WEATHER AND CLIMATE

The term “weather” refers to the atmospheric conditions which exist in an area at a particular time. The
weather in a particular location can change from day to day or even within a few minutes. If you speak of
how rainy it was this morning or how hot it was yesterday, you are speaking about the weather. Climate
refers to the general atmospheric characteristics expected to prevail in a particular place. We learn about
the climate of an area by studying weather patterns in that area over a 30-35 year period. It is important
for Geography students to know the difference between weather and climate.

The Elements of the Weather

There are a number of elements which make up the weather. They are:

Temperature: This refers to how hot or cold the atmosphere is. It is measured in degrees Celsius or
degrees Fahrenheit. Temperature is measured using a thermometer. When discussing the temperature of
various areas, it is important to understand the following terms:
 Diurnal temperature range: This is the difference between the highest and lowest temperature in a
day. It is also known as the daily temperature range.
 Annual temperature range: This is the difference between the average temperature of the hottest and
coldest months in the year.
Sunshine: Sunshine is the term used to refer to direct sunlight. It is measured in hours. The instrument
used to determine the amount of sunshine experienced in an area in a day is a Campbell Stokes Sunshine
Recorder (see below).

Campbell Stokes Sunshine Recorder (Photo by Bidgee)

In the photo above, notice the card which is under the glass sphere. The sphere focuses the rays of the Sun
onto a point on this card, burning a small hole at that point. As the Sun moves across the sky its rays are
focused on different parts of the card. At the end of the day, the card can be examined to determine the
amount of sunshine the area experienced on that day. An entire day of sunshine will create one long,
unbroken burn on the card. A day with many cloudy periods will create several small burns with spaces in
between them. The spaces represent periods when there was no direct sunlight.

Precipitation: This term refers to the various ways in which water falls from the atmosphere to the
ground. This includes rain, snow and hail. Rainfall is measured in millimeters using a rain gauge. The
amount of precipitation that an area receives has a major impact on the vegetation and soil in that area.
Some areas receive very little precipitation while others receive very much. In some areas rainfall is
seasonal, while in others it rains throughout the year.
Pressure: This refers to the weight of the atmosphere pressing down on the Earth’s surface. It is
measured in millibars (mb). The instrument used to measure atmospheric pressure is the barometer. Low
pressure is associated with rising air, which often results in cloud formation and rainfall. High pressure is
associated with descending air and fair weather.
Winds: Winds blow from areas of high pressure to areas of low pressure. We are concerned with two
aspects of wind; its direction and its speed.
Wind direction is measured using a wind vane or wind sock. As the wind blows, these instruments turn to
indicate wind direction. Winds are named according to the direction that they blow from. For instance, an
easterly wind is a wind which blows from the east.

Wind speed is measured using an anemometer. A commonly used type is the cup anemometer. It is
composed of three cups mounted on horizontal arms which are attached to a vertical shaft. When the wind
blows, it causes the cups to spin around which causes the shaft to turn. The faster the wind blows, the
faster the cups spin and the faster the shaft turns. A device connected to the shaft gives the wind speed in
miles or kilometers per hour.

Humidity: This term refers to the moisture in the atmosphere. Absolute humidity is a measure of the
total amount of moisture in the air. However, the amount of moisture that air can hold depends on its
temperature. Relative humidity is the amount of water in the atmosphere given as a percentage of the
total amount of water that the air can hold at that temperature. Therefore, relative humidity of 75%
indicates that the air is currently holding 75% of the total amount of water that it can hold at that
particular temperature. Relative humidity is measured using a hygrometer.
Clouds: Clouds form when water vapor condenses in the atmosphere. When air rises, it cools. A rising
current of air is called an up draught (also spelled updraft). As the air cools, its ability to hold moisture is
reduced. The water vapor in the rising air condenses, forming clouds. When discussing clouds, we are
concerned with cloud cover and cloud type.
Cloud cover: The amount of the sky that is obscured by clouds is known as cloud cover. Cloud cover is
measured in oktas (eighths). One okta of cloud cover means that one eighth of the sky is obscured by
clouds. Four oktas of cloud cover means that half the sky is obscured by clouds. Eight oktas of cloud
cover means the entire visible sky is obscured by clouds. The human eye is used to judge cloud cover.

Cloud type: There are many types of clouds. Clouds are named according to their appearance. The three
basic cloud types are cirrus, cumulus and stratus.

 Cirrus clouds: These clouds form high in the atmosphere where they are blown into thin, feathery
formations by high level winds.
 Cumulus clouds: The word cumulus means “heap” or “pile”. Cumulus clouds are puffy looking
clouds formed when water vapor condenses as a result of strong up draughts. They look like floating
heaps of cotton.
 Stratus clouds: These clouds are formed in layers. A stratus cloud looks like a sheet of cloud.
Many other types of cloud display features of more than one of the basic cloud types. For instance
a cirrostratus cloud displays features of cirrus as well as stratus clouds. They are high level, thin,
feathery clouds formed in layers. It is important to note that the prefix “alto” is used to describe mid-level
clouds and the terms “nimbo” or “nimbus” are used to describe clouds that produce rain.
Therefore, altocumulus clouds are mid-level cumulus clouds and nimbostratus clouds are stratus clouds
that produce rain.
A distinct type of cloud is the cumulonimbus cloud. This type of cloud forms when very strong up
draughts rise high into the atmosphere forming very tall clouds. The top of this type of cloud may spread
out, giving the cloud an anvil shape. Cumulonimbus clouds produce heavy rain and thunderstorms. The
diagram below shows various cloud types as well as the altitudes at which they form. Click to enlarge the
image.
 Cloud Types (diagram created by Valentin de Bruyn)

The CXC/CSEC Geography syllabus requires students to study some of the major weather systems which
affect the Caribbean. Students are also required to study the climate of equatorial, tropical continental and
tropical marine regions. Students must also understand how relief affects climate.

RELIEF AND CLIMATE

In Geography, the term relief may be defined as “the variations in elevation and slope of an area of the
Earth’s surface”. When we speak of an area as being flat, gently sloping or mountainous, we are speaking
of the relief of that area. When we speak of the elevation (height above sea level) of an area, we are also
speaking of relief.
The relief of an area can have a significant effect on the climate of that area. Let us explore the effect of
relief on temperature, wind and rainfall.
Effect of Relief on Temperature

Elevation has a marked effect on the temperature of an area. Generally speaking, temperature decreases
with height in the lower atmosphere. Therefore, areas at high elevations would tend to experience lower
temperatures than nearby areas at much lower elevations. In the lower atmosphere, temperature decreases
at a rate of about 6.5 degrees Celsius per kilometer. The rate at which temperature decreases with height
is called the environmental lapse rate.

The drop in temperature is due in part to the fact that atmospheric pressure decreases with height. Because
of the lower pressure at high elevations, the air is thinner (the molecules of air are farther apart). This
makes the air less capable of absorbing or retaining heat. The video below explains in more detail.

Effect of Relief on Wind

Wind speed is affected by altitude. Near the Earth’s surface, winds are slowed due to friction. At higher
elevations wind speeds tend to be considerably higher. The windward slopes of mountains (the side facing
the prevailing wind) will generally experience higher wind speeds than nearby lowland areas. Winds
speeds are not as high on the leeward side.

Effect of Relief on Rainfall

Relief can influence the amount of precipitation an area receives. When air is forced to rise over a
mountain range, it cools and the moisture within it condenses. Clouds form and produce rain. This type of
rainfall is called orographic rainfall or relief rainfall. It rains mostly on the windward slopes. As the air
moves over the mountain range and starts to descend, it warms. As a result, rainfall is usually low on the
leeward side of the mountain range and the area is said to be in a rain shadow. The video below explains
the process in greater detail.

Much of the Caribbean region is under the influence of the northeast trade winds. These winds pick up
moisture as they blow over the Atlantic. They are forced to rise over the mountains of many Caribbean
islands, producing relief rainfall on the windward side. Rain shadows can be found on the leeward side of
many Caribbean islands.

TRADE WINDS
The sun’s energy is concentrated in equatorial regions. This warms the air in these regions, causing it to
rise. This creates a zone of low pressure in areas at or near the equator. In the subtropics, there are areas
of high pressure located about 30 degrees north and 30 degrees south. Winds blow from areas of higher
pressure to areas of lower pressure. Therefore, winds blow from subtropical areas of high pressure toward
the area of low pressure near the equator. These winds are known as the trade winds.
The trade winds do not blow directly toward the equator. Because the Earth is rotating, they are deflected.
In the northern hemisphere, they blow from the northeast and are called the northeast trade winds. In the
southern hemisphere, they blow from the southeast and are called the southeast trade winds. The trade
winds got their name because during the days of sailing ships, they were very important for world trade.
Near the equator atmospheric pressure is low and air rises. High level winds called the antitrades blow
from equatorial regions toward the subtropical areas of high pressure. In these areas of high pressure, air
from high up in the atmosphere sinks toward the ground. The trade winds blow from subtropical areas of
high pressure toward the equator. Thus, there is a continuous circulation of air between areas near the
equator and subtropical areas of high pressure (see diagram below). This circulation is known as the
Hadley Cell and it helps to regulate the temperature of the Earth.

Diagram showing the movement of the trade winds and the circulation of the Hadley Cell.
INTER-TROPICAL CONVERGENCE ZONE (ITCZ)
The trade winds meet (or converge) in the zone of low pressure in equatorial regions. This zone is called
the Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ). Atmospheric conditions in the ITCZ are very
unstable. There are strong currents of rising air known as up draughts. As the air rises, the moisture
within it condenses, clouds form and it rains. The unstable conditions in the ITCZ make equatorial
regions some of the wettest in the world. These areas often experience heavy rainfall and thunderstorms.
 In this photo, the ITCZ can be seen as a band of clouds over equatorial regions (photo by NASA)

The ITCZ is a very large feature which circles the globe. It affects many tropical areas around the world
including territories in the southern Caribbean. The ITCZ is not stationary. It moves north of the equator
during the northern hemisphere summer, bringing heavy rain to Trinidad and Tobago and Grenada. It then
moves south, crossing the Equator and moving into the southern hemisphere. The ITCZ reaches its most
southerly point during the northern hemisphere winter, bringing heavy rain to Brazil. The ITCZ crosses
Guyana as it travels to the north and then again as it moves south, giving this country two periods of
heavy rainfall each year. The map below shows the northernmost and southernmost positions of the
ITCZ.
 The northernmost and southernmost positions of the ITCZ (by Mats Halldin)
TROPICAL WAVES
Tropical waves are troughs of low pressure which occur in tropical areas. According to the National
Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) a trough is “an elongated area of low pressure, usually
not associated with a closed circulation”. Tropical waves develop from atmospheric disturbances as far
away as eastern Africa. They then move toward the west travelling across the African continent and over
the Atlantic Ocean. They are carried along by the prevailing easterly winds known as the trade winds.

Tropical waves are very large systems. Travelling at about 20 – 30 km per hour, the entire system may
take up to four days to cross a particular location. To the west of a tropical wave, air is descending and the
weather is fair. Wind blows from the north-east. As the trough of the wave passes over an area, the
atmosphere becomes unstable and there are strong up draughts (rising currents of air). Cumulonimbus
clouds form, resulting in heavy rain and thunderstorms. To the east of the wave, the wind blows from the
south-east.

There are about 60 – 65 tropical waves in a typical year. They are especially common from April to
November, when a new wave leaves the African coast every 2 – 4 days. Under certain conditions, a
tropical wave may develop into a hurricane
COLD FRONTS
When air remains relatively stagnant over an area for some time, it takes on the temperature and moisture
characteristics of the area. Therefore, air which remains stagnant over a cold and dry area will become
cold and dry. Air which remains stagnant over the sea or ocean in the tropics will become warm and
moist. A body of air which has similar temperature and moisture characteristics throughout is known as
an air mass.
Over time, air masses may move out of the areas over which they develop. As they do so, they encounter
other air masses with different characteristics. When two air masses with different characteristics meet,
they do not readily mix. There is usually a sharp or well defined boundary between the two air masses.
This boundary is known as a front. There are different types of fronts such as warm fronts and cold
fronts. Warm fronts occur when a warm air mass moves into a region of colder air. Cold fronts occur
when a cold air mass moves into a region of warm air.

Diagram showing cold front (by Ravedave)

Cold fronts affect the Caribbean region (especially the northern part of the region) during the northern
hemisphere winter. During this period, cold air from North America moves into the Caribbean. There is a
well-defined boundary where this cold, dry air meets the warm, moist air of the Caribbean. The cold air is
denser and heavier and so it pushes its way beneath the warm air. The warm air, which is lighter and less
dense than the cold air, is forced to rise. There are strong up draughts and tall cumulonimbus clouds are
formed. There is often heavy rain and thunderstorms.
ANTICYCLONES
An anticyclone (also known as a high pressure system) is a large area of high atmospheric pressure.
Anticyclones may be thousands of kilometers in diameter. The pressure within an anticyclone is 1000
millibars or more. Light winds circulate around the central area of high pressure in a clockwise direction
in the northern hemisphere. Within the anticyclone air is descending.

Air descends in an anticyclone.

As the air descends, it is compressed and warmed. These conditions are not suitable for cloud formation.
Therefore, anticyclones are associated with long periods of sunny or fair weather with few or no clouds
and no rainfall. There is usually a light wind. These conditions generally persist for several days or even a
few weeks. In the photo below, the large, cloudless, oval shaped area is an anticyclone.
 An anticyclone off the southern coast of Australia. (Photo by NASA)

During the northern hemisphere winter, anticyclones form over North America and these may extend over
parts of the northern Caribbean. During the northern hemisphere summer, an anticyclone develops over
the mid-Atlantic and may extend over parts of the Caribbean.