular: atrium) vascular system consists of a muscular
and the two lower chambers are called chambered heart, a network of closed branching
the ventricles. blood vessels and blood, the fluid which is
 The partition between the chambers helps to circulated.
avoid mixing up of blood rich in oxygen with  Heart, the mesodermally derived organ [the
the blood rich in carbon dioxide. middle layer of cells or tissues of an embryo, or
Heartbeat the parts derived from this (e.g. cartilage,
 The walls of the chambers of the heart are made muscles, and bone)], is situated in the thoracic
up of muscles. These musclescontract and relax cavity, in between the two lungs, slightly tilted
rhythmically. This rhythmic contraction to the left. It has the size of a clenched fist.
followed by its relaxation constitutes a
heartbeat.
 It is protected by a double walled membranous  A bundle of nodal fibres, atrioventricular bundle

bag, pericardium, enclosing the pericardial (AV bundle) continues from the AVN which
fluid. passes through the atrio-ventricular septa to
 Our heart has four chambers, two relatively emerge on the top of the interventricular septum
small upper chambers called atriaand two larger and immediately divides into a right and left
lower chambers called ventricles. bundle. These branches give rise to minute
 A thin, muscular wall called the interatrial fibres throughout the ventricular musculature of
septum separates the right and the left atria, the respective sides and are called purkinje
whereas a thick-walled, the inter-ventricular fibres. These fibres along with right and left
septum, separates the left and the right bundles are known as bundle of His.
ventricles.  The nodal musculature has the ability to
 The atrium and the ventricle of the same side generate action potentials without any external
are also separated by a thick fibrous tissue stimuli, i.e., it is autoexcitable.
called the atrio-ventricular septum. However,  However, the number of action potentials that
each of these septa are provided with an opening could be generated in a minute vary at different
through which the two chambers of the same parts of the nodal system.
side are connected.
Cardiac Cycle
 The opening between the right atrium and the
right ventricle is guarded by a valve formed of  To begin with, all the four chambers of heart are
three muscular flaps or cusps, the tricuspid in a relaxed state, i.e., they are in joint
valve, whereas a bicuspid or mitral diastole.
valve guards the opening between the left  As the tricuspid and bicuspid valves are open,
atrium and the left ventricle. blood from the pulmonary veins and vena cava
 The openings of the right and the left ventricles flows into the left and the right ventricle
into the pulmonary arteryand respectively through the left and right atria. The
the aorta respectively are provided with semilunar valves are closed at this stag.
the semilunar valves.  The SAN now generates an action potential
 The valves in the heart allows the flow of blood which stimulates both the atria to undergo a
only in one direction, i.e., from the atria to the simultaneous contraction – the atrial systole.
ventricles and from the ventricles to the This increases the flow of blood into the
pulmonary artery or aorta. These valves prevent ventricles by about 30 per cent.
any backward flow.  The action potential is conducted to the
 The entire heart is made of cardiac muscles. ventricular side by the AVN and AV bundle
The walls of ventricles are much thicker than from where the bundle of His transmits it
that of the atria. through the entire ventricular musculature. This
 A specialized cardiac musculature called causes the ventricular muscles to contract,
the nodal tissue is also distributed in the heart. (ventricular systole), the atria undergoes
A patch of this tissue is present in the right relaxation (diastole), coinciding with the
upper corner of the right atrium called the sino- ventricular systole.
atrial node (SAN).  Ventricular systole increases the ventricular
 Another mass of this tissue is seen in the lower pressure causing the closure of tricuspid and
left corner of the right atrium close to the atrio- bicuspid valves due to attempted backflow of
ventricular septum called the atrio-ventricular blood into the atria.
node (AVN).  As the ventricular pressure increases further, the
semilunar valves guarding the pulmonary artery
(right side) and the aorta (left side) are forced  Therefore, the cardiac output can be defined as
open, allowing the blood in the ventricles to the volume of blood pumped out by each
flow through these vessels into the circulatory ventricle per minute and averages 5000 mL or 5
pathways. litres in a healthy individual.
 The ventricles now relax (ventricular diastole)  The body has the ability to alter the stroke
and the ventricular pressure falls causing the volume as well as the heart rate and thereby the
closure of semilunar valves which prevents the cardiac output. For example, the cardiac output
backflow of blood into the ventricles. of an athlete will be much higher than that of an
 As the ventricular pressure declines further, the ordinary man.
tricuspid and bicuspid valves are pushed open  During each cardiac cycle two prominent
by the pressure in the atria exerted by the blood sounds are produced which can be easily heard
which was being emptied into them by the through a stethoscope. The first heart
veins. The blood now once again moves freely sound (lub) is associated with the closure of
to the ventricles. The ventricles and atria are the tricuspid and bicuspid valves whereas the
now again in a relaxed (joint diastole) state, as second heart sound (dub) is associated with the
earlier. closure of the semilunar valves. These sounds
 Soon the SAN generates a new action potential are of clinical diagnostic significance.
and the events described above are repeated in Double circulation
that sequence and the process continues.
 This sequential event in the heart which is  As mentioned earlier, the blood pumped by the
cyclically repeated is called the cardiac right ventricle enters the pulmonary artery,
cycle and it consists of systole and diastole of whereas the left ventricle pumps blood into the
both the atria and ventricles. aorta. The deoxygenated blood pumped into the
 As mentioned earlier, the heart beats 72 times pulmonary artery is passed on to the lungs from
per minute, i.e., that many cardiac cycles are where the oxygenated blood is carried by the
performed per minute. From this it could be pulmonary veins into the left atrium. This
deduced that the duration of a cardiac cycle is pathway constitutes the pulmonary circulation.
0.8 seconds.  The oxygenated blood entering the aorta is
 During a cardiac cycle, each ventricle pumps carried by a network of arteries, arterioles and
out approximately 70 mL of blood which is capillaries to the tissues from where the
called the stroke volume. The stroke volume deoxygenated blood is collected by a system of
multiplied by the heart rate (no. of beats per venules, veins and vena cava and emptied into
min.) gives the cardiac output. the right atrium. This is the systemic
circulation.
 The systemic circulation provides nutrients, O2 Human Excretory System

and other essential substances to the tissues and In humans, the excretory system consists of
takes CO2 and other harmful substances away a pair of kidneys, one pair of ureters, a urinary
for elimination. bladder and a urethra.
 A unique vascular connection exists between the
digestive tract and liver called hepatic portal
system. The hepatic portal vein carries blood
from intestine to the liver before it is delivered
to the systemic circulation.
Disorders of circulatory system
High Blood Pressure (Hypertension)
 Hypertension is the term for blood pressure that
is higher than normal (120/80).
 In this measurement 120 mm Hg (millimetres of
mercury pressure) is the systolic, or pumping,
pressure and 80 mm Hg is the diastolic, or
resting, pressure.
 If repeated checks of blood pressure of an
individual is 140/90 (140 over 90) or higher, it
shows hypertension. Kidneys
 High blood pressure leads to heart diseases and Kidneys are reddish brown, bean shaped
also affects vital organs like brain and kidney. structures situated between the levels of last
Coronary Artery Disease (CAD) thoracic and third lumbar vertebra close to the
Coronary Artery Disease, often referred to dorsal inner wall of the abdominal cavity. Each
as atherosclerosis, affects the vessels that supply kidney of an adult human measures 10-12 cm in
blood to the heart muscle. It is caused by deposits length, 5-7 cm in width, 2-3 cm in thickness with an
of calcium, fat, cholesterol and fibrous tissues, average weight of 120-170 g.
which makes the lumen of arteries narrower. Towards the center of the inner concave
Angina surface of the kidney is a notch
It is also called ‘angina pectoris’. A called hilum through which ureter, blood vessels
symptom of acute chest pain appears when no and nerves enter. Inner to the hilum is a broad
enough oxygen is reaching the heart muscle. funnel shaped space called the renal pelvis with
Angina can occur in men and women of any age but projections called calyces.
it is more common among the middle-aged and
elderly. It occurs due to conditions that affect the
blood flow.
Heart failure
Heart failure means the state of heart when it
is not pumping blood effectively enough to meet the
needs of the body. It is sometimes called congestive
heart failure because congestion of the lungs is one
of the main symptoms of this disease. Heart failure
is not the same as cardiac arrest (when the heart
stops beating) or a heart attack (when the heart
muscle is suddenly damaged by an inadequate
blood supply).
Inside the kidney, there are two zones, Each nephron has two parts –
an outer cortex and an inner medulla. The the glomerulus and the renal tubule. The renal
medulla is divided into a few conical masses tubule begins with a double walled cup-like
(medullary pyramids) projecting into the calyces structure called Bowman’s capsule, which encloses
(singularity: calyx). Each kidney has nearly one the glomerulus. Glomerulus along with Bowman‘s
million complex tubular structures called nephrons, capsule, is called the malpighian body or renal
which are the functional units. Each nephron has corpuscle.
two parts – the glomerulus and the renal tubule.
Urine Formation manner so as to leave some minute spaces called

filtration slits or slit pores. Blood is filtered so
 Urine formation involves three main processes finely through these membranes, that almost all
namely, glomerular filtration, the constituents of the plasma except the
reabsorption and secretion, that takes place in proteins pass onto the lumen of the Bowman‘s
different parts of the nephron. capsule. Therefore, it is considered as a process
 The first step in urine formation is the filtration of ultra-filtration.
of blood, which is carried out by the glomerulus  The kidneys have built-in mechanisms for the
and is called glomerular filtration. regulation of glomerular filtration rate. One
 The glomerular capillary blood pressure causes such efficient mechanism is carried out by juxta
filtration of blood through 3 layers, i.e., glomerular apparatus (JGA).
the endothelium of glomerular blood vessels,  A comparison of the volume of the filtrate
the epithelium of Bowman’s capsule and formed per day (180 liters per day) with that of
a basement membrane between these two the urine released (1.5 litres), suggest that nearly
layers. 99 per cent of the filtrate has to be reabsorbed
 The epithelial cells of Bowman‘s capsule by the renal tubules. This process is
called podocytes are arranged in an intricate called reabsorption.
 The tubular epithelial cells in different Functions of brain

segments of nephron perform this either by
active or passive mechanisms. For example, Forebrain
substances like glucose, amino acids, Na+, etc.,  Cerebrum leads to consciousness, storage of
in the filtrate are reabsorbed actively whereas memory having information.
the nitrogenous wastes are absorbed by passive  Thalamus deals with touch, visual system,
transport. Reabsorption of water also occurs sleep and wakefulness.
passively in the initial segments of the nephron.  Hypothalamus deals with water balance in
 During urine formation, the tubular cells secrete body, behavioural patterns of sex, sleep, stress
substances like H+, K+ and ammonia into the emotions etc. it also regulates pituitary
filtrate. Tubular secretion is also an important hormones and metabolism of fat, carbohydrate
step in urine formation as it helps in the water and maintain body temperature
maintenance of ionic and acid base balance of (homeostasis)
body fluids.
Regulation of Kidney Function
 The functioning of the kidneys is efficiently
monitored and regulated by hormonal feedback
mechanisms involving the hypothalamus,
JGA and to a certain extent, the heart.
Role of other organs in excretion
 Other than the kidneys, lungs,
liver and skin also help in the elimination of
excretory wastes.
Coordination
Coordination in Human beings are provided by
Nervous and muscular tissues.
Nervous System
 The nervous system provides the fastest means
of communication within the body so that
suitable response to stimuli can be made at
once. Midbrain
 Nervous system is found in animals and absent  It deals with visual analysis, auditory etc.
in plants.
 In most animals, the nervous system consists of Hindbrain
two parts – central and peripheral nervous  Cerebellum controls coordination of accurate
system. movements and balancing.
Central Nervous System (CNS)  Medulla oblongata is long connecting part of
brain to spinal cord. It deals with control of
Brain heart beats, blood vessels, breathing, salivary
secretion and mostly reflex and involuntary
 Brain lies in the cranium of skull.
(uncontrolled) movements.
 Cerebrospinal fluid is present in brain and
spinal cord.
Spinal cord  The PNS is divided into two divisions: Somatic

Nervous System (SNS) and Autonomous
Deals with impulses to and from the brain and is the
Nervous System (ANS).
centre for reflex actions like blinking of the eye
 It is a part of peripheral nervous system that
suddenly, rapid withdrawal of hand while coming
relays impulses from the CNS to skeletal
near heat, knee jurk reflex etc.
muscle.
Acquired reflex action is also called condition
reflex as dependent on past experience, training and Autonomous Nervous System (ANS)
learning. It is also part of peripheral nervous system that
It was first demonstrated by Ivan Petrovich Pavlov transmits impuses from the CNS to involuntary
eg learning, dancing, cycling, swimming, singing organs and smooth muscle of the body.
and driving etc are controlled by spinal cord. It is Automatic nervous system consists of two
under cerebral control during learning. divisions.
1. Sympathetic Nervous System: increase
Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
defence system of body against adverse
 It is collective term for the nervous system conditions. It is active in stress condition, e g
structures that do not lie within the CNS. pain, fear and anger.
 It is composed of cranial and spinal nerves. 2. Parasympathetic Nervous System: provides
There are 10 pairs of cranial nerves in fishes relaxation, comfort, pleasure at the time of
and amphibians and 12 pairs in the rest higher rest. It helps in the restoration and
chordates. conservation of energy.
 There are 10 pairs of spinal nerves found in Electroenncephalogram (EEG) is a test that
fishes and amphibians and 31 pairs in humans. measures and records the electrical activity of
our brain.
Endocrine System o Thyroxin, which regulates BMR (Basal

Metabolic Rate), physical mental and sexual
i) Electrical impulses habe their limitations reproduction.
because they reach only those cells o Thyrocalcitonin, secreted by the C-cells and
ii) The nerve cells cannot generate and transmit regulates the calcium homeostasis (lowers
impulses continuously. calcium level).
iii) Electrical communication is slower.
Pancreas
Hormones
It is both an exocrine and endocrine gland. The islet
Hormones are chemical messengers secreted of Langerhans (endocrine) has three major types of
by endocrine glands. These hormones are secret in cells
small amounts and may act in both nearby places or
distant place. These hormones do not themselves i) Alpha cells secrets glucogon hormone
take part in the reaction and are destroyed which increases blood sugar level.
immediately. Hormones are secreted by both ii) Beta cells secrets insulin, which decreases
endocrine and exocrine glands the amount of sugar in the blood.
iii) Delta cells secrets somatostatin which is an
 Endocrine system includes endocrine or ductless anti growth factor.
glands and their secretion is called hormone.
Adrenal Gland
Different types of hormones:
It is also known as emergency gland.
 Steroids, e.g. oerstradiol, testosterone,
androsterone, aldosterone, cortisol and a. Cortex (outer layer)
cortisone. b. Medulla (inner layer) It secrets two important
 Peptides, e.g. insulin, glucagon, pituitary hormones – Epinephrine or adrenaline and nor-
hormones, parathromone and relaxin. epinephrine ot nor-adrenaline.
 Amino acid derivatives, e.g. adrenaline, It increases the blood glucose level, blood pressure
noradrenaline and thyroid hormones. and cardiac rhythm.
Hypothalamus Gonads
It is part of forebrain and regulates the pituitary These secrete steroid hormones.
glands and maintains body temperature
(homestosis) Ovarian Hormones (Oestrogens)
It helps in the development of primary and
Pituitary Gland or Hypophysis secondary sexual characters (oestradiol, oestriol and
 It governs ither endocrine glands like thyroid, estrogen). Hypersecretion of androgenic steroids in
adrenal and gonads. female results in menstruation stops, hairs on face
 Pituitary gland is also known as master gland. and brests.
Thyroid Gland Testicular Hormones (Androgens)
 It is the largest endocrine gland and located in These are produced by Leydig cells of
neck region. testes. It stimulates growth, maturation and
 In is the pace setter of endocrine system. It maintenance of male gonads and development of
secrets secondary sexual characters, e.g testosterone,
androsterone etc.
Muscular System As their activities are under the voluntary control of

the nervous system, they are known as voluntary
 Voluntary movements are called locomotion. muscles They are primarily involved in locomotory
Walking, running, climbing, flying, swimming actions and changes of body postures.
are all some forms of locomotory movements.
 Cells of the human body exhibit three main Each organized skeletal muscle in our body is made
types of movements, namely, amoeboid, of a number of muscle bundles or fascicles held
ciliary and muscular. together by a common connective tissue layer
called fascia.
 Some specialized cells in our body
like macrophages and leucocytes in blood Muscles are classified as Red and White fibers
exhibit amoeboid movement. It is effected based primarily on the amount of red coloured
by pseudopodia formed by the streaming of myoglobin pigment in them.
protoplasm (as in Amoeba).
 Movement of our limbs, jaws, tongue, etc.
Visceral Muscles
require muscular movement. The contractile  Visceral muscles are located in the inner walls
property of muscles are effectively used for of hollow visceral organs of the body like the
locomotion and other movements by human alimentary canal, reproductive tract, etc.
beings and majority of multi-cellular organisms.  They do not exhibit any striation and are smooth
Locomotion requires a perfect coordinated in appearance. Hence, they are called smooth
activity of muscular, skeletal and neural systems muscles (non-striated muscle).
Muscular system  Their activities are not under the voluntary
control of the nervous system and are therefore
 Muscle is a specialized tissue of mesodermal known as involuntary muscles.
origin. [Mesodermal == the middle layer of  They assist, for example, in the transportation of
cells or tissues of an embryo, or the parts food through the digestive tract and gametes
derived from this (e.g. cartilage, muscles, and through the genital tract.
bone)].
 About 40-50 per cent of the body weight of a Cardiac Muscles
human adult is contributed by muscles.  As the name suggests, Cardiac muscles are the
 They have special properties like excitability, muscles of heart. Many cardiac muscle cells
contractility, extensibility and elasticity. assemble in a branching pattern to form a
 Muscles have been classified using different cardiac muscle.
criteria, namely location, appearance and nature  Based on appearance, cardiac muscles
of regulation of their activities. Based on their are striated. They are involuntary in nature as
location, three types of muscles are identified : the nervous system does not control their
1. Skeletal activities directly.
2. Visceral [the internal organs in the main
cavities of the body] Skeletal System
3. Cardiac  Skeletal system consists of a framework of
Skeletal Muscles bones and a few cartilages. Bone and cartilage
are specialized connective tissues.
Skeletal muscles are closely associated with the  The former has a very hard matrix due
skeletal components of the body. They have a to calcium salts in it and the latter has slightly
striped appearance under the microscope and hence pliable matrix due to chondroitin salts.
are called striated muscles.
 In human beings, this system is made up of 206 Human Reproductive System

bones and a few cartilages. It is grouped into The reproductive events in humans include:
two principal divisions – the axial and the
appendicular skeleton. 1. Formation of gametes (gametogenesis),
i.e., sperms in males and ovum in females.
 Axial skeleton comprises 80 bones distributed
2. Transfer of sperms into the female genital tract
along the main axis of the body. The skull,
(insemination).
vertebral column, sternum and ribs constitute
3. Fusion of male and female gametes
axial skeleton.
(fertilisation) leading to formation of zygote.
Joints 4. Formation and development of blastocyst and
 Joints are essential for all types of movements its attachment to the uterine wall
involving the bony parts of the body. (implantation).
Locomotory movements are no exception to 5. Embryonic development (gestation).
this. 6. Delivery of the baby (parturition).
 Joints are points of contact between bones, or
between bones and cartilages. Male reproductive system
 Joints have been classified into three major  The male reproductive system is located in the
structural forms, namely, fibrous, cartilaginous pelvis region. It includes a pair of testes along
and synovial. with accessory ducts, glands and the
 Fibrous joints do not allow any movement. external genitalia.
This type of joint is shown by the flat skull  The testes are situated outside the abdominal
bones which fuse end-to-end with the help of cavity within a pouch called scrotum. The
dense fibrous connective tissues in the form of scrotum helps in maintaining the low
sutures, to form the cranium. temperature of the testes (2–2.50C lower than
 In cartilaginous joints, the bones involved are the normal internal body temperature) necessary
joined together with the help of cartilages. The for spermatogenesis.
joint between the adjacent vertebrae in the  Each testis has about 250 testicular lobules.
vertebral column is of this pattern and it Each lobule contains one to three highly
permits limited movements. coiled seminiferous tubules in which sperms
 Synovial joints are characterized by the are produced.
presence of a fluid filled synovial cavity  Each seminiferous tubule is lined on its inside
between the articulating surfaces of the two by two types of cells called male germ cells
bones. Such an arrangement (spermatogonia) and Sertoli cells.
allows considerable movement. These joints  The male germ cells undergo meiotic
help in locomotion and many other movements. divisions finally leading to sperm formation,
 Ball and socket joint, hinge joint (knee joint), while Sertoli cells provide nutrition to the germ
pivot joint, gliding joint and saddle joint are cells.
some example.  The regions outside the seminiferous tubules
Disorders of Muscular and Skeletal System called interstitial spaces, contain small blood
 Arthritis: Inflammation of joints. vessels and interstitial cells or Leydig cells.
 Osteoporosis: Age-related disorder Leydig cells synthesise and secrete testicular
characterized by decreased bone mass and hormones called androgens [a male sex
increased chances of fractures. A decreased hormone, such as testosterone. Androgens
level of estrogen is a common cause. stimulate or control the development and
 Gout: Inflammation of joints due to maintenance of male characteristics].
accumulation of uric acid crystals.
 These parts of the system along with a pair of

the mammary glands are integrated structurally
and functionally to support the processes of
ovulation, fertilisation, pregnancy, birth and
child care.
 Ovaries are the primary female sex organs
[testis in males] that produce the female gamete
(ovum) [sperm in males] and several steroid
hormones(ovarian hormones).
 The ovaries are located one on each side of the
lower abdomen. Each ovary is connected to the
pelvic wall and uterus by ligaments.
 Each ovary is covered by a thin epithelium
which encloses the ovarian stroma. The stroma
is divided into two zones – a peripheral cortex
and an inner medulla.
 The oviducts (fallopian tubes),
uterus and vagina constitute the female
accessory ducts.
 Each fallopian tube extends from the periphery
of each ovary to the uterus, the part closer to the
Female reproductive system ovary is the funnel-shaped infundibulum.
 The female reproductive system consists of a  The wall of the uterus has three layers of tissue.
pair of ovaries along with a pair of oviducts, The external thin membranous perimetrium,
uterus, cervix, vagina and the middle thick layer of smooth muscle,
external genitalia located in pelvic region. myometrium and inner glandular layer called
endometrium that lines the uterine cavity.
 The endometrium undergoes cyclical changes Gametogenesis

during menstrual cycle while
the myometrium exhibits strong contraction  The primary sex organs – the testis in the
during delivery of the baby. males and the ovaries in the females produce
gametes, i.e, sperms and ovum, respectively, by
 The female external genitalia include mons
the process called gametogenesis.
pubis, labia majora, labia minora, hymen and
clitoris.  In testis, the immature male germ cells
(spermatogonia) produce sperms by
 Mons pubis is a cushion of fatty tissue covered
spermatogenesis that begins at puberty.
by skin and pubic hair. The labia majora are
fleshy folds of tissue, which extend down from Menstrual Cycle
the mons pubis and surround the vaginal
opening.  The reproductive cycle in the female primates
 Thelabia minora are paired folds of tissue under (e.g. monkeys, apes and human beings) is called
the labia majora. The opening of the vagina is menstrual cycle. The first menstruation begins
often covered partially by a membrane called at puberty and is called menarche.
hymen.  n human females, menstruation is repeated at an
 The clitoris is a tiny finger-like structure which average interval of about 28/29 days, and the
lies at the upper junction of the two labia minora cycle of events starting from one menstruation
above the urethral opening. till the next one is called the menstrual cycle.
 The hymen is often torn during the first coitus  One ovum is released (ovulation) during
(intercourse). However, it can also be broken the middle of each menstrual cycle. The cycle
by a sudden fall or jolt, insertion of a vaginal starts with the menstrual phase, when menstrual
tampon, active participation in some sports like flow occurs and it lasts for 3-5 days.
horseback riding, cycling, etc.  The menstrual flow results due to breakdown of
endometrial lining of the uterus and its blood
 In some women the hymen persists even after
coitus. In fact, the presence or absence of hymen vessels which forms liquid that comes out
is not a reliable indicator of virginity or through vagina. Menstruation only occurs if the
sexual experience. released ovum is not fertilized.
 A functional mammary gland is characteristic of  Lack of menstruation may be indicative of
all female mammals. The mammary glands are pregnancy. However, it may also be caused due
paired structures (breasts) that to some other underlying causes like stress, poor
contain glandular tissueand variable amount of health etc.
fat.  During pregnancy all events of the menstrual
cycle stop and there is no menstruation. In the
 The glandular tissue of each breast is divided
into 15-20 mammary lobes containing clusters absence of fertilisation, the corpus luteum
of cells called alveoli. The cells of degenerates. This causes disintegration of the
alveoli secrete milk, which is stored in the endometrium leading to menstruation, marking
cavities (lumens) of alveoli. The alveoli open a new cycle.
into mammary tubules.  In human beings, menstrual cycles ceases
 The tubules of each lobe join to form a around 50 years of age; that is termed
mammary duct. Several mammary ducts join to as menopause.
form a wider mammary ampulla which is  Cyclic menstruation is an indicator of normal
connected to lactiferous duct through which reproductive phase and extends between
milk is sucked out. menarche and menopause.
Fertilization and Implantation  After attachment, the uterine cells divide rapidly
and covers the blastocyst. As a result, the
 During copulation (coitus) semen is released by blastocyst becomes embedded in the
the penis into the vagina (insemination). The endometrium of the uterus. This is
motile sperms swim rapidly, pass through the called implantation and it leads to pregnancy.
cervix, enter into the uterus and finally reach the
ampullary region of the fallopian tube. In Vitro Fertilization
 The ovum released by the ovary is also  In some women oviducts are blocked. These
transported to the ampullary region where women are unable to bear babies because
fertilisation takes place. sperms cannot reach the egg for fertilization. In
 Fertilisation can only occur if the ovum and such cases, doctors collect freshly released egg
sperms are transported simultaneously to and sperms and keep them together for a few
the ampullary region. This is the reason why hours for IVF or In Vitro Fertilization
not all copulations lead to fertilisation and (fertilization outside the body).
pregnancy.  In case fertilization occurs, the zygote is
 The process of fusion of a sperm with an ovum allowed to develop for about a week and then it
is called fertilisation. During fertilisation, a is placed in the mother‘s uterus. Complete
sperm comes in contact with the zona development takes place in the uterus and the
pellucida layer of the ovum and induces baby is born like any other baby.
changes in the membrane that block the entry of  Babies born through this technique are called
additional sperms. Thus, it ensures that only one test-tube babies. This term is actually
sperm can fertilise an ovum. misleading because babies cannot grow in test
tubes.
Chapter 9
Food and Human Health
Avoid wasteful pre-cooking and cooking practices
Balanced diet The raw food material are washed, peeled, cut
The food which we eat during the whole day and cooked to make them fit for eating. The various
is called our diet. The diet which contains adequate wasteful pre-cooking practices lead to loss of
amount of all nutrients such as carbohydrates, fats, nutrient are:
proteins, vitamins, minerals is called a balanced
1. Repeated washing of rice and pulses removes
diet.
the water soluble vitamins and some minerals
A balanced diet also contains sufficient from them and hence lowers the nutritive value.
amount of water and roughage. No single food item 2. washing of fruits and vegetable after they have
can provide us all the essential nutrients in adequate been peeled and cut, remove the water soluble
amount. vitamins and some minerals.
In order to make a balance diet, we should 3. Taking off thick peels from fruits and vegetable
include a number of different food items in our lead to loss of vitamins and minerals.
daily meals which taken together, provide us all
nutrients in adequate amount. A balance diet Nutritients
depends on the age of the person and also on the A substance which is essential for
occupation of the person. maintaining life and for growth is called nutrient.
Dependence on age Our food has 7 major nutrients
A balance diet of a child is different from 1. Carbohydrates
that of a grown up man. A growing child also needs 2. Fats
more minerals like calcium and phosphorus for the 3. Proteins
formation of bones. 4. Vitamins
Dependence of diet on occupation 5. Minerals
6. Water roughage
 The balanced diet of a man doing hard physical 7. Water
work is different from another man doing
normal work.
1. Carbohydrate
 A man doing hard physical work needs more
 It was believed that these are the organic
carbohydrates in his diet than another man
compounds which have carbon, hydrogen and
doing normal work. This is because he needs
oxygen in the ratio of 1:2:1 but starch
more energy for doing hard physical work, and
(C6H10O5)n (C6H10O5)n and some others are
this extra energy is supplied by including more
exceptions. So this definition has been changed,
of carbohydrate rich foods in his diet.
according to modern definition, these are the
A balanced diet should contain enough food items polyhydroxy aldehydes and ketones or their
such as: derivatives.
1. Cereals, potatoes, sugar (to provide  These are the source of energy and about 50-
carbohydrates) 75% energy by the oxidation carbohydrates.
2. Butter, ghee, oil (to provide fats)  The main end product of carbohydrates
3. Pulses, peas, milk, cheese, fish, meat, eggs (to digestion is glucose, which is called blood
provide proteins) sugar. It oxidises to give energy along with CO2
4. Vegetable and fruits (vitamins, minerals and and H2O.
roughage)
5. Water.
 1 gm glucose provides about 17 kJ energy or 4.2 Sources of Carbohydrates

kcal energy. Sources of carbohydrates are wheat, rice,
 Carbohydrates are better fuel as compared to Maize, millet, potato, sweet potato, sugar, honey,
proteins and fats as they readily decompose to banana, mango, papaya etc.
give energy. Test for presence of starch
 Main sources of carbohydrates are wheat, The presence of starch in food item can be
maize, rice, potato etc. tested by using a dilute iodine solution.
The carbohydrates are classified into following 2. Proteins
three types:
These are found in all living cells. These are
Monosaccharide the compounds of carbon (C), hydrogen (H),
 These are simple sugars, which cannot be oxygen (O), nitrogen (N) and sulpher (S). These
hydrolysed further, e.g. ribose, glucose, form 15% of the human body. Snake venom, ricin
fructose, galactose etc. of castor and bacterial toxins are proteinaceous in
 In human being, blood glucose level is 100-120 nature.
mg/mL. extra glucose, if any, is converted into Functions of proteins
glycogen in theliver by a process called  These are important for the growth and repair of
glycogenesis. the body (75% of our body is protein only).
 D-fructose is the sweetest of all sugars and is However, in the deficiency of carbohydrates,
found in fruit juice, honey etc. these acts as the source of energy. Protein also
Oligosaccharides controls the development of genetic characters.
 They release 2.10 monosaccharide on  They supply the body with material to make
hydrolysis, like disaccharide, e.g. sucrose, new cells which build the body and make it
lactose, maltose etc. and trisaccharide like grow.
raffinose.  Deficiency of protein causes Kwashiorkor (a
 Sucrose is also called invert sugar. It gives disease in which hands and legs of children get
glucose and fructose when subjected to slimmed and the stomach comes out) and
hydrolysis. Marasmus (a disease in which muscle of
children are loosened). Kwashiorkor occurs in
Polysaccharides
children between 1 to 5 years of age and
 They release more than ten monosaccharide on marasmus in children below 1 year.
hydrolysis. These are non-sugars, i.e. do not
have sweet taste e.g cellulose, glucogen and
Sources of Proteins
starch.  Plant protein: pulses, peas, soyabean, groundnut
 Cellulose is found in plant cell wall and is  Animal protein: milk, cheese, fish, chicken,
digested by numinents (like cow, goat, buffalo eggs
etc), but not by human beings. Thus is acts as Test for proteins
roughage in case of human beings.  Proteins give a violet colour with an alkaline
Functions of Carbohydrates solution of copper sulphate.
 Carbohydrates provide energy, that acts as 3. Lipids (Fats)
reserve food, help in synthesis of nucleic acid  These are also compounds of carbon (C),
and form exoskeleton if animals. Excessive hydrogen (H) and oxygen (O). Chemically,
intake of carbohydrate results in digestion these are the ester of glycerol and fatty acids.
problems and obesity. These are present in cytoplasm, cell wall etc.
 The main source of fats are ghee, butter,  Vitamin is an organic compound, which cannot
almonds, cheese, egg yolk, meat, soybean etc. be synthesised in sufficient quantities by an
 Fats are digested by enzymes called lipases in organism and must be obtained from the diet.
the small intestine. Generally, at 20OC, these are  They provide no calories, they only regulate
in solid state but if there is liquid at room chemical reactions occurring in the metabolism
temperature these are termed as oils. of the body.
 Fatty acids are of two types – Saturated and These are divided into two groups
Unsaturated. Saturated fatty acids are found in 1. Fat soluble vitamin, vitamin A, D, E and K.
coconut oil and palm oil, while unsaturated fatty 2. Water soluble vitamin, vitamin B and C.
acids are found in fish oil and vegetable oil.  Vitamin B12 contanis cobalt. Vitamin D is
 Excess of saturated fats raises the level of blood synthesised in our skin by the action of
cholesterol and may cause arteriosclerosis. ultraviolet rays of the sunlight. Vitamin K is
This may lead to heart attack. synthesised in our colon by the bacteria.
Function of Lipids  Water soluble vitamins normally do not show
 These provide twice the energy than that from hypervitaminosis (this disease causes due to
carbohydrates. excess of these vitamins) as excess of these
 These remain under the skin and prevent the vitamins is normally excreted through urine.
loss of heat from the body.  In balanced diet, all the important nutrients (like
Malnutrition Effects carbohydrate, protein, fats, vitamins etc.) are
available in sufficient quantity.
 Deficiency of fat results in dryskin and weight
loss.
Vitamin deficiency diseases
 If fat is in excess, the body gets fatty and result
in several hearth diseases and high blood
Vitamin Chemical Deficiency disease
pressure.
name
 The skin fat, in case of whales and seals forms a
Vitamin A Retinol Night blindness
thick layer called the blubber. It acts as reserve
Vitamin B1 Thiamin Beri-Beri
food and also maintain the body temperature.
Vitamin B2 Riboflavin Ariboflavinosis
Sources of Fats Vitamin B3 Niacin, Pellagra
 Plant sources: groundnut oil, mustard oil, niacinamide
coconut oil, Sunflower oil, til, nuts etc. Vitamin B5 Pantothenic Paresthesia
 Animal sources: butter, ghee, milk, cheese, acid
eggs, meat. Vitamin B6 Pyridoxine, Anemia
Test for fats pyridoxal
Fats produce a greasy patch when rubbed on Vitamin B7 Dermatitis, enteritis
a clean sheet of paper. The greasy patch produced Vitamin B9 cynocoba Mageloblastic
by a fat on paper is translucent which lets some and B12 anemia
light to pass through it when paper is held towards a Vitamin C Ascorbic Scurvy, Swelling of
source of light. Since some light passes through it, a acid Gums
greasy patch appears to be bright as compared to Vitamin D Cholecalcif- Rickets and
rest of the paper. erol Osteomalacia
4. Vitamin Vitamin E Tocopherol Less fertility
 It was invented by F G Hopkin. However, the Vitamin K Phylloquino- Non-clotting of
term vitamin was coined by C Funk. ne blood
5. Roughage Sources
 It is fibrous matter in food which cannot be Fruits, vegetable, whole meal flour products.
digested. Whole meal flour products: the flour made
 It is mainly made of an indigestible from entire wheat grains from which bran is not
carbohydrate called cellulose which is present in removed. Is product include whole meal chapatti
plant cell wall. and whole mean bread.
 Roughage provides bulk to the food, keeps the 6. Water
food and waste matter moving along the  About 70% of the human body consists of
intestine and helps to prevent constipation. water. Two-third of water exists inside cells, the
 The difficulty in discharging hardened faeces other one-third is outside the cells in essential
from the body is called constipation. for digestion, transportation, excretion and to
regulate body temperature.
7. Minerals
 These are metals, non-metals and their salts
other than the four elements – carbon, hydrogen,
nitrogen and oxygen and constitute about 4% of
total body weight.
 Milk, eggs, meat, fruit, food, vegetables etc are
the sources of minerals.
Minerals are of two types
1. Macronutrients these are required in large
amount e.g. calcium (Ca), phosphorus (P),
potassium (K) etc.
2. Micronutrients these are required in very small
amount (less than 1 gm), e.g. iodine (I), iron
(Fe), zinc (Zn) etc.
Mineral Major food source Uses Deficiency Disease

Macronutrients
Phosphorus (P) Cheese, eggs, peanuts and Bone and tooth formation, Tetany and rickets
most foods. energy transfer from foods,
DNA, RNA and ATP formation
Calcium (Ca) Milk, cheese bread and Muscle contraction, nerve Tetany and rickets
vegetable action, blood clotting and the
formation of bone.
Sulphur (S) Dairy products, meat, eggs Formation of thiamine, keratine
Disturbed protein
and broccoli and coenzymes. metabolism.
Potassium (K) Potatoes, meat and Muscle contraction, nerve
Nervous disorder, poor
chocolate action, active transport. muscles leading to
paralysis
Sodium (Na) Any salted food, meat, Muscle contraction, nerve Nervous, depression,
eggs and milk action, active transportation muscular cramps, pH
dis-balance
Chlorine (Cl) Salted food and sea food Anion/cation balance and Loss appetite muscle
gastric acid formation cramps.
Magnesium (Mg) Meat, chocolate and green Formation of bone, formation of Irregularity of
vegetable coenzyme in cell respiration. metabolism.
Micronutrients
Iron (Fe) Liver, Kidney, red meat, Formation of haemoglobin, Anemia and low
cocoa powder and water myglobin and cytochromes. immunity
cress
Fluorine (F) Water supplies, tea, sea Resistance to tooth decay Weak teeth (if present
food, meat, liver and in excess causes
beans. mottling of (teeth))
Zinc (Zn) Meat, liver and beans Enzyme activation and carbon Anemia, retarded
dioxide transport. growth weak immunity
and fertility.
Copper (Cu) Liver, meat and fish Enzyme, melanin and Anemia, weak blood
hemoglobin formation. vessels and connective
tissue.
Iodine (I) Seafood, iodized salt and Thyroxin production Goiter
fish
Manganese (Mn) Tea, nuts, spices and Bone development and enzyme Irregular growth of
cereals. activation. bones and connective
tissue.
Chromium (Cr) Meat and cereal Uptake of glucose Irregular metabolism
Cobalt (Co) Meat and yeast Synthesis of Vitamin-B12, Anemia
formation of red blood cells
About half of the world‘s population faces
the deficiency of micronutrients, proteins, and
Malnutrition vitamins and other essential elements in their diet.
Malnutrition, also called malnourishment is According to the statistics of World Health
a condition resulting from eating a diet that contains Organization (WHO), 2 billion people worldwide
either insufficient or too much of nutrients as a are suffering from anemia and is mainly due to the
result of which health problems ensue. The nutrients deficiency of iron in their diet. This kind of
involved are calories, carbohydrates, vitamins, deficiency has multiple detrimental effects on the
proteins or minerals. Lack of sufficient nutrients is population like increased risks of diseases, reduced
called under-nutrition or undernourishment. lifespan, reduced mental abilities, etc.
Generally, the term malnutrition refers to Bio-fortification
undernourishment. This is a condition in which the Bio-fortification of staple food crops has
diet consumed does not contain adequate amount of emerged as a very potent solution to tackle the
calories, proteins, carbs, vitamins and minerals. problem of deficiency of nutrients in developing
Under-nutrition during pregnancy or before two countries where a large section of the population
years of age may cause permanent mental and cannot affor enough fruits, vegetables, legumes, fish
physical development problems. and other food products to meet their essential
nutritional requirements.
Bio-fortification is the process of happiness in a person‖. The oxford says

developing micronutrients – rich food crops using ―intoxicants and drugs are used by some to escape
the best conventional breeding practices or via physical or psychological pain.‖
genetic modification using modern biotechnology. Several plants, fruits and seeds having
It differs from ordinary fortification and it focuses hallucinogenic properties have been used for
on improving the nutrient profile of the food crop as hundreds of years in folk-medicine, religious
it grows and matures instead of manually adding ceremonies and rituals all over the globe. When
nutrients to the food while it is being processed. these are taken for a purpose other than medicinal
Bio-fortification is a realistic and cost- use or in amounts/frequency that impairs one‘s
effective source of conveying micronutrients to physical, physiological or psychological functions,
those populations who have a limited access to it constitutes drug abuse.
different diets and other micronutrient interventions. All the narcotic drugs belong to this group.
This idea is proven mainly to measurably increase These are actually not foods. We consume some
the human health and nutrition. As per the records narcotics and intoxicants as if they are food items.
Biofortified crops are now grown and consumed by But those items are not foods. All intoxicants such
more than 20 to 25 millions of people all over the as tea, coffee, Beedi (a kind of Indian cigarette),
world. cigarette, liquor, Paan, ganja, areca nut, etc. belong
The methodology of Bio fortification to this category.
involves two principle methods:- The drugs, which are commonly abused
1. Selective breeding – This is the conventional are opioids, cannabinoids and coca alkaloids.
method which requires crops which have naturally Majority of these are obtained from flowering
occurring high nutritious value -to be crossbred plants. Some are obtained from fungi.
with high-yielding varieties. The development of Some of the drugs are explained as follows:
the hybrid varieties must be monitored by 1. Opioids: drugs, which bind to specific opioid
nutritionists to check whether the improved levels receptors present in our central nervous system
of nutrients can be used by the consumers and how and gastrointestinal tract.
these levels are affected by storage, processing, and 2. Heroin: commonly called smack is
cooking of the food crop. chemically diacetylmorphine which is a white,
2. Genetic modification – Altering the genetic odourless, bitter crystalline compound. This is
makeup of a domesticated crop by introducing obtained by acetylation of morphine, which is
genes from the wild crop of same species or other extracted from the latex
species that code for the increased production of of poppy plant Papaver somniferum.
certain nutrients could make the host crop rich in Generally taken by snorting and injection,
nutrients. Alternatively, different genes which code heroin is a depressant and slows down body
for different nutrients can also be stacked in a crop functions.
to make it rich in a wide variety of nutrients. One of 3. Cannabinoids: group of chemicals, which
the most glorious examples is that of golden rice interact with cannabinoid receptors present
which has been enriched with beta-carotene, a principally in the brain. Natural cannabinoids
precursor of Vitamin A. are obtained from the inflorescences of the
plant Cannabis sativa. The flower tops, leaves
Intoxicants and the resin of cannabis plant are used in
various combinations to produce marijuana,
According to Cambridge dictionary
hashish, charas and ganja. Generally taken by
intoxicants are defined as ―a substance such as
inhalation and oral ingestion, these are known
alcohol that produces feelings of pleasure of
for their effects on cardiovascular system of
the body. These days, cannabinoids are also  The immediate adverse effects of drugs and
being used by some sportsperson. alcohol abuse are manifested in the form of
4. Cocaine: Coca alkaloid or cocaine is obtained reckless behavior, vandalism and violence.
from coca plant Erythroxylum coca, native to Excessive doses of drugs may lead to coma and
South America. It interferes with the transport death due to respiratory failure, heart failure or
of the neuro-transmitter dopamine. Cocaine, cerebral hemorrhage.
commonly called coke or crack is usually  The most common warning signs of drug and
snorted. It has a potent stimulating action on alcohol abuse among youth include drop in
central nervous system, producing a sense of academic performance, unexplained absence
euphoria and increased energy. Excessive from school/college, lack of interest in personal
dosage of cocaine causes hallucinations. hygiene, withdrawal, isolation, depression,
5. Morphine: a very fatigue, aggressive and rebellious behaviour,
effective sedative and painkiller, and is very deteriorating relationships with family and
useful in patients who have undergone surgery. friends, loss of interest in hobbies, change in
6. Smoking: Smoking also paves the way to hard sleeping and eating habits, fluctuations in
drugs. Tobacco has been used by human beings weight, appetite, etc.
for more than 400 years. It is smoked, chewed  Another misuse of drugs is what certain
or used as a snuff. Tobacco contains a large sportspersons do to enhance their performance.
number of chemical substances They (mis)use narcotic analgesics, anabolic
including nicotine, an alkaloid. Nicotine steroids, diureticsand certain hormones in
stimulates adrenal gland to sports to increase muscle strength and bulk and
release adrenaline and nor-adrenalineinto to promote aggressiveness and as a result
blood circulation, both of which raise blood increase athletic performance.
pressure and increase heart rate. Smoking is
associated with increased incidence of cancers Prevention and Control
of lung, urinary bladder and throat, bronchitis,
emphysema, coronary heart disease, gastric The following steps can be taken to prevent and
ulcer, etc. control the drug abuse:
7. Chewing tobacco: Tobacco chewing is
associated with increased risk of cancer of the 1. Avoid undue peer pressure – Every child has
oral cavity. Smoking increases carbon his/her own choice and personality, which
monoxide (CO) content in blood and reduces should be respected and nurtured. A child
the concentration of haembound oxygen. This should not be pushed unduly to perform beyond
causes oxygen deficiency in the body. his/her threshold limits; be it studies, sports or
8. Other substances: Other well-known plants with other activities.
hallucinogenic properties are Atropa belladona 2. Education and counselling – Educating and
and Drugs like barbiturates, amphetamines, counselling him/ her to face problems and
benzodiazepines, lysergic acid diethyl amides stresses, and to accept disappointments and
(LSD), and other similar drugs, that are failures as a part of life. It would also be
normally used as medicines to help patients worthwhile to channelize the child‘s energy into
cope with mental illnesses like depression and healthy pursuits like sports, reading, music,
insomnia, are often abused. yoga and other extracurricular activities.
3. Seeking help from parents and peers – Help
Effects of Drug Abuse from parents and peers should be sought
immediately so that they can guide
appropriately. Help may even be sought from blood [pure blood] from lungs to heart. The
close and trusted friends. Besides getting proper veins have thin walls.
advise to sort out their problems, this would  Arteries are the blood vessels that carry oxygen-
help young to vent their feelings of anxiety and rich blood from heart to all parts of the
guilt. body. Pulmonary artery is an exception as it
4. Looking for danger signs – Alert parents and carries carbon dioxide-rich blood from heart to
teachers need to look for and identify the danger lungs. The arteries have thick walls as the
signs discussed above. Even friends, if they find pressure acting on then is high.
someone using drugs or alcohol, should not  Arteries divide into smaller vessels. On reaching
hesitate to bring this to the notice of parents or the tissues, they divide further into extremely
teacher in the best interests of the person thin tubes called capillaries. The capillaries join
concerned. Appropriate measures would then be up to form veins which empty into the heart.
required to diagnose the malady and the
underlying causes. This would help in initiating
Body fluids and Circulation
proper remedial steps or treatment.  Blood is a special connective tissue consisting
5. Seeking professional and medical help – A lot of a fluid matrix, plasma, and formed element
of help is available in the form of highly 1. Plasma
qualified psychologists, psychiatrists, and de-
 Plasma is a straw coloured, viscous fluid
addiction and rehabilitation programmes to help
constituting nearly 55 per cent of the blood.
individuals who have unfortunately got in the
 90-92 per cent of plasma is water and proteins
quagmire of drug/alcohol abuse. With such help,
contribute 6-8 per cent of it.
the affected individual with sufficient efforts
and will power, can get rid of the problem  Factors for coagulation or clotting of blood are
completely and lead a perfectly normal and also present in the plasma in an inactive form.
healthy life. Plasma without the clotting factors is
called serum.
Blood 2. Red Blood Cells (RBC)
Blood is a liquid, which transports  Erythrocytes or red blood cells (RBC) are the
substances like digested food from the small most abundant of all the cells in blood.
intestine to the other parts of the body. It carries  A healthy adult man has, on an average, 5
oxygen from the lungs to the cells of the body. It million to 5.5 million of RBCs mm-3 of blood.
also transports waste for removal from the body.  RBCs are formed in the red bone marrow in
Blood has four types of cells: the adults. RBCs are devoid of nucleus in most
of the mammals and are biconcave in shape.
1. Platelets
2. RBC  They have a red coloured, iron containing
3. WBC complex protein called haemoglobin, hence the
4. Plasma colour and name of these cells.
 RBCs have an average life span of 120
Blood Vessels days after which they are destroyed in
 They are two types of blood vessels namely the spleen (graveyard of RBCs).
arteries and veins. 3. White Blood Cells (RBC)
 Veins are the blood vessels that carry carbon
dioxide-rich blood [impure blood] from all  Leucocytes are also known as white blood cells
parts of the body back to the heart. Pulmonary (WBC) as they are colorless due to the lack of
vein is an exception as it carries oxygen-rich haemoglobin. They are nucleated and are
relatively lesser in number which averages  From the above mentioned table it is evident
6000-8000 mm-3 of blood. Leucocytes are that group ‗O‘ blood can be donated to persons
generally short lived. We have two main with any other blood group and hence ‗O‘ group
categories of WBCs – individuals are called ‗universal donors’.
granulocytes and agranulocytes.  Persons with ‗AB‘ group can accept blood from
4. Platelets persons with AB as well as the other groups of
blood. Therefore, such persons are
 Platelets also called thrombocytes, are cell
called ‘universal recipients’.
fragments produced
from megakaryocytes (special cells in the Rh grouping
bone marrow).  Another antigen, the Rh antigen similar to one
 Blood normally contains 1,500,00-3,500,00 present in Rhesus monkeys(hence Rh), is also
platelets mm-3. observed on the surface of RBCs of majority
 Platelets can release a variety of substances (nearly 80 per cent) of humans. Such
most of which are involved in the coagulation individuals are called Rh positive (Rh+ve) and
or clotting of blood. those in whom this antigen is absent are
Blood Groups called Rh negative (Rh-ve).
 An Rh-ve person, if exposed to Rh+ve blood,
Blood of human beings differ in certain
will form specific antibodies against the Rh
aspects though it appears to be similar. Various
antigens. Therefore, Rh group should also be
types of grouping of blood have been done. Two
matched before transfusions.
such groupings – the ABO and Rh – are widely
used all over the world.
Blood transfusion
ABO grouping A blood transfusion is the transfer of blood
 ABO grouping is based on the presence or or blood products from one person (donor) into
absence of two surface antigens(chemicals that another person's bloodstream (recipient). This is
can induce immune response) on usually done as a life saving maneuver to replace
the RBCs namely A and B. blood cells or blood products lost through severe
 Similarly, the plasma of different individuals bleeding, during surgery when blood loss occurs or
contain two natural antibodies(proteins to increase the blood count in an anemic patient.
produced in response to antigens). Blood can be provided from two sources:
 The distribution of antigens and antibodies in autologous blood (using your own blood) or donor
the four groups of blood, A, B, AB and O are blood (using someone else's blood)
given in Table below.
1. Pre-operative donation: donating your own
blood before surgery. The blood bank draws
your blood and stores it until you need it during
or after surgery. This option is only for non-
emergency (elective) surgery. It has the
advantage of eliminating or minimizing the need
 During blood transfusion, any blood cannot be for someone else's blood during and after
used; the blood of a donor has to be carefully surgery. The disadvantage is that it requires
matched with the blood of a recipient before any advanced planning which may delay surgery.
blood transfusion to avoid severe problems of Some medical conditions may prevent the pre-
clumping (destruction of RBC). operative donation of blood products.
2. Volunteer blood: blood collected from the body when it encounters a pathogen for the first
community blood supply (blood banks). This time produces a response called primary
has the advantage of being readily available, and response which is of low intensity. Subsequent
can be life saving when your own blood is not encounter with the same pathogen elicits a highly
available. The disadvantage is that there is a risk intensified secondary or anamnestic response.
of disease transmission, such as hepatitis, and This is ascribed to the fact that our body appears to
allergicreactions. have memory of the first encounter.
Antibody
Types of blood transfusion The primary and secondary immune
responses are carried out with the help of two
1. Red Blood Cell Transfusion special types of lymphocytes present in our blood,
Red blood cells are the most commonly i.e., B-lymphocytes and T-lymphocytes. The B-
transfused components of the blood. A person may lymphocytes produce an army of proteins in
need this transfusion if he is he is suffering from response to pathogens into our blood to fight with
severe anemia or have lost blood due to an injury or them. These proteins are called Antibodies [a blood
surgery. protein produced by the body in response to and
2. Platelet Transfusion counteracting an antigen]. The T-cells themselves
do not secrete antibodies but help B cells produce
A person suffering from hemophilia may them.
need this type of transfusion. Each antibody molecule has four peptide
3. Plasma Transfusion chains, two small called light chains and two longer
If a person is badly burned or have liver called heavy chains. Hence, an antibody is
failure or a severe infection may need a plasma represented as H2L2. Different types of antibodies
transfusion. are produced in our body. IgA, IgM, IgE, IgG are
some of them.
Immunity and immunization
The human immune system consists of
lymphoid organs, tissues, cells and soluble
molecules like antibodies. As you have read,
immune system is unique in the sense that it
recognizes foreign antigens, responds to these and
remembers them. The immune system also plays an
important role in allergic reactions, auto-immune
diseases and organ transplantation.
Immunity in humans is of two types: (1)
Innate immunity (2) Acquired immunity.
Innate Immunity
Innate immunity is non-specific type of Because these antibodies are found in the
defense that is present at the time of birth. Innate blood, the response is also called as humoral
immunity is accomplished by providing different immune response. This is one of the two types of
types of barriers to the entry of the foreign agents our acquired immune response – antibody
mediated. The second type is called cell-
into our body.
mediated immune response or cell mediated
Acquired immunity immunity (CMI). The T-lymphocytes mediate
Acquired immunity is pathogen specific. It CMI.
is characterized by memory. This means that our
Antigen If a person is infected with some deadly

A substance which the body recognizes as microbes to which quick immune response is
alien and which induces an immune response. required as in tetanus, we need to directly inject the
preformed antibodies or antitoxin (a preparation
Active and Passive Immunity containing antibodies to the toxin). Even in cases of
Active immunity: When a host is exposed snakebites, the injection which is given to the
to antigens, which may be in the form of living or patients, contain preformed antibodies against the
dead microbes or other proteins, antibodies are snake venom. This type of immunization is
produced in the host body. This type of immunity is called passive immunization.
called active immunity. Active immunity Recombinant DNA technology has allowed
is slow and takes time to give its full effective the production of antigenic polypeptides of
response. pathogen in bacteria or yeast. Vaccines produced
Injecting the microbes deliberately during using this approach allows large scale production
immunization or infectious organisms gaining and hence greater availability for immunization,
access into body during natural infection induce e.g., hepatitis B vaccine produced from yeast.
active immunity. The Universal Immunization Program in India
Passive Immunity: When ready-made  World Health Organization (WHO) in 1974
antibodies are directly given to protect the body officially launched a global vaccination
against foreign agents, it is called passive programme to protect children from six fatal
immunity. diseases, diphtheria, pertussis, tetanus, polio, TB
Ex. the yellowish fluid colostrum secreted (Tuberculosis) and measals. It was launched in
by mother during the initial days of lactation has India in 1985.
abundant antibodies (IgA) to protect the infant. The  BCG (Bacillus Calmette Guerin) vaccine is
foetus also receives some antibodies from their given against TB (Tuberculosis).
mother, through the placenta during pregnancy.  DPT (diphtheria, pertussis and tetanus) vaccine
Auto Immunity is given to babies within first 6 weeks of their
Memory-based acquired immunity evolved birth.
in higher vertebrates based on the ability to In 1978, the Government of India launched the
differentiate foreign organisms (e.g., pathogens) Expanded Program for immunization (EPI) in an
from self-cells. attempt to cover recommended vaccines for all
Indian children. The initiative was renamed as the
Immunization or Vaccination Universal Immunization program (UIP) in 1985, at
The principle of immunization or which time it extended six basic vaccines to all
vaccination is based on the property of ‗memory‘ infants and the tetanus vaccine to pregnant women,
of the immune system. and the immunization schedule was changed to
In vaccination, a preparation of antigenic include measles and to drop the typhoid vaccine that
proteins of pathogen or inactivated / weakened had previously been covered.
pathogen (vaccine) is introduced into the body. In 2006, hepatitis B and Japanese encephalitis
The antibodies produced in the body against these vaccines were also introduced in some parts of the
antigens would neutralize the pathogenic agents country. Overall, the following vaccines were
during actual infection. The vaccines also generate provided under UIP:
memory – B and T-cells that recognize the
 BCG (for TB)
pathogen quickly on subsequent exposure and
 DPT (Diptheria, Pertussis and Tetanus Toxoid)
overwhelm the invaders with a massive production
of antibodies.  OPV (Oral Polio Vaccine)
 Measles  1997: Reproductive Child Health (RCH 1)

 Hepatitis B  2005: National Rural Health Mission (NRHM).
 TT (Tetanus Toxoid) Mission Indradhanush
 JE vaccination (in selected high disease burden
Mission Indradhanush was launched by the
districts)
Ministry of Health and Family Welfare,
 Hib, containing Penta-valent vaccine Government of India on December, 2014. Between
(DPT+HepB+Hib) in selected states. 2009-2013 immunizations coverage has increased
The evolution of the UIP and related initiatives from 61% to 65%, indication only 1% increase in
included the following major events: coverage every year. To accelerate the process of
 1978: Extended Program of Immunization (EPI) immunization by covering 5% and more children
 1985: Universal Immunization Program (UIP) every year, Indradhanush mission has been adopted
o For reduction of mortality and morbidity due to achieve target of full coverage by 2020.
to 6 VPD‘s Intensified Mission Indradhanush (IMI)
o Indigenous vaccine production capacity
The Intensified Mission Indradhanush (IMI)
enhanced
has been launched by the Government of India to
o Cold chain establishment
reach each and every child under two years of age
o Phased implementation – all districts to be
and all those pregnant women who have been left
covered by 1989-90
uncovered under the routine immunization program.
o Monitoring and evaluation system
The special drive will focus on improving
implemented
immunization coverage in select districts and cities
 1986: Technology Mission on Immunization to ensure full immunization to more than 90% by
 1992: Child Survival and Safe Motherhood December 2018.
(CSSM)
Innate immunity Acquired immunity
It is a non-pathogen specific type of defense It is a pathogen specific type of defense
mechanism. mechanism.
It is inherited from parents and protects the It is acquired after the birth of an individual.
individual since birth
It operates by providing barriers against the It operates by producing primary and
entry of foreign infectious agents. secondary responses, which are mediated by B-
lymphocytes and T-lymphocytes.
It does not have a specific memory It is characterized by an immunological
memory.
Active immunity Passive immunity

It is a type of acquired immunity in which the It is a type of acquired immunity in which
body produces its own antibodies against readymade antibodies are transformed from
disease causing antigens. one individual to another.
It has a long lasting effect. It does not have long lasting effect.
It is slow. It takes time in producing antibodies It is fast. It provides immediate relief.
and giving responses.
Injecting microbes through vaccination inside Transfer of antibodies present in the mother‘s
the body is an example of active immunity. milk to the infant is an example of passive
immunity.
Chapter 10
Human Diseases
Health: health is the functional of metabolic can be spread, directly or indirectly, from one
efficiency of a living being. In human, it is the person to another. Infectious diseases, are also
general condition of a person‘s mind, body and spirit, known as transmissible diseases.
usual meaning, to be free from illness, injury or pain. 2. Non-communicable: diseases are not passed by
Disease organism among people, but come from genetic
or lifestyle factors.
It is a condition of the body or its part in
which functions are disturbed. The diseases may be
Communicable Diseases
broadly classified into two types, i.e. congenital and These are the diseases which may pass or carried
acquired. from one human or animal to other. Communicable
diseases are illness caused by germs such as bacteria,
Acute and Chronic Diseases viruses and spread by an infected person, animals ot
Acute Disease: These are the diseases which object to other person.
last for short period and cause major effects in a very Viral Diseases
short time. There are sudden feelings of tiredness. Viruses are parasitic and causes a number of diseases.
The person does not lose weight and does not become
short of breath. 1. Bird flu (H5N1)
Bird flu (Avian influenza) is a disease caused by
Chronic Disease: these are the diseases
influenza virus A, that primarily affected birds.
which last for long periods. It takes a long time to
The following persons may be higher risk for
major effects on general health. One feels tired all the
developing the bird flu
time. Weight loss does occur and one does become
short of breath.  Farmers and others, who work with poultry.
 Travellers, visiting affected countries.
Congenital Diseases  Those who have touched an infected bird.
These are anatomical or physiological abnormalities  Those who eat raw or undercooked poultry meat,
present from birth. eggs from infected birds.
They may be caused by Symptoms
 A single gene mutation ex. alkaptonuria, Fever, cough, sore throat, muscle aches and eye
phenylketonura, albinism, sickle-celll anaemia, infection (conjunctivitis).
haemophilia and colour blindness. Treatment
 Chromosomal aberrations (Down‘s Syndrom, Treatment with the antiviral medication oseltamivir
Klinefelter‘s syndrome and Turner‘s syndrome). (tamiflu) or zanamivir (relenza) may make the
 Environmental factors (cleft palate and harelip). disease less severe. Oseltamivir may also be
Unlike the gene and chromosome induced prescribed for persons, who live in the same house as
congenital defects, environmentally caused those diagnosed with avian flu.
abnormalities are not transmitted to the children.
2. Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrom
Acquired Diseases (SARS)
These diseases develop after birth. They are further It is a serious form of pneumonia. It is caused by a
of two types, i.e. communicable and non virus that was first identified in 2003. Infection with
communicable. the SARS virus caused acute respiratory distress
1. Communicable: (infectious) diseases are caused (severe breathing difficulty) and sometimes death.
by pathogenic micro-organisms, such as Symptoms
bacteria, viruses, parasites or fungi; the diseases
Cough usually starts 2-3 days after other symptoms  Through blood transfusion, accidental needle
like Fever, headache and muscle aches. sticks or needle sharing.
Treatment  From mother to child. A pregnant woman can
transmit virus to her foetus through their shared
Antibiotics to treat bacteria that cause pneumonia.
blood circulation or a nursing mother can pass it
Antiviral medications high doses of steroids to reduce
to her baby through breast‘s milk.
swelling in the lungs, Oxygen, breathing support
(mechanical ventilation) or chest therapy. Tests for AIDS
3. Hepatitis  Enzymes Linked Immunosorbent Assay/ Enzyme
Hepatitis is a swelling and inflammation of liver. It is Immuno Assay (ELISA/EIA)
not a condition, but is often used to refer a viral  Radio Immuno Precipitation Assay/ Indirect
infection of the liver. Fluorescent Antibody Assay (RIP/IFA)
 Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR)
Hepatitis can be caused by
 Western Blot Confirmatory Test.
 Immune cells in the body attacking the liver and
causing autoimmune hepatitis. Infection from Non Communicable Disease
viruses S(such as hepatitis A, B and C), bacteria There are various kinds of non-communicable
on parasites. Liver damage from alcohol, diseases, which affect the health of human beings.
poisonous mushrooms or other poisons. Some of the common non-communicable diseases are
 Medications, such as an overdose of 1. Diabetes
acetaminophen, can cause harm or death also. Diabetes is a long term condition caused by too much
Symptoms glucose (sugar) in the blood. There are two main
Abdominal pain or distention. Breasts develop in types of diabetes.
males. Dark urine and pale or clay colored stool. Type 1
Fatigue general itching, fever usually low-grade Diabetes occurs when the body doesn‘t produce
jaundice (yellowing of the skin or eyes) and loss of enough insulin to function properly or the body‘s
appetite nausea, vomiting and weight loss. cells don‘t react to insulin. This is known as insulin
4. AIDS resistance.
Acquired Immuno Deficiency Syndrome is a disease Type 2
of the human immune system caused by the Human Diabetes is far more common than type 1 diabetes,
Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV). AIDS was first which occurs when the body doesn‘t produce any
recognized by the centers for Disease Control and insulin at all.
Prevention (CDC) in 1981.
Symptoms
HIV Infection Symptons common to both types of diabetes include
AIDS is a condition caused by HIV infection. The i) Feeling very thirsty
condition gradually destroys the immune system, ii) Urination frequently, particularly at night.
which makes it harder for the body to fight iii) Feeling very tired
infections. iv) Weight loss and loss of muscle bulk.
Transfusion Cancer
HIV can be spread by the following It is uncontrollable growth of abnormal cells in the
 Through sexual contact i.e. oral, vagina and anal body. Some diseases cause emergence of tumors in
sex. body. These are called neoplastic diseases. This
includes from a minor role to a lethal cancer.
Causes of Cancer the pain can also be oppressive, as if something is

crushing your chest. Pain starts in the centre of the
 Cancer is induced by physical, chemical and
chest behind the breast bone (sternum) aur on the left
biological factors or agents. These are called
side of the front of the chest. It can spread out to
carcinogens or cancer causing agents. Ionising
other parts of your body like your arms and stomach.
radiations such as X-rays, gamma rays and non-
ionising such as ultraviolet (UV) damage the 2. Myocardial infarction
DNA leading to neoplastic transformation.  It is commonly known as heart attack, results
 Tobacco smoke contains chemical carcinogens from the interruption of blood supply to a part of
that cause cancer. These are called oncogenic the Hart causing Hart cells to die.
viruses as they have genes called viral oncogenes.  This is most commonly due to occlusion
Cancer Detection and Diagnosis (blockage) of a coronary artery following the
Leukemia or blood cancer can be detected based on rupture of valuable atherosclerotic plaque, which
biopsy and histopathological studies of the tissue and is an unstable collection of lipids (cholesterol and
blood and bone marrow tests for increased cell fatty acids) and white blood cells (specially
counts. Cancer of internal organs are detected using macrophages) in the wall of an artery.
techniques such as Radioactive Computed  The result of ischemia (restriction in blood
Tomography (RCT) and Magnetic Resonance supply) and ensuing oxygen, if left untreated for a
Imaging (MRI). sufficient period of time can cause damage or
death (infarction) of heart muscle tissue
Cancer Therapy myocardium.
1. Cryo Surgery it is the technique of using 3. Heart arrest
extreme rapid cooling that freeze tissues, thereby
destroy them. Rapid cooling produces irreversible  It occurs when the hurt is unable to provide
cell damage and cell death occurs at 20oC-90oC. sufficient pump action to distribute blood flow to
2. Proton therapy It is a type of particle therapy, meet the need of the body. Heart arrest can cause
which uses a beam of proton to irradiate diseased a number of symptoms including shortness of
tissues, most often the treatment of cancer. breath, leg swelling and exercise intolerance.
3. Radiation Therapy Radiation therapy is a cancer  This condition is diagnosed with
treatment. Its goal is to kill cancer cells and echocardiography and blood tests. Treatment
shrink tumour. comedy consists of lifestyle measures such as
4. Stem cell Transplantation Stem cell smoking cessation, light exercise including
transplantation can be an effective treatment for breathing protocols, decrease the salt intake and
people with certain forms of cancer, such as other dietary changes and medications.
leukaemia and lymphoma. 4. Arthritis
5. Peripheral Blood Stem Cell Transplantation
 It operates the musculoskeletal system, specially
(PBSCT) It is also called peripheral stem cell
two joints. It is the main cause of disability
support. This procedure restores stem cells that
among Pupil over 55 years of age in
have been destroyed by high doses of
industrialized countries.
chemotherapy.
 Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) It is a long term
Heart Diseases disease that leads to inflammation of the joints
Some heart diseases are as follows: and surrounding tissues. It can also affect other
organs.
1. Angina pectoris
Human with angina, experience pain in the centre of
the chest. The chest can feel constricted and tight, but
Osteoarthritis may also be transmitted from mother to foetus

It is a joint inflammation that results from cartilage during pregnancy or at birth, resulting in
degeneration. It can be caused by aging, heredity an congenital syphilis.
injury from trauma or disease. The most common  Genital herpes It is a Sexually Transmitted
symptom of osteoarthritis is pain in the affected Infection (STI) caused by Herpes Simplex Virus
joints after repetitive use. (HSV).
 Trichomoniasis It is a sexually transmitted
Gout infection caused by the parasite Trichomonas
Gout is a kind of arthritis. It can cause an attack of vaginaltis.
sudden burning pain, stiffness and swelling in a joint,
usually big toe. These attacks can happen over and Mental Disorder
over unless gout is treated. Overtime, they can harm Mental disorder or mental illness is a psychological
your joints, tendons and other tissues. Gout is most pattern or anomali, potentially reflected in behaviour,
common in men. that is generally associated with distance or disability
and which is not considered part of normal
Sexually transmitted disease development of a person's culture. This may be
 Gonorrhea It is caused by bacteria Neisseria associated with particular region or function of the
gonorrhoeae. Anyone who has any type of sexual brain or rest of the nervous system, often in social
contact can catch gonorrhea. Infection can be context.
spread by contact with the mouth, vagina, penis
or anus. Alzheimer's disease
 Syphilis It is a sexually transmitted infection It is a progressive mental deterioration that can occur
caused by the spirochete bacterium Treponema in middle or old age, due to generalized degeneration
palladium sub-species palladium. The primary of the brain. It is the commonest cause of premature
route of transmission is through sexual contact; it senility.
Bacterial diseases in Human Beings

Disease Pathogen Affected organ Symptom
Tuberculosis Mycobacterium Lungs Repeated coughing, high fever
tuberculosis
Diptheria Corynebacterium Respiratory tract Difficulty in respiration (mainly in
diptheriae child of 2-5 yrs)
Whooping cough or Bacillus pertussis Respiratory system Continuous coughing
Pertussis
Cholera Vibrio cholera Intestine Vomiting, acute diarrhea, muscular
cramps, dehydration etc.
Leprosy or Hansen‘s Mycobacterium leprae Chronic infection of Ulcers, nodules, scaly scabs (the
disease skin and nerve infected part of the body becomes
senseless)
Tetanus (lock jaw) Clostridium tetani Central nervous Painful contraction of neck and jaw
system muscles followed by paralysis of
thoracic muscle.
Pneumonia Diplococcus Lungs Sudden chill, chest pain, cough,
pneumonia high fever.
Typhoid Salmonella typhi Intestine High fever, diarrhea and headache.
Anthrax Bacillus anthracis Skin and intestine
Gonorrhea (sexual Neisseria Urinary tract Swelling in urinary tract
disease)
Viral Diseases in Human Beings
Disease Pathogen Affected part Symptom

Measles (Rubella Rubella virus Whole body Loss of appetite, reddish eruption on
disease) the body
Chicken pox Vericella virus Whole body High fever, reddish eruption on
body
Small pox Variola virus Whole body Light fever, eruption of blood on
body
Polio or poliomyelitis Polio virus Throat, backbone and Fever, backbone and intestine wall
nerve cells are destroyed. It leads to
paralysis
Influenza (flu) Influenza virus Whole body Inflammation of upper respiratory
tract, nose throat and eyes
Rabies (hydrophobia) RNA virus called Nervous System Encephalitis, far of water, high
rabies virus fever, headache, spasm of throat and
chest leading to death.
Dengue fever RNA containing Whole body High fever, backbone, headache,
dengue virus particularly head, eyes retro-orbital pain behind the eye
and joints ball.
Ebola virus disease Ebola Virus Whole body Fatal hemorrhagic fever, liver and
kidney disfunction vomiting,
hadache.
Swine influenza (flu) H1N1 Whole body (muscles) Headache tiredness, sore throat,
vomiting, breathing problems
Protozoan Diseases, their Vectors and Affected Part
Disease Pathogen Vector Parts affected and Symptoms

Pyorrhea Entamoeba gingivalis None, infection by lip Bleeding of gums
kissing
African Trypanosome Tse-Tse fly Blood and nervous tissue. Man feels
trypanosomiasis gamboenes sleepy, may cause death.
Amoebic dysentery Entamoeba None, infected by Colon (intestine), develop loose
contamination motion with blood, pain in abdomen
Diarrhea Giardia None, infected by Digestive system causes loose
contamination motions, vomiting
Kala azar or dumdum Leishmania donovani Sand flies Spleen and liver enlarge and high
fever fever develops
Malaria Plasmodium sp. Female anopheles Periodic attacks of high fever, pain
mosquito in joints accompanies by chill,
heavy perspiration and fast pulse.
Human Genetic Disorders
Human Genetic Disorder due to Autosomal Abnormalities
Disorder Chromosome Effect

Component
Down‘s Trisomy 21 (extra Short stature, epicanthus, small round head, protruding
Syndrome chromosome lower lip, flattened nasal bridge, mental retardation, short
number) life, daffiness
Edward‘s Trisomy 18 (extra Long but narrow skull, small face, short digits, webbed
Syndrome chromosome neck, corneal opacity, mental retardation
number)
Cri-du-chat Deletion is short Microcephaly, encrusted distance between eyes, moon
syndrome arm of face, severe mental deficienct, cat like cry of neonate.
chromosome 5
Patau‘s Trisomy 13 (extra Left plate and lip, polydactyl, mental retardation,
Syndrome chromosome anomalies in dermal pattern, heart viscera and genitalia.
number)
Human genetic Disorder due to Abnormalities in Sex-Chromosome Number
Name Chromosomes Effect

Complement
Turner‘s 44+XO (45) Phenotypically female, sterile due to undifferentiated
syndrome gonads, webbed neck low posterior hair line increased
carrying angle of elbow, short stature.
Noonan‘s 44+YO (45) Phenotypically male, short stature, webbed neck,
syndrome drooping upper eyelid, little developmet of ganads.
Super Males 44+XYY (45) Male, tall, excess testosterone secretions, subnormal
intelligence.
Super females 44+XXX(47) Female, mental retardation, low fertility but genitalia
normal
44+XXXX (48)
Klilnefelter‘s 44+XXY (47) Male tall with long legs, some with gynecomastia, small
syndrome testes, azospermia, infertile, increased excretion of
44+XXYY (48) gonadotropic.
9414988860
Chapter 11
Water Quality and Water Purification
Water Quality In urbanized areas around the world, water

Water quality refers to the chemical, purification technology is used in municipal water
physical, biological, and radiological characteristics systems to remove contaminants from the source
of water. It is a measure of the condition of water water (surface water or groundwater) before it is
relative to the requirements of one or more biotic distributed to homes, businesses, schools and other
species and or to any human need or purpose. recipients. Water drawn directly from a stream, lake,
It is most frequently used by reference to a set or aquifer and that has no treatment will be of
of standards against which compliance, generally uncertain quality.
achieved through treatment of the water, can be Industrial and domestic use
assessed. The most common standards used to assess
water quality relate to health of ecosystems, safety of Dissolved minerals may affect suitability of
human contact, and drinking water. water for a range of industrial and domestic purposes.
The most familiar of these is probably the presence of
The vast majority of surface water on the
ions of calcium (Ca2+) and magnesium (Mg2+) which
Earth is neither potable nor toxic. This remains true
when seawater in the oceans (which is too saltyto interfere with the cleaning action of soap, and can
drink) is not counted. Another general perception of form hard sulfate and soft carbonate deposits in water
water quality is that of a simple property that tells heaters or boilers. Hard water may be softened to
whether water is polluted or not. In fact, water quality remove these ions. The softening process often
is a complex subject, in part because water is a substitutes sodium cations. Hard water may be
complex medium intrinsically tied to the ecology of preferable to soft water for human consumption,
the Earth. Industrial and commercial activities (e.g. since health problems have been associated with
manufacturing, mining, construction, transport) are a excess sodium and with calcium and magnesium
major cause of water pollution as are runoff from deficiencies. Softening decreases nutrition and may
agricultural areas, urban runoff and discharge of increase cleaning effectiveness. Various industries'
treated and untreated sewage. wastes and effluents can also pollute the water
The parameters for water quality are quality in receiving bodies of water.
determined by the intended use. Work in the area of Environmental Water quality
water quality tends to be focused on water that is
treated for human consumption, industrial use, or in Environmental water quality, also called
the environment. ambient water quality,relates to water bodies such
as lakes, rivers, and oceans. Water quality standards
Human Consumption for surface waters vary significantly due to different
Contaminants that may be in untreated water environmental conditions, ecosystems, and intended
include microorganisms such as viruses, protozoa and human uses. Toxic substances and high populations
bacteria; inorganic contaminants such as salts and of certain microorganisms can present a health hazard
metals; organic chemical contaminants from for non-drinking purposes such as irrigation,
industrial processes and petroleum use; pesticides
swimming, fishing, 1and rafting, boating, and
and herbicides; and radioactive contaminants. Water
industrial uses. These conditions may also affect
quality depends on the local geology and ecosystem,
as well as human uses such as sewage dispersion, wildlife, which use the water for drinking or as a
industrial pollution, use of water bodies as a heat habitat. Modern water quality laws generally specify
sink, and overuse (which may lower the level of the protection of fisheries and recreational use and
water). require, as a minimum, retention of current quality
standards.
Water Pollution  Proper sewage treatment plan must be

Addition of undesirable and unwanted implemented.
material in water which makes water harmful for  The idea of reduce, reuse and recycle should be
biotic and abiotic components is called water incorporated of water pollution.
pollution. The things which pollution the water 3 R‘s for Prevention of Water Pollution:
known as water pollutants. Exxample includes
Each year, human beings generate millions of
washing of clothes, industrial waste from factories
tons of wastes in form of garbage, refuse or trash. It
etc.
is the wastage that we produce in our homes and
Effects of Water Pollution: communities. These wastages are thrown out the
River Ganga is one of the ten most water bodies, rivers and make the water
endangered rovers in the world. Large quantities of contaminated. Each of us can make a difference by
garbage, untreated sewage, dead bodies and mainly reducing, reusing and recycling materials at home
other harmful thing are discharged into the river. All and throughout our communities and encouraging our
these have resulted into adverse conditions for the neighbors to do the same.
aquatic residing in the Ganga. 1. Reduce: Waste prevention reduces the generation
 The harmful chemicals like arsenic, lead etc. of waste in the first place. So we should not create
discharged by various industries have lead to wastage by reducing the use of goods. Some
many bad effects like impure water, acidity examples are:
changes in water etc. i. While brushing your teeth, leaving the tap
 The usage of pesticides and weedicides in the running may waste in the place. So we should not
field gets mixed with water bodies during rainfall. create wastage by reducing the uses of goods.
Indeed, this water seeps into ground and has ii. Purchasing durable, long-lasting goods.
polluted ground water too. iii. Reduce the use of non biodegradable materials
 Various diseases like cholera, diarrhea, jaundice like things made of plastic, disposals, polythene
etc results from water pollution. etc.
 Bacteria present in the feaces of mammals 2. Reuse: We can reuse the things in our daily routine
indicate the quality of water. If such fecal work so that it will reduce the amount of wastage.
contaminated water is consumed then it can cause Examples
many infections.
i. Reusing water used for washing and for other
Key points to Prevent Water Pollution household tasks. For example, water used for
 Some plans can be implemented for polluted washing vegetable may be used to water plants
rivers like Ganga Action Plan was launched in in the garden.
1985 with the aim of reducing pollution levels in ii. Refill bottles, reuse boxes.
river. iii. Reuse the cotton or jute bag instead of polythene
 Industries must treat the waste before discharging carry nag.
them into waters. iv. Use empty jars into containers for leftover food.
 At household level, candle type filter can be used. 3. Recycle: Recycling prevents the generation of
Moreover, water must be boiled for drinking as it many greenhouse gases and water pollutants, and
kills the germs inside the water. saves energy.
 Chemical process like chlorination can be used i. Material made of plastic, paper, glass and metal
for treating water. should be recycled to make new items.
 Laws for industrial units should be strictly ii. Using recycle material generates less solid
implemented to stop the throwing of wastes in wastages.
water.
Water Purification reaches our homes. The three main processes through
which water undergoes during purification are
Water supplied in our homes generally comes
sedimentation, filtration, and chlorination. Figure
from rivers and is contaminated with suspended
outlines the various processes employed in
impurities like sand, silt, and clay; soluble impurities
purification of water.
like salts; and also microorganisms. Water, therefore,
has to be cleaned in big purification plants before it
Impure water can be purified by various methods like filtration, distillation, and sedimentation.
Filtration: In this method, insoluble impurities are removed by passing impure water through a filter or a filter
paper.
Sedimentation and decantation: In this method, impure water is allowed to stand undisturbed in a container,
which allows insoluble impurities like mud to settle at the bottom as sediments. This process is called
sedimentation. Clean water can thereafter be transferred into a clean container by the process of decantation.
wells, hand pumps, and rivers. Thus, purification of

water at home becomes necessary. This can be done
by both physical (e.g., boiling) and chemical (e.g.,
chemical tablets and electric water filters) means. Let
us discuss some of these. Boiling: Boiling water is
one of the easiest ways of purifying water. It is,
however, very important that water is boiled at 100°C
for at least 10-15 minutes to kill harmful
microorganisms.
Addition of chemical tablets: Chemicals like
chlorine tablets or potassium permanganate can be
added to water from wells and water tanks to kill
harmful microorganisms and germs.
Use of electric water filters: Electric water filters
have a micro-porous filter, carbon, and a source of
ultraviolet radiation. The micro-porous filter strains
out physical impurities present in the water, like dust,
rust, dirt, and mud. Carbon absorbs organic
impurities and removes unwanted taste and odour.
Ultraviolet radiation kills microorganisms.
Purification of water using sunlight
Sunlight is already being used in many developing
countries as medium to disinfect water. This method
is popularly known as solar water disinfection
(SODIS). Exposure to sunlight has been shown to
deactivate many disease-causing microorganisms.
This is an effective method of treating water where
fuels or cookers are unavailable or are very
expensive. Inspite of its various advantages, this
Distillation: In this method, impure water is first method has some limitations as well. The duration to
heated to its boiling point to convert water into which water is exposed to sun, strength of sunlight,
steam. The impurities are left behind in the container. bottle material, etc. determines its effectiveness.
The steam is then passed through a condenser, where The basic steps involved in the purification of water
it cools and changes back into liquid water. using sunlight are:
Purification of Water Using Sunlight 1. Wash the bottle well.
The water supplied to our homes may not be 2. Fill it up with water and close the lid.
entirely free from undesirable impurities. Also, in 3. Place the bottle on a corrugated iron sheet or
villages and small towns water is directly taken from on the roof top.
Chapter 12
Ecosystem Structures and functions
An ecosystem can be simply defined as a community of living beings in concurrence with nonliving
components in which they will interact. It is a chain of interaction between organisms and its environment.
An ecosystem can vary in size it can either be small as an oasis or vast as an ocean encompassing
precisely limited spaces. They are usually controlled or influenced by external and internal factors as well.
External factors such as climate can be considered as a prime material that forms soil and topography that
controls t
he entire configuration of the ecosystem.
There are mainly two components in ecosystem namely biotic and abiotic components.
Structure
The structure of any ecosystem is formed of two components, namely:
1. Abiotic factors
2. Biotic factors
Abiotic factors: The abiotic factors of an ecosystem include the non–living substances of the environment.
eg. water, soil, air, light, temperature, minerals, climate, pressure etc. The biotic factors of the ecosystem
depend on the abiotic factors for their survival.
Biotic factors: The biotic factor includes the living organisms of the environment. e.g. Plants, animals,
bacteria, viruses etc. The biotic factors of an ecosystem are classified into three main groups, namely:
i. Producers
ii. Consumers
iii. Reducers or decomposers
1. Producers:
 The organisms which carry out photosynthesis constitute the producers of an ecosystem. eg. Plants
algae and bacteria.
 The producers depend on the abiotic factors of the ecosystem for producing energy. They are provided
with chlorophyll.
 Chloropyll is used in the synthesis of energy rich compounds with the utilization of abiotic factors like
light, CO2, water and minerals.
 A portion of the energy synthesized, is used by the producers for their growth and survival and the
remaining energy is stored for future use..
2. Consumers
 Consumers are organisms which eat or devour other organisms.
 The consumers are further divided into three or more types.
 They are primary consumers, secondary consumers and tertiary consumer.
3. Reducers or decomposers:
 The decomposers are heterotrophs organisms that break up the dead bodies of plants and their waste
products.
 They include fungi and certain bacteria. They secrete enzymes.
 The enzymes digest the dead organisms and the debris into smaller bits or molecules. These molecules
are absorbed by the reducers.
 After taking energy, the reducers release molecules to the environment as chemical to be used again by
the producers.
Functions of Ecosystem:
There are 3 main functions of an ecosystem:
1. Flow of energy
2. Nutrient cycling
3. succession
Energy flow:
 The transfer of energy from one trophic level
to another trophic level is called energy flow.
 The flow of energy in an ecosystem is
unidirectional. That is, it flows from the Ecological pyramids
producer level to the consumer level and  The number, biomass and energy of organisms
never in the reverse direction. Hence energy gradually decrease from the producer level to
can be used only once in the ecosystem. the consumer level. This can be represented in
 But the minerals circulate and re-circulate the form of a pyramid called ecological
many times in the ecosystem. pyramid.
 A large amount of enregy is lost at each  Ecological pyramid is the graphic
trophic level. representation of the number, biomass, and
 It is estimated that 90% of the energy is lost energy of the successive trophic levels of an
when it is transferred from one trophic level ecosystem.
to another.  The use of ecological pyramid was first
 Only about 10% of the biomass is transferred described by Charles Elton in 1927.
from one trophic level to the next one is a  In the ecological pyramid, the producer forms
food chain. And only about 10% of chemical the base and the final consumer occupies the
energy is retained at each trophic level. This apex.
is called 10% law of Lindeman (1942).  There are three types of ecological pyramids,
namely:
The pyramid of number  A biotic community normally undergoes

The number of individuals at the trophic level continuous changes. Generally, definite and
decreases from the producer level to the consumer orderly sequences of communities gradually
level. That is, in an ecosystem the number of appear in an area over a period of time.
producers is far high. The number of herbivores is  A specific sequence of development of a
lesser than the producers. Similarly, the number of community is related to particular set of
carnivores is lesser than the herbivores. physical and chemical conditions. This is
known as sere.
(i) In a cropland ecosystem: In croplands the
crops are more in numbers. The  The last succession in a sere is called climax or
grasshoppers feeding on crop plants are a climatic climax
lesser in number. The frogs feeding on Types: Succession is of two types:
grasshopper are still lesser in number. The 1. Primary succession: It includes changes which
snakes feeding on frogs are fewer in occur when living things become established on
number. a previously uninhabited area such as a newly
Crop -> Grasshopper -> Frogs -> Snakes -> exposed sea floor, lake sediments or sand
Hawks dunes.
(ii) In a grassland ecosystem: In grassland the 2. Secondary succession: It occurs where early
grasses are there in large numbers. The communities have been damaged, leaving a few
consumers decrease in the following order. organisms and considerable organic matter.
These remnant species, along with some new
Grass -> Grasshopper -> Lizard -> Hawk ones, regenerate a new community.
Grass -> Rabbit -> Fox -> Lion Life forms: Raunkiaer (1934) has distinguished
(iii) In a pond ecosystem: The number in a plants into five forms on the basis of size, shape,
pond ecosystem decreases in the following branching, crown, life span and perennation.
order. a. Therophytes: Annual plants which perennate
Phytoplankton -> Zooplankton -> Fishes -> Snakes in the form of seeds.
The Pyramid of Biomass: b. Cryptophytes: Buds are occurs very deep in
the soil e.g. Bulbs, rhizomes, corm, tubers etc.
Biomass refers to the total weight of living matter
c. Hemicryptophytes: Perennating structures
per unit area. In an ecosystem the biomass
occur at ground level. Aerial shoots die in the
decreases from the producer level to the consumer
onset of winter, e.g. rosette plants.
level.
d. Chemaephytes: Small plants of cold areas
Pyramid of Energy where perennating buds or shoot apices lie at
The energy flows in an ecosystem from the or above the ground level.
producer level to the consumer level. At each e. Phanerophytes: Perennial herbs, shrubs and
trophic level 80 to 90% of energy is lost. Hence the trees, epiphytes, succulents, lianas, etc., where
amount of energy decreases from the producer level perennating buds occurs at 10 cm or more
to the consumer level. This can be represented in a height above ground level.
pyramid of energy level to the consumer level. This Nutrient cycling
can be represented in a pyramid of energy.
1. Carbon Cycling
Succession
The cycling of carbon between biotic and abiotic
 Every community undergoes a series of
systems is called carbon cycle. It is a gaseous cycle.
changes until a group of organisms is
The main source of carbon is the carbon dioxide
established which can live and reproduce most
(CO2). CO2 is present in the air and water. Air is the
successfully in the area. This is called biotic
main reservoir. CO2 content of air is 0.03%. Its
succession.
amount remains constant.
 The term succession was coined by Hult
(1885). Carbon flows into the biotic system in two ways:
1. Photosynthesis: Carbon enters the biotic system The carbon of the biotic system flows into the
through photosynthesis. In photosynthesis green abiotic system in five ways:
plants utilize CO2 and incorporate the carbon (i) Respiration: Plants and animals release CO2 by
of CO2 in glucose. Glucose is used for the synthesis respiration (biological oxidation).
of other types of carbohydrates, proteins and lipids. C6H12O6 -> CO2 + H2O + Energy
These compounds, containing carbon, are stored up
in the plant tissues. When plants are eaten up by (ii) Decomposition: When plants and animals die,
herbivores, the carbon flows into the body of the dead bodies are decomposed into CO2 by
herbivorous animals through food chain. When decomposers like bacteria, algae, etc.
herbivores are eaten by carnivores, the carbon (iii) Shells: After the death of marine
enters the body of carnivorus animals animals, CaCO3 stored in the shells is either
2. Formation of shell: The CO2 dissolved in sea deposited as sedimentary rocks or dissolved in
water is utillized by the marine animals like water to release CO2 by the reversion of the above
protozoans, corals, molluscs, algae, etc., for the said reactions.
construction of shell. In these animals CO2 is (iv) Coal: A certain proportion of carbon from
converted into calcium carbonate (CaCO3) which is plants is deposited as coal. Carbon from coal
used for the construction of shells. returns to air in the form of CO2 through
CO2 + H2O -> H2CO3 (Carbonic acid) combustion and weathering.
H2CO3 -> H+ + HCO3 (Bicarbonate) (v) Forest Fire: Combustion of wood in the forest
releases carbon from plants in the form of CO2.
HCO3 + Ca+ -> H+ + CaCO3 (Calcium carbonate)
Phosphorous cycle:
 The cycling of phosphorus between biotic and abiotic system is called phosphorus cycle. It is a
sedimentary cycle.
 Phosphorus is an important mineral nutrient.
 The main source of phosphorus is rocks. liberated as inorganic ion phosphate. It is again
Through erosion and weathering phosphorus is used by plants.
made available in the soil.  The excess of phosphate in the bodies of
 Plants absorb ionic phosphate through roots. In animals is excreted out through faces. The bird
plants it is incorporated into the protoplasmic guano (excreta) contains a large amount of
components like DNA, RNA, AMP, ADP, phosphate.
ATP, GDP, GTP, NADP, phospholipids etc.  Phosphate is also released to the soil through
from plants, it passes into herbivores and the combustion of forest trees and grasses.
animals, the organic molecules containing  A large amount of phosphate is lost in the sea
phosphate are decomposed and phosphate is by sedimentation. A certain amount of
phosphorus gets locked in bones and teeth.
Sulphur cycle acids is converted to hydrogen sulphide (H2S) by

Sulphur cycle, circulation of sulfur in another series of soil microbes. In the presence of
various forms through nature. Sulphur is key to oxygen, H2S is converted to sulfur and then to
protein structure and is released to the atmosphere sulphate by sulfur bacteria. Eventually the sulfate
by the burning of fossil fuels. Sulphur occurs in all becomes H2S.
living matter as a component of certain amino Hydrogen sulphide rapidly oxidizes to gases
acids. It is abundant in the soil in proteins and, that dissolve in water to form sulphurous and
through a series of microbial transformations, ends sulphuric acids. These compounds contribute in
up as sulphates usable by plants. large part to the ―acid rain‖ that can kill sensitive
Sulphur-containing proteins are degraded aquatic organisms and damage marble monuments
into their constituent amino acids by the action of a and stone buildings.
variety of soil organisms. The sulphur of the amino
Chapter 13
Atmosphere: Composition and Basic Nutrient cycling
Atmosphere Constituent Percent by Volume
The air is one among the necessary conditions Nitrogen 78.084
for the existence of life on this planet. The air is a Oxygen 20.946
mixture of several gases and it encompasses the earth Argon 0.934
from all sides. The air surrounding the earth is called
the atmosphere. Carbon dioxide 0.036
Neon 0.00182
Atmosphere is the air surrounding the earth. It is a
mixture of different gases. It contains life-giving Helium 0.000524
gases like Oxygen for humans and animals and Krypton 0.000114
carbon dioxide for plants. It envelops the earth all Hydrogen 0.00005
round and is held in place by the gravity of the earth.
It helps in stopping the ultraviolet rays harmful to the 1. Carbon dioxide
life and maintains the suitable temperature necessary  Carbon dioxide is meteorologically a very
for life. Generally, atmosphere extends up to about important gas.
1600 km from the earth‘s surface. However, 99 % of  It is transparent to the incoming solar radiation
the total mass of the atmosphere is confined to the (insolation) but opaque to the outgoing terrestrial
height of 32 km from the earth‘s surface. radiation.
Composition of the atmosphere  It absorbs a part of terrestrial radiation and
reflects back some part of it towards the earth‘s
The composition of the atmosphere is not static surface.
and it changes according to the time and place. The  Carbon dioxide is largely responsible for the
atmosphere is mainly composed of three following greenhouse effect.
elements:  When the volume of other gases remains
1. Gases constant in the atmosphere, the volume of the
2. Water vapour carbon dioxide has been rising in the past few
3. Dust particle decades mainly because of the burning of fossil
fuels. This rising volume of carbon dioxide is the
Gases of the atmosphere main reason for global warming.
The atmosphere is a mixture of different types 2. Ozone Gas
of gases. Nitrogen and oxygen are the two main gases
in the atmosphere and 99 percentage of the  Ozone is another important component of the
atmosphere is made up of these two gases. Other atmosphere found mainly between 10 and 50 km
gases like argon, carbon dioxide, neon, helium, above the earth‘s surface.
hydrogen, etc. form the remaining part of the  It acts as a filter and absorbs the ultra-violet rays
atmosphere. The portion of the gases changes in the radiating from the sun and prevents them from
higher layers of the atmosphere in such a way that reaching the surface of the earth.
oxygen will be almost negligible quantity at the  The amount of ozone gas in the atmosphere is
heights of 120 km. Similarly, carbon dioxide (and very little and is limited to the ozone layer found
water vapour) is found only up to 90 km from the in the stratosphere.
surface of the earth.
Water Vapors
Gases form of water present in the atmosphere is Basic Nutrient Cycling
called water vapor. It is the source of all kinds of Nitrogen cycling
precipitation. The amount of water vapour decreases Nitrogen is an essential component of protein
with altitude. It also decreases from the equator (or and required by all living organisms including human
from the low latitudes) towards the poles (or towards beings. Nitrogen is needed for our DNA, RNA and
the high latitudes). proteins and is critical to human
agriculture. Nitrogen, a component of proteins and
 Its maximum amount in the atmosphere could be
nucleic acids, is essential to life on Earth.
up to 4% which is found in the warm and wet
Although 78 percent by volume of the
regions. atmosphere is nitrogen gas, this abundant reservoir
 Water vapour reaches in the atmosphere through exists in a form unusable by most organisms.
evaporation and transpiration. Evaporation takes Through a series of microbial transformations,
place in the oceans, seas, rivers, ponds and lakes however, nitrogen is made available to plants, which
while transpiration takes place from the plants, in turn ultimately sustain all animal life.
trees and living beings. The steps, which are not altogether sequential, fall
 Water vapour absorbs part of the incoming solar into the following classifications:
radiation (insolation) from the sun and preserves  Nitrogen fixation, in which nitrogen gas is
converted into inorganic nitrogen compounds, is
the earth‘s radiated heat. It thus acts like a blanket
mostly (90 percent) accomplished by certain
allowing the earth neither to become too cold nor bacteria and blue-green algae (see nitrogen
too hot. fixation). A much smaller amount of free nitrogen
 Water vapour also contributes to the stability and is fixed by abiotic means (e.g., lightning,
instability in the air. ultraviolet radiation, electrical equipment) and by
conversion to ammonia through the Haber-Bosch
Dust Particles process.
 Dust particles are generally found in the lower  Nitrates and ammonia resulting from nitrogen
layers of the atmosphere. fixation are assimilated into the specific tissue
 These particles are found in the form of sand, compounds of algae and higher plants. Animals
then ingest these algae and plants, converting
smoke-soot, oceanic salt, ash, pollen, etc.
them into their own body compounds.
 Higher concentration of dust particles is found in  The remains of all living things and their waste
subtropical and temperate regions due to dry products are decomposed by microorganisms in
winds in comparison to equatorial and Polar the process of ammonification, which yields
Regions. ammonia. (Under anaerobic, or oxygen-free,
 These dust particles help in the condensation of conditions foul-smelling putrefactive products
may appear, but they too are converted to
water vapour. During the condensation, water
ammonia in time.) Ammonia can leave the soil or
vapour gets condensed in the form of droplets be converted into other nitrogen compounds,
around these dust particles and thus clouds are depending in part on soil conditions.
formed.  Nitrification, a process carried out by nitrifying
bacteria, transforms soil ammonia into nitrates,
which plants can incorporate into their own
tissues.
 Nitrates also are metabolized by denitrifying down and acts as a catalyst in the destruction of
bacteria, which are especially active in water- atmospheric ozone. NH3 in the atmosphere has
logged, anaerobic soils. The action of these tripled as the result of human activities.
bacteria tends to deplete soil nitrates, forming It is a reactant in the atmosphere, where it acts as an
free atmospheric nitrogen. aerosol, decreasing air quality and clinging on to
water droplets, eventually resulting in acid rain.
Human Impact on Nitrogen Cycle: Fossil fuel combustion has contributed to a 6 or 7
Humans have contributed significantly to the fold increase in NxOx flux to the atmosphere. NxOx
nitrogen cycle by artificial nitrogen fertilization actively alters atmospheric chemistry, and is a
(primarily through the Haber process, using energy precursor of tropospheric (lower atmosphere) ozone
from fossil fuels to convert N2 to ammonia gas production, which contributes to smog, acid rain, and
(NH3) and planting of nitrogen fixing crops. In increases nitrogen inputs to ecosystems.
addition, humans have significantly contributed to the
Ecosystem processes can increase with nitrogen
transfer of nitrogen gases from Earth to the
fertilization, but anthropogenic input can also result
atmosphere.
in nitrogen saturation, which weakens productivity
N2O has risen in the atmosphere as a result of and can kill plants. Decreases in biodiversity can also
agricultural fertilization, biomass burning, cattle and result if higher nitrogen availability increases
feedlots, and other industrial sources. N2O has nitrogen-demanding grasses, causing a degradation of
deleterious effects in the stratosphere, where it breaks nitrogen-poor, species diverse heath lands.
Water Cycle important in forming the moisture supply for

Water cycle, also called hydrologic cycle, cycle that dew, frost, fog, clouds, and precipitation.
involves the continuous circulation of water in the Practically all water vapour in the atmosphere is
Earth-atmosphere system. Of the many processes confined to the troposphere (the region below 6 to
involved in the water cycle, the most important are 8 miles [10 to 13 km.] altitude).
evaporation, transpiration, condensation,  The transition process from the vapour state to
precipitation, and runoff. Although the total amount the liquid state is called condensation.
of water within the cycle remains essentially Condensation may take place as soon as the air
constant, its distribution among the various processes contains more water vapour than it can receive
is continually changing. from a free water surface through evaporation at
the prevailing temperature. This condition occurs
The steps, which are not altogether sequential, fall
as the consequence of either cooling or the
into the following classifications:
mixing of air masses of different temperatures.
 Evaporation, one of the major processes in the By condensation, water vapour in the atmosphere
cycle, is the transfer of water from the surface of is released to form precipitation.
the Earth to the atmosphere. By evaporation,  Precipitation that falls to the Earth is distributed
water in the liquid state is transferred to the in four main ways: some is returned to the
gaseous, or vapour, state. atmosphere by evaporation, some may be
 This transfer occurs when some molecules in intercepted by vegetation and then evaporated
water mass have attained sufficient kinetic energy from the surface of leaves, some percolates into
to eject themselves from the water surface. The the soil by infiltration, and the remainder flows
main factors affecting evaporation are directly as surface runoff into the sea. Some of
temperature, humidity, wind speed, and solar the infiltrated precipitation may later percolate
radiation. into streams as groundwater runoff. Direct
 The direct measurement of evaporation, though measurement of runoff is made by stream gauges
desirable, is difficult and possible only at point and plotted against time on hydrographs.
locations. The principal source of water vapour is  Most groundwater is derived from precipitation
the oceans, but evaporation also occurs in soils, that has percolated through the soil. Groundwater
snow, and ice. flow rates, compared with those of surface water,
Evaporation from snow and ice, the direct are very slow and variable, ranging from a few
conversion from solid to vapour, is known as millimetres to a few metres a day. Groundwater
sublimation. movement is studied by tracer techniques and
 Transpiration is the evaporation of water through remote sensing.
minute pores, or stomata, in the leaves of plants.  Ice also plays a role in the water cycle. Ice and
For practical purposes, transpiration and the snow on the Earth‘s surface occur in various
evaporation from all water, soils, snow, ice, forms such as frost, sea ice, and glacier ice. When
vegetation, and other surfaces are lumped soil moisture freezes, ice also occurs beneath the
together and called evapotranspiration, or total Earth‘s surface, forming permafrost in tundra
evaporation. climates. About 18,000 years ago glaciers and ice
 Water Vapour is the primary form of atmospheric caps covered approximately one-third of the
moisture. Although its storage in the atmosphere Earth‘s land surface. Today about 12 percent of
is comparatively small, water vapour is extremely the land surface remains covered by ice masses.
Chapter 14
Climate Change: renewable and non renewable energy
 Sea level rise: Global sea level rose about 8
Climate Change inches in the last century. The rate in the last two
Climate is the average weather in a place over decades, however, is nearly double that of the last
many years. The weather can change in just a few century.
hours whereas climate takes millions of years to  Global temperature rise: The planet's average
change. Planet earth has witnessed many variations in surface temperature has risen about 1.62 degrees
climate since the beginning. Fahrenheit (0.9 degrees Celsius) since the late
The Earth's climate has changed throughout 19th century, a change driven largely by
increased carbon dioxide and other human-made
history. Just in the last 650,000 years there have been
emissions into the atmosphere.4 Most of the
seven cycles of glacial advance and retreat, with the
warming occurred in the past 35 years, with the
abrupt end of the last ice age about 7,000 years ago five warmest years on record taking place since
marking the beginning of the modern climate era — 2010. Not only was 2016 the warmest year on
and of human civilization. Most of these climate record, but eight of the 12 months that make up
changes are attributed to very small variations in the year — from January through September,
Earth‘s orbit that change the amount of solar energy with the exception of June — were the warmest
our planet receives on record for those respective months.
Evidences of Climate change  Warming oceans: The oceans have absorbed
much of this increased heat, with the top 700
The current warming trend is of particular
meters (about 2,300 feet) of ocean showing
significance because most of it is extremely likely warming of 0.302 degrees Fahrenheit since 1969.
(greater than 95 percent probability) to be the result  Shrinking ice sheets: The Greenland and
of human activity since the mid-20th century and Antarctic ice sheets have decreased in mass. Data
proceeding at a rate that is unprecedented over from NASA's Gravity Recovery and Climate
decades to millennia. Experiment show Greenland lost an average of
Earth-orbiting satellites and other 281 billion tons of ice per year between 1993 and
technological advances have enabled scientists to see 2016, while Antarctica lost about 119 billion tons
the big picture, collecting many different types of during the same time period. The rate of
information about our planet and its climate on a Antarctica ice mass loss has tripled in the last
global scale. This body of data, collected over many decade.
years, reveals the signals of a changing climate.  Declining Arctic sea ice: Both the extent and
thickness of Arctic sea ice has declined rapidly
Ice cores drawn from Greenland, Antarctica,
over the last several decades.
and tropical mountain glaciers show that the Earth‘s
 Glacial retreat: Glaciers are retreating almost
climate responds to changes in greenhouse gas levels.
everywhere around the world — including in the
Ancient evidence can also be found in tree rings, Alps, Himalayas, Andes, Rockies, Alaska and
ocean sediments, coral reefs, and layers of Africa.
sedimentary rocks. This ancient, or paleoclimate,  Extreme natural events: The number of record
evidence reveals that current warming is occurring high temperature events in the United States has
roughly ten times faster than the average rate of ice- been increasing, while the number of record low
age-recovery warming. temperature events has been decreasing, since
The following are considered as the main 1950. The U.S. has also witnessed increasing
evidences from which it has now been cleared that numbers of intense rainfall events.
climate change is not a hoax:
 Ocean acidification: Since the beginning of the aerosols into the atmosphere. These aerosols persist
Industrial Revolution, the acidity of surface ocean in the atmosphere for a substantial period of time
waters has increased by about 30 decreasing the radiation of sun reaching the surface
percent.13,14 This increase is the result of humans of Earth.
emitting more carbon dioxide into the atmosphere Concentration of green house gases
and hence more being absorbed into the oceans. The primary Greenhouse gases of concern are
The amount of carbon dioxide absorbed by the Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), Methane (CH4),
upper layer of the oceans is increasing by about 2 Nitrous oxide (N2O), Carbon dioxide (CO2), and
billion tons per year. Ozone (O3).
 Decreased snow cover: Satellite observations Some other gases such as nitric oxide (NO)
reveal that the amount of spring snow cover in the and carbon monoxide (CO) easily react with
Northern Hemisphere has decreased over the past Greenhouse gases and affect their concentration in
five decades and that the snow is melting earlier. the atmosphere.
Causes of climate change The largest concentration of Greenhouse gas
in the atmosphere is carbon dioxide.
The heat-trapping nature of carbon dioxide
and other gases was demonstrated in the mid-19th Greenhouse effect
century.2Their ability to affect the transfer of infrared The greenhouse effect is a normal process that
energy through the atmosphere is the scientific basis warms the surface of Earth. Solar radiation reaches
of many instruments flown by NASA. There is no the atmosphere of Earth and some of this is reflected
question that increased levels of greenhouse gases back into space. The rest of the energy of the sun is
must cause the Earth to warm in response. absorbed by the terrestrial and the oceans, heating the
Earth.
There are several causes for climate change. Heat radiates from Earth towards space. Some
The most significant anthropogenic effect on the of this heat is trapped by greenhouse gases in the
climate is the increasing trend in the concentration of atmosphere, keeping the Earth warm enough to
greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. sustain life Human activities such as burning fossil
The causes can be grouped into the following fuels, agriculture, and land clearings are increasing
categories: the amount of greenhouse gases released into the
1. Astronomical causes atmosphere. This is trapping extra heat, and causing
2. Terrestrial causes the temperature of the earth to rise and ultimately
3. Volcanism result in Global Warming.
4. Concentration of greenhouse Climate change impacts and mitigation
Astronomical causes Climate change impacts the natural
ecosystems and is expected to have substantial
The astronomical causes are the variations in
adverse effects in India, mainly on agriculture on
solar output related with sunspot activities. Sunspots
which 58 per cent of the population still depends
are dark and cooler patches on the sun which rise and
for livelihood, water storage in the Himalayan
fall in a recurring manner. When the number of
glaciers which are the source of major rivers and
sunspots increases, cooler and wetter weather and
groundwater recharge, sea-level rise, and threats
greater storminess occur. These modify the amount
to a long coastline and habitations. Climate
of insolation received from the sun, which in turn,
change will also cause increased frequency of
might have a bearing on the climate.
extreme events such as floods, and droughts.
Volcanism These in turn will impact India‘s food security
Volcanism is regarded as another cause for problems and water security.
climate change. Volcanic eruptions throw up loads of
Climate Change mitigation activities Some barriers to green technologies:

should be sensitive towards poor countries as 1 in
 Switching to low-carbon energy sources such
every 7 persons in the world today still lives in
as wind power, solar, geothermal,
abject poverty, all of them in developing
hydroelectric or nuclear represents one of the
countries. The number of poor people in the world
major strategies for lowering the emissions of
is more than twice the combined population of
greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. However,
Europe. Adaptation is a central and critical
the plants still face barriers related to capital
priority for developing countries to address
costs, financing, public perception and a
Climate Change.
longstanding dependence of markets and
Global efforts to develop a new agreement institutions on fossil fuels, which make up
for post-2020 period under the United Nations about 80% of all energy.
Framework Convention on Climate Change  Technologies such as carbon capture and
(UNFCCC) which entered into force in 1994, storage (CCS) could help reduce the impact of
have scaled up because it is the 2nd commitment CO2. One form of CCS involves chemically
period of the Kyoto Protocol that is ending in capturing the carbon dioxide from a power
2020, not the Convention. The ultimate objective station flue, and then piping it underground so
of UNFCCC is to stabilize, within a limited time- that the invisible gas is contained in rock
frame, Green House Gas concentrations at a level formations without leaking. But while CCS
that would prevent dangerous human induced could, in theory, limit the amount of carbon
interference with the climate system. going into the atmosphere; it doesn't do much
The Kyoto Protocol is an international for the CO2 already there. i.e. CCS is effective
agreement linked to the UNFCCC, which commits in mitigation and not in adaptation.
its Parties by setting internationally binding
Other curbing methods
emission reduction targets. The Protocol places a
heavier burden on developed nations under the  Greening urban areas can make a difference.
principle of ‗common but differentiated Cities are home to half the planet's population,
responsibilities‘. The first commitment period of and are responsible for three-quarters of
Kyoto Protocol was 2008-2012. Its second energy consumption and 80% of carbon
commitment period is from 2013-2020. emissions. Retro-fitting buildings to make
them more energy efficient and cutting the
Mitigation vs Adaptation: impact of transport emissions represent some
The new post-2020 agreement should of the strategies for doing this.
ensure a balance between mitigation and  Garbage disposal should be environment-
adaptation. The term mitigation refers to efforts to friendly. The adverse impact of garbage
cut or prevent the emission of greenhouse gases - generation can be reduced primarily by
limiting the magnitude of future warming. It may producing less but also recycling more and
also encompass attempts to remove greenhouse treating waste in a way that is less harmful to
gases from the atmosphere. Mitigation may the environment or even using it as a
require us to use new technologies, clean energy sustainable energy fuel source. About 11.2
sources, change people's behavior, or make older billion metric tonnes of solid waste is currently
technology more energy efficient. being collected around the world every year,
Mitigation differs from climate change and the organic portion that decays is
adaptation, which refers to the actions taken to contributing around 5% to global greenhouse
manage the unavoidable impacts of climate gas emissions.
change.
 Mitigation also extends to the protection of years) each with a capacity of 500 MW and
natural carbon "sinks" like the forests or above and Ultra Mega Solar Power Projects in
oceans. New sinks can be created through, for various parts of the country.
example, forest regeneration.  India is releasing 6 billion US dollars in one
 Geo-engineering is one controversial area that go for intensive afforestation which will result
has gathered momentum in recent years. It in more carbon sinks.
requires the deliberate intervention in the  India has allocated about 200 million US
climate system with the aim of curbing global dollars for the ‗National Adaptation Fund‘,
warming. One example is Solar Radiation setting-up of Ultra Mega Solar Projects, Ultra-
Management (SRM), which involves reflecting Modern Super Critical Coal Based Thermal
more of the Sun's rays away from the planet Power Technology, and the development of
back into space. This could be done by Solar Parks on canals.
pumping sulphur aerosols into the high reaches  Yet another initiative of the India is ―100
of the atmosphere, where they would have Smart Cities‘ with integrated policies for
similar reflective properties to the ash released adaptation and mitigation to reduce the
naturally by volcanoes. It can also be done by vulnerability and exposure of urban areas to
fixing giant reflecting plates or mirrors in the climate change and also to improve their
tropopause. energy.
 A little-known technique called Bio-Energy  India has put in place stringent norms for
Carbon Capture and Storage (BECCS) would cement industry. India‘s Action Plan for
combine the burning of biomass, such as cleaning one of the longest rivers in the world,
wood, for energy and then piping the CO2 into River Ganga will bring multiple benefits of
rocks. In theory, one could begin to remove pollution reduction and climate adaptation.
emissions that have already been accumulated India has also taken initiatives for protecting
in the atmosphere. But the technology is coastal, Himalayan, and forest areas.
unproven.  India has initiated preparations to develop a
India and climate change National Air Quality Index and have launched
a National Air Quality Scheme.
India has a domestic mitigation goal of
reducing emission‘s intensity of Gross Domestic Furthermore, India has to play a leading role in
Product (GDP) by 20-25% by 2020 in comparison crafting a new deal that could be affected for the
with 2005 level. Some of the recent measures that post-2020 period. India is the symbolic leader of
India has taken towards this goal are: the developing and the under-developed world in
 India has doubled the Clean Energy Cess on these negotiations. Thus, India needs to balance
coal, which very few countries have, and the the interests of this world and its need for
Clean Energy Fund already has over 3 billion development to eradicate poverty.
US dollars to be used for promoting clean
technologies. Sources of energy
 India‘s National Solar Mission is being scaled
up five-fold from 20,000 megawatts to Non renewable
100,000 megawatts. This will mean an Non-renewable resources are resources for
additional investment of 100 billion dollars which are of in limited supply. The supply comes
and savings of about 165 million tonnes of from the Earth itself and, as it typically takes
CO2 emissions per year. The Union Cabinet millions of years to develop, is finite. There are
recently approved the scheme for setting up 25 many countries, which have recorded significant
solar parks (to be set up during the next five reduction of these sources and are currently
suffering from the side effects of drilling these removed, which can lead to water pollution,
energy reserves from deep underground. unstable ground and, in many cases, it is not
Examples of these countries include China and appealing to look at.
India. The environmental impact is so great that
just by travelling to these two countries, you can
get a firsthand experience on the case studies that
are there to be seen by the naked eyes. There are
three major forms of fossil fuels: coal, oil and
natural gas and on worldwide basis they provide
approximately 90% of energy consumed.
Fossil fuels:
Fossil fuels (coal, oil and natural gas) were
formed from animals and plants that lived
hundreds of millions of years ago (before the time
of the dinosaurs). They were formed during the
Carboniferous period. The plants that lived
millions of years ago converted the Sun's light
energy into chemical energy through the process
of photosynthesis. This 'solar' energy was (and Coal Mining
still is) transferred down the food chain in i. Surface mining: This disrupts and drastically
animals, and when living organisms die, the changes the natural landscape and destroys
chemical energy within them was trapped. the natural vegetation and the habitat of many
a) Coal: t is the most abundant form of fossil species, some of which ay already be
fuel available on earth. They were formed by endangered. Mining operations, involving
the decay of old plants and animals several digging, blasting, removal of rocks and soil
centuries ago. coal is mostly found below the lying over the coal seam, cause serious
earth and is major source of fuel for problems of air and noise pollution. Surface
electricity generation as of today. Most mining may also cause soil erosion and silt
power stations on earth require huge reserves loading.
of coal to produce electricity continuously ii. Underground mining: Most coal seams are
without break. When coal is burnt, it too deep underground for opencast mining
produces heat that is used to convert the and require underground mining, a method
water into stream. Coal can be classed into that currently accounts for about 60 percent of
three types: lignite, bituminous and world coal production. Underground mining
anthracite. Lignite coal is found close to the may cause collapse or land subsidence in the
Earth surface, making it easy to mine, but it mining areas during or after mining
has high sulphur content. Bituminous coal is operations are over. Coal fires in underground
the most common coal we burn, and it is less mines may happen which naturally caused
polluting than lignite. Anthracite is the give out much smoke and hazardous fumes
highest quality of coal – it is dark and shiny caused several respiratory disease to people
and found deeper in the Earth. In addition to living nearby.
pollutants from burning coal, coal mining b) Petroleum: Oil was formed from the remains
creates problems for the environment, as the of animals and plants (diatoms) that lived
coal must be dug from the ground. Large millions of years ago in a marine (water)
volumes of unwanted dirt and rock are environment before the dinosaurs. Over
millions of years, the remains of these animals geologically young tectonic belt at plate
and plants were covered by layers of sand and boundaries, where large depositional basins
silt. Heat and pressure from these layers are more likely to occur and these are found in
helped the remains turn into what we today syncline folded strata.
call crude oil. These are primarily found along
c) Natural Gas: Natural gas is a mixture of chemicals that are forced underground can also
several gases including methane, ethane, leak to other sources of water. The water
propane and butane. It burns completely and sources, used for drinking or bathing, can
leaves no ashes. It causes almost no pollution become contaminated and unsafe.
and is one the cleanest form of fossil fuel. Of Technique of Hydraulic fracturing,” or
these gases, methane is highly inflammable. It fracking: (Hydraulic means they use water
has no colour, taste or odour. This is the and fracturing means to ―split apart) is used to
reason that some chemicals are added to it extract Natural gas. The process uses high-
before it can be supplied to individual homes pressure water to split apart the rocks
so that a leakage can easily be detected. underground. This releases the natural gas that
Middle Eastern countries particularly Iran and is trapped in rock formations. If the rock is too
Iraq hold high reserves of natural hard, they can send acid down the well to
gas. Although this is cleaner fuel but dissolve the rock. They can also use tiny
extracting it can cause environmental grains of glass or sand to prop open the rock
problems. Fracturing rocks can cause mini- and let the gas escape.
earthquakes. The high-pressure water and
Renewable energy
Conventional Non conventional
Conventional non-renewable Conventional renewable 1. Solar energy
energy energy 2. Hydro power
 Mostly fossil fuels found under  Mostly non fossil fuels seen 3. Wind energy
the ground above the ground. 4. Nuclear energy
 Coal, oil, natural gas etc are  Fire wood, cattle dung from 5. Hydrogen energy
examples vegetable wastes, wood 6. Bio gas
charcoal etc are the 7. Tidal energy
examples 8. Bio-fuel
1. Biomass  Biomass is an important source of energy and

Biomass is a renewable energy resource the most important fuel worldwide after coal, oil
derived from plant and animal waste. The energy and natural gas.
from biomass (biomass conversion) is released on  Biomass is renewable and is abundantly
burning or breaking the chemical bonds of organic available on the earth in the form of firewood,
molecules formed during photosynthesis. Biomass agricultural residues, cattle dung, city garbage
fuels can be used directly or they can be etc.
transformed into more convenient form and then  Bio-energy, in the form of biogas, which is
used. derived from biomass, is expected to become
one of the key energy resources for global
Sources sustainable development.
By-products from the timber industry, agricultural
crops and their byproducts, raw material from the Bagasse as bio-fuel
forest, major parts of household waste and wood. Indian sugar mills are rapidly turning to
Solid Biomass fuels: Wood logs and wood pellets, bagasse, the leftover of cane after it is crushed and
charcoal, agricultural waste (stalks and other plant its juice extracted, to generate electricity. This is
debris), animal waste (dung), aquatic plants (kelp mainly being done to clean up the environment, cut
and water hyacinths) urban waste (paper, cardboard down power costs and earn additional revenue.
and other combustible materials). Biogas plant
Uses of biomass The biogas plant consists of two
In the developed world biomass is becoming components: a digester (or fermentation tank) and a
important for applications such as combined heat gas holder. The gas holder cuts off air to the
and power generation. Biomass energy is gaining digester (anaerobiosis) and collects the gas
significance as a source of clean heat for domestic generated. Any biodegradable (that which can be
heating and community heating applications. decomposed by bacteria) substance can be
fermented anaerobically (in absence of oxygen) by
Advantages of biomass energy methane-producing (methanogenic) bacteria.
 Burning of biomass does not increase Cowdung or faeces are collected and put in a
atmospheric carbon dioxide because to begin biogas digester or fermenter (a large vessel in which
with biomass was formed by atmospheric fermentation can take place). A series of chemical
carbon dioxide and the same amount of carbon reactions occur in the presence of methanogenic
dioxide is released on burning. bacteria (CH4 generating bacteria) leading to the
production of CH4 and CO2.
Petro crops (plants) Environmental impact of geothermal energy

Recent researches suggest that hydrocarbon Geothermal energy can pose several
producing plants can become alternative energy environmental problems which includes on-site
sources, which can be inexhaustible and ideal for noise, emissions of gas and disturbance at drilling
liquid fuel. These plants sites. The steam contains hydrogen sulfide gas,
called petroplants/petrocrops can be grown on which has the odor of rotten eggs, and cause air
land which are unfit for agriculture and not covered pollution. The minerals in the steam are also toxic
with forests. Jatropa curcas is an important petro to fish and they are corrosive to pipes, and
plant. equipment, requiring constant maintenance.
Biocrude can be obtained by tapping the 3. Hydrogen energy
latex of Jatropa curcas. It is a complex mixture of Many scientists believe that the fuel for the
liquids, terpenoids, triglycerides, phytosterols future is hydrogen gas. When hydrogen gas burns in
waxes, and other modified isoprenoid compounds. the air or in fuel cells, it combines with oxygen gas
Hydro cracking of biocrude can convert it into to produce non-polluting water vapor and fuel cells
several useful products like gasoline (automobile directly convert hydrogen into electricity.
fuel), gas oil and kerosene. Widespread use of hydrogen as fuel would greatly
2. Geothermal Energy reduce the problem of air pollution and danger of
Geothermal energy is natural heat from the global warming because there will not be any CO2
interior of the earth that can be used to generate emission.
electricity as well as to heat up buildings. The core Hydrogen may be a clean source of energy but
of the earth is very hot and it is possible to make use getting large amount of pure hydrogen for
of this geothermal energy. These are areas where commercial purposes is a problem because
there are volcanoes, hot springs, and geysers, and hydrogen is present in combination with other
methane under the water in the oceans and seas. In elements such as oxygen, carbon and nitrogen thus
some countries, such as in the USA water is hydrogen has to be produced from either water or
pumped from underground hot water deposits and organic compounds like methane etc. requiring
used for heating of houses. large amounts of energy. This is a very costly
Geothermal resource falls into three major proposition.
categories: Producing hydrogen from algae in large scale
i) Geopressurized zones, cultures is possible. It may be possible to control
photosynthesis so that green algae are able to
ii) hot-rock zones and
produce hydrogen through the process of
iii) Hydrothermal convection zones. photosynthesis.
Of these three only the first is currently being Hydrogen is a pollution free, cost effective
exploited on a commercial basis. manner and if technologies such as fuel cells can be
Geothermal energy in India made cost effective, then hydrogen has the potential
In India, Northwestern Himalayas and the to provide clean, alternative energy for diverse uses,
western coast are considered geothermal areas. The including lighting, power, heating, cooling,
Geological Survey of India has already identified transportation and many more.
more than 350 hot spring sites, which can be Fuel cell Technology
explored as areas to tap geothermal energy. Fuel cells are highly efficient power-
The Puga valley in the Ladakh region has the most generating systems that produce electricity by
promising geothermal field.
combining fuel (hydrogen) and oxygen in an Hydroelectric power uses the kinetic energy of
electrochemical reaction. moving water to make electricity. Generation of
Fuel cells are electrochemical devices that electricity by using the force of falling water is
convert the chemical energy of a fuel directly and called hydroelectricity or hydel power. It is cheaper
very efficiently into electricity (DC) and heat, thus than thermal or nuclear power.
doing away with combustion. Hydrogen and Hydropower also has some disadvantages,
phosphoric acid are the most common type of fuel building of dam seriously disturbs and damages the
cells, although fuel cells that run on methanol, natural habitats and some of them are lost forever.
ethanol, and natural gas are also available. The Ministry of New and Renewable Energy
most suitable fuel for such cells is hydrogen or a
mixture of compounds containing hydrogen.
(MNRE)
The ministry was established as the Ministry of
4. Solar Energy Non-Conventional Energy Sources in 1992. It
Direct solar energy can be used as heat, light, adopted its current name in October 2006. The
and electricity through the use of solar cells. Direct ministry was established as the Ministry of Non-
use of solar energy can be used through various Conventional Energy Sources in 1992. It adopted its
devices broadly directed into three types of systems current name in October 2006.
a) passive, b) active c) photovoltaic. 1. Research and development.
Solar cell or photovoltaic technology 2. Intellectual property protection.
Solar energy can be converted directly into 3. International cooperation, promotion, and
electrical energy (direct current, DC) by coordination in renewable energy sources such
photovoltaic (PV) cells commonly called solar cells. as wind power, small hydro, biogas, and solar
Photovoltaic cells are made of silicon and other power.
materials. When sunlight strikes the silicon atoms it Initiatives
causes electrons to eject. This principle is called as
 Jawaharlal Nehru National Solar Mission
‗photoelectric effect‘.
(JNNSM)
A typical solar cell is a transparent wafer  Remote village lighting Programme
that contains a very thin semiconductor. Sunlight  National biogas and Manure Management
energizes and causes electrons in the semiconductor Programme (NBMMP)
to flow, creating an electrical current.  Solar lantern programme LALA
5. Tidal energy  Solar thermal energy Demonstration Programme
Tidal power projects attempt to harness the  National biomass cookstove Initiative (NBCI)
energy of tides as they flow in and out. The main  National offshore wind Energy Authority
criteria for a tidal power generation site are that the Key functional area
mean tidal range must be greater than 5 meters.
 Indian Renewable Energy Develop Agency
The tidal power is harnessed by building a dam
(IREDA)
across the entrance to a bay or estuary creating a
 Integrated Rural Energy Programme (IREP)
reservoir. The dam is then opened to run the
turbines (which are reversible), electricity is  Commission for additional sources of energy
produced as the water is let out of the reservoir. (CASE)
6. Hydropower Energy
Chapter 15
Environmental pollution and degradation
Environmental pollution ii) Secondary Pollutants: Formed by interaction
Pollution is the introduction of contaminants among primary pollutants viz. PAN by interaction
into the natural environment that causes adverse of NOx & Hydrocarbons.
change. Pollution can take the form of chemical iii) Biodegradable Pollutants: Waste products which
substances or energy, such as noise, heat or light. are degraded by microbial action for ex. Sewage.
Pollutants, the components of pollution, can be iv) Non-biodegradable Pollutants: Not decomposed
either foreign substances/energies or naturally by microbial action for ex. Plastic, Glass, DDT,
occurring contaminants. Radioactive substances.
Types of pollutants v) Quantitative Pollutants: Occur in nature &
i) Primary pollutants: Persist in the form in which become pollutant when their concentration reaches
they are added to the environment for ex. DDT, beyond a threshold level for ex. CO2, NOx.
Plastic. vi) Qualitative Pollutants: Do not occur in nature &
are man-made for ex. fungicides, herbicides, DDT.
Air Pollution
Pollutant Sources and effects
CO  By incomplete combustion of carbon based fuels, Automobile exhaust, and Cigarette
smoke.
 Combines with haemoglobin to form carboxyhaemoglobin, which is highly stable &
reduces oxygen carrying capacity of blood.
 Slow our reflexes & make us confused & sleepy.
CO2  Major greenhouse gas formed by respiration, burning of fuels, decomposition of lime,
volcanic eruption.
CFCs  Released mainly from air conditioning systems & refrigeration
 Detrimental to Ozone layer present in the stratosphere as CFC + UV >> Cl (Chlorine
radicals which causes breakdown of Ozone)
Lead  Present in petrol, diesel, lead batteries, paints, hair dye products etc. (Affects children
in particular)
 Damages nervous system & cause digestive problems & in some cases causes cancer.
O3  Formed when NOx particle from vehicle exhaust & volatile Hydrocarbons interact
with each other in presence of sunlight.
SMP  SPMs in air, when breathed in causes lung damage & respiratory problem
SO2  Produced from burning coal (60 %), mainly in thermal power plants + Petroleum
products + in production of paper & smelting of metals.
 Major contributor to smog causing lung disease.
CH4  Mainly CH4 burns in fossil fuels + produced by burning of vegetation / rottin
Acid Rain  Ph < 5.6 (Rain with oxides of sulphur & nitrogen (SO2 & NO2)) – HNO3 + H2SO4
NOx  NO3- → Acts as a fertilizer to the soil
 Automobile exhaust produces NO2 which damages plant leaves & retard rate of
photosynthesis + also causes red haze & lung irritation.
Classical  Occurs in cool humid climate
smog  Chemically reducing hence called reducing smog
 Smoke + fog + SO2
Photochemical  Occurs in warm, dry & sunny climate.
smog  Result from the action of sunlight on unsaturated HC & NOx produced by factories &
automobile.
 Chemically oxidising hence called oxidising smog
 Ozone + Acrolein + Formaldehyde + Peroxyacetyl Nitrate (PAN) are produced which
cause serious health problems, severe plant damage, cracking of rubber & corrosion
 Catalytic Converter – Prevent release of NO & HC to environment
GHGs  CO2, CH4, CFC, N2O, SF6, HFCs, PFCs, CCl4, CH3CCl3, Water Vapour, O3
Formaldehyde  Mainly from carpets, particle boards & insulation foam → Causes irritation &
allergies
Radon  A gas naturally emitted by soil
 Due to poor ventilation it is confined inside house & causes lung cancer
Fly Ash farming. Trees should be planted everywhere.

Waste matter should be disposed immediately and
 Residue produced whenever combustion of
avoid drilling the Land for more underground water.
solid material takes place, which rises with the
People must avoid using more chemical fertilizers
gases in atmosphere & causes respiratory
and Pesticides.
problems.
 Contains Aluminium silicates, SiO2 & Calcium Noise pollution
oxide (CaO) + Toxic metals like lead, arsenic, Causes of Noise Pollution include aircraft
cobalt etc. noise, noise of cars, buses, and trucks, vehicle
Advantages of fly ash horns, loudspeakers, and industry noise, as well as
high-intensity sonar effects which are extremely
 Cement can be replaced by fly ash up to 35 % harmful for the environment, noise from
hence reducing cost of construction construction and civil engineering works. Extreme
 Fly ash bricks are lighter in weight & offer noise pollution occurs due to technical advancement
high strength & durability and the motor vehicle, which is responsible for
 A better fill material for road embankments & about ninety percent of all undesirable noise
concrete roads internationally. Effects of Noise Pollution are
 Can be used in reclamation of wasteland, can Hearing Loss, High Blood Pressure, Stress, Sleep
increase crop yield & enhances water holding Disturbance, Colour Blindness. To Avoid Noise
capacity of land Pollution, the Government should ensure the new
Diseases by Air Pollutants machines that should be noise proof. Air ports must
1. Yokkaichi asthma (SO2) be away from residential area. Do not sound horn
2. Pneumoconiosis / Black Lung Disease symbol is to be in school roads.
3. Asbestosis Soil pollution
4. Silicosis It is described as the impurity of soil of a
5. Emphysema particular region. Soil pollution mainly is a result of
Land/ Solid Waste Pollution penetration of damaging pesticides and insecticides,
This type of pollution also shake which deteriorate the soil quality, thus making it
environment. Inadequate management of solid contaminated and unfit for use later. Main causes of
waste is one of the main causes of environmental soil pollution include Industrial wastes such as
pollution. Land pollution is one of the main forms harmful gases and chemicals, agricultural
of environmental calamity in current situation. pesticides, fertilizers and insecticides, ignorance
Causes of Land Pollution include Mining and towards soil management and related systems,
quarrying, Sewage waste, Household Garbage and unfavourable and harmful irrigation practices,
Industrial Waste. Consequences of Land Pollutants improper septic system and management and
are dangerous such as extermination of wild life. In maintenance of the same, leakages from sanitary
land pollution, acid rain kills trees and other plants sewage, acid rains, when fumes released from
and vegetation that provides food and shelter is industries get mixed with rains, fuel leakages from
destroyed. It can seriously disturb the balance of automobiles, that get washed away due to rain and
nature, and, in extreme cases, can cause human seep into the nearby soil, improper waste
mortalities. Pesticides can damage crops; kill management techniques, which are characterized by
vegetation and poison birds, animals, and fish. Most release of sewage into the large dumping grounds
pesticides kill or damage life forms other than those and nearby streams or rivers.
intended. To prevent Land Pollution, it is advised
that more and more land should be brought under
Light pollution Solid waste management in India

Light pollution is described as excessive and Indian urban centers generate 62 million tones of
incorrect artificial light. It is caused due to extreme municipal solid waste per annum. Of this, about
use of artificial lights by humans. The powerful 68% is collected and only 19% of the collected
artificial light which is used to brightens offices, waste is treated and the rest is dumped in landfill
factories, sports stadium, street, parks and sometime sites. SWM service is provided by municipal
even housing complexes obscure the night sky. authorities in the country. However, almost all
municipal authorities deposit solid waste at a
The four components of light pollution are often
dump yard within or outside the city.
combined and may intersect.
1. Urban Sky Glow: The brightening of the night
Issues concerning waste management in
sky over inhabited areas. India
 Inadequate monetary funds, lack of technical
2. Light Trespass: Light falling where it is not
expertise and unavailability of required land
intended, wanted, or needed.
with the municipal bodies.
3. Glare: Excessive brightness which causes visual  More than three-fourth of solid waste
discomfort. High levels of glare can decrease management budget is allotted to collection
visibility. and transportation, leaving very little for
4. Clutter: Bright, confusing, and excessive processing or resource recovery and disposal.
groupings of light sources, commonly found in  Absence of scientific methods of disposal
over-lit urban areas. The proliferation of clutter and disregard for environment.
contributes to urban sky glow, trespass, and glare.  Lack of segregation of the waste at source.
 Indifferent attitude of citizens at
Waste Management large towards the problem of solid waste.
It includes commercial and residential Solid waste management rules, 2016
wastes generated in municipal or notified areas  These rules supersede the Municipal Solid
in either solid or semi-solid form excluding Waste Rules, 2000 and expand the ambit of
industrial hazardous wastes including bio- rule application to every urban local body,
medical wastes. It consists of household waste, including outgrowths in urban
wastes from hotels and restaurants, construction agglomerations, census towns, areas under
and demolition debris, sanitation residue, and Railways and airports.
waste from streets.  It puts the onus of segregation on the waste
generator and require segregation into 6
Consequences of Improper waste categories – biodegradable, non-
Management biodegradable, domestic-hazardous, sanitary,
Improper waste management results in construction-demolition and horticulture.
environmental hazards like air and water  The Rules require setting up of a material
pollution, soil contamination, spread of diseases recovery facility to enable
etc. Dumping sites act as breeding sites for flies, informal/authorised waste collectors to sort
mosquitoes, rats, dogs that prove detrimental to out recyclable products.
human health. Landfill fires (caused due to  The Rules forbid the throwing, burning, or
release of methane during decomposition) and burying the solid waste on streets, open
the landfill slide, like the recent one in Ghazipur public spaces, in the drain, or water bodies.
(Delhi), are other problems emanating from  They impose ‗user fee‘ on the consumer and
improper waste management. ‗spot fine‘ for littering and non-segregation.
Kasturirangan Task Force Recommendations  It recommended setting up of centralised

 The K Kasturirangan task force (2014) (incineration, gasification, pyrolysis) and
recommended an integrated approach towards decentralised (biomethanation, vermin-
municipal solid waste management, stressing composting) waste processing facilities.
the need for segregation of waste at source  Setting up Common Regional Sanitary
with private sector help. Landfill Facility to reduce the land
 It recommended adoption of the principles requirement.
of reduce, reuse, recover, recycle and
remanufacture (5Rs).
Integrated Solid Waste Management System Hierarchy
identify environmental degradation as major threats

Environmental Degradation to communities, planets. Environmental changes
may be driven by numerous factors such as
Environmental degradation is a consequence economic development, population growth, and
of the active inters play of socio-economic, urbanization, intensification of agriculture, more
institutional and technological actions. energy use and transportation. Poverty is also major
Environmental degradation is a process through issue which creates environmental problems. The
which the natural environment is compromised in economics of environmental pollution, depletion
some way, decreasing biological diversity and and degradation of resources has been ignored as
health of the environment. Environmental compared to the issues of growth and expansion.
degradation is described as the worsening of India is also facing problems of environmental
physical components of the environment brought in degradation because of the considerable increase in
by human activities to such an extent that it cannot its population.
be set right by self-regulatory mechanism of
environment. This process can be completely
natural in origin, or it can be fast-tracked or caused
by human activities. Many global organizations
Factors that led to Environmental living in the world. It is the elimination and
Degradation annihilation of something that previously existed in
the world. In the arena of biology, it denotes
There are basically two factors:
specifically to the end of an evolutionary line, or a
1. Natural factors such as drought, storms on branch on the tree of life. The extinction of a
sea, land and deserts such as hurricanes, species can have significant consequences for an
tornadoes, carina and volcanic eruptions. ecosystem and even for the physical environment
These factors lead to land degradation and climate, often leading to further extinctions.
through erosion.
2. Human factors which include 3. Desertification
deforestation, industrialization and Desertification is the ruin of land in
urbanization. These factors lead to water, air waterless and dry sub-humid areas due to many
and land pollution. factors such as climatic changes and human
activities. Desertification results primarily from
Types of Environmental Degradation man-made activities. It is mainly caused by
a. Desertification overgrazing, over drafting of groundwater and
b. Extinction diversion of water from rivers for human
c. Erosion consumption and industrial use, all of these
d. Emission processes are fundamentally driven by
e. Deforestation overpopulation. Main effect of desertification is
1. Deforestation reduced biodiversity and weakened productive
Deforestation is the process of clearance of capacity, for example, by transition from land
forests by logging and/or burning. Deforestation dominated by shrub lands to non-native grasslands.
occurs due to many reasons that include trees or Causes of desertification: Desertification occurs
derived charcoal are used as, or sold, for fuel or as a due to numerous factors, primarily anthropogenic
commodity, while cleared land is used as grassland causes, which began in the Holocene era and
for livestock, plantations of commodities, and continues today. The primary reasons for
settlements. The exclusion of trees without desertification are overgrazing, over-cultivation,
sufficient reforestation has resulted in harm to increased fire frequency, water impoundment,
habitat, biodiversity loss and dryness. It has deforestation, over drafting of groundwater,
adversative impacts on bio-sequestration of increased soil salinity, and global climate change.
atmospheric carbon dioxide. Deforested regions 4. Emission
characteristically sustain substantial adverse soil
Emission is process in which human or
erosion and frequently damage into wasteland.
natural forces discharge chemicals or other
Causes of deforestation: There are several causes substances into the environment. Emission leads to
of current deforestation such as dishonesty of pollution such as emission is caused when
government institutions, the unfair distribution of chemicals are released into the air. Many natural
wealth and power, population growth and processes cause emissions. When a volcano
overpopulation, and urbanization. Globalization is explodes, it lets out acid, and acid, ash, and many
also major cause of deforestation, though there are toxic gases. When fires break out in forests, they
cases in which the impacts of globalization have release smoke, soot, carcinogenic hydrocarbons,
supported localized forest recuperate. dioxins, and carbon dioxide.
2. Extinction 5. Erosion
It is the process by which a species, genus, Erosion is the procedure of weathering and
or family, becomes extinct no longer existing and carriage of solids in the natural environment or their
source and deposits them elsewhere. It generally and pollution are few of the major causes for
occurs due to transport by wind, water, or ice, by loss of biodiversity.
down-slope creep of soil and other material under 3. Ozone Layer Depletion: Ozone layer is
the force of gravity; or by living organisms, such as responsible to shield earth from detrimental
burrowing animals, in the case of bio-erosion. ultraviolet rays. The presence of
A certain amount of erosion is natural and, it chlorofluorocarbons, hydro chlorofluorocarbons
is good for the ecosystem. Erosion is different from in the atmosphere is causing the ozone layer to
weathering, which is the process of chemical or deplete. As it will deplete, it will emit harmful
physical breakdown of the minerals in the rocks, radiations back to the earth.
although the two processes may occur 4. Loss for Tourism Industry: Speedy activities of
simultaneously. tourism industry is also responsible for the
worsening of environment that rely on tourists
Effects of environmental degradation for their daily livelihood. Environmental
1. Impact on Human Health: Human health is damage in the form of loss of green cover, loss
greatly impacted by the environmental of biodiversity, huge landfills, increased air and
degradation. Areas exposed to toxic air water pollution can be a big turn off for most of
pollutants can cause respiratory problems like the travellers.
pneumonia and asthma. Most of people loss 5. Economic Impact: The huge cost that a nation
their life due to indirect effects of air pollution. may have to borne due to environmental
2. Loss of Biodiversity: Biodiversity is vital to degradation can have huge economic impact in
sustain balance of the ecosystem in the form of terms of restoration of green cover, cleaning up
combating pollution, restoring nutrients, of landfills and protection of endangered
protecting water sources and stabilizing climate. species. The economic impact can also be in
Deforestation, global warming, overpopulation terms of loss of tourism industry.
Chapter 16
Biodiversity and its conservation with special reference to Rajasthan
Though a large percentage of the total area  Carnivorous Species – 05
is desert and even though there is little forest cover,  Endemic Species – 19
Rajasthan has a rich and varied flora and fauna. The  Medicinal Plant species – 157+
natural vegetation is classed as Northern Desert
Animal Biodiversity
Thorn Forest. These occur is small clumps scattered
in a more or less open forms. Density and size of  Fish – 114
patches increase from west to east following the  Amphibians – 14
increase in rainfall. The northwestern thorn scrub  Reptiles – 67
forests lie in the band around the Thar Desert,  Mammals – 87
between the desert and the Aravalis.  Birds – 510
The Aravali and the south-eastern region is Some interesting Aspects of Fauna
home to the dry deciduous forests, with tropical dry  Endangered Mammals – 16
broadleaf forests that include teak, acacia and other  Endangered-reptiles – 08
trees. The hilly ‗Vagad‘ region lies in the
 Critically endangered-Birds – 03
southernmost Rajasthan, on the border with Gujrat.
 Endangered – 02
With the exception of Mount Abu, Vagad is the
 Vulnerable – 13
wettest region in Rajasthan, and the most heavily
forested. North of Vagad lies the Mewar region,  Conservation dependent – 01
home to the cities of Udaipur and Chittorgarh. The  Threatened – 14
Hadauti region lies in the south east, on the border  Red data Birds species – 14
with Madhya Pradesh. North of Hadoti and Mewar Animal: Schedule 1
lies Dhundar region, home to the state capital of  Mammals – 15
Jaipur. Mewat, easternmost region of Rajasthan,  Raptiles – 05
borders Haryana and Uttar Pradesh. All these region  Birds – 6
have varied flora and fauna distinct to the region.
The Biological Diversity Act, 2002
Plant Biodiversity
An Act to provide for conservation of
Angiosperms biological diversity, sustainable use of its
 Wild Species – 1714 components and fair and equitable sharing of the
 Agro-horticulture Species – 320 benefits arising out of the use of biological
Gymnosperms resources, knowledge and for the matters connected
 Wild species – 01 therewith or incidental thereto.
Cryptogams WHEREAS India is rich in biological
 Liverworts & Hornworts – 37 diversity and associated traditional and
 Mosses – 42 contemporary knowledge system relating threto.
 Ferns – 60 AND WHEREAS India is a party to the
Plants of special interest United Nations Convention of Biological Diversity
signed at Rio de Janeiro on the 5th day of June,
 Red Data book species – 37 1992.
 Orchids – 14
ANS WHEREAS the said Convention came
 Terrestrial – 08
into force on the 29th December, 1993;
 Epiphytic – 06
 Parasite Species – 10
AND WHEREAS the said Convention has 1. Dhol forest : This is the principal type of
the main objective of conservation of biological forest covering about 60% of the forest area.
diversity, sustainable use of its components and fair Located mainly in southeastern part of Aravalli hills
and equitable sharing of benefits arising out of between 270 m to 770m of evaluation. These are
utilization of genetic resources. important from the protective point of view and
And whereas it is considered necessary to provide a useful vegetative cover. these provide
provide for conservation, sustainable utilization and good firewood and makes excellent charcoal.
equitable sharing of the benefits arising out og 2. Kattha Forest :- These occur mostly in pure
utilization of genetic resources and also to give patches and sometimes mixed with other species
effect to the said Conviction. and occupies about 3% of the forest area. It is found
Forests in Rajasthan in the south east region of the state.
3.Salar Forest :- Boswellia solar is found in
The recorded forest area of the state is
the upper ridges of the Aravalli hills and covers
32.639 km2 which is 9.54% of the state's
about 5% of the total forest cover area. This type of
geographical area. Reserved forest constitutes
forests covers an area of 10,360 sq. km. and occurs
38.16%, protected forests 53.36% and unclassed
in Alwar, parts of Chittorgarh, Udaipur, Sirohi,
forests 8.48% of the total forest area
Ajmer, Jodhpur, Rajsamand and Jaipur. This tree
Mixed Deciduous forests :- These forests are grows at attitudes of 430 m and above. The trees are
found in the south-eastern Rajasthan in the districts straight grained and thus provide suitable timber for
Bundi, sirohi, Kota, Udaipur and Chittorgarh use as packing material. In areas of deep soils,
district. Average rainfall is more than 60 grasses are fairly dense while in rocky soils
centemetres. Mixed types of forests occur forming practically no grass grows.
about 20% of the forest area and cover an area of
4. Butea monosperma (Dhak) Forests :- The
about 9065 sq. kms. These forest occur at elevation
species are characterized of badly drained clay soils
of 300 to 1200 m. and mostly occupy the plateau
and occupies the foot hills and depression. The total
section and the gentle slopes where the soils is poor.
area under this variety is very small compared to
2. Sub-tropical evergreen forests :- These total forest area in the state.
occur about 30 sq. kilometre round Mt. abu at
5. Bamboo forests :- Bamboo covers about
elevation of 1000 to 1300 metres where, the rainfall
2.5% the area mostly in parts of Chittorgarh,
is 1500 mm. or more annually. On the higher
Udaipur, Kota and Abu hills. It generally occurs
elevations it has humid types of forests containing
inpure patches in depressions.
Ambartari, Karonda, varieties of Jasmine, Weeping
willow and Kara, on the lower slopes dense forests 6. Teak forests :- Teak forests of the dry type
of Dhau, Haldu, Bel, Siris, Mango, Jamun, occupy over 2635 heatarces and represent the
Kachhar, Timsu, Rohira. northern limit of teak in Inda. Teak occurs
commonly in southern and south eastern parts of the
3. Dry thorn Forests :- These are found
Chittorgarh, Udaipur, Baran, at an elevations of 250
mainly in the arid area of north west covering the
to 500 meters.
districts of Nagaur, Pali, Sikar, Jhunjhunu, Ajmer,
Jodhpur and Jaisalmer. Ravines and sandy tracts are Gresslands and Pastures : Locally known as
also dotted with thorny bushesh. The trees vary in beeds. These are also found on the hill tops and
height from 4.5 to 6 m. In areas covered by this their slopes in association with sparse trees and
forest, there is good growth of grasses of various scrubs in Mewar, Merwara and Alwar hills. Scrubs
species. and bush lands : Often found in association with
forests are grasslands and sometimes in exclusion
The following divison of forests in based on the
these represent the poorest floral type but cover a
forest produce and trees grown there:
substantial portion of the region. These are found in Programmers for the Development and
scattered patches as well as in long stretches and Preservation of the Forests :-
generally occupy the steeper hills slopes plateau top (i) Plantation of trees in the pasture land : Under
and rocky denuded plains with thin soil cover. this programme, more trees are to be planted on
Vegeration in Forests the pasture lands which will facilitate the cattle
The main forest produce is dhank wood which to graze grass also
is used principally as fire wood (Anageissus (ii) Forest not only helps to conserve the soil but
Pendula) and for manufacture of charcoal. also to check the soil erosion otherwise the area
Non Timber Forest Resources :- The non without forest will turn into arid lands.
timber forest products are (a) Gum and resin (iii) Govt. has also introduced the plantation
yeilding plants, (b) Tan and dye yeilding plants, (c) programmes through schools, Each student of
oil seeds and oil yielding plants, (d) Essential oil any standard is to plant the tree and also to look
bearing plants, (e) Species providing fiber and after the same.
flosses, (f) Species providing miscellaneous (iv) Van Mahotsav is celebrated from 1st July to 7th
products, (g) Edible produicts species. July every year. This programme should be
Khus oil is distilled from veteveria zizinoldes implemented effectively.
which is found mainly in Bharatpur and tonk (v) People should be aware of the fact that the trees
Forest Divisions. provide ecological security as well as better
Tendu (Diospyros melanoxylon) occurs condition to life.
almost all over the state and large quantities of (vi) Full protection to the animal life is only
leaves are excreted for the manufacture of Bidis. possible when we protect forest because the
Dhak: Also known as forest fire because of forest is the home of the wild animals.
intense red and yellow color. The main tree is Palas (vii) Research work should be promoted by the
and mainly found in Rajsamand and surrounding forest department for improving the forest in
area. context with the modern development of science
Salar Forest: found mainlu in Udaipur, and technology Rajasthan is ecologically
Rajsamand, Chittorgarh, Sirohi, Ajmer, Alwar, imbalanced state and therefore in order to maintain
Jaipur etc. these forest has excess of Saal trees. the ecological balance there should be forest over at
Khejri: It is also known as Kalpvraksh of least 33% area of the state. While the natural
Rajasthan. Its fruits are called Sengri, which when vegetation is on 9.53% area. Efforts should be trade
dried is used as food and its leaves provide pasture to bring more and land as much as possible under
to the local cattle. This is also known as Shami the vegetation cover.
Tree and it is worshipped on Dussera festival. According to Rajasthan Forest Act 1953
Other vegetation covers Dhokda, Mahua, classify forests in the following manner
Bamboo, Beed, Rohida (Sagon of desert or Marwar
Teak), Sandal etc.
Forest Restrictions/Liberty Area Percentage
1 Reserved forests Wood cutting and grazing in 12352.78 37.63%
completely banned
2 Protected Forests Limited wood cutting and grazing 18408.85 56.08%
3 Unclassified No restriction either tree felling or 2066.74 6.29%
grazing
Total 32828.37 100
Forest report – 2017 towards wild life. The total percentage of forest
covered area in Rajasthan as compared to other
 This report was published on 18 February
th
states in comparatively less yet as regards diversity
2018, according to which there has been an
and percentage of animals, it ranges second to
increase in total Forest and Canopy coverage of
Assam.
1%.
 An increase of 8021 sq km (6778 in forest area The wildlife concervation was initiated in 1951
and 1243 in plantation area) with wildlife and wild birds rules. In 1972 , wildlife
Protection Act was passed, this created rules for
 Recorded forest area: 23.34% (7,67,419 sq km)
protection and conservation of wild animals and
 Highest forest cover percentage: Lakshadweep made it a criminal offence to kill an animal. Today,
(90.33%), Mizoram (86.27) the State is dotted by (A) 33 reserve forests (B) 7
 Forest cover in Rajasthan: 16,572 sq km, Deer parks along with (C) 5 zoos that have been
4.84% increase in forest cover by 466 sq km. enlisted in the table chronologically (D) three
Rajasthan State Forest report - 2015: National Parks,.
 Based on ResorceSat 2 and data LISS-3. A. Reserved or closed areas : - These areas
 Forest cover has increased by 85 sq km, are those where killing of wildlife is prohibited. The
Jaisalmer has highest growth followed by Pali. forest and wildlife department of the state has,
 Highest forest cover in Udaipur (23.25%) hosever no direct control over these areas. The
followed by Sirohi (17.76%) and lowest in Govt. of Rajasthan has declared 33 areas as
Jodhpur 0.43%. reserved forest areas in the state where hunting is
prohibited.
Conservation of Forests They are :—
1. Regulated forest tree felling and timber cutting 1. Sonkhalia (171.34 sq.Km.)
2. Protect forests from fire. 2. Gagwana (2100 hect.),
3. Immediate stay on the conversion of forest land
for agricultural, Residential and other 3. Tilora (200 hect.) in Ajmer District
developmental purposes. 4. Barriod (23.630 sq.Km.),
4. Protection from getting submerged under dams. 5. ohadia (30 hect.) in Alwar,
5. Development of forests as tourist spots. 6. Dhorimanna(6915 hect.) in Barmer
6. Reforestration. 7. Mukum (168.82 hect.)
7. Restriction on uncontrolled grazing. 8. Diyatra(5019 hect.)
8. Greater role of community and administration 9. Deshnokh (2517 hect.)
in conservation efforts.
10. Jodvir (7584 hect.)
9. Programms run by NGOs and SHGs like Social
forestry and Harit Rajasthan Program. 11. Bajoo (100 hect.)
12. Kanaksagar in Bundi
Wildlife in Rajasthan
13. Menal (20 hect) in Chittorgarh,
Wild life has been considered as an integral 14. Sawantsar Kotasar (7091 hect.) in churu,
part of a physical eco-system forming food chains at
15. Ujala (3000 hect,)
various trophic levels and its protection remained an
old sanctity. 16. Ramdeora (3000 hect.) in Jaisalmer,
The protection of wild life is undoubtedly state 17. Santhalsagar (3.00 sq.km.) in Jalore
subject but the government is unable to enact 18. Gudha Bishnoi (428.58 sq.mk.),
suitable laws and regulations to protect wild life. 19. Mehlan (5.00 sq.km.) in Jaipur District,
Even rules and regulation may not apply if we do 20. Sanchor (1813.12 sq.km.),
not improve in our attitudes and easthatic senses 21. Doli (425.76 sq.km.)
22. Fitkashim (569.42 sq.km.), The Forests are found around Aravallis and
23. Lohawat (1242.31 sq.km.), Vindhyas and each has distinguished geological
24. Sathin (244.86 sq.km.) features, the forest is typically dry deciduous type
25. Jammeshverji (3500 hect.), with dhok ronk ber, salai, mango groves, palm
trees, Banyan and Pepul trees as the main
26. Dechu (2000 hect.) in Jodhpur, vegetation of this park. The Park also has a large
27. Sorsen (80 hect.) in Kanwalji (40 hect.) in population of leopards which the second largest
Sawai Madhopur district, predators of this forest. Another interesting feature
28. Ranipura (120 hect) in Tonk, of the Park is marsh crocodilies found in the
29. Bagdarah (342.40 hect.) in Udaipur neighbouring lakes. These reptiles are 8-10 feet
30. Kanwalji (40 sq. km.). in Sawai Madhopur long. They are easily seen inside the water or
31. Jarodan (30 sq. km.) in Nagaur basking on the shores of the lakes. Other predators
of Ranthambhor are hyena jackals and Jungle cats,
32. Rotu (5 sq. km.) in Naguar
Caracals too have recorded. Sambhars are scattered
33. Jawai Bandh (5 sq. km.) in Pali district. everywhere and in large herds around the lakes.
B. Parks :- Seven Deer and safari Parks have also Chital are extremely common throughout to the
been established in the State. They are :— park and they come to water in hundreds
(i) Deer park at Chittorgarh particularly during summer months. Though the
(ii) Deer park at Shahapura Jaipur park is famous for its wild animals, it is also rich in
(iii) Ashok Vihar, Jaipur avian fauna.
(iv) Safari Park, Machia at Jodhpur 2. Keoladeo Ghana National Park,
(v) Amrita Devi deer park Khejarli (Jodhpur) Bharatpur :- Only 176 km. from Delhi and 50 km.
west of Agra and Taj Mahal, Keoladeo Ghana is a
(vi) Deer park Sajjangarh and Udaipur
wonder of the natural world. Over 350 species of
(vii) Deer park at Pachkund Ajmer birds are found in a refugee of 29 sq. km. of shallow
C. Zoos (Jantushalas) : - Five zoos at Jaipur, lakes and woodland that mark this park. One third
Udaipur, Jodhpur, Kota and Bikaner have been of these birds are migrants many of them winter in
functioning where varied animals from different Bharatpur before returning to their breeding stations
part of the world are kept for public show. as distant away as Siberia and Central Asia.
D. National Parks :- In the National parks, Keoladeo Ghana is perhaps the only one where
there is a total prohibited on wood cutting, animal the habitat has been created by the Maharaja. The
grazing, agriculture, human habitation, road Maharaja recognized the potential and augmented
construction and other human activities villages, if the water supply by diverting the water from the
any fail in the area of the park have to be evacuated. nearby irrigation cannals viz. Chiksana and Ghana.
The main National Parks are :— In a few years the new ecosystem so flourished that
1. Ranthambhor National Park, Sawai it is able to support thousands of aquatic birds.
Madhopur :- Among the twenty eight tiger Bharatpur was upgraded to National park in 1981
reserves in the country, Ranthambhor, National park and renamed Keoladeo Ghana. Keoladeo is the
in Sawai Madhopur is naturalist‘s delight. A name of an ancient Hindu Temple of Lord Shiva,
successful preservation programme was launched stands in the centre of the park. Ghana means dense
here in 1971 and is recognized by world wild life and it refers to the dense thick forest that covers the
foundation. In 1974, it was selected for Project tiger area. Siberian Crane is the most sought for one and
and is now patronized by Government of India and breaks its journey across India. Black vultures
the international Ecological Institute. It was certain mammals and pythons are most easily
declared National Park in 1980. sighted at Ghana.
3. Desert National Park Jaisalmer: - 45 kms 2. Jamva Ramgarh Sanctuary

to the south west of Jaisalmer, the Desert National  Area: 360 sq km
Park covers 3162 sq. km. of scrub, thorny forest,  It was earlier a gaming sopt in Ramgarh,
desert and dunes. The unique ecosystem reflects the Jaipur- was declared Sanctuary in 1982.
successful enduring adaptation by a wide range of 3. Talchapar black buck Sanctuary
mammals, birds insects and flowers to a harsh  On Bikaner Jaipur Highway (NH11),
climate with temperature ranging from below Sujangarh, Churu
freezing to over 45o Celsius.  Area: 820 Hectare
The active dune of semi-contrast with the 180  On black deer are found here and can be
million years old wood fossils at Akal 17 km from
seen in upto 500 in one herd.
Jaisalmer on the Jaisalmer Barmer road, this fossil
4. Jaisamand Sanctuary
park is the proof of the geologic catclycisms that
have taken place in the Thar Desert. Here, 180  On the shore of Jaisamand Lake, in
million years ago stood a forest of giant deciduous Udaipur.
trees whose trunks petrified into fossils liter a bare 5. Sitamata Sanctuary: Pratapgarh
hillside of mica and red and yellow stones. The 6. Bassi Sanctuary
small desert fox in an important carnivore. The wolf  Area 153 sq km, near Pratapgarh
is the main predator and Jackal is the native on the  As a meeting point of Aravali and
border of the Park. Vindhya Range it was declared as a
Groups of Black Buck, Chinkara and Nilgai Sanctuary in 1988 to protect the
are found in nearby villages and now thrive on the biodiversity of such a unique ecosystem.
park areas of sparse arid grass lands.  The main attaraction is Chousingha,
The most remarkable bird of this desert is the Sandgrouz, Leopard and Crocodile.
Great Indian bustard weighing about 14 kg and 7. Fulwari ki Naal
standing up to 45 cm. This reluctant flier, the  Situated in backward region of Udaipur.
bustard lives upon omnivorous food consisting of  Area 511 sq km
locusts, grasshoppers, seeds, barriers, lizards and  It is a dense forest with fauna including
snakes. tigers, leopards, sambar and spotted deer.
4. Tiger Reserve, Sariska, Alwar :- Sariska is 8. Bhaisroadgarh Sanctuary
one of the few remaining pockets of forest in the  Area 229 sq km
Aravalli mountain range and the area now covers  It was declared as Sanctuary in 1983.
557.57 sq. kms. as the core area. The reserve has  Situated in bhaisroadgarh hill region in
been under Project Tiger since 1979 and before that Chittorgarh
since 1955 a small sanctuary. The dry open  Contains very diverse fauna
deciduous and thorny forests assist in ever
9. Sajjangarh Sanctuary
increaseing population of ungulates like sambhar,
 It was a gaming and poaching spot in
nilgai, chinkara, chausingha and chital.
medieval times
Wildlife Sanctuaries in Rajasthan
 Situated in hilly region of Udaipur
1. Nahargarh Sanctuary
 Also contains Sajjangarh zoological park,
 It surrounds historical fort of Nahargarh,
an in-situ conservation mechanist which
Jaigarh and Amer, was decraled a sanctuary
in 1982. contains tigers, asian lions, leopards etc.
10. Jawahar Sagar Vanya Vihar: Kota
 Area: 50 sq km
11. Shergarh Sanctuary
 Tigers are returning after perinneal
availability of water made as conservation  Situated in Baran, famous for dense tiger
effort. habitat in area of 99 sq km
 It was given protection in 1983
12. Toddgarh rawali Sanctuary Forest fauna:

 Area: 512 sq km  Herbivorous: Black buck, Chinkara (Indian
 Spread in 3 districts, Udaipur, Ajmer and Gazelle),Sambar deer, Neel Gai, Chital,
Pali; Declared In 1983 Chosingha, Bear, Wild boar, rabit, langor and
13. Chambal Sanctuary monkeys.
 Area 280 sq km of water area from rana  Black buck: Bharatpur, Sirohi, Jaiour, Barmet,
Ajmer, Kota.
Pratap sagar to deep inside chambal
 Indian Gazelle: Bharatpur, Sawai Madhopur
 Protectec species: fresh water Ghariyal and  Sambar: Bharatput, Alwar, Sawai Madhopur,
Crocodile Udaipur, Chittorgarh, Kota, Jhalawarm Jaipur,
14. Ramgarh Vishdhari Sanctuary Barmer, Dungarpur, Banswara.
 Situated in Bundi  Neegai: Ajmer, Karoli. Bharatpur, Jhalawar,
 Area 307 sq km Kota, Ganganagar, Hanumangarh
15. Bandh Baretha Sanctuary  Cheetal: Bharatpur
 Near Kevladev bird sanctuary  The state bird of rajasthan is Gondavan (Great
 Area 193 sq km Indian Bustard), it is found in Barmerm
Jaisalmer and Bikaner region.
16. Sawai Mansingh Sanctuary  The Khinchan near Falodi is famous for Kurja
 Attatched to Ranthambhore national park, a migratory birds.
103 sq km area forest. Some other state government efforts
 Declared in 1984.
 The government of Rajsthan made Rajasthan
 As a reserve forest when the tigers in Biological diversity rules, 2010 and established
ranthambore gets more than its capacity, the Rajasthan State Biodiversity Board.
they will be shifted here.  The wildlife census in the state is done by
17. Kailadevi Sanctuary Forest institute of India, Dehradoon
 In karauli district also attatched to  Habitat improvement ground plan in Talchapar
Ranthambore national park  Declaration red alert in Sariska and
 Area 376 sq km Ranthambore tiger reserve. In the programme
 As a reserve forest for tiger habitat from the border are sealed and forest guards to
protect the borders.
Ranthambore.
 Tiger Corridor: project to connect Ranthambore
18. Ramsagar van vihar Sanctuary with Gandhi sagar Sanctuary. The plan will
 Situated in dholpur enable the wild animals to roam freely from
 Situated on lake it gives protection to Ranthambore through Sawai Mansingh
various waterbirds too. Sanctuary to Kwalji in Bundi, Ramgarh
19. Mt. Abu Sanctuary Sanctuary, Jawahar sagar, Dara Sanctuary and
 Area 112 sq km then reach forests in Madhya Pradesh.
 Situated in Mt. Abu in Sirohi district  Van dhan yojna: declared 2015-16 budget, to
reduce the dependence on forests by providing
20. Kumbhalgarh-Ranakpur Sanctuary livelihood to people living in vicinity.
 Situated in Udaipur district  Machiya biological Park (2016), Sajjangarh
 Situated near Ranakpur jain temple and Biological Park (2015), Nahargarh Biological
Kumbhalgarh fort Park (2016).
21. Sundhamata Bear Sanctuary  In latest tiger census published in 2015 number
 Area: 4468 of tigers in state has increased to 45.
 It is a first bear sanctuary situated at  Project bustard: hatching and breeding center in
Jasvantpura, between Jalore and Sirohi. Sarson(baran)
 Project leopard: declared in budget 2017-18,
 It was declared as a Sanctuary in 2010.
will cater in the leopard sanctuaries
Chapter 17
Agriculture, Horticulture, forestry, dairy and animal Husbandry and water
conservation with respect to rajasthan
Agriculture with its allied occupation of animal husbandry and dairying forms the main basis of the economy of
Rajasthan.
Almost 70 percent of its population is engaged in agriculture and allied pursuits for their livelihood.
Agriculture contributes about 55 percent to the total State‘s income. It is also the source of industrial raw
material.
The land use and cropping pattern indicate great influence and control by environmental factors over
agricultural inputs. Among these climate, relief, drainage, soil and ground water are the main factors which
influence the land use and cropping pattern in State.
Land
Land-use category Area (000 Hectare) Percentage
contribution in India
Geographical area 34224 10.41
Reporting area for land utilization statstics 34267 11.20
Forests 2750 3.93
Land not available for cultivation 4275 9.77
Other uncultivated land excluding fallow land 5870 22.60
Fallow land 3894 14.82
Net sown area 17479 12.49
Total cropped area 23954 12.32
Cropping intensity 137
Agriculture land/ Cultivable land 25548 14.04
Use various crops at a point of time. Quite often the area
Forest Land :- It is encouraging to note that forest statistics are used to denote the crop pattern. In
area which accounted for 3.4 percent and 3.7 percent Rajasthan, agriculture mostly depends upon rain. If
of total reporting area in 1951-52 and 1970-71 monsoon is delayed or rainfall fails or even if there is
respectively increased to 8.05 percent to the total an unequal distribution, the kharif crops and the rabi
geographical area. Thus, the State appears to have crops are adversely affected unless there are good
made good efforts in increasing forest cover. The showers is December and January. Agricultural
district wise details of land utilization reveals that production is thus reduced to a gamble. In the arid
Udaipur, Sirohi, Karauli and Baran and more than 30 and semi-arid region, Bajra is par excellence the
percent forest cover which is nearer to the national major crop: While in south-eastern trats, maize is
norm of one-third area to be covered under forests. predominant and in eastern and north eastern tracts,
Juar and wheat crops are major crops.
Cropping Patterns. Cropping pattern is the
pattern of crops showing the proportion of area under
Cropping Pattern in Rajasthan is marked by 15. Agriculture productivity is very high in

certain characteristics as follows: Ganganagar and Hanumangarh districts due to
1. Climatic and edaphic conditions have played irrigation facilities.
important rule in cropping pattern of state. 50 Methods of Cultivation :- On the basis of
cm. rainfall line divides the State into two major amount of rainfall, four methods of the cultivation are
divisions. practiced.
(i) The western arid and semi-arid sandy plains, and 1. Humid farming is practiced in areas having
(ii) The easter Arravalli hilly region, the Banas sufficient rainfall (above 100 cms.) Under this
Basin and Plateau area where the rainfall is upto system, crops are produced without the help of
150 cm. irrigation Rice and sugarcane are grown in areas of
high rainfall while receiving modrate rainfall, cotton,
2. Nearly two-fifth total area of the State is devoted
tobacco, wheat, barley etc. are grown. This system is
to farming
practised in Banswar, Jhalawar, eastern part of the
3. Greater emphasis is laid on the cultivation of Kota and Baran.
food crops in agriculture produce.
2. Irrigation farming is practiced in those areas
4. About 45 percent area of the State is covered by where rainfall is either seasonal or insufficient for
the Great Indian desert. certain crops. It is practised in important, river valley
5. About one fifth of the total area of the State is and covers the districts of Bharatpur, Alwar,
classified as a hard core desert and culturable Dholpur, Jaipur, Sawai Madhopur, Tonk, Kota,
waste. Bundi, Ajmer, Ganganagar and Udaipur. Wheat, rice
6. Jower, Bajra, Moong and Moth major crops in oilseeds, barely etc. crops are produced.
western Rajasthan. 3. Jhumming or Shifting cultivation is a
7. In Bikaner and Jaisalmer districts only, Bajra is migratory from of agriculture :- In this form, land
grown. is cleared with the aid of fire. The cleared land is
8. No separate specific crop is grown as fodder in used for two or three years and then abandoned
this state. because of decrease in fertility of soil and occurrence
of diseases. This method is practiced by primitive
9. The yield per acre is low and in most of the
tribes of south-eastern hilly parts of Banswar,
crops, the average yield is much lower than that
Udaipur and Dungarpur districts. This system is
of India.
locally known as ‘WALARA’.
11. Very little cropped area is devoted to commercial
4. Dry farming is paractised in those areas where
crops : cotton and sugarcane occupy about 1.64
rainfall is scanty (less than 50 cms.) and the irrigation
percent and 0.05 percent of the total cropped area
facilities are either absent or very little.
respectively.
5. The warmth of the sandy soil helps in the quick
12. The district of Ganganagar, Hanumangarh and
maturing of plant. This method is practised in
Bikaner located in the arid region of the State,
western Rajasthan. Short maturing and drought
mainly because of the facilities of canal
resisting crops like wheat, millets and pulses are
irrigation (Gang Canal, Bhakra, Canal and Indira
mainly grown.
Gandhi canal), commercial crops as well as food
crops are grown in good quantity. Distributional Pattern of Major Crops
13. Wheat, maize, coton, sugarcane, oil seeds and 1. Rabi Crops
barley are major crops in eastern Rajasthan. Bajra (pennisetum typhoides) :- It grows best under
14. In majority of the holdings, only one crop in conditions of light showers followed by bright
grown. sunshine during the growing period. It is heat and
drought tolerant crop. Bajra crop is grown under poor Alwar, Bharatpur, Dholpur, Jaipur, Dausa,
climatic and soil conditions. Bajra occupies 22.80 Tonk,Sawai Madhopur and Ajmer.
percent area of the total cropped area. The bajra Jowar (Sorghum vulgare) :- Jowar tolerates
occupies the primary status in the State croppoing alkaline of salty soils like barley.The seeds of edible
pattern. The highest concentration (over 40 percent) jowar are sown far apart, while chari-jowar used for
is in the western part, particularly, west of Aravalli fodder is grown compactly. The highest
hills except northern part of the State especially in concentration of Jowar is in the central and south
Barmer, Jaisalmer, Jodhpur, Jalore, Nagaur, Sikar eastern part of the State viz. in Jhalawar
and Jhunjhunu districts. (30.50%),Tonk (26.28%), Ajmer (23.70%), Barn
Wheat (Triticum aestivum) :- Although, wheat (22.35%), and Kota (23.50%) district. The other
is grown under a great variety of climatic conditions, important districts are Jodhpur, Nagaur, Pali which
primarily, it is grown in areas with moderate contribute nearly 30% of the Jowar hectreage.
temperature and sub-humid and even semi-arid Maize (Zeamays) :- Maize was introduced in
conditions. It grows successfully in a cool, moist India from America in the begining of 17th century. It
climate and warm dry climate is favorable for the grows best on well drained fertile loamy soils and
ripening of the crop. The winter temperature should required plenty of moisture during its early phases of
be between 100C to 16.60 Celsius. The annual rainfall growth. It also needs heavy manuring and more
of 50 cm. is optimal. Wheat occupies 11.90% area of attention than other kharif crops. Maize is chiefly
the total cropped area. What is an important crop in grown in the hilly and mountain-tract region of
east of Aravalli hills and northern part of the state Aravalli and basins of rivers like Banas, Mahi etc.
particularly in Hanumangarh and Ganganagar The major districts are Udaipur, Rajasamand,
districts. The high intensity of wheat hecterage is also Dungarpur, Banswara, Chittorgarh, Bhilwara.
concentrated in the east of Aravalli hillsb except
Barley (Eabi) :- It is a winter crop which ranks
Hanumangarh and Ganganagar districts. In eastern along with wheat and gram as staple food grain. It
part, soils are deep medium black, alluvium, covers roughly an area of 5% and needs less of water
yellowish brown and annual rainfall varies from 20 to or irrigation. After Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan is the
75 centimeters. second state which produces barley more than 25
Guar (Cyamopsis proraloids) :- Guar is an percent of the total produce in India. This crop is
important drough-resistant fodder and soil restorative chiefly grown in Jaipur, Dausa, Ganganagar,
crop, which is especially suitable for light sandy Hanumangar, Alwar, Tonk, Bhilwara,
soils. After harvesting, its seeds are stored for Swaimadhopur, Udaipur, Rajsamand and Ajmer. In
nutritive cattle to increase energy and quantum of this State, dry, sandy or moist cleayey areas as well
milk respectively. It solves the problem of green as those where irrigation facilities are lecking are
manure and it is also used for manufacturing gum. It devoted to this crop. it is the chief food of the poor. It
is an important crop of western Rajasthan. is also used either as fodder or is exported for wine
Gram (Cicer arietinum) : Gram is the most making.
important winder food pulse of the state and has Rice :- Rice requires a lot of water i.e, higher
major share of the area under pulses. The highest rainfall and also high temperature. Rice is generally
concentration of gram in the districts is due to better grown in the areas where either the rainfall is heavy
canal irrigation facilities and fertile alluvium. It is or there are facilities for irrigation. The rice produced
also grown in those areas of the district where in Rajasthan is of inferior variety and the production
irrigation facilities are lacking. Ganganagar and is also insignificant. It is limited to Baran, Kota,
Hanumangarh districts have ideal conditions for the Banswar, Dungarpur, Jhalawar, Sriganganangar and
gram cultivation. It is also grown in the north-eastern Hanumangar districts only.
part of the state, i.e. the districts of Churu, Jhunjhunu,
2. Kharif Pulses pulses serve as excellent nutrition forage and green-

The main kharif pulses of the State are moth manure crops adding the major plant nutrients to the
(phaseoulus aconitifolius), urd (phaseolus aureus) soil.
green gram and Chaula (vigna catyang walp; vigna The soil and moisture requirements vary from pulse
sinesnis savi, cowpeo), pulses are a part of daily diet to pulse :- light, low fertility sandy soils having low
of the vegetarian peasantry of the state supplying the moisture conditions for month. Urd grown best on
major portion of the protein requirement. Kharif clay loams with favourable moisture conditions and
pulses occupy generally 12.01% of the total cropped moong on deep well drained medium soils. Nagaur
area. In uncertain rains, these act as ‗insurance crops‘ district of north western part also produces moong
requiring little care on poor soils. It is well known and moth in 16.95 percent area of the total cropped
that pulses and other leguminous crops increase the area Arhar is limited to Sawaimadhopur, Bharatpur,
amount of nitrogen in the soil and well developed Kota, Baran, Alwar, and Jhalawar districts.
root system increases aeration of the soil. Some Cash Crops or Commercial crops
Rajasthan grows some of cash crops and in Oilseeds :- Oil seeds include groundnut, castor,
some of them her position is extremely satisfactory. sesamum, repseed and mustard, linseed soyabeen,
Because of lack of irrigational facilities, absence of sunflower and safflower. Rajasthan comes second
perennial rivers, dry climate, torrential rainfall, to U.P. in respect of production of mustard and rye.
defective land tenure system, poverty of the masses, Mustard is extensively grown in Alwar, Bharatpur,
illiteracy, occurrence of droughts and famines, the Jaipur, Dausa, Sriganganagar, Hanumangarh,
state could not make a speedy headway. Jalore, Sirohi,Chittorgarh, Udaipur, Rajasamand,
Sugarcane:- Most of the sugar is produced Baran, Kota and Bundi districts. Rapeseed is also
from sugarcane. The sugarcane cultivation requires produced in large quantities. Besides linseed, castor,
150-250 Celsius temperature and average annual tramira, soyabeen are grown.
rainfall of 125 cm to 150 cm. Sugarcane is grown in Groundnut :- Is also an important oilseed in
those areas where rainfall is sufficient high or better Rajasthan which covers nearly 2.79 lakh hectares or
means of irrigation exist. Banswar, Sriganganagar, 1.31 percent of the total cropped are.
Udaipur, Kota, Baran, Bundi, Pratapgarh, Tobacco :- Tobacco is another cash crop which
Chittorgarh, Bharatpur and Bhilwara are important is grown in the areas where black soil is available.
district which grows sugarcane. Kota, Baran, Jhalawar, Chittorgarh, Pratapgarh,
Cotton :- Cotton is another commerical crop Bharatpur, Bundi, Alwar, Dholpur are its main
which covers roughly an area of 1.62% of the total districts.
cropped area of the state. It is mostly grown in Spices:- Production of spices equally falls in
Sriganganagar, Hanumangar, Bhilwara, Ajmer, the category of cash crops and Rajasthan too stands
Alwar, Banswara, Bikaner, Rajsamand, Jodhpur, on a better footing.
Nagaur, Pali and Dungarpur. This crops is also Fruits and Vegetables :- Maltas of
grown in those areas where irrigation facilities exist Sriganganagar, oranges of Jhalawar, Keenoo,
and rainfall is equally higher, as it needs watering grapes, cucumber, melons and water melons have
four to five times. Ganganagar and Hanumangarh become very popular and farmers have developed a
districts account for about one third of the area taste for their cultivation.
under cotton while nearly three-fifths of the
hectareage is concentrated in the south eastern Mango grows in Jaipur, Dausa, Alwar,
districts of Chittorgarh, Bhilwara, Ajmer and Bhilawara and Banswara districts.
Jhalawar.
Horticulture
Rajasthan is a key state in terms of production of horticulture produce, particularly spices, medicinal and
aromatic plants. The state contributes around 10% to India‘s total spices and 15% to medicinal and aromatic
plants production. As per the annual estimates of GoI for 2015-16, the state produced around:
 6.82 lakh MT of fruits
 19.87 lakh MT of vegetables
 0.06 lakh MT of flowers
 10.56 lakh MT of spices
 1.87 lakh MT of medicinal and aromatic plants.
The state is one of the leadind producers of coriander, cumin, fennel, fenugreek, ajwain, garlic, dilseed,
psyllium husk and henna.
Sr. Category Rajasthan % of Rajasthan % of Rajasthan Indian
No. Area (‗ooo National Production national Productivity Productivity
Ha) Area (‗000 MT) production (MT/ha) (MT/Ha)
1 Fruits 43 1% 682 1% 16 14
2 Vegetables 191 1.9% 1987 1.2% 10 17
3 Spices 1015 29% 1056 15% 1 2
4 Medicinal & 369 58% 187 18% 1 2
Aromatic
plants
Fruits and vegetables: 4. Fenugreek: Chittorgarh, Jaipur, Jhalawar,
1. Potato: Bharatput, Dhoplpur Kota, Nagaur, Sikar, Churu, Bikaner,
2. Tomato: Jaipur, Sirohi, Ajmer, S.Madhopur, Jhunjhunu, Jodhpur.
Tonk 5. Ajwain: Chittorgarh, Udaipur, Bhilwara,
3. Onion: Sikar, Jaipur, Jhunjhunu, Nagaur, Rajsamand
Jodhour, Alwar 6. Fennel: Nagaur, Jodhpur, Pali, Tonk
4. Orange: Jhalawar Others
5. Pomegranate: Jalore, Barmer, Chittorgarh, 1. Isabgol (psylium Husk): Barmer, Jalore,
Bhilwara, Sri Ganganager, Jodhpur, Nagaur, Jaisalmer, Jodhpur, Chittorgarh
Jaisalmer 2. Hennah (mehandi): Pali, Jodhpur
6. Guava: Sawai Madhipur, Kota, Bundi, Horticulture infrastructure in Rajasthan
Bharatpur 1. Ajmer: Tabiji Research Institute
7. Kinnow: Sri Ganganagar, Hanumangarh 2. Bharatpur: National Rapseed & Mustard
8. Date palm: Bikaner, Jaisalmer Research Institut.
Spices 3. Jodhpur: Central Arid Zone Research
1. Garlic: Jhalawar, Baran, Kota, Pratapgarh Institute, Arid Forest Research Institute
2. Cumin: Barmer, Jalore, Jaisalmer, Jodhpur, 4. Tonk Central sheep & Wool Research
Nagaur, Pali Institute.
3. Coriander: Baran, Bundi, Chittorgarh, 5. Six centre of excellence on Citrus, Mango,
Jhalawar, Kota Orange, Guava, Datepalm, and
Pomegranate.
6. Central Research Institute of arid
horticulture is located at Bikaner.
National Food Security Mission (NFSM) health and Fertility and Rainfed Area Development
2014-15 Programme to focus on Climate change adaptation
during the year 2014-15. The funding pattern during
National Food Security Mission on Wheat and
2015-16 is 60 percent Central share and 40 percent
Pulses has been launched in Rajasthan in the year
State share.
2007-08 as a centrally sponsored scheme by the
Central government. During the year 2015-16, GoI National Mission for Sustainable
has changed the funding pattern and it is now GoI: Agriculture (NMSA) consists of 3 sub missions :
GoR (Government of Rajasthan) to 60:40. The Rainfed Area Development (RAD) Climate Change
major interventions of NFSM Wheat and Pulses and Sustainable Agriculture Soil Health
during 2015-16 relates to distribution of certified Management. During the year 2015-16, an
seeds, demonstration on improved production expenditure of Rs 0.76 crore has been incurred
technology, Integrated Nutrient Management (INM) against the provision of Rs. 18.89 crore upto
bio-fertilizer, micronutrients, gypsum, Integrated December, 2015.
Pest Management (IPM), agricultural implements, National Mission on Oil Seed and Oil Palm
sprinklers, pump sets, pipe line for carrying (NMPOOP): The mission is implemented with
irrigation water, mobile raingun, cropping system funds in 75:25 Centre-state ratios. There are three
based training. mini missions in this scheme viz. Mini-mission-I, II
NFSM- Wheat is implemented in 14 districts and III. Mini Mission-I focuses on oilseeds; Mini
of the State viz Banswara, Bhilwara, Bikaner, Mission II on oil palm and Mini Mission III on tree-
Jaipur, Jhunjhunu, Jodhpur, Karauli, Nagaur, Pali, borne oilseed (TBOs).
Pratapgar, Sawai-Madhopur, Sikar, Tonk, Udaipur. Rastriya Krishi Vikas Yojana (RKVY) :To
NFSM-Pulses was initially started in 16 districts viz achieve the 4 per cent growth rate in Agriculture
Ajmer, Bikaner, Barmer, Chittorgarh, Churu, and allied sector during 11th five year plan
Dausa, Ganganagar, Hanumanagarh, Jaipur, Government of India has started a schemes i.e.
Jhunjhunu, Jodhpur, Kota, Nagaur, Sikar, Tonk and RKVY in 2007-08 in all States of country including
Pratapgarh. Now all the districts of the state have Rajasthan. In this scheme Government of India
been included in the scheme. provided 100 percent central assistance during
NFSM- Coarse Cereal is implemented in 12 2007-08 to 2014-15. Project base assistance is being
districts viz. Ajmer, Alwar, Barmer, Bhilwara, provided to prepare Integrated District Agriculture
Bikaner, Churu, Jaipur, Jalore, Jhunjhunu, Jodhpur, GoI : GoR to 60:40.
Nagaur and Sikar. National Mission on Medicinal Plants (NMMP):
NFSM- Commericial Crops is implimented in To promote cultivation of medicinal plants so that
16 Districts viz. Ajmer, Alwar, Bikaner, Banswara, raw material to pharmacy sector could easily be
Bhilwara, Chittorgarh, Jalore, Jodhpur, available in sufficient quantity along with many
Hanumangarh, Kota, Pratapgarh, Nagaur, other objectives the Government of India has
Rajsamand, Sirohi, Sikar and Sriganganagar. launched this mission in the state since 2009-10.
During the year 2015-16, an expenditure of Rs. The mission is implemented in all districts.
15.11 crore has been incurred against the provision Recently government of India has renamed the
of Rs. 192.71 crore upto December, 2015. mission as National Ayush Mission and designated
the Ayush Department of Rajasthan as nodal agency
National Mission for Sustainable for implementing the Ayush Department. The new
Agriculture (NMSA) : NMSA is one of the
funding pattern of this mission is 90:10 central and
restructured schemes subsuming National Mission
state respectively. The matching share of state for
on Micro Irrigation, National Project on Organic
this mission is kept by the Ayush Department in the
Farming, National Project on Management of Soil
year 2015-16.
Paramparagat Krishi Vikas Yojjana (PKVY): 2. Adaptive trail centre: the main objective of the
Organic agriculture is a production of agricultural programme is to formulate agro-climatic block
products free from chemicals and pesticides reduced package of practice. The research work will be
by adopting eco-friendly low cost technologies. done by the Agricultural research centres
―Paramparagat Krishi Vikas Youjna‖ is an situated in various universities.
elaborated component of Soil Health Management 3. Quality control labs for seeds (6 labs), fertilizers
(SHM) of major project National Mission of (4 labs) and pestisides (6labs) are established at
Sustainable Agriculture (NMSA). Under PKVY places in the state.
Organic farming is promoted through adoption of 4. Agricultural impliments: to promote use of
organic village by cluster approach and PGS technology in agriculture, the government has
certification. PKVY funding pattern GoI : GoR is planned to provide good quality agricultural
60:40. instruments by enabling the central sector
National Horticulture Mission : To increase the schemes:
area, production and productivity of different i. National food security mission: under this
horticulture crops like fruits, spice and flowers in seed drill, seed-cum-fertiliser drill, micro
selected 24 districts namely Jaipur, Ajmer, Alwar, planters, disc plough and riz ferro planters
Chittorgarh, Kota, Baran, Jhalawar, Jodhpur, Pali, are provided by 50% government grant.
Jalore, Barmer, Nagaur, Banswar, Tonk, Karauli, ii. Sub mission on agricultural mechanization
Sawai Madhopur, Udaipur, Dungarupur, Bhilwara, iii. National mission on oil seed ans oil palm
Bundi, Jhunjhunu, Sirohi, Jaisalmer and Sri- 5. Water conservation
Ganganagar. Government of India has approved an i. Diggi-fountain programme
action plan of Rs. 66.38 crore (Rs. 39.82 crore as ii. Farm pond programme
central share and Rs. 26.55 crore as state share) for iii. Water Hoz programme
2015-16. An expenditure of Rs. 32.28 crore (Rs. iv. Irrigation pipeline programme
19.37 as central share) 6. Agricultural information dissemination
i. ‗Kheti Ri Batan‘ program on Akashvani:
National Bamboo Mission : Under this scheme the
every Tuesday, Thursday and Saturday.
districts of Karauli, Sawai-madhopur, Udaipur,
ii. ‗Khedi-Badi‘ program on Doordarshan
Chittorgarh, Banswara, Dungarpur, Sirohi, Baran,
centre Jaipur.
Jhalawar, Bhilwara, Rajasamand and Pratapgarh
iii. Monthly Newspaper ‗Kheti Ri Banta‘
were taken for promoting bamboo cultivation. The
iv. Kisan call center: 1800 180 1551
Government of India has renamed the scheme as
7. Monitoring and evaluation
national Agro-forestry and Bamboo Mission
i. Evalution survey of usefulnesses and
(NABM). For implementing this scheme in the year
effectiveness of visit programme for the
2015-16 a provision of Rs. 2.25 crore has been
interstate and intrastate farmers,
made for new plantation of bamboo and
agricultural units, trainings under various
maintenance of previous year plantation which is
schemes
under progress.
ii. Krishi Karman Award: Rajasthan was
Government programmes: awarded with this in 2014-15 for
1. Farmer Service Center: each district outstanding performance in wheat
headquarters has minimum one. These act as production.
agricultural hospitals and research centres and iii. Monitoring of campaigns:
provide latest news regarding scientific farming, 8. Global Rajasthan Agritech meet: 2016 in Jaipur,
Social forestry, Watershed development, land 2017 in Udaipur and GRAM 2018 will be held
protection, dairy, animal rearing and in Jodhpur. Jointly organized by Government of
horticulture.
Rajasthan and FICCI. Israel is the partner agriculture experts to Israel to study technical
country for the event. feasibility and economic viability of the Olive
i. GRAM express: run at the time of cultivation in Rajasthan. After studying and
event to bring the farmers from reviewing the recommendations of the expert
various place to jaipur. teams, the Government of Rajasthan decided
ii. Jajam Chaupal to promote the Olive cultivation under public-
iii. Smart farm private partnership in the state.
iv. Agri start-ups 10. Mukhyamantri Beej Swawlamban Yojna: a
9. Rajasthan Olive Cultivation limited: A pilot pilot project to develop high quality seeds of
project on Olive cultivation was conceived wheat, soyabean, jwar, and pulses in Kota,
after the visit of team of farmers and Bhilwara and Udaipur agricultural blocks.
Mahatma Jyotiba Poole Mandi Sharmik (h) Proverty reduction: by the Integrated rural
Kalyan Yojna 2015” has been launched in the development program, each household in a
State Important features of the scheme are :— village will be given a milch animal to increase
their livelihood.
 Pregnancy Assistance :- Pregnancy Assistance
(i) To generate employment: Some families in
of rupees equivalent to 45 days non skilled western dry regions are cattle herders for
labour rate is being provided to license holder generations and have large number of cattles in
lady labourer for two pregnancy period. Further their herds.
rupees equivalent to 15 days non skilled labour (j) Dairy Develeopment
rate is also being provided to the further of (k) In India the contribution of Rajasthan to sheep
newly born child. meet is 30%, and in wool it is 40%.
 Marriage Assistance :- Licensed lady labourer (l) In milk production rajasthan‘s contribution is
will be entitled for sum of Rs. 20,000 for 10%.
marriage of her girl. This assistance is limited  In fact, the Aravalli mountain range is the
for marriage upto 2 girls only. dividing line for the distribution of animal in
 Scholarship/Merit Award for student :- Every Rajasthan.
student obtaining 60 percent or above marks and  To the west of it, sheep, goats, camels, and
also a son of licensed labourer is entitled for donkeys dominated the scene white cattle,
scholarship under this scheme. buffaloes, horses and ponies and pigs etc. are
 Medical Assistance :- Financial assistance of abundantly found to the east of arvallis.
Rs. 20,000 will be given to licensed labourer in  Western part of our Rajasthan State is
case of serious disease (Cancer, Heart attack, comparatively dry, rainless, hot and water
scarcity due to which the animals which can
Liver, Kidney etc.) if he might have admitted either survive on small quantity of water like
for treatment in government hospital. sheep and goats or prolong their life cycle for
a longer period without water like camels and
donkeys.
Animal Husbandry
Not only this, the fodder available in this desert
Livestock is one of the important resource in rural conditional area is also of xerophytic plants like
Rajasthan in general and in the districts of Great Khejri, Babul, Jhari etc. and dwarf quality of grass
Indian desert in Rajasthan in Particular. known as Sewan. Moreover, the vast lands as
Livestock industry is responsible for the 9-10% perched meadows are available to the west
state income which comes in various forms like diagonally stretched Aravalli range.
ghee, hides, bones, wool, meat, mutton, milk etc. Therefore, the livestock wealth is enormously
The people of State near various types of found to be west of Aravallis.
domestic animals for different purposes & such  Small and marginal farmers in india earn upto
as:— 35% of their total income from Livestock
(a) To get milk and its productions  The growth rate of this sector has always been
(b) To have hides, skins, and leather. high around 4-6%
(c) To make the use of animals as beasts of burden.  First livestock census was undertaken in the
(d) To have flesh. state in 1919.
 The population of livestock dwindled in 1997-
(e) To get wool and hair. 2003 draught
(f) To obtain cow-dung and dung of other animals The 20th Livestock census has been started in 16
to be used as organic fertilizer. July, 2017
(g) To get bones to be used in various fertilizers
and sugar mills.
Cattle 1. Nagaur - For Nagauri cattle

1. Nagauri 2. Kishangarh (Ajmer district) - For Gir
 All India fame for fine breed and it is cows
 found in the districts of Nagaur, eastern parts of 3. Anoopgarh (Ganganagar district) - For
Jodhpur and Nokha tehsil of Bikaner. Rathi cows
 Its origion is in Suhalak region of Nagore. 4. Sanchore (Jalore district) - For Kankrej
2. Kankraj cows
 found in Jalore, Pali and Parts of Barmer 5. Cohtan (Barmer district) – Fior
district. Thrarparkar cows
 5-10 litre milk per day Dairy Development: - Rajasthan produces 10
 The males are also good at pulling heavy percent milk of the total milk of the country. The
weights, hence this breed is also known as highest quantity of milk is produced in Jaipur,
Bi-projected breed.
Gangangar, Jodhpur, Udaipur, Alwar, Bikaner,
3. Haryana breed
 Found in ganganagar, Hanumangarh, Churu, Bharatpur, Dholpur, Bhilwara, Ajmer and Kota. In
Bikaner and Sikar districts. order to have maximum milk, ghee, butter etc.
4. Tharparker There are dairies in the State
 Found in Barmer, Sanchor tehsil of Jalore The following are the important dairies :—
district, eastern Jaisalmer and western (i) Dalmia Dairy, Bharatpur :- It is one of the
Jodhpur. biggest dairies of Rajasthan. Besides the supply
 Origin region is Malani in Barmer of milk, it produces ghee, dry powder milk and
 Famous for high quantity milk, also known butter.
as Malani breed
5. Rathi breed (ii) Saras Dairy, Jaipur :- It produces ghee,
 Found over a tract extending from north- butter, cheese and supplies milk too. It‘s per
eastern Jaisalmer to western and south day collection of milk is more than one lakh
western Ganganagar district in the north. liter.
 Cows are famous for high milk production (iii) Ajmer Dairy :- It is cooperative dairy and was
but the bulls are not much useful established in 1972.
6. Gir
 Its origin is in Gir forest of Gujrat. (iv) Bikaner Urmal Dairy :- It‘s collection
 It is found in Ajmer, Chittorgarh, Bundi capacity of milk is one lakh litre / a day. Its
and Kota. milk is supplied to Delhi. It was established in
Nagauri bullocks are considered to be the best 1973.
draught animals in our country and thus used for (v) Bhilwara Dairy :- It was established by Govt.
cultivation in whole of northern India. Parbastar of India. About 20 thousand litre milk is
fair, Pushkar fair, Goga fair and Bikaner fair are the supplied to Delhi per day
collecting and cows too. Haryana Mewat, Rath and (vi) Raniwara Dairy :- It is in Sirohi district
Kankraj are dual purpose breeds. Tharparkar, Rath besides the milk supply, it produces ghee,
and Gir and good milk breedsand Malvi and
Nagauri are amongst the best draught cattle in India. cheese and dry powder.
The cows for various types may give milk from Powder milk Centers :- Powder milk is now
5 to 12 litres/ day which is too less as compared to manufactured in the Dairy Plants at Jaipur, Ajmer
the devloped countries of the west where these and Alwar. Efforts are going onto establish such
averages are 40 to 60 litres/day. plants at Bikaner and Bhilwara, each having a
Cattle Breed Centers: - Five centers have capacity of 30 metric tons. Operation Flood III
been opened to improve the indigenous breeds of programme aims to develop the cattle wealth of the
cattle: state in regard to milk production, development of
co-operative dairies and milk collection centers
Buffaloes 2. Megra :- This breed is also best one and is

The Sub-humid parts of Rajasthan are most mostly in Jaisalmer, Bikaner, Pali and Nagaur
suitable for rearing the buffaloes because fodder districts. Each sheep produces 5 kg. of wool per
and forage which they require is easily available in year but the wool is of high grade, the wool stapes
these areas. are 10-12 cm. long. The sheep are well-built. The
state has nearly 5 lakh sheep of this breed.
Buffalo is a water and wetness loving animal. It
is therefore, abundantly found in semi-arid and 3. Nali :- This variety is found in Bikaner,
semi-humid parts of the State. Hanumangarh and Ganganagar districts. The mouth
of this breed is of light brown color and ears are
Only two types of Buffaloes are found in the long. Each sheep produces 3 to 4 kg. in weight and
State. have wool threads 12 to 14 cm. long. There are
1. Murrah:- Murrah is only one recognized about 3.9 lakh sheep of this breed in Rajasthan.
bread of buffaloes in the state which is the best of Wool of this variety is very fine and mostly used in
its kind in India in respect of its milk yields and fat making fine woolen cloths. It is exported not only to
percentage. It is found mostly in the eastern districts the woolen mills in India but also to the other
of Rajasthan, mainly in the districts of Alwar, countries.
Jhunjhunu, Jaipur, Ganganagar, Hanumangarh. 4. Marwari :- This variety is found mostly in
Bharatpur and Dholpur with good rainfall and in the arid and semi-arid districts of Jaisalmer, Jodhpur,
canal irrigated areas. This breed is of dark black, Barmer, Pali, Sikar, Jhunjhunu and Churu.It has a
shining color with arc-shaped long horms. widespread range of dispersal and therefore, is also
2. Haryanvi :- This breed of buffaloes is an reared in Jaipur and Dausa districts. The Sheep have
inferior and is found mostly in the border district of black face and long ears. They are well-built,
Haryana and Rajasthan. weighting each 50 kg. and capable to resist the
3. Zafrabadi:- It is found in the region of south diseases and to drought. The state has nearly 60
west rajasthan in vicinity of Gujrat. Their origin lakhs sheep of this breed. The wool is of medium
place is in Kathiawar. grade with staples 8-10 cm. long and each sheep
produce 1 to 2 kg. of wool per year The wool is a
Sheep
medium grade having staples of 10-12 cm. long and
 Sheep survive mostly on xerophytic plants each sheep produce 1 to 2 kg. of wool per year.
as well as on minimum water supply. 5. Pungal :- It is a native breed of Pungal
 Therefore , 43% of the total number of region or bikaner and hence its name. It is found in
sheep of Rajasthan are rared in the arid Jaisalmer, Bikaner, Nagaur, and Jodhpur districts.
districts of Jodhpur, bikaner, Nagaur, This breed has a well-built body and is of white
Barmer, Jaisalmer and Pali. colour. The annual production of wool per sheep is
 Sheep is a dynamic, purposeful, multi- about 2 kg. but the wool is of medium grade. The
dimensional pet animal which is not only state has nearly 3 lakhs sheep of this breed. The
raised for wool but for mutton fat, manure, wool is mostly used to make blankets and coarse
milk, hides, bones and recreation too. cloth.
 About 50% of the total wool production of
6. Jaisalmeri :- This variety is mostly found in
our country is produced in Rajasthan State.
Jaisalmer and hence its name. It is also found in
Types of Sheep :— Jodhpur and Barmer districts. The sheep produce
1. Chokhla :- This breed is reared mostly in the finest quality of wool which is long stapled 10-
Shekhawati region, hence, it is also known by 15 cm. long. Each sheep produces 3 to 3.5 kg. of
Shekhawati verity of sheep. It is mostly found in the wool per year. This breed is highly resistant to
districts of Sikar, Jhunjhunu and Churu. Chokhla droughts. It can survive without water for weeks.
Sheep have dark brown or blacks spots on the The Sheep are black or brown faced with long ears
forehead and are well-built. anda well built body. Approximately, 7 lakhs in
number record this variety.
7. Bagari :- It is mostly found in the districts of Goats are found in largest number and
Alwar, Dholpur and Bharatpur. The sheep have widespread throughout the entire state. Mostly
black faces and short ears. They produce short Goats are reared in the dry desert part of Rajasthan
stapled wool which is mostly used to make rugs. where they survive on xerophytic plants like Kher,
Their number in Rajasthan is about 5 Lakhs. Babul, Khejara, Rohida, Aak, Lagariya, Bushes,
8. Malpuri :- It is found mostly in Tonk, shrubs, grasses and other plants. The following
Jaipur, Dausa and sawai Madhopur districts. The types of goats are generally found in Rajasthan
sheep are of light-brown or white or white colour 1. Jamnapuri : This type is known as milk
having short ears and a medium weight of 30-35 kg. breed and therefore is reared for milk production.
The annual production of wool of medium grade Each goat on an average gives milk upto 3 litres per
having short stapes of 7-10 cm. About 20 lakhs day. Their colour is generally white or brown. They
sheep of this variety exist in the state its wool is have very long ears, small horns and very long and
generally used for carpet making and blankets. wooly hairs. They are well-built and often used to
9. Sonari :- This Variety is found moslty in the carry small loads of fodder and wool. This variety is
southern districts of Rajasthan viz. Udaipur found mostly in Barmer, Sirohi, Jodhpur and other
Rajsamand, Dungarpur, bhilwara, Chittorgarh, western district of the state
Banswara and Sirohi. The sheep have brown faces, 2. Barbari :- This variety is also good milk-
very long ears and a long tail. Sheep are well-built yielding because each goat gives 1.5 litre/per day.
and heavy in weight, each weighing 55 to 60 kg. Their colour is white or deep brown but hairs are
They produce 1.5 kg. wool per annum per sheep. short. Alwari and Sirohi the two other good milk
The wool is generally used in making coarse cloth yielding varieties of goats as their name represents
and rugs. To improve the quality and bread of are reared in Alwar and Sirohi respectively.
sheep, the State and Central government in Jharwali, Lohi and sindhi all the three are good
collaboration with other governments have varieties of goats reared for meat production. They
Ambikanagar, Bikaner and Shahpura. Moreover are well-built and have good fresh. They give milk
eight research centers- Bikaner, Mandore, Pokaran, not more than one litre a day.
Jodhpur, Kodamdeshar, Hanumangarh, Malpura Goat Development Farms at Ramsar Ajmer
and Chittorgarh have also been established to was established in 1982-83. Since then , it has been
improve the breed of sheep in Rajasthan. Similiarly, functioning to fulfil it aim :-
the state have been divided into four, wool (i) By improving the indigenous varieties for meat
improvement zones. and milk production.
(i) Jaipur :- Jobner, Malpura, Newai, Dausa, (ii) By improving the indigenous varieties for meat
Jaipur, Ajitgarh, Nawalgarh, Jhunjhunu, Sikar, and milk production
Sawaimadhopur.
(iii) By demonstrating of fodder utilization suit able
(ii) Bikaner :- Bhadra, Mahajan, Suratgarh, for various breeds of goats.
Hanumangarh, Sujangarh, Dungargarh, Nokha,
Kolayat, Bikaner & Rajgarh (iv) By recording of milk yields from the various
breeds of goats and making efforts for their
(iii) Jodhpur (North) :- Jaisalmer, Ramgarh, improvement.
Devasar, Lathi, Pokaran, Mohangarh, Phalodi,
Osian, shiv and bhad. (v) By providing medical facilities for preventation
of total diseases among the goats.
(iv) Jodhpur (South) :- Barmer, Balotra, Jalore,
Bali, Pali, Bilara, Jodhpur, Parabastar, Merta,
Nagaur.
Goats
Camel
Camel is the Multi functional animal of Rajasthan which is used not only for cultivation,
irrigation and transport but also for voyage, national security, water fetching, water transporting, recreation
and most of other jobs. Rajasthan has monopoly for the best breeds of the camels, the most important of which
are the bikaneri and the Jaisalmeri.
The following breeds of camel are found in Rajasthan :—
1. Bikaneri :- This breed is famous as they run very fast. they are mostly confined to Bikaner, Ganganagar,
Hanumangarh and Churu districts. It is said to be originated in Bikaner region and hence they are named
Bikaneri.
2. Jodhpuri :- This breed is found mostly in Jodhpur and Nagaur districts.
3. Nachna :- This breed belongs to fast runner types of canels. They are found mainly around the nachna
village of the Jaisalmer district.
4. Jaisalmeri :- This type of camels are found generally in Jaisalmer, Barmer and Jodhpur districts.
5. Kutchi :- Camels of this breed are mainly found in Barmer and Jalore districts.
6. Jalori : - Such type of camels are seen in Jalore and Sirohi districts.
7. Mewari :- This breed is generally used for load carrying. They are found in Udaipur, Chittorgarh,
Pratapgarh and Ajmer districts.
8. Gomat :- This breed is very famous so far transport is concerned because Gomat camel is ver fast runner
one. They are found in Jodhpur and Nagaur.
Sheep are the most important in Jaisalmer, Churu, Major initiative taken by the animal
Jodhpur, Nagaur and Pali, while goats gains husbandry department during the year 2015-16
importance in Barmer where they account for nearly :—
one fourth of the regional total. In this region  Foot and Mouth Disease control programme is
Marwari and Lohi breeds of goats are notable for initiated in the state with assistance of GoI
mutton whereas Bikaneri, Jaisalmeri, Marwari and (Government of India) with an aim to control
Pungal breeds of sheep are best for quality wool. and contain Foot and Mouth Disease. Under the
programme 94.79 lakh cattle and buffaloes
Poultry Farming have been vaccinated upto December, 2015.
Although, Rajasthan is comparatively an  On the pilot basis, Mobile veterinary clinic in
orthodox state but now the people have started to Deoli and Uniara tehsil of Tonk district are
supplement their diet by poultry products duet to providing veterinary services at farmer‘s door
process of urbanization, industrialization, fast steps through toll free call center.
changing social values and social transformations as  Software has been launched for effective
well as easy access of this balanced diet items. monitoring of supply and demand of surgical
 Ajmer is well known not only in country but and consumables for veterinary health services
under free medicine scheme for live stock.
also-in the world because in Ajmer district,
improved birds are reared.  With an aim to conserve and propagate live
stock wealth during the year 2015-16, 5.18 lakh
 Ajmer has the largest production of eggs and animal health and breeding cards have been
broilers in Rajasthan. made available to live stock farmers.
 Ajmer has the largest production of eggs and  During the year 2015-16, 93 sub centers have
broilers in Rajasthan. been upgarded to veterinary hospital, 302 New
 The State has Poultry Research Centers at Veterinary sub centers and 26 new tehsil
Ajmer, Jodhpur, Kota and Udaipur. mobile units have also been established upto
December, 2015.
 The future of this activity is very much and
 State wise intensive vaccination campaign was
Government has also been providing facilities organized during 29 June to 13 July, 2015.
at all levels to the people and peasants to During.
establish poultry farms.
Gopalan Department
State to create the market and employment
The aim of the Directorate of Gopalan is to act
opportunities. rigorously for promotion, conservation and
(a) Milk chilling plants and milk products development of the cattle population reared in
(b) Meat Products Gaushalas of the State by means of various training
(c) Bone Products programmes for imparting managerial skills to
Gaushala managers in the fields of organic farming
(d) Semi mechanized footwear and fodder production, marketing of cattle products,
(e) Carpet weaving renewable energy etc.
(f) Sole-leather tannery Dairy Development
(g) Woolen finishing and dyeing centers The Dairy Development Programme in
(h) Woolen processing and combing unit Rajasthan is being implemented through
Cooperative Societies. Under this Programme
(i) Poultry and poig farming is still under 13,576 Primary Dairy Cooperative Societies have
developed in the state, for that technical know- been affiliated with 21 District Milk Production
how, cross breed chikens and money should be cooperative Unions spread over in 33 districts of the
provided to the marginal and cooperative State and a State level Apex.
farmer.
Fisheries
Bedsides utilizing state water resources for fisheries development, Fisheries sector is also providing low
cost food rich in protein and employment to rural weaker sections. In Rajasthan a good number of water bodies
are available covering about 4.23 lakh hectare water spread area. In addition to it about 70 rivers and canals
exist in the State covering about 30,000 hectare along with about 80,000 hectare water logged area and water
resources of Rajasthan stands on 11th Position in the country. As per the study conducted by the Central Institute
of Fisheries Education, Mumbai (2010) the fish production potential of Rajasthan is more than 80,000 metric
tonnes annually while actual production estimated in the year 2014-15 was only 46,314 metric tonnes in the
State.
The table reveals that fist production is increasing steadily in the State. The Department has started
implementation of ambitious scheme on ‗Livelihood model‘, which is a ‗zero revenue‘ model, for the
upliftment of tribal fishermen in three Reservoirs namely Jaisamand (Udaipur), Mahi Bajaj Sagar (Banswara)
and Kadana Backwater (Dungarpur).
Livestock Products
1. Milk Production: India is largest producer of 2. Wool: Annual growth rate of wool in rajasthan
milk in the world followed by USA and China. has been negative (-7.25)
 State Wise milk production  State wise production
i. Uttar Pradesh (17%) i. Rajasthan (30.8%)
ii. Rajasthan (11.9%) ii. Karnataka (18.8%)
iii. Gujrat (7.9%) iii. Jammu & Kashmir (15.8%)
iv. Madhya Pradesh (7.8%)  Jodhpur is the highest producing center
 State wise per capita milk availability followed by Bikaner and Nagore, Jhalawar
i. Punjab (1032gm) produces lowest.
ii. Hariyana (877gm) 3. Egg production: India is ranked at 3rd in egg
iii. Rajasthan (704gm) production after china and USA
iv. Gujrat (545gm)  State wise production
v. Himachal Pradesh (505gm) i. Tamilnadu (19.4%)
 Highest milk producing district is Jaipur ii. Andra Pradesh (18.89%)
iii. Telangana (13.5%)
followed by Sri Ganganagar and Alwar,
iv. West Bengal (7.2%)
lowest production in Banswara.
v. Maharashtra (6.4%)
 Rajasthan with its 1.7% contribution is at 5. Integrated Animal development programme:

15th place. this was started in 8th five year plan in Jaipur
 Per capita egg availability is 66 eggs per and Bikaner division, but today it extends to 21
person per year. districts with 749 centres. The centres provide
4. Meet Production: In india about 46% of the various livestock services with state-of-the-art
meet is from poultry and 23% from buffalo. techniques.
 State wise production 6. Rajasthan Dairy development Programme: To
i. Uttar Pradesh (20.2%) enact the milk policy Rajasthan Co-operative
ii. West Bengal (9.8%) Dairy Fedration has been established on the
iii. Maharashtra (9.6%) model and assistance of National Dairy
iv. Andra Pradesh (8.1%) Development Board. The dairy federation
Problems associated with Livestock development focuses on providing high quality milk and milk
products, and providing fair prices to the
1. Uncertainity of monsoon: reduces pastures to producers.
graze. 7. Technology mission on dairy development: GoI
2. Lack of planning and coordination mission main aims of the mission are:
3. Livestock health : diseases, road accidents; there  Increase the productivity and reduce input
is lack of any schemes that cover such losses cost using modern technology.
and protect livestock
 Provide rural employment and increase
4. Lack of animal based industries
livelihood.
Government Initiatives  Increase the facilitation of milk and its
1. Gopal Pregramme: started in 1990-91, targats derivatives.
educated village youth (Gopla) and train them in 8. India‘s first cattle sanctuary in Bikaner.
cattel rearing. The aim of the programmes is to 9. Bhamashah Livestock Insurance Scheme:
increase the use of foreign breeds by various started in 2016. The SCs and STs and BPLs will
methods like cross breeding and artificial get upto 70% grant and upto 50% to others.
insemination at various centers. Bad quality 10. Establishment of ‗Pashu-Haat‘: Rajasthan govt
males are segregated. It also aims at practice of has started the competitive project to organize 7
feeding the livestock and reduce dependence on pashu-haats in Ajmer, Tonk, Alwar,
free grazing. Chittorgarh, Banswara, Dhaulpur and Jhalawar.
2. Sheep breeding Programme: to increase the Water Conservation
production of wool and meet and improve the Rajasthan has always been water deficient state
quality and quantity. Cross-breeding in Nali, due to lack of much water sources and less than
Chokla, Sonadi and Malpura breeds. This average rain, especially in western rajasthan region.
programme uses artificial methods to improve In the state where the 5.5% of the population lives
the breed. and water availability is only 1%, water
3. Marketing arrangement: Govt from time to time management has been crucial since ancient times.
organize livestock fairs to ensure righ price for These practices of ancient times have proven
animal and facilitating systematic markets for themselves successful in sustaining the civilization
buyers and sellers by reducing mediators. The over time in this barren land.
fairs are organized with the help of local 1. Ponds: Rainwater is stored in local ponds to be
agencies like Gram Panchayat and Municipal used in draught months. Most of the ponds have
organizations etc. wells near them and are managed by the
4. Livestock health programme: Govt has community. The ponds and waterbody reared as
institutionalized many hospitals for animals. for religious purposes has seen security and
The government further plans to provide 8 protection. These act as major factor to recharge
livestock health units in each division. ground water and maintain water availability in
nearby wells and Baoris.
District wise position of Ponds in rajasthan:

i. Sawai Madhopur: Sukhsagar, Kalasagar, Jangali Talab
ii. Pali: Hemawas, Dantiwada, Muthana
iii. Bhilwara: Sareri, Khari, Meja
iv. Udaipur: Bagolia
v. Chittorgarh: Padmini, Vankiya, Muralia. Senapani
vi. Bundi: Kirti Mori, Barda, Hindoli
vii. Bharatpur: parvati, Baretha
viii. Jaisalmer: Gadhsisar
ix. Dungarpur: Edward Sagar
x. Pratapgarh: Raipur, Gandher, Kherot, Ghotarsi, Dhalmu, Achalpur, Jajli, Achlawada, Sankhthali,
Tezsagar.
2. Nadi:
 It is a type of small pond (3-12 meters deep) which stores rainwater.
 In 1520 Rao Jodha ji constructed first Nadi; these days each village in western rajasthan has one nadi,
especially in Jodhpur.
3. Baori
4. Tanka
 Used to store water in dry region, as the ground water being saline the rainwater is used to store in the
Tanka.
 It is an underground pond, covered from above, it was made in the shape of a saucer.
5. Khadin:
 A technique used to store water and make desert soil cultivable.
 This technique is still used in modern day Iran
 It was like an underground canal and step tanks where the water moves to next tank if the previous tank
gets filled, the crops are sown on the basis of last water availability in the tank.
 These are made generally along side a dam so when the Khadin gets filled the excess water gets out.
6. Toba
 This is similar to nadi but deeper than it.
 The land with low seepage is chosen for its construction.
7. Jhalra:
 Water body that gets water from overflow and seepage from ponds and lakes at higher place.
 Its water is mainly used for bathing and religious ritual purposes and not for drinking.
8. Kui/Beri
 Small well which is around 10-12 meters deep, are dug near ponds and nadis, and are covered
with wooden cover.
Chapter 17
Public Health Initiatives with reference to Rajasthan
Health and medicinal programmes Objectives: capacity development of
The government is paying special attention to laboratories; provide health security; facilitate
medical field for improvement in health of people other check up. This scheme is being implemented
especially weaker sections. The government is in phased manner.
bound to control and eradicate infectious and other Adarsh Prathmik Swasthya Kendra
diseases and provide treatment and remedies. The This programme is aimed at qualitative health
following initiatives have been taken to bring services in rural areas of the state. In the first phase
people in mainstream. 295 Adarsh Prathmik Kendra (PHC) have been
Mukhyamantri Nishulka Dawa Yojna marked.
This scheme was started o 2 October 2011 Public private partnership
with an objective to extend benefits to all external Dialysis facility is available in eight districts
or internal organ patients. During 2017-18 list of hospitals namely Jhunjhunu, Churu, Beawar,
compulsory drugs contain 606 drug combinations, Alwar, Bundi, Sikar, Bharatpur and Kota. this
174 surgical instruments and 77 other surgical arrangement has taken to facilitate the service in 19
instruments. For OPD patients drugs distribution is districts. In Pali, Rampura (Kota), Bikaner, Beawar
according to time table and available 24 hours to and Sawai Madhopur PPP IVF facilities are being
IPD and emergency patients. This scheme also run.
covers extreme and critical diseases.
National Ayush Mission
Bhamashah Scheme On directives of Ministry of Ayush,
This scheme was launched for the first time in Government of India, this programmes is started
2008 for women empowerment and financial for overall development of Homeopathy, Yunani,
inclusion. This scheme was restarted in 2014 at the Yoga, Sowa riggpa and naturopathy as alternative
larger scale to enable direct benefit transfer in both methods of treatment. For its implementation there
is cash and cashless benefits. More than 1.5 crore is Rajasthan State Ayush Society has been
families and 5.25 crore people have been registered established on 12 March 2015.
in Bhamashah till December 2017.
Employees State Insurance Scheme
Bhamashah Health Insurance Scheme It is a social security scheme, which gives
This scheme provides cashless treatment insurance and free medical services to employees
facility also in private hospitals to poor people ( and their dependence. The beneficiaries employees
registered in National food security act, 2013 and having monthly salary up to 21,000 and working in
Rashtriya Swasthya Beema Yojna). This scheme Industrial, Commercial, Educational, Medical and
also provide financial and social security and other institution are according to Employees state
minimize the out of pocket expenses of people. insurance act, 1948 section 58.
Bhamashah Health Insurance Scheme(2017-19) Rajasthan Janani Suraksha Yojna
next phase has started on 13 december 2017, which The objective of this scheme is to reduce the
includes some new procedures in beneficiaries, no maternal mortality rate and to provide free medical
of packages, expenses and regulation. and other services to mother and newborns. Free
Free Sanitary napkin distribution checkup, lab tests, food, drugs, blood and transport
is provided to the beneficiaries.
scheme
Some other notable programmes
Government has started this scheme to provide  National Health Mission
free sanitary napkins to school going girls from  Natioanl Child Health Programme
class 6-12th and nonschool going BPL family girls  Janani Express
from 10-19 years of age. The first phase has been  108 toll free Ambulance service
completed.  Leprosy eradication programme
 Malaria eradication Programme
Mukhyamantri Nishulka Janch Yojna  National Mental Health Programme
Chapter 18
Nuclear technology
Nuclear Energy is the energy in the core of discharge of ˠ -rays, it is termed as capture
an atom. Where an atom is a tiny particle that reactions. Radioactive nuclides are
constitutes every matter in the universe. Normally, produced by neutron capture reactions.
the mass of an atom is concentrated at the center of Types of Nuclear reactors
the nucleus. Neutrons and Protons are the two
subatomic particles that comprehend the A nuclear reactor consists of:
nucleus.There ex a st massive amount of energy in a. Fissile material: U enriched in 92U235 is
bonds that bind atoms together. used as fissile material.
Nuclear Energy is discharged by nuclear b. Moderator these are used to slow down the
reactions either by fission or fusion. In nuclear speed of neutrons. E.g graphite, heavy wter,
fusion, atoms combine together to form a larger D2O.
atom. In nuclear fission, the division of atoms takes c. Control rods Rods of B or Cd
place to form smaller atoms by releasing energy. d. Coolant liquid alloy of Na and K is used as
Nuclear power plants produce energy using nuclear coolant. It takes away the heat of the
fission. Sun produces energy using mechanism of exchanger. Heavy water, polyphenols and
nuclear fusion. CO2 have also been used as coolants.
i. Pressurized heavy water reactor – Usually
Nuclear reactions un-enriched natural uranium is used as fuel.
Nuclear reactions cause changes in the Heavy water is used as neutron moderator and
nucleus of atoms which in turn leads to changes in coolant.
atom itself. Nuclear reactions convert 1 element ii. Breeder reactor – a reactor that creates fissile
into a completely different element. Suppose if a material at a faster rate than it uses another
nucleus interacts with any other particles then fissile material. It utilized the complete fuel
separates without altering the characteristics of material.
other nuclei than the process is called as nuclear a) Thermal breeder reactor – thorium 232
scattering rather than specifying it as a nuclear produces uranium 233 after neutron
reaction. This does not imply to radioactive decay. enrichment and loss of atomic mass. This
One of the most evident nuclear reaction is reactor uses thermal neutron wavelength for
nuclear fusion reaction that occurs in fissionable fission of thorium to produce uranium 233.
materials producing induced nuclear fission. b) Fast breeder reactor – it uses fast neutrons
to produce uranium from fissile plutonium
Nuclear Reactions types and enriched uranium.
 Inelastic scattering: This process takes Applications of Nuclear Energy
place when a transfer of energy occurs. It
occurs above threshold energy.i.e Et =  Nuclear technology
((A+1)/A)* ε1, where Et is called as the  Nuclear medicine
inelastic threshold energy and ε1 is the  Nuclear Technology is used in Industries
energy of the first excited state.  Agricultural uses of nuclear technology
 Elastic Scattering: It occurs when there is  Environmental uses of nuclear technology
energy transfer between a particle and  Biological Experimentations
intends nuclei. It is the most vital process  Medical diagnosis and treatments
for slowing down neutrons. In the case of an  Scientific investigations
elastic scattering total kinetic energy of any  Engineering projects
system is conserved.  Neutron Activation Analysis
 Transfer Reactions: The absorption of Radioactivity
particle followed by discharge of 1 or 2
Due to nuclear instability, an atom‘s nucleus
particles is referred as transfer reactions.
exhibits the phenomenon of Radioactivity. Energy
 Capture Reactions: When nuclei capture is lost due to radiation that is emitted out of the
neutral or charged particles followed by unstable nucleus of an atom. Two forces namely the
force of repulsion that is electrostatic and the Applications of radiation

powerful forces of attraction of the nucleus keep the 1. Estimation of Age (Dating Technique)
nucleus together. These two forces are considered i. Carbon dating technique: It is used to
extremely strong in the natural environment. The determine the age of wood, animal fossils etc. It
chance of encountering instability increases as the is based upon the ratio of C14 to C12 which
size of the nucleus increases because the mass of remains constant in living organisms but
the nucleus becomes a lot when concentrated. decreases in dead sample. By comparing these
That‘s the reason why atoms of Plutonium, two, the age is determines.
Uranium are extremely unstable and undergo the ii. Uranium Dating technique: The age of
phenomenon of radioactivity. earth, minerals, rocks etc is determined by this
Henry Becquerel discovered radioactivity by technique. It is based upon the U238/Pb206 ratio.
accident. A Uranium compound was placed in a 2. Medicinal Use: Radioisotopes are used to
drawer containing photographic plates, wrapped in diagnose and cure many diseases. These can be
a black paper. When the plates were examined later used in three ways.
it was found that they were exposed! This exposure i. In Vivo studies: Cr51 is used for such
gave rise to the concept of Radioactive decay. technique.
Radioactivity can be seen in such forms:
ii. In therapeutic procedure (to cure
 Gamma Decay (Photons having high energy diseases) Co60 is used for the treatment of cancer,
are emitted) Na24 is injected to trace the flow of blood, I131 is
 Beta Decay (Emission consists of Electrons) used for the treatment of thyroid and P32 is used for
 Alpha Decay (Emission consists of Helium lukemis.
nucleus) iii. imaging procedure: I131 is used to study
Alpha Decay the structure and activity of thyroid gland. I123 is
Alpha decay is a type of radioactive decay used in brain imaging and Tc99 M is used in bone
where the unstable atomic nuclei emit a helium scans.
nucleus (alpha particle) and in the process Development of Nuclear technology in India
transforms into another more stable element. The India was an early entrant in the field of
particle ejected out, the alpha particle, consists of nuclear energy. It was Dr Homi J Bhabha who
4 nucleons; two neutrons and two protons. Alpha initiated nuclear science research in India by setting
radiation reduces the ratio of protons to neutrons in up the Tata Institute of Fundamental Research
the parent nucleus, bringing it to a more stable (TIFR) in 1945 and later the Atomic Energy
configuration. An alpha particle is identical to the Establishment at Trombay (now known as Bhabha
nucleus of a helium atom. The first observations Atomic Research Centre or BARC) in 1954 to
and investigation into alpha decay were made by intensify effort to deploy nuclear technology for
Ernest Rutherford who used alpha particles in his generating electricity. The Department of Atomic
gold foil scattering experiment. As the alpha Energy (DAE) headed by the prime minister started
particle; made of two protons and neutron; exits the functioning since then.
nucleus, the atomic number of the radioactive
sample changes. The element left behind after alpha As a part of an agreement with the USA,
decay is 2 atomic numbers lesser and four mass India set up its first nuclear power station (410MW)
number lower. For example, Uranium 238 92 decays in 1963 at Tarapore in Maharashtra. It was based on
to form Thorium23490. Boiling Water Reactors (BWRs) using enriched
238 234 4 Uranium fuel supplied by the USA. This project
92U→ 90Th+ 2He
started commercial operation in 1969. Tarapore
Thus the transformation of a nucleus in an marked the beginning of India's nuclear power
alpha decay can be written as: development effort.
A A−4 4
ZX→ Z−2Y+ 2He Initially, it was the DAE that implemented
Half-Life Period the nuclear power development programme till the
It is defined as the time required for one- creation of the Nuclear Power Corporation of India
half of the isotop to dacay. Ltd. (NPCIL) as a central PSU in 1987.
It was Dr Bhabha's vision that India should experience, design of a 500MWe Prototype Fast
become self-reliant in the field of nuclear energy. Breeder Reactor (PFBR) has been done. The design
Accordingly, India adopted a three-stage nuclear has been peer reviewed by international design
power development programme based on agencies. With respect to manufacturing, an
indigenously made reactors and fuel processed from elaborate manufacturing technology development
domestic resources. program was undertaken which helped in
The first stage was based on indigenously identifying the major industries towards
manufactured Pressurised Heavy Water Reactors demonstration of indigenous capability. Currently,
(PHWRs) that used natural Uranium from domestic all the components and equipments, especially the
sources as fuel and indigenously produced Heavy oversized heavy components have been
Water as both the moderator and the coolant. In the successfully manufactured by Indian industries and
second stage, Plutonium-239, separated from the erected in PFBR project. By following the above
spent fuel in the first stage, was to be used in approach, India has mastered the design and
indigenously developed Fast Breeder Reactors manufacturing of sodium cooled Fast Breeder
(FBRs) for generating electricity. In the futuristic Reactors (FBR).
third stage, it was envisaged to use the indigenously Advantages of Fast Breeder Reactors (FBR)
available Thorium raw material from the sea sands FBRs are designed with several safety
along the coast and produce Uranium 233 which in measures and features which follow redundancy
turn would be the fuel for electricity generation. and diversity principles. Fast Breeder Reactors are
During the last five decades since its safe and efficient apart from the benefits from
inception, with a heavy emphasis on indigenous environmental considerations. Economic viability
effort, DAE has installed around 5,780 MW of of FBRs depends on successful operation of PFBR
nuclear power generation capacity. As on date, and subsequently successful commissioning and
nuclear power constitutes only 1.83 percent of the operation of FBRs in the country.
total installed electricity generation capacity in the Electricity generated by FBR would be a
country and, in terms of the total electricity source of green energy as the waste from the first
generation, its contribution is only 3.23 percent. stage nuclear programme is reprocessed and used as
It was in 1988 that India signed an fuel in FBR. The spent fuel from this reactor can be
agreement with the then Soviet Union for setting up fed back into the reactor core several times, till the
a 2x1000MW capacity power project based on spent fuel contains only short lived fission products.
Soviet manufactured pressurised water reactors at This is the concept of FBR with closed fuel cycle.
Kudankulam in Tamil Nadu. Actual work on the Hence, there is no need of large quantity of fuel
project started in 2002. materials for the annual external feed and thus
The signing of the Indo-US nuclear deal in eliminates the need for large capacity waste storage
2005 marked the beginning of a series of bilateral spaces with complex construction features.
inter-country agreements that India signed for Indigenously produced Mixed Uranium &
importing on a very large scale both nuclear Plutonium Oxide will be used as the fuel in the
reactors and fuel from overseas sources. Prototype Fast Breeder Reactor at Kalpakkam.
Indira Gandhi Centre for Atomic Research The indigenously designed industrial scale
(IGCAR) has been carrying out a comprehensive prototype FBR of 500 MWe capacity is in an
R&D on sodium cooled fast breeder reactor advanced stage of commissioning at Kalpakkam.
technology for the past 30 years. A test reactor, Consenting process by Atomic Energy Regulatory
called Fast Breeder Test Reactors (FBTR), is in Board (AERB) for the commissioning of PFBR is
operation from 1985 onwards which has provided begun concurrently with the ongoing
valuable feedback. Based on this experience and commissioning activities.
also taking into account the international
Chapter 19
Electromagnetic waves
Electromagnetic waves are coupled time Properties of EM waves
varying electric and magneticfield that propogates in  Velocity of EM waves in free space or
space. These electric and magnetic fields are time vaccume is a fundamental constand (3 x
varying and coupled with each other when 108m/s)
propogating together in space given rise to  No material medium is necessary for EM
electromagnetic waves. waves. But they can propagate within a
medium as well. EM waves require time
Sources of EM waves varying electric and magnetic fields to
 EM waves are generated by electrically propagate.
charged particle oscillates (accelerating  EM waves carry energy and momentum, it
charges). becomes an important property ofr its
 The electric filed associated with the pratical purposes.
accelerating charges which generates the  EM waves are used for communication
purposes, voice communication in mobile
vibrating magnetic field. phones, telecommunication used in radio.
 These both vibrating electric and magneric  EM waves exert pressure because they carry
fields give rise to EM waves. energy and momentum. This pressure is
Nature of EM waves known as radiation pressure.
 EM waves are transverse waves. Electromagnetic spectrum
 The transverse waves are those in which  Electromagnetic spectrum is the
direction of disturbance or displacement in classification of EM waves according to their
the medium is perpendicular to that of the frequency or wavelength.
propagation of wave.  Based on the wavelength EM waves are
classified into different categories. This
 The particles of the medium are moving in classification is known as electromagnetic
adirection perpendicular to the direction of spectrum.
propogation of wave.  Different categories of EM waves in
decreasing order of their wavelength:
o Radio waves > 0.1m
o Microwaves > 0.1 m – 1mm
o Infra-red 1mm – 700nm
o Visible light 700nm – 400nm
o Ultraviolet 400nm – 1nm
o X-rays 1nm – 10-3nm
o Gamma rays < 10-3nm
 These 7 waves together constitute the
electromagnetic spectrum.
Energy of EM waves
 As the EM waves propagate they carry
energy.
 Because of this property they have so many
oractical uses in our day-to-day life.
 Energy in EM wave is partly carries by
electric field and partly by magnetic field.
Radio waves  They readily get absorbed by water.

 Radio waves are produced by the accelerated  They are used in infrared lamps, infrared
motion of charges in conducting wires. detector, LED in remote switches of electric
 Important application of radio waves is in: devices, Green house effect etc.
o Radio and television communication systems Visible or Light rays
o Mobile phones for voice communication‘  Light waves are the most common form of
 In electromagnetic spectrum the wavelength of EM wave
radio waves is > 0.1m  Theur wavelength range is 400nm to 700 nm
 Radio waves are further classified into  Most of the insects have compound eyes due
different bands: to which they see only the visible light but
o (Amplitude Modulated) AM band 530kHz also the ultraviolet rays.
to 1710 kHz (lowest frequency band).
They are similar to FM channels. Ultraviolet rays (UV rays)
o Short wave band – up to 54MHz  Range: 400nm- 0.6nm
o TV waves band – 54MHz to 890MHz  The UV rays are produced by special lamps
o UHF(Ultra High Frequncy) band used for and very hot bodies
voice communication over cell phones.  UV rays have harmful effects on humans
Micro waves  UV lamps are used to kill germs in water
purifiers
 Microwaves are short wavelength radio
 UV rays help in LASER assisted eye
waves.
surgery.
 They are produced by special vaccum tubes
 The ozone layer which is present outside the
(klystrons/magnetrons.Gunn diodes)
atmosphere protects us from the harmful UV
 They are used in microwave ovens, and radar
rays,
system in aircraft navigation.
 Different applications of RADAR X -rays
o Air Traffic control  X-rays are produced by bombarding a metal
o Speed detection target by high energy electrons
o Military purposes  It is very important diagnostic tool.
o Satellite tracking  It is also used for cancer treatment, because x
 Radio waves use microwaves because they rays has capacity to damage the living tissue
are short wavelength which are same as
Gamma Rays
micro waves. They are invisible to humans.
 Microwaves oven:  Gamma rays are produced in the unclear
o They have smaller wavelength so they reactions and emitted by radioactive nuclei.
get absorbed by water, fats and sugar.  It is also used in the treatment of the cancer.
 Gamma rays also have very small
Infrared waves wavelength. So they help to kill the growth
 Infrared waves are often known as geat of unwanted living cells which grow when
waves as they are produced by hot bodies. the body is suffering from cancer.
 Their wavelength is lesser than both radio
and micro waves.
Chapter 20
Contribution of India Scientists
Aryabhatta was a great mathematician and Khagolshastra. Khagol was the famous astronomical
astronomer of India and the earliest known author on observatory at Nalanda, where Aryabhatta studied.
Algebra. He was a pioneer in the field of Disregarding the popular view that our planet earth is
mathematics. At the age of 23, he wrote ‗Achala‘ (immovable), Aryabhatta stated his theory
Aryabhattiya, which is a summary of mathematics of that ‗earth is round and rotates on its own axis‘ He
his time. There are four sections in this scholarly explained that the appearance of the sun moving from
work. In the first section he describes the method of east to west is false by giving examples. One such
denoting big decimal numbers by alphabets. In the example was: When a person travels in a boat, the
second section, we find difficult questions from trees on the shore appear to move in the opposite
topics of modern day Mathematics such as number direction. He also correctly stated that the moon and
theory, geometry, trigonometry and Beejganita the planets shined by reflected sunlight. He was the
(algebra). The remaining two sections are on first person to say that Earth is spherical and it
astronomy. revolves around the sun. He already knew that the
 He suggested formula to calculate the areas of earth spins on its axis, the earth moves round the sun
a triangle and a circle, which were correct. He was and the moon rotates round the earth. He goes as far
the first mathematician to give the 'table of the sines', as to explain the eclipse of the moon and the sun, day
which is in the form of a single rhyming stanza. His and night, the contours of the earth, the length of the
works was then later adopted by the Greeks and then year exactly as 365 days.
the Arabs.  He even computed the circumference of the
 Pi as Irrational: Aryabhata worked on the earth as 24835 miles which is close to modern day
approximation for Pi, and may have realized that it is calculation of 24900 miles.
irrational. In the second part of the Aryabhatiya, he  Sidereal periods: Considered in modern
writes "Add four to 100, multiply by eight and then English units of time, Aryabhata calculated the
add 62,000. By this rule the circumference of a circle sidereal rotation (the rotation of the earth referenced
of diameter 20,000 can be approached." In other the fixed stars) as 23 hours 56 minutes and 4.1
words, pi= ~ 62832/20000 = 3.1416, correct to five seconds; the modern value is 23:56:4.091. Similarly,
digits. After Aryabhatiya was translated into Arabic his value for the length of the sidereal year at 365
(ca. 820 AD) this approximation was mentioned in days 6 hours 12 minutes 30 seconds is an error of 3
Al-Khwarizmi's book on algebra. minutes 20 seconds over the length of a year. The
 Discovery of zero: Aryabhatta showed that notion of sidereal time was known in most other
zero was not a numeral only but also a symbol and a astronomical systems of the time, but this
concept. Discovery of zero enabled Aryabhatta to computation was likely the most accurate in the
find out the exact distance between the earth and the period.
moon. The discovery of zero also opened up a new India's first satellite Aryabhata, was named after
dimension of negative numerals. him and the lunar crater Aryabhata is named in his
 Algebra: His other works include algebra, honour.
arithmetic, trigonometry, quadratic equations and the SATYENDRA NATH BOSE: Satyendra Nath
sine table. He gave the formula (a + b)2 = a2 + b2 + Bose discovered what became known as ‗bosons‘ and
2ab went on to work with Albert Einstein to define one of
 Astronomy: In ancient India, the science of two basic classes of subatomic particles. Much of the
astronomy was well advanced. It was called credit for discovering the boson, or "God particle,"
was given to British physicist Peter Higgs, much to ‗Mahalanobis Distance‘, a statistical measure. He did
the chagrin of the Indian government and people. pioneering work on anthropometric variation in India.
Scientists at Europe's CERN research centre Professor Mahalanobis made valuable contributions
have found a new subatomic particle that could be the to the development of statistical science in India.
Higgs boson, the basic building block of the universe. An important discovery by Mahalanobis is that
It is well known that the 'Higgs' of Higgs boson refers the region of highest control for changes in weather
to British physicist Peter Higgs, who in 1964 laid on the surface of the earth is located about 4
much of the conceptual groundwork for the presence kilometers above sea-level. Subsequently, he was
of the elusive particle. However, it's not exactly appointed Meteorologist in the Alipore Observatory
common knowledge that the term "boson" owes its and he held this post from 1922 to 1926.
name to the pioneering work of the late Indian Mahalanobis's contributions to large scale
physicist, Satyendra Nath Bose. sample surveys are among his most significant and
He worked alongside Einstein and Marie Curie, lasting gifts to statistics. The concept of pilot surveys
among others. Einstein had adopted Bose's idea and was a forerunner of sequential sampling developed
extended it to atoms, which led to the prediction of by Abraham Wald, as acknowledged by Wald in his
the existence of phenomena that became known as book. In addition to introducing these concepts,
the Bose-Einstein Condensate, a dense collection of Mahalanobis raised important and difficult
bosons—particles with integer spin that were named philosophical questions on randomness and
for Bose. representativeness of a sample, which remain
According to a July 2012 New York Times relevant and challenging even today.
article in which Bose is described as the "Father of He took a keen interest and played a key role in
the 'God Particle,'" the scientist's interests wandered formulating India's second five-year plan based on
into other fields, including philosophy, literature and the four sector model developed by him. Broad
the Indian independence movement. sectoral allocations of employment, capital
PRAFULLA CHANDRA RAY: He was a investment and increment in national income were
pioneer of chemical industries in India. His worked out and then split into detailed targets. Even
publications on mercurous nitrite and its derivatives though national planning seems to have now gone out
brought him recognition from all over the world. of fashion, the need for planning in the initial stages
Equally important was his role as a teacher - he of a nation's development is still acknowledged and
inspired a generation of young chemists in India Mahalanobis's contributions to Indian national
thereby building up an Indian school of chemistry. planning continue to be held in high esteem by
Famous Indian scientists like Meghnad Saha and economists.
Shanti Swarup Bhatnagar were among his students. He founded the Indian Statistical Institute on 17
In 1902, his research work of History of Hindu December, 1931. In 1959, by an act of the Indian
Chemistry was published. P C Ray believed that the Parliament, the Institute was declared as an
progress of India could be achieved only by 'Institution of National Importance'. He also helped in
industrialization. He set up the first chemical factory setting up of the Central Statistical Organization in
in India, with very minimal resources, working from India, an apex body for coordination of statistical
his home. In 1901, this pioneering effort resulted in activities in India.
the formation of the Bengal Chemical and SIR C. V. RAMAN: C. V. Raman earliest
Pharmaceutical Works Ltd. He can be thought of as researches in optics and acoustics - the two fields of
the father of the Indian Pharmaceutical industry. investigation to which he has dedicated his entire
PROF. PRASANTA CHANDRA career - were carried out while he was a student.
MAHALANOBIS He is famous for the Raman made many major scientific discoveries in
acoustics, ultrasonic, optics, magnetism and crystal influenced subjects like physiology, chronobiology,
physics. Raman's works cybernetics, medicine and agriculture.
on the musical drums of India was epoch-making and Bose did pioneering research, first in physics and
it revealed the acoustical knowledge of the ancient then in physiology. In 1888 Heinrich Rudolf Hertz
Hindus. It may be noted here that it was Pythagoras (1857-94) produced and detected electromagnetic
who first formulated what makes a sound musical to waves in the 60 cm wavelength range and in doing so
the human ear. he verified James Clerk Maxwell‘s (1831-79)
In 1922 he published his work on the "Molecular electromagnetic theory. However, Bose was the first
Diffraction of Light", the first of a series of to produce millimetre-length radio waves and study
investigations with his collaborators which ultimately their properties. Bose was a pioneer in microwave
led to his discovery, on the 28th of February, 1928, of optics technology. He was the first to show that
the radiation effect which bears his name and which semiconductor rectifiers could detect radio waves.
gained him the 1930 Nobel Prize in Physics.―Other Bose‘s galena receiver was amongst the earliest
investigations carried out by Raman were: his examples of a lead sulphide photo conducting device.
experimental and theoretical studies on the He also demonstrated a new type of radio waves
diffraction of light by acoustic waves of ultrasonic as small as 1 centimetre to 5 millimetres. Such waves
and hypersonic frequencies (published 1934-1942), are now called microwaves, and are used in radars,
and those on the effects produced by X-rays on ground telecommunication, satellite communication,
infrared vibrations in crystals exposed to ordinary remote sensing and microwave ovens. He was the
light. author of the world famous books.
He established the Indian Academy of Sciences  Response in the Living and Non-living
Bangalore (1934) and the Raman Research Institute  The Nervous Mechanism of Plants
(1948). Among his other interests have been the The 230-year-old Indian Botanic Garden,
optics of colloids, electrical and magnetic anisotropy, Kolkata was renamed as the Acharya Jagadish
and the physiology of human vision. India celebrates Chandra Bose Indian Botanic Garden in June 2009 in
National Science Day on 28 February of every year honour of J.C. Bose.
to commemorate the discovery of the Raman Effect
in 1928. VIKRAM A SARABHAI: Vikram Ambalal
Sarabhai was the mainpersonality behind the
JAGADISH CHANDRA BOSE: Jagadish
launching of India‘s first satellite, ‗Aryabhatta‘. He is
Chandra Bose was an Indian scientist who discovered considered as the ‗Father of the Indian Space
and proved in the world that plants also have life. Programme‘. Vikram Sarabhai started his work on
They consume food and sleep during nights, and cosmic rays and built the necessary equipment with
wake up early in the mornings. Pain and pleasures are which he took measurements. His interest in solar
there for plants too. They also have birth, growth and physics and cosmic rays led him to set up many
death, as human beings. He is regarded as India‘s observation stations around the country. Vikram
first modern scientist. For his investigations Bose Sarabhai established centers for scientific research in
invented several novel and highly sensitive several places of India. He was instrumental in
instruments. Among these the most important one establishing the Physical Research Laboratory (PRL)
was the Crescograph –an instrument for measuring in Ahmedabad. In this, he formed the ‗Group for the
the growth of a plant. It could record a growth as Improvement of Science Education‘, in 1963.
small as 1/100,000 inch per second. Bose‘s
experiments on plants were mostlyperformed on Of all the institutions, he established the most
Minosa pudica and Desmondium gyrans (Indian important were the ‗Indian Space Research
Telegraph plant). His findings subsequently Organization‘ with Centers at Thumba, Ahmedabad,
Shriharikota and Arvi. He established Rocket
Launching Stations at Thumba and Shrihatikota. Indian space programme through a period of
Sarabhai‘s study of cosmic rays under the eminent extraordinary growth and spectacular achievement.
scientist Dr. C.V. Raman revealed that cosmic rays Major Programmes were carefully defined and
are a stream of energy particles reaching the earth systematically executed, including in particular the
from the outer space, being influenced on their way launch of Indian satellites on Indian rocket vehicles.
by the sun, the atmosphere and magnetism. This Even while he was the head of the Indian space
study helps in observing terrestrial magnetism and programme, he devoted substantial efforts towards
the atmosphere, the nature of the sun and outer space. boundary layer research. His most important
With the sudden death of Homi Bhabha in an air contributions are presented in the seminal book
crash, Sarabhai was appointed Chairman, Atomic Boundary Layer Theory by Hermann Schlichting.
Energy Commission in May 1966. As a result of Dr. ―He was a popular professor at the Indian Institute of
Sarabhai‘s dialogue with NASA in 1966, the Satellite Science, (IISc) located in Bangalore. He is credited
Instructional Television Experiment (SITE) was for setting up the first supersonic wind tunnel in India
launched during July 1975-July 1976 (when Dr. at IISc. He also pioneered research on
Sarabhai was no more). Dr. Sarabhai started a project relaminarization of separated boundary layer flows,
for the fabrication and launch of an Indian Satellite. three-dimensional boundary layers and trisonic flows.
As a result, the first Indian satellite, Aryabhatta, was Prof. Satish Dhawan carried out pioneering
put in orbit in 1975 from a Russian Cosmodrome. experiments in rural education, remote sensing and
Some of the most well-known institutions satellite communications. His efforts led to
established by Sarabhai are :- operational systems like INSAT- a
1. Physical Research Laboratory (PRL), telecommunications satellite, IRS - the Indian
Ahmedabad Remote Sensing satellite and the Polar Satellite
Launch Vehicle (PSLV) that placed India in the
2. Indian Institute of Management (IIM), Ahmedabad
league of space faring nations. Following the death of
3. Community Science Centre, Ahmedabad Prof. Satish Dhawan on January 3, 2002, the Indian
4. Darpan Academy for Performing Arts, Ahmedabad satellite launch centre at Sriharikota, Andhra Pradesh,
(alongwith his wife) located about 100 km north of Chennai in South India
5. Vikram Sarabhai Space Centre, was renamed as the Prof. Satish Dhawan Space
Thiruvananthapuramm Centre.
6. Space Applications Centre, Ahmedabad SUBRAHMANYAN CHANDRASEKHAR: The
7. Faster Breeder Test Reactor (FBTR), Kalpakkam ‗Nobel Laureate‘ in physics Subrahmanyan
Chandrasekhar was one of the greatest scientists of
8. Varaiable Energy Cyclotron Project, Kolkata
the 20th century became a legend in his life time.
9. Electronics Corporation of India Limited (ECIL), C.V. Raman, the first Indian to get Nobel Prize in
Hyderabad science was the younger brother of Chandrasekhar's
10. Uranium Corporation of India Limited (UCIL), father. Chandrasekhar was renowned for his work in
Jaduguda, Jharkhand the field of stellar evolution, and in the early 1930s,
Sarabhai was the second chairman of India‘s he was the first to theorise that a collapsing massive
Atomic Energy Commission and the Indian Space star would become an object so dense that not even
Research Organization (ISRO). light could escape it, now known as the Black hole.
PROF. SATISH DHAWAN: He is considered He demonstrated that there is an upper limit
by the Indian scientific community to be the father of (known as ‗Chandrasekhar Limit‘) to the mass of a
experimental fluid dynamics research in India and White dwarf star. His theory challenged the common
one of the most eminent researchers in the field of scientific notion of the 1930s that all stars, after
turbulence and boundary layers. He directed the burning up their fuel, became faint, planer-sized
remmants known as white dwarfs. But today, the research in physics, chemistry, electronics and
extremely dense neutron stars and black holes mathematics commenced.
implied by Chandrasekhar‘s early work are a central Bhabha was instrumental for the formation of
part of the field of astrophysics. The value of this Atomic Energy Commission in 1948 and the
limit is about 1.44 times a solar mass. This was Department of Atomic Energy in 1954 and he
derived by Chandrasekhar in 1930, when he was a chalked out a focussed research and minerals
student! exploration programmes for nuclear energy. He was
DR. HAR GOBIND KHORANA: Dr. Har Gobind such a visionary that he had realized the importance
Khorana shared the Nobel Prize for Medicine and of nuclear power programme way back in 1950s and
Physiology in 1968 with Marshall Nirenberg and enunciated a three stage nuclear programme so as to
Robert Holley for cracking the genetic code. They meet the energy security of the nation. It consisted of
established that this code, the biological language utilization of natural uranium, plutonium and
common to all living organisms, is spelled out in abundant thorium resources in thermal, fast and
three-letter words: each set of three nucleotides codes advanced nuclear reactors with closed fuel cycle.
for a specific amino acid. SRINIVASA RAMANUJAN: Srinivasa
Dr. Khorana was also the first to synthesize Ramanujan, Indian mathematician, whose
oligo-nucleotides (strings of nucleotides). Today, contributions to the theory of numbers includes
oligo-nucleotides are indispensable tools in pioneering discoveries of the properties of the
biotechnology, widely used in biology labs for partition function. Ramanujan is very well known for
sequencing, cloning and genetic engineering. died on his efforts on continued fractions and series of hyper-
9 November 2011. geometry. When Ramanujan was thirteen, he could
HOMI JEHANGIR BHABHA: Homi Jehangir work out Loney‘s Trigonometry exercises without
Bhabha is mostly known as the chief architect of any help. At the fourteen, he was able to acquire the
India's nuclear programme. His name is associated theorems of cosine and sine given by L. Euler.
with Bhabha scattering, which involves relativistic Synopsis of Elementary Results in Pure and Applied
exchange scattering of electrons and Bhabha- Heitler Mathematics by George Shoobridge Carr was
theory, dealing with production of electron and reached by him in 1903. The book helped him a lot
positron showers in cosmic rays. Bhabha rubbed and opened new dimensions to him which helped him
shoulders with great physicists like Bohr, Pauli, introduce about 6,165 theorems for himself.
Dirac, Cockcroft and others, who later became Noble In 1911 Ramanujan published the first of his
Laureates. papers in the Journal of the Indian Mathematical
In 1944, Bhabha wrote his historical letter to the Society. His genius slowly gained recognition, and in
Tata trust for support in setting up a centre for 1913 he began a correspondence with the British
research work in nuclear science, which could play a mathematician Godfrey H. Hardy that led to a special
central role in the development of nuclear energy. scholarship from the University of Madras and a
This was just two years after 1942, when the first grant from Trinity College, Cambridge. Ramanujan
experimental demonstration of nuclear reactor was traveled to England in 1914, where Hardy tutored
made in USA. There was a clear similarity in vision him and collaborated with him in some research. His
between the great Jamshedji Nusserwanji Tata and papers were published in English and European
Bhabha with respect to the need for education, journals, and in 1918 he became the first Indian to be
scientific research and human resource development elected to the Royal Society of London.
for economic prosperity. Based on this letter, Tata Hardy–Ramanujan number: The number 1729
Trust supported him to set up a laboratory at is known as the Hardy– Ramanujan number after a
Kenilworth, Bombay. Subsequently, Tata Institute of famous anecdote of the British mathematician G.H.
Fundamental Research was formed and large scale Hardy regarding a visit to the hospital to see
Ramanujan. Hardy said ‗‘I remember once going to various areas of nuclear physics. Following the ideals
see him when he was ill. I had ridden in taxi cab of his illustrious predecessors Homi Bhabha and
number 1729 and remarked that the number seemed Vikram Sarabhai in India‘s nuclear energy
to me rather a dull one, and that I hoped it was not an programme, Ramanna played an important role in
unfavorable omen. "No," he replied, "it is a very placing the country‘s indigenous nuclear capabilities
interesting number; it is the smallest number on a firm footing and in this process his contributions
expressible as the sum of two cubes in two different towards shaping India‘s energy and security
ways." programmes are quite significant. In fact Ramanna is
The two different ways are: regarded as one of the most successful creators of
Science and Technology in India.
1729 = 13 + 123 = 93 + 103.
India‘s first peaceful nuclear experiment was
Generalizations of this idea have created the
carried out underground in the Rajasthan desert,
notion of "taxicab numbers". Coincidentally, 1729 is
Pokhran, on May 18, 1974 under Ramanna‘s
also a Carmichael number.
guidance. Ramanna was a young reactor physicist in
Recognition and Honours the team under Bhabha, when India‘s first research
On the 125th anniversary of his birth, reactor, Apsara, was commissioned on August 04,
Government of India declared the birthday of 1956. As a part of the studies relating to the design
Ramanujan, December 22, as 'National Mathematics and construction of Apsara, Ramanna studied the
Day' and the year 2012 celebrated as the National process of neutron thermalisation in several
Mathematics Year. moderating assemblies. Apsara, once commissioned,
MEGHNAD SAHA: He made remarkable made intense thermal neutron beams available for
contribution to the field of Astrophysics. He put basic research. This prompted Ramanna to undertake
forward an ―ionization formula‖ which explained the a programme of experimental investigations of
presence of the spectral lines. In 1947, he established secondary radiations emitted in thermal neutron
Institute of Nuclear Physics which later was named induced fission of U235.
after him as Saha Institute of Nuclear Physics. The stochastic theory of fragment mass and
Having seen cyclotrons used for research in nuclear charge distributions in fission is a unique contribution
physics abroad, he ordered one to be installed in the of Ramanna to fission theory. The theory, which was
institute. In 1950, India had its first cyclotron in based on the model of a random exchange of
operation. He invented an instrument to measure the nucleons between the two nascent fission fragments
weight and pressure of solar rays. prior to scission, could explain most of the observed
He produced the famous equation, which he features of fragment mass and charge distribution in
called ‗equation of the reaction-isobar for ionization‘, low energy fission and their dependence on the
which later became known as Saha‘s ―Thermo- excitation energy of the fissioning nucleus.
Ionization Equation‖. Saha was the leading spirit in Ramanna‘s most important contribution was the
organizing the scientific societies like the ‗National creation of a vast pool of trained scientific
Academy of Science‘ (1930), ‗Indian Institute of manpower. To develop the skilled manpower
Science‘ (1935), and the ‗Indian Association for the required for this task, the BARC (DAE) Training
Cultivation of Science‘ (1944). He was the chief School was established in 1957 under the leadership
architect of river planning in India. He prepared the of Ramanna. Ramanna directly or indirectly helped to
original plan for Damodar Valley Project. Meghnad build up a number of institutions in the country.
Saha was nominated for the ‗Nobel prize‘ in physics DR. SALIM ALI: Salim Moizuddin Abdul Ali
in 1935-36. was one of the greatest ornithologists and naturalists
RAJA RAMANNA: He made important of all time and is also known as the ―Birdman of
contributions, both theoretical and experimental, in India‖. He was one of the very first scientists to carry
out systematic bird surveys in India and abroad. For Vikram Sarabhai and others in building of post
twenty years he camped and studied birds. With a independent S &T infrastructure and in the
notebook in his pocket and binoculars, he walked formulation of India‘s science and technology
hundreds of miles. He published a research paper policies.
discussing the nature and activities of the weaver bird Shanti Swarup Bhatnagar (SSB) Prize for
in 1930. The piece made him famous and established Science and Technology was instituted in the year
his name in the field of ornithology. 1957, in the memory of late Dr (Sir) Shanti Swarup
Salim also traveled from place to place to find Bhatnagar, FRS, the founder director of the Council
out more about different species of the birds. From of Scientific & Industrial Research (CSIR). The SSB
what he had collected, he published ―The Book of Prize is awarded each year on the basis of
Indian Birds in 1941‖ in which he discussed the kinds conspicuously important and outstanding
and habits of Indian birds. He also collaborated with contributions to human knowledge and progress,
S. Dillon Ripley, a world-famous ornithologist, in made through work done primarily in India during
1948. The collaboration resulted in the ‗Handbook of the five years, preceding the year of the prize.
the Birds of India and Pakistan‘ (10 Volume Set); a BIRBAL SAHNI: Birbal Sahni (1891- 1949)
comprehensive book that describes the birds of the was a world famous palaeobotanist, who studied the
subcontinent, their appearance, habitat, breeding fossils of the Indian subcontinent. He was the founder
habits, migration etc. Salim also published other of Birbal Sahni Institute of Palaeobotany, which is
books. His work ―The Fall of Sparrow‖ included situated in Lucknow.
many incidents from his real life. Birbal Sahni was the first botanist to study
Salim not only researched about birds, but also extensively the flora of Indian Gondwana. Sahni also
contributed to the arena of protection of nature. In explored the Rajmahal hills in Jharkhand, which is a
order to commemorate the memory of this great treasury of fossils of ancient plants. Here he
wildlife conservationist of the country, the Govt. of discovered some new genus of plant where his most
India, Ministry of Environment and Forests has remarkable discovery of a new group of fossil
decided to award the fellowship alternatively each gymnosperms, to which he gave the name
year. ―Pentoxylae‖.
DR. SHANTI SWAROOP BHATNAGAR: He He found that the Deccan Traps in Madhya
was known as ―The Father of Research Pradesh were of the tertiary period, about 62 million
Laboratories‖. Though his area of interest included years old. Besides, Sahni took a keen interest in
emulsions, colloids, and industrial chemistry, but his archaeology. One of his investigations led to the
primary contributions were in the spheres of discovery of coin moulds in Rohtak in 1936. For his
magneto- chemistry. After India gained freedom studies on the technique of casting coins in ancient
from British rule in 1947, the Council of Scientific India he was awarded the Nelson Wright Medal of
and Industrial Research was established under the the Numismatic Society of India in 1945.
leadership of Dr. Bhatnagar, who was appointed its DR. A.P.J. ABDUL KALAM: Avul Pakir
first director-general. Jainulabdeen Abdul Kalam, popularly known as Dr.
He developed a total twelve national A.P.J. Abdul Kalam, served the country as the 11th
laboratories, just a few names are Central Food President of India. It is very significant that he is the
Processing Technological Institute, Mysore, the first scientist to occupy the Rashtrapati Bhavan. Dr.
National Physical Laboratories, New Delhi, National A.P.J. Abdul Kalam is often also referred to as the
Chemical Laboratory, Pune, the Central Fuel ‗Missile Man of India‘. As Director of DRDO, Dr.
Institute, Dhanbad, and the National Metallurgical Kalam was entrusted with the Integrated Guided
Laboratory, Jamshedpur. He also played an important Missile Development Programme (IGMDP). Under
part with Homi Jehangir Bhabha, P .C. Mahalanobis, his leadership India has been able to develop strategic
missiles. Like Nag (an anti-tank guided missile), M.S. SWAMINATHAN: India's well-known
Prithvi (a surface to surface battlefield missile), geneticist and international administrator, Monkombu
Akash (a swift, medium - range surface-to-air Sambasivan Swaminathan is popularly known as the
missile), Trishul (a quickreaction surface-to-air Father of Green Revolution in India. His stated vision
missile) and Agni (an intermediate range ballistic is to rid the world of hunger and poverty. He is
missile). known for his contributions inwheat, rice, potato and
Dr. Kalam is credited for his participation with jute genetics, after which he worked on Mexican
India‘s mission to become a nuclear weapon state, dwarf wheat varieties and conservation of plant
jointly undertaken by DRDO and Department of genetic resources. He served as director general of
Atomic Energy (DAE) with the active support of the the International Rice Research Institute (1982–88)
armed forces. He was instrumental in Pokaran test and became president of the International Union for
which made India a nuclear power nation. He the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources in
proposed a research program for developing bio- 1988.
implants. He was a supporter of open source software He was the first laureate of the World Food Prize
over proprietary solutions and believes that the use of (1987) that is regarded as the Nobel Prize in
open source software on a large scale will bring more Agriculture and has been described by the United
people the benefits of Information Technology. Nations Environment Programme as "the Father of
Economic Ecology

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RAS MAINS - 2018

Barometer is a device that measures pressure. of elasticity. The modulus of elasticity is a

 Hygrometer : It is the device to measure

Structure of Diamond It is because of this, that diamond is hard,

 In electrotyping and in the fabrication  Extensive amounts of graphite are

Structure of Graphite additionally a good conductor of electricity. In

 For the manufacture of water gas and

Structure of C60 Particle

Merits of Corrosion Copper/brass can be protected by

activation energy (Ea) for the reaction. A Catalytic Poison

Industrial Process Catalyst Used

The cleaning action of soap: Detergents

Differences between soap and detergent:

4. In step reaction polymerization

Classification of Polymers based on aligned but return to their original random

Classification of Polymers based on 1. Natural rubber:

3. Cross linked polymers or network

b. It is a copolymer of three moles of butadiene 6. Low density polythene (LPD)

d. It is generally compounded with carbon black

a. It has high density due to close packing. It is

c. It is used in bristles for brushes and in textile.

10.Polypropylene (PP) Bottles, toys, containers, trays, disposable

The human digestive system consists of alimentary Alimentary Canal

Food pipe/Esophagus thorax from the abdomen in mammals] and

Stomach  Villi are supplied with a network of capillaries

 The undigested, unabsorbed substances called

Steps involved in respiration 4. Diffusion of O2 and CO2 between blood and

Mechanism of breathing breathing movements can be estimated by using

 It is protected by a double walled membranous  A bundle of nodal fibres, atrioventricular bundle

 The systemic circulation provides nutrients, O2 Human Excretory System

Urine Formation manner so as to leave some minute spaces called

 The tubular epithelial cells in different Functions of brain

Spinal cord  The PNS is divided into two divisions: Somatic

Endocrine System o Thyroxin, which regulates BMR (Basal

Muscular System As their activities are under the voluntary control of

 In human beings, this system is made up of 206 Human Reproductive System

 These parts of the system along with a pair of

 The endometrium undergoes cyclical changes Gametogenesis

 1 gm glucose provides about 17 kJ energy or 4.2 Sources of Carbohydrates

Mineral Major food source Uses Deficiency Disease

Bio-fortification is the process of happiness in a person‖. The oxford says

Antigen If a person is infected with some deadly

 Measles  1997: Reproductive Child Health (RCH 1)

Active immunity Passive immunity

Causes of Cancer the pain can also be oppressive, as if something is

Osteoarthritis may also be transmitted from mother to foetus

Bacterial diseases in Human Beings

Viral Diseases in Human Beings

Disease Pathogen Affected part Symptom

Protozoan Diseases, their Vectors and Affected Part

Disease Pathogen Vector Parts affected and Symptoms

Disorder Chromosome Effect

Human genetic Disorder due to Abnormalities in Sex-Chromosome Number

Name Chromosomes Effect

Water Quality In urbanized areas around the world, water

Water Pollution  Proper sewage treatment plan must be

wells, hand pumps, and rivers. Thus, purification of

The pyramid of number  A biotic community normally undergoes

Sulphur cycle acids is converted to hydrogen sulphide (H2S) by

Water Cycle important in forming the moisture supply for

Climate Change mitigation activities Some barriers to green technologies:

1. Biomass  Biomass is an important source of energy and

Petro crops (plants) Environmental impact of geothermal energy