FUNDAMENTALS OF CRIMINAL INVESTIGATION
nearest hospital. Then measure, sketch and
Basic concepts and Principles of criminal investigation
Criminal Investigation- is an art which deals with the
identity and location of the offender and prov ides
ev idence of guilt through criminal proceedings.
Investigation Defined: The collection of facts to
accomplish a threefold aim: (LIE)
a) to Locate the guilty party;
b) to Identify the guilty party; and
c) To prov ide Ev idence of his guilt.
The exception to the general rule perhaps is the 1987
Constitution which states among other things, that an
arrested person under custodial inv estigation is afforded
with the three Constitutional rights. Such as:
1) The right to remain silent
2) The right to counsel
3) The right to be informed of the nature and
the cause of the accusation
What is the legal consequence if an arrested person under
cust odial investigat ion is deprived of t he const it ut ional
right s?
Any testimony of statement taken from the
arrested person who is departed of the three constitutional
rights would be inadmissible as ev idence in the Courts of
Justice. On the other hand, the inv estigator may be held
criminally liable for the v iolation of law.
Criminal Investigator Defined
 A criminal inv estigator is a person who is charged
with the duty of carrying on the objectiv es of
criminal inv estigation, e.g., to identify and locate
the guilty and prov ide ev idence of his guilt.
Primary job of an Investigator
 The primary job of the inv estigator is to discov er
whether or not an offense has been committed
under the law, after determining what specific
offense has been committed, he must discov er
how it was committed, by whom, where it was
committed, when and why it was committed
(Cardinal points of Inv estigation 5W’s and 1 H).
What are the qualities of a good investigator?
1. Persev erance
2. Intelligence
3. Honest
4. Understanding of the people and
env ironment
5. Keen power of observ ation
INITIAL STEPS IN CRIMINAL INVESTIGATION
What are t he nine (9) Golden Rules t o be observed by t he
Invest igat or upon his arrival at t he scene of t he crime?
a. Identify and if possible, retain for questioning
the person who first notified the police.
b. Determine the perpetrator by direct inquiry or
observ e him, if his identity is immediately
apparent.
c. Detain all persons present at the scene.
d. Summon assistance, if necessary.
e. Safeguard the area by issuing appropriate
orders and by physically isolating it.
f. Subsequently, permit only authorized persons
to enter the area.
g. Separate the witnesses in order to obtain
independent statements.
h. Do not touch or mov e any object.
i. Definitely assign the duties of the search if
assistants are present.
One of the Golden Rule is “Do Not Touch or Move any
Object.” What should then be the primary job of an
Investigator before applying this rule?
The Inv estigator upon his arriv al at the scene of the crime
should consider the following two important steps before
he touches or mov es any object.
a) If the v ictim is still aliv e, the Investigator should
try to gather or acquire information from the
v ictim himself with regard to the surrounding
circumstances of the crime, while calling for
Compendium of Crime Detection and Investigation (CDI)
assistance for an ambulance from the
photograph the crime scene immediately
after the v ictim is remov ed and brought to
the hospital for medical attendance.
b) If the v ictim is dead, the body should be
remov ed only after the crime scene is
measured, sketched and photographed.
Modern techniques in crime detection and investigation
What do you understand by Instrumentation?
 Instrumentation is the application of instruments
and methods of physical science to the
detection of crime. It is the application of
physics, chemistry, and biology in crime
detection. It is the sum total of the application of
all sciences in crime detection otherwise known
as criminalistics although instrumentation means
more than criminalistics because it includes also
all the technical methods by which the fugitiv es
may be traced and examined.
 In cases where there are no physical ev idences
to be found, then the use of instrumentation is
relativ ely unimportant. A thorough training in the
resources of instrumentation is of great
importance to an inv estigator. The limitations of
technical methods should also be a part of his
knowledge, since excessiv e reliance on
instruments may in certain situations result in the
neglect of and more suitable inv estigation
procedures.
What are the different ways in which criminalistics may be
useful in criminal investigation?
a. By supplying one or more missing links in a chain
of ev idences.
b. By strengthening a weak link or links in the chain
of ev idences.
c. By checking the accuracy of the statements
made by (1) the suspect, or (2) by material
witnesses.
d. By clearing up doubtful points in the preliminary
stages of an inv estigation which may or may not
be significant at a later stage.
e. By assisting in the rapid clearing up of routine
inquiries.
Instrumentation
 After all physical ev idence are found in the crime
scene, almost all of them need equipments to
process, that is where criminalistics equipment’s
or instrument come into the picture.
 Ev idence that is expendable must be preserv ed;
this can be done through photography. Latent
fingerprint needs to be lifted and preserv ed for
court presentation, Dactyloscopy is the needed
instrument. The deceased died of unknown
substance he drank before he died. Toxicology
will prov ide the answer the truth, etc.
Development of Criminalistics
 Before the 1900s criminal inv estigation relied
almost exclusiv ely upon the interaction of
people. Detectives used their skills as interv iewers
and persuaders to obtain information regarding
innocence or guilt. This form of information
gathering, including the frequent use of the
informant, was nearly the sole means of field
criminal detection. Today the emphasis is v ery
different. Current methods inv olv e, to a large
extent, what is known as criminalistics. or the
more generic term forensic science. In its simplest
form, criminalistics is the application of many
fields of natural science in the detection of
crime. Chemistry, physic, biology and
mathematics are frequently considered the
backbone of forensic science.
In the process of instrumentation, the following
equipment’s are being used, namely:
1. The first used was Anthropometry found by
Alphonse Bertillon. He is a Frenchman who
founded criminal identification by body
measurement. It was accepted and adopted by
police departments in Europe and the United
States for more than twenty (20) years. But due to
 the West case, Anthropometry disappeared,
which up to the time of his death in 1914, Bertillon
nev er accepted its uselessness.
2. Dactyloscopy replaced Anthropometry. It was
popularized by Sir Edward Richard Henry in
Europe and through Juan Vucetich who founded
the fingerprint classification, it was found to be
accurate. Its usefulness in criminal inv estigation
cannot be questioned because its infallibility as
no two person hav e the same fingerprints not
ev en the ten neighboring fingers of the same
persons.
3. Forensic Serology was discov ered by Karl
Landsteiner in 1901 the agglutination of human
blood. This discov ery demonstrated that blood
possesses certain characteristics, which allowed
the designation A, B, AB and 0.
4. Forensic Ballistics dev eloped by Dr. Calv in H.
Goddard, a U.S. Army Physician with a rank of
Lieutenant Colonel. It is used for determining
whether or not the ev idence bullet and test
bullet came from a single gun through the use of
bullet comparison microscope.
5. Poroscopy founded by Edmond Locard, one of
the foremost criminalists in the world. Poroscopy
deals with the identification of sweat pores; he
prov ed that pores v ary in number, size and
position in each indiv idual.
6. Photography was used in investigation to identify
ev idence and suspect, to preserv e them for
court presentation. A person who popularized in
photography was Rudolf Reiss, he aided the
forensic science field by specializing in
photography.
7. Polygraph (lie detector) was dev elop by John
Larson although it was founded by Keller. It is
effectiv e in limiting the suspects in number as in
the hand of an expert and dependable machine
its result is excellent.
8. In 1952, Paul L. Kirk inv ented a. new density-
measuring dev ice for soil samples found at
outdoor crime scenes. In the same year he
accumulated an extensiv e crime- scene
inv estigation kit that was highly portable, yet
extensiv ely equipped.
9. In 1984, Alex Jeffrey’s, a British biologist and
genetics expert, discov ered the concept of DNA
genetic fingerprinting.
Name the two kinds of criminal identifies by witnesses.
a. Known fugitives—if the criminal is known, then
police records and pictures are av ailable. His
relativ es and friends can offer a description.
Further description may be obtained from local
police files, background inv estigation and from
v erbal descriptions of others.
b. Unknown criminals—identified of unknown
criminals by eyewitnesses must be approached
with caution by the inv estigator. The description
and characteristics may be v ague that
identification is difficult.
The Value of Identification by Eyewitnesses Depends on:
1. The ability of the eyewitness to observ e and
remember the relativ e “distinctiv eness” of the
accused’ appearance.
2. The prev ailing conditions of v isibility and
observ ations.
3. The lapse of time between the criminal ev ent
and the identification.
Name the Methods of Identification by Witnesses.
a. Verbal Description—the v alue of the description
must depend on the capacity of the witness to
describe the criminal.
b. Photographic Files—(Rogue’s Gallery)—the
witness may be taken to the headquarters to
examine the photographs in file. The modus
operandi file may also be shown upon
knowledge of the technique of the commission
of the crime. The attention to any strong similarity
in the photograph of a single feature, as the nose
or mouth.
c. General Photograph—the inv estigator should
show the witness the v ariety of facial types which
do not necessarily represent the criminal. The
picture only represents different features of the
face. The image of v arious features such as the
Compendium of Crime Detection and Investigation (CDI)
degree of baldness, length or shape of the nose,
the shape of mouth ear, etc.
d. Artist’s Assistance—the identification may be
made by the employment of an artist to depict a
composite of the features described by the
eyewitness. The witness is shown a chart which
contains representations of v arious types of
human features as noses, eyes, ears, etc., and is
requested to select the indiv idual features
present in the unknown criminal. From this
selection, the artist draws a composite of the
face which maybe a close approximation to that
of the criminals.
State the procedures of identification by witness of the
person in custody.
 The inv estigator can increase reliability of
identification by eyewitnesses through the
medium of the intelligently conducted “line-up”.
The police line-up is more profitably used as
means of selecting a suspect from a group of
innocent persons. The purpose of the line-up is
the power of the suggestion as a factor in
identification.
Procedure
1. There must be a group of seven (7) to ten (10)
persons. Their appearance must be almost the
same as to height, hair color, and clothing. The
suspect must be giv en the opportunity to select
the position in the line-up. (first used in Boston)
2. The witness should be instructed before entering
the line-up room to the fact that the suspect is
among the persons in the group. The suspect
should not be made aware of any decision on
the part of the witness.
3. The lined-up members should not talk while in the
room unless v oice identification is required.
Before bringing the witness, the inv estigator
should determine whether it will be necessary to
hav e the line-up members wear hats; walk, show
certain physical areas; sit down, or otherwise,
demonstrate any characteristics. If the witness
desires the line-up members to perform certain
actions, he should communicate this information
discreetly to the inv estigator.
4. If there is more than one witness, they should
make their identification separately and should
not be permitted to confer with each other, until
they have indicated their indiv idual decisions of
the inv estigator.
What do you understand by circumstantial evidence?
 Circumstantial ev idence is identification
established indirectly by prov ing other facts or
circumstances from which either alone or in
connection with other facts, the identity of this
perpetrator can be inferred.
When may circumstantial evidence be sufficient to
produce conviction?
a. When there is more than one circumstance.
b. When the facts from which the inferences
deriv ed are prov en.
c. When the combination of all the circumstances is
such as to produce a conv iction beyond a
reasonable doubt.
What must be inferred to prove identity by circumstantial
evidence?
a. Motive—it may be inferred from circumstances
and from the statements of witnesses that the
suspect has been motiv ated by a desire for
rev enge or personal gain. Motiv e is hard to
establish in crime committed by mentally
deranged persons.
b. Opportunity—this is the physical possibility that
the suspect could hav e committed the crime. It
may be deduced from the following:
1. The suspect could hav e been in the
v icinity of the crime.
2. Knowledge of the criminal objectiv es.
3. Absence of alibi.
What do you understand by Associative Evidence?
 Associativ e ev idence are the physical evidences
which may identify the criminal by means of
clues, personal properties, or the characteristics
 patterns of procedure deduced from the
arrangement of objects at the crime scene. The
offender may leav e some clues at the scene,
such as weapons, tools, garments, fingerprints,
foot impressions etc. Crimes of v iolence may
leav e ev idence of physical struggle.
Give the evidence necessary to prove guilt.
a. The fact of the existence of the crime must be
established;
b. The defendant must be identified and
associated with the crime scene;
c. Competent and credible witnesses must be
av ailable;
d. Physical ev idence must be identified
appropriately and the chain of its custody
established and its connection with the case
shown; and
e. The whole must be presented in orderly and
logical fashion.
What is the Corpus Delicti, and what must it prove?
 Corpus delicti is the body of the crime or fact of
specific loss or injury sustained. Corpus delicti is
prov en by showing the following:
a. There exists a certain state of fact which
forms the basis of the criminal act charged;
and
b. The existence of a criminal agency which
caused the state of facts to exist. It is
preferable that the state of fact should be
established by direct and positiv e proof, but
circumstantial ev idence will suffice it is
particularly clear and cogent.
Methodologies and modern techniques in crime scene
investigation processing and preserving physical
evidence.
CRIME SCENE INVESTIGATION
 It is the conduct of processes, more particularly,
the recognition, handling, preserv ation and
documentation of physical ev idence to include
the identification and interview of witnesses and
the arrest of suspect/s at the crime scene.
Cardinal Rule in Crime Scene Investigation
 Do not touch or mov e anything in the crime
scene unless it has been properly photograph,
sketch and recorded.
MAC Rule
 Do not Mov e, Alter, Change the crime scene
What Constitute a Crime Scene?
A. The crime scene can be understood to include
all areas in which the criminal, any possible victim
and any eyewitness mov e during the time the
crime was committed.
B. The boundaries must be established so that the
entire crime scene can be effectiv ely preserv ed.
C. In some crimes, howev er, the crime scene may
actually comprise sev eral different sites.
Receipt of report of a Crime Incident
The Desk Officer shall:
 Record the date and time the report/complaint
was made, the identity of the person who made
the report, place of the incident and a synopsis
of the incident.
 Inform his superior officer or the duty officer
regarding the report.
Composition of the CSI Team
 Team Leader
 Ev idence Collectors
 City or Municipal/Health Officer
 Crime Photographer
 Sketcher/Measurer
 Ev idence Custodian/Security Officer
Security and Protection of the crime Scene
First Responder - Must be able to properly preserv e the
crime scene in order to get maximum scientific information
that will help in the successful prosecution of the
perpetrator of the crime.
Compendium of Crime Detection and Investigation (CDI)
The First Responder shall:
 Cordon off crime scene with whatever available
materials like ropes, straws, human barricade,
police line;
 Ev acuate injured persons to the nearest hospital;
 Prepare to take the “dying declaration” of
sev erely injured person, if any;
 Prev ent entry/exit of persons within the cordoned
area; and
 Prepare to brief the CSI Team Leader of the
situation upon their arriv al.
PAP Rule for the First Responder
o Preserv e human life
o Arrest the suspect if possible
o Protect the crime scene
Basic Equipment
 Police line
 Marker
 Camera with film
 Ev idence collection kit
 Video camera and tape recorder
 Measuring device e.g. ruler and measuring tape
 Flood lights, hand glov es, masks, eye goggles,
hairnet
 Recording materials e.g. chalk, bond paper,
pencil, clipboard, pentel pens
Approaching the Crime Scene
 Be alert for discarded ev idence
 Make pertinent notes as to possible entry and
exit points of the perpetrator
Designation of a Command Post
Command Post- an area which, is ideally located
adjacent to the Crime Scene where the CSI Ev idence
Custodian stays and receiv es the pieces of ev idence
turned ov er to him for safekeeping by the other ev idence
collectors.
Initiation of Preliminary Survey
 Makes a general assessment
 Takes a cautious walk- through
 Takes down extensiv e note to document
important factors
 Establishes the ev idence most likely to be
encountered
 Defines the extent of the search area
 Determines the personnel and equipment
needed, and makes specific assignments
From his assessments, he dev elops a general theory of the
crime scene.
Remov able inferences about what happened are
produced from the crime scene appearance and
information from what happened. These theories will giv e
the crime inv estigator to document specific conditions
and recognize v aluable physical ev idence.
Documentation of the Crime Scene - The photographer
begins taking photographs as soon as possible. The
ev idence collectors do not touch or mov ed any evidence
once it is located until it has been identified, measured
and recorded.
Crime Scene Photography
Main Objective - To create an accurate objectiv e v isual
record of the crime scene before any item is mov ed or
remov ed as possible physical ev idence.
Guidelines for taking photographs of a Crime Scene
 Photographs of a crime scene should be taken
as soon as possible, before note taking, sketching
or a search for ev idence begins.
 The pictures should illustrate the original,
uncontaminated condition of the crime scene.
 Photographs should be taken of the crime scene
only, without spectators or police personnel.
 To adequately present the crime scene initially,
the photographs must form an organized
sequence and show all relev ant locations and
objects.
  The crime scene photographs must progress from
general to specific.
Three Major Types of Pictorial Views (at least four (4)
Photographs)
1. Long- range photograph of the ov erall scene
(General View)
a. Distance: From the doorway to the
room and other corners of the room
(Medium View)
2. Mid- range photograph
a. Distance: Eight or ten feet from the
v ictim
3. Close- up photograph
4. Extreme Close-up
a. Use in the laboratory
Crime Scene Sketches
 Sketches are useful in questioning of suspects
and witnesses as well as in the writing of
inv estigativ e reports.
 A rough sketch is prepared indicating the actual
measurement of things with scale and proportion
observ ed and oriented to the North Pole.
 All necessary information is placed in the sketch.
Sketches are excellent companions to photograph. Where
photograph provide exact details, sketches offer accurate
information about the placement of objects and they
show relationship and distances between things.
Elements of sketch
a. Measurement
b. Compass direction
c. Essential items
d. Scale and proportion
e. Legend
f. Title
Specific kinds of sketch
a. Locality- giv e picture of the scene, the crime
and its env irons, including neighboring buildings,
roads etc.
b. Ground- picture of the scene of the crime with
its nearest physical surrounding.
c. Details- the immediate scene only
d. Exploded/ cross projection- giv es the clear
impression of the scene in cases where blood
stains or bullet holes are found
Types of Measurements
1. Rectangular coordinates method
2. Triangulation method
3. Baseline method
4. Compass point method
5. Cross projection method
Note Taking - Note taking must be a constant activ ity
throughout the processing of the crime scene.
Notes must include:
 Detailed written description of the Crime Scene
with locations of physical ev idence receiv ed
 The time when the physical ev idence was
discov ered
 The person who discov ered and collected
physical ev idence
 How the ev idence was packaged and marked
 The disposition of the item when it was collected
Documentation - This documentation are made by the
crime scene inv estigator for purposes of future crime
scene reconstruction which help the prosecutor and the
judge understand conditions at the crime scene.
Narrative Report - Represent scene in a general to specific
scheme, consider structured factors such as: lights on/off,
newspaper on driveway/in house, drapes pulled, open or
shut. This written record could serv e as the only source of
info for refreshing one’s memory month or years after a
crime has been processed.
Preparation of Narrative Report
The team leader uses the systematic approach in making
a narrativ e report.
1. Represent Crime Scene in a general to specific
scheme.
2. Includes structural factors such as:
Compendium of Crime Detection and Investigation (CDI)
 Lights on/off
 Newspaper on driv eway/in home
 Drapes pulled, on or shut
Crime Scene Search
 The search for physical ev idence is done using
the accepted methods of search depending
upon the actual location to be searched.
 A crime scene search could only be started after
it has been photograph and sketched.
Objectives of a Crime Scene Search
 To systematically look for physical ev idence that
may prov e useful in establishing that a crime has
been committed.
 To determine what method of operation the
perpetrator may hav e used.
Different Search Methods
a. Strip- the searchers will proceed at the same
pace along the path parallel to one side of the
rectangle.
b. Spiral- the searchers will follow each other in the
path of a spiral, beginning in the outside and
spiraling towards the center. Clockwise/ counter
clockwise.
c. Zone- the area to be searched is div iding into
four quadrants and each searcher is assigned to
one quadrant. (Quadrant Method)
d. Wheel- for area to be searched approximately
circular or ov al
e. Point to point- searcher will stand in a straight
line and mov e forward together.
The Search
 Before the actual search is done, the inv estigator
must stand aside and make an estimate of the
situation. A certain area where there are no
possible traces of the crime may ne made as the
“headquarters”. Having formed the estimate, the
inv estigator can now determine the number, kind
and v iews of the photographs he wishes to be
taken.
 A plan for the search should be formed which will
cov er all the grounds. Ev ery step of an
inv estigation must be undertaken with the
thought of ultimate presentation in court. Notes
and measurements must supplement the
sketches and photographs.
 The basic guides for the inv estigator to look upon
are ev idences to establish one or more of the
following:
Explain briefly the four (4) mechanics of search: illustrate
each.
 If the area to be searched is limited indoors with
fewer contents or any other situation which will
preclude a systematic search, no standard
procedure of search is recommended. Any
method of choice will do, prov ided that
alertness, knowledge and experience of the
participating inv estigators are present.
 If the area to be search is quite extensive, a more
systematic scheme of approach is
recommended. The following are the different
methods of search:
Strip Method - The searchers (A, B, & C) proceed slowly at
the same pace along the path parallel to one side of the
rectangle. T the end of the rectangle, the searcher turns
and proceeds back along new lanes but parallel to the
first mov ement.
Spiral method - The searchers follow each other in the
path of a spiral, beginning in the outside and spiralling in
towards the center. (Fig.3)
Zone Method - The area to be searched is div ided into
quadrants and each searcher is assigned to one
quadrant. (Fig. 4)
Wheel Method - If the area to be searched is
approximately circular or ov al, the wheel method may be
used. The searchers gather at the center and proceed
outward along radio or spokes. (Fig. 5)
 The principal drawback of this method is that the
distance between searchers increases as they
depart from the center.
  The inv estigator must see to it that the search
made with the employment of any of the abov e
methods must be thorough.
 The discov ery of any physical ev idence in the
course of the search must be collected and
preserv ed without specific regard of their relation
to the crime.
o Basically, a searcher must primarily
concentrate on the following types of
evidence.
1. Those which establish the element
of proof that the crime was
committed;
2. Those which may serv e to trace the
criminal.
What is meant by reconstruction of the crime? - After
completion of the search, an effort must be made to
determine from the appearance of the place and its
objects what actually occurred and what the
circumstances of a crime were. This is known as
reconstructing the crime.
What are the kinds of reconstruction? Explain each.
a. Physical Reconstruction—the physical
appearance of the crime scene is reconstructed
from the description of witnesses and the
indication of the physical ev idence.
b. Mental Reconstruction—from the physical
reconstruction, some conclusions can be made
concerning the consistency of the accounts of
v arious witnesses. No assumption should be
made concerning actions which are not
supported by ev idences. The final theory
dev eloped by the investigator should prov ide a
line of inv estigativ e action.
What is the equipment’s used in the search?
a. Searching tools—flashlights, magnifier
b. Sketching Instruments—
a) Measuring dev ices-compass, steel tape,
ruler
b) Recording materials-chalk, graphing
paper, sketching pad, clip board, paper
pad for note taking.
c) Collection of ev idences-cutting fliers,
fingerprinting equipments.
c. Preserv ation of ev idence—
1. Container-bottles, env elopes, test tubes,
pins, and thumb tacks.
2. Label and seal-ev idence tags, gummed
labels, sealing wax and grease pencil.
Collection of Physical Evidence
 The competence to recognize and properly
collect physical ev idence is critical to both
solv ing and prosecuting crimes.
 The team leader is always informed of significant
ev idence located.
 The ev idence collectors shall put his initial,
location and date of collection on the item and
turn it ov er to the ev idence custodian for
documentation and safekeeping.
Physical Evidence - these are the articles and materials
which re found in connection with the inv estigation and
aid in establishing the identity of the suspect.
What are the procedures needed for the care of physical
evidence?
In order to introduce physical ev idence in court, three
important factors must be considered:
a. The article must be properly identified
b. Chain of custody must be prov ed
c. The ev idence must be material and relev ant
What is chain of custody? - It is the number of persons who
handle the ev idence between the time of the commission
of the offense and the ultimate disposition of the case and
should be kept to minimum.
Conduct of Final Survey - The team leader makes a final
rev iew on the crime scene to determine whether or not
the processing has been completed.
Compendium of Crime Detection and Investigation (CDI)
Release of the Crime Scene - The release of the crime
scene is done if the inv estigator is satisfied that all pieces
of ev idence have been recov ered. Thus, the inv estigator
must ev aluate the items recov ered from the results of the
interrogations of the suspect/s and the interv iew of the
witnesses. He must bear in mind that upon the formal
release of the crime scene to the proper authority, the
warrant is already required for his re- entry to the crime
scene.
TOOLS OF INVESTIGATION
INFORMATION - It is the knowledge/ data which an
inv estigator acquires from records and persons. Regular
source is acquired from open sources, records, files,
cultivated source are information furnished by informants/
informers, Grapevine source are information giv en by the
underworld characters such as prisoners or criminals.
INTERVIEW - Is a conv ersation with a purpose, motiv ated
by a desire to obtain certain information from the person
being interv iewed as to what was done, seen, felt, heard,
tasted, smell or known.
This is the questioning of a person believ ed to possess
knowledge that is in official interest to the inv estigator.
BASIC ASSUMPTIONS - Nobody has to talk to law enforcers.
No law compels a person to talk to the police if he does
not want to. Therefore, people will have to be persuaded,
always within legal and ethical limits, to talk to law
enforcers.
This makes interviewing an art.
I.R.O.N.I.C. FORMAT
 The interv iew of a witness can be described by its
acronym ‘IRONIC’ which stands for Identity,
Rapport, Opening Statement, Narration, Inquiry,
and conclusion.
o Identity—prior to the commencement of
an interv iew, the inv estigator should
identify himself to the subject by name,
rank and agency. Except when there is no
need to know the officer’s identity.
o Rapport—it is good to get the positiv e
feeling of the subject towards the
inv estigators, such friendly atmosphere is a
v ital for both the subject and the
inv estigator to hav e a better interaction.
o Opening Statement — the inv estigator
must hav e to indicate why the subject is
being contracted.
o Narration — the witness should be allowed
to tell all he knows with little interruptions
from the inv estigator.
o Inquiry — after all information hav e been
giv en by the subject, that is the time for
the inv estigator to as question to clarify
him about the case under inv estigation.
o Conclusions — after the interview, it is but
proper to close the interv iew with outmost
courtesy and thanking the subject for his
cooperation.
What are the rules to be observed in questioning?
a. One question at a time
b. Av oiding implied answer
c. Simplicity of the questions
d. Sav ing faces
e. Av oid close ended questions (yes or no)
f. Positiv e attitude
INTERROGATION - Interrogation is a questioning of a
person suspected if hav ing committed an offense or a
person who is reluctant to make full disclosure of
information in his possession which is pertinent to the
inv estigation.
What are the purposes of Interrogation? (FARAC)
A. To learn the Facts of the crime
B. To induce the suspect to make Admission
C. To dev elop information which will lead to the
Recov ery of the fruits of the crime
D. To learn the identity of the Accomplice
E. To obtain Confession to the crime
F. To discov er the details of other crimes
participated by the suspect
What should be the attitude of the interrogator?
a. Dominate the interv iew
b. Av oid distracting mannerism
c. Language
d. Dress
e. Preliminary conduct
f. Presence of other person
g. Place
Description of the interrogation room
a. Priv acy can be achiev ed by hav ing one door,
absence of windows, soundproof wall, and
telephone without ringing bell.
b. Simplicity- medium size room, bare walls, no
glaring lights, minimum furniture.
c. Seating arrangement- straight back chair for the
suspect, table with flat surface, the back of the
suspect must be facing the door.
d. Technical aid- installation of recording dev ice
and one- way mirror.
Legal requirements of interrogation - The statement of the
subject must be obtained v oluntary and trustworthy and
not by means or use of threat, fear, coercion, duress or
any improper tactics which will v itiate the free will of the
subject. Remember RA 7438.
General Suggestions Regarding the Interrogation of
Criminal Suspects
1. Interv iew the v ictim, the accuser, or the
discov erer of the crime before interrogating the
suspects.
2. Be patient and persistent. Nev er conclude an
interrogation at a time when you feel
discouraged and ready to giv e up; continue for
a little while longer.
3. Make no promises when asked, “What will
happen to me if I tell the truth?”
4. View with skepticism the so-called conscience-
stricken confession.
5. When a subject has made a repeated denials of
guilt to prev ious inv estigators, first question him,
whenev er circumstances permit, abut some
other unrelated offense of a similar nature of
which he is also considered to be guilty.
6. An unintelligent, uneducated criminal suspect,
with low cultural background should be
interrogated on a psychological lev el compared
to that usually employed in the questioning of a
child.
INTERROGATION TECHNIQUES
1. Emotional Appeal
o Place the subject in the proper frame of
mind. The inv estigator should prov ide
emotional stimuli that will prompt the
subject to unburden himself by confiding.
o Analyze the subject’s personality and
decide what motiv ation would prompt
him to tell the truth, and then prov ide
those motiv es through appropriate
emotional appeals.
2. Sympathetic appeal
o The suspect may feel the need for
sympathy or friendship.
o He is apparently in trouble. Gestures of
friendship may win his cooperation.
3. Kindness
o The simplest technique is to assume that
the suspect will confess if he is treated in a
kind and friendly manner.
4. Extenuation (not the most guilty)
o The inv estigator indicates he does not
consider his subject’s indiscretion a grav e
offense.
5. Shifting the blame (napasama ka lang)
o The interrogator makes clear his belief that
the subject is obv iously not the sort of
person who usually gets mixed up in a
crime like this.
o The interrogator could tell from the start
that he was not dealing with a fellow who
is a criminal by nature and choice.
Compendium of Crime Detection and Investigation (CDI)
Mutt and Jeff (Two (2) agents are employed)
1. Mutt, the relentless inv estigator, who is not going
to waste any time because he knows the
subject, is guilty.
2. Jeff, on the other hand, is obv iously a kind-
hearted man.
Bluff on a Split Pair - This is applicable when there are more
than one suspect. The suspects are separated and one is
informed that other has talked.
Pretense of Physical Evidence - The inv estigator may
pretend that certain physical ev idence has found by
laboratory experts against him.
Jolting - Maybe applied to calm and nerv ous subjects. By
constantly observ ing the suspects, the inv estigator
chooses a propitious moment to shout a pertinent
question and appear as though he is beside himself with
rage. The subject maybe unnerv ed to the extent of
confessing.
Philosophy of Interview and Interrogation:
The RIGHT officer asking the RIGHT questions in the RIGHT
manner at the RIGHT time and in the RIGHT place will get
the RIGHT answers.
Instrumentation - It is the application of instruments and
methods of physical science to the detection of crimes. In
cases where there are no significant physical ev idence to
be found, then the use of instrumentation is relativ ely
unimportant.
What are the ways of identifying the criminals?
a. By confession and admission
b. Eyewitness
c. Circumstantial ev idence
d. Associativ e ev idence
Confession—it is the declaration of an accused
expressing/acknowledging his guilt of the offense
charged.
Effects of confession:
a) May be giv en in evidence against him in the
inv estigation or trial of the offense with
which he is charged; and
b) May be giv en to prov e the guilt of his
companions but it will pass a lot of
argumentation and debate.
Types of Confession
1. Judicial Confession - Made by the suspect/
accused in open court
2. Extra- Judicial Confession - This kind of confession
is inadmissible unless corroborated by proof of
corpus delicti. The confession to be admissible, it
must be v oluntary, in writing and made with the
assistance of a counsel of his own choice with
full understanding of the consequence of such
confession.( get separate for separate crimes).
Admission - An admission is a self-incriminatory statement
by the subject falling short of an acknowledgement of
guilt. It is an acknowledgement of a fact or circumstances
from which guilt maybe inferred. It implicates but does not
incriminate. It is also an acknowledgment that a fact,
action or circumstances are true which strongly infer or
directly admit guilt but lacks the detail of the elements of
the crime.
What are the two kinds of criminals?
a. Known fugitiv e
b. Unknown fugitiv e
Methods of Identification by witness
a. Verbal Description
b. Photographic files (Rogues Gallery)
c. General Photograph
d. Artist sketch (Composite Criminal illustration)
The value of identification by eyewitness depends on:
a. The ability to observ e and remember distinct
appearance of the suspect;
b. Prev ailing condition of v isibility
c. The lapse of time
What are the procedures of identification by eyewitness?
a. Physical line- up- means of selecting a
suspect from a group of innocent persons
usually composed of sev en to ten persons.
The purpose of line- up is to eliminate the
power of suggestion.
b. Physical show- up- only one person is
shown to the witness usually at the scene of
the crime and made immediately after the
arrest of the suspect.
Circumstantial evidence- facts or circumstances from
which, either alone or in connection with other facts, the
identity of the person can be inferred.
What must be inferred to prov e identity by circumstantial
ev idence?
a. Motive - what induces the person to act
b. Intent - the result or accomplishment of the
act
c. Opportunity - the physical possibility that
the suspect could hav e committed the
crime
What is associative evidence? - These are the pieces of
ev idence that will link the suspect to the crime scene. The
suspect may leav e some clues at the scene such as
weapons, tools, garments or prints.
What is corpus delicti? - It is the body of the crime or fact
of specific loss or injury sustained.
Explain the meaning and importance of modus operandi?
- Modus operandi means the method of operations. It
enables the inv estigators to recognize a pattern of
criminal behavior, to predict, approximate the next target
of the criminals and to assist complainants to recognize
the suspect by means of recorded information concerning
the characteristics of criminal activ ities.
Informant- is a person who giv es information to the police.
(T – Thank You)
What are the different types of informant?
a. Anonymous- Do not wish to be identified
b. Rival- elimination- eliminate competition
c. False - no v alue
d. Frightened - motiv ated by anxiety
e. Self-aggrandizing - hangs about the fringes
of the criminals
f. Mercenary - sell information
g. Double crosser - to get more information
h. Woman - most dangerous specie
i. Legitimate - operators of legit business
What are the motives of informant in giving information?
a. Vanity
b. Civ ic-mindedness
c. Fear
d. Repentance
e. Av oidance of punishment
f. Competition
g. Rev enge
h. Jealousy
i. Remuneration
Surveillance - it is the secret observ ation of places,
persons, and v ehicles for the purpose of obtaining
information concerning the identities or activ ities of the
subject.
a. Surv eillance of Place (fixed/ stake- out)
b. Shadowing
c. Roping
How to conduct surveillance of place?
 A careful surv ey of the surrounding area should
be made. The character of the neighborhood,
residents and transient should be noted.
 The observ ation point should be selected
properly.
 When observ ation is conducted from a ‘plant’,
surv eillance agents must be extremely careful
not to rev eal their true activ ity. Observation may
be made through a window or other aperture so
as to be unnoticed from the outside.
 Venetian blinds afford the best cov erage, but
may appear to be out of place of some
buildings. An alternativ e is to lower the roller of
draw shades another inch from the window.
Compendium of Crime Detection and Investigation (CDI)
 Binoculars are generally essentially equipment of
the plants, as they facilitate positive identification
of person entering or leav ing the place under
and observ ation.
 A still or v ideo camera with telephoto lens can
also be used effectiv ely.
 Agents should take careful notes of what they
observ e and should record detailed descriptions
of all indiv iduals entering the target.
 A chronological log is usually the best of
recording pertinent occurrences.
Shadowing - the act of following a person. Depends on
the number of Surv eillant available, v olume of pedestrian
traffic and importance of concealing the surv eillance.
Methods of shadowing
a. One man - Extremely difficult and should be
av oided, if unavoidable keep subject in v iew at
all times.
b. Two man - two agents are employed to follow
the subject.
c. ABC method - reduces the risk of losing the
subject, affords greater security agents
detection
d. Progressive/ Leap frog method - poor chances
of obtaining good results, agents are stations at
a fixed point assuming that subject followed the
same general route each day.
e. Combined foot - auto surveillance -
employment of Surv eillant on foot and agents in
an automobile.
What are the things should be avoided during shadowing?
a. Don’t meet the eye of the subject
b. Don’t adopt a slinking, sleuthing, creeping
manner
c. Don’t wear story book disguises
d. Don’t carry noticeable items
e. Don’t greet fellow agents
f. Don’t make notations ostensiv e
How to detect foot surveillance?
A subject who is suspicious of being under surv eillance
may resort to trickery in order to v erify his suspicion. When
a subject resort to such trickery, it is good policy to change
agents, for the suspect may have ‘spotted’ one or more of
his Surv eillant.
a. stopping abruptly and looking back
b. casually looking around
c. rev ersing course/retracing steps
d. boarding bus and alighting just before they start
e. riding short distance on bus
f. circling the block on a taxi
g. entering a building and leaving immediately v ia
another exit
h. stopping abruptly after turning a corner
i. using conv oys
j. Watching reflection in shop windows.
k. Walking slowly and rapidly at alternate interv als
l. Dropping a piece of papers to see if anyone
retriev es it
m. Stopping to tie a shoe string, meanwhile looking
around for Surv eillant
n. Arranging with a friend in a shop, stores or other
places to watch for surv eillants.
How to elude foot surveillance?
Common method to elude foot surv eillance and which
surv eillants must be prepared and guard against; are the
following
a. Jumping off a bus, trains just as the doors are
about to close.
b. Leav ing a building through the rear or side exits.
c. Losing one self in crowds
d. Entering theaters and leav ing immediately
through an exit
e. Pointing out one surv eillant to a police to a
generally require the agent to explain his action
f. Using decoys
g. Taking the last taxi at a stand
h. Changing clothing.
Automobile surveillance - The methods of auto
surv eillance to be used depends upon the numbers and
type of surv eillance v ehicles av ailable, the v olume of
v ehicular traffic in the area, the importance of concealing
the surv eillance from the subject, and the subject’s
estimated ability to detect and elude surv eillance. At all
times each v ehicle should be occupied by at least two
agents; one to concentrate on driv ing, and the other to
observ e, take notes, operate radio equipment, or to
dismount and continue the surv eillance on foot.
How to detect automobile surveillance?
As in the case of foot surv eillance, a subject who believ es
he is being followed may resort to trickery in order to v erify
his suspicions. Some of the common tricks employed:
a. Alternate fast and slow driv ing
b. Driv ing into dead-end streets
c. Frequency parking
d. Committing flagrant traffic on one way streets,
and running through red lights.
e. Stopping suddenly around curv es or corners
f. Pulling into driv eways
g. Speeding up a hill, and then coasting slowly
down.
How to elude automobile surveillance?
a. Committing traffic v iolations
b. Using double entrances to driveways; in one and
out the other.
c. Curbing through parking lots
d. Driv ing through congested areas
e. Deserting the v ehicle behind blind curv es or
corners, but permitting the drivers to driv e on as a
decoy.
Undercover- is a form of inv estigation in which the
inv estigator assumes a different and unofficial identity in
order to obtain information.
 Consider using an undercov er operation only
when conv entional inv estigativ e techniques
hav e not been effective or are not practical. Use
of police personnel, as undercov er agent is an
ethical approach to the problem of securing
information about criminal operations from the
inside. It is surv eillance from a position of
adv antage. It is dangerous work, but often
preferable to using an underworld informant-
probably the only other source of such
information. Undercov er agents make excellent
witnesses, unlike the underworld informants
whose credibility can be attacked because of
crime histories; the police agent is a person of
good reputation and character.
Definitions
a. Undercov er- an inv estigativ e technique in
which the Agent’s/Investigator’s official identity
is concealed to accomplish an inv estigativ e
mission.
b. Natural Cov er- using the indiv idual’s true
identity, occupation or profession.
c. Artificial Cov er- the manufacture of documents,
false documents, passports, or forged
documents.
What are the common types of places of assignment for
undercover work?
a. Neighborhood
b. Social
c. Organizational
d. Work
Penetration:
a. Undercover operation techniques are applied
continuously and not merely ov er a limited
period of time.
b. Initial penetration is concealed.
c. Access is created such that the agent is
accepted in to the target group or
organization.
d. Effort is continued by the agent until he
acquires the desires placement or position, thus
gaining complete access to the objectiv e of
the inv estigativ e effort.
e. Penetration is exceedingly difficult, time
consuming and most delicate form of
inv estigativ e activ ity, but often the most
rewarding.
Special Qualification of Undercover Agent:
a. Thorough knowledge of the area, the
people and customs were agent will
operate.
Compendium of Crime Detection and Investigation (CDI)
b. Preferably single and unmarried
c. Thorough knowledge of the language or
dialect spoken in the area of operation.
Operational Security Guidelines on Undercover
Assignments.
a. The agent’s appearance must be inconspicuous.
b. The SUBJECT should cultiv ate the AGENT, rather
than the rev erse.
c. Analyze SUBJECT and appeal to his ego, v anity
and interest.
d. Obtain SUBJECT’S confidence.(Rapport)
e. Play along with the SUBJECT’S plan.
f. Don’t be impatient, ov er-anxious, or too eager.
g. Don’t displayed more interest in statements or
actions of the SUBJECT and of the SUBJECT’S
associates than is compatible with the cov er
story.
h. Don’t betray knowledge of the SUBJECT’S
background which was gained from the
preliminary inv estigation. Or files.
i. Don’t get inv olv ed with SUBJECT’S girlfriend.
j. Don’t let any relations with SUBJECT incur enmity,
env y or jealousy of the SUBJECT’S associates.
k. Don’t become unnecessarily friendly with
women.
l. Don’t ov eract the cover story. Don’t rev eal more
cov er story details than necessary.
m. Don’t carry weapons unless told to do so.
n. Don’t make unexplainable trips or phone calls.
o. Don’t maintain contacts with personal friends or
relativ es.
p. Don’t display money more than the amount
prov ided for by the cov er story.
q. Don’t rev eal the true identity unless is a part of
preconceiv ed plan.
r. Don’t drink intoxicating bev erages if it can be
av oided.
s. Don’t assumes the ‘big shot’ attitude. An
outstanding characteristics will bring the AGENT
under scrutiny.
t. Beware of entrapment
REMEMBER: THE COMPROMISE OF YOUR TRUE IDENTITY
COULD ENDANGER YOUR LIFE OR COMPROMISE THE
MISSION.
Concepts, general and legal principles in affecting arrest,
searches and seizures;
ARREST
SECTION 1. Define arrest – Arrest is the taking of a person
into custody in order that he may be bound to answer for
the commission of an offense.
SECTION 2. Arrest; how made – An arrest is made by an
actual restraint of the person to be arrested, or by his
submission to the custody of the person making the arrest.
 No v iolence or unnecessary force shall be used in
making an arrest and the person arrested shall
not be subject to any greater restrain than is
necessary for his detention.
What constitutes restraint? - Under Section 2 abov e
mentioned the custody or control, the assumption of
which is inv olv ed in an arrest, imports actual restraint or
detention. Accordingly, the mere utterances or words
indicativ e of an arrest, or mere v erbal proffer of the
warrant or personal serv ice thereof is insufficient, except
when followed by a submission.
Who are those persons exempted from arrest?
The following are persons exempted from arrest:
1) Members of the Senate and Congress. They
shall be priv ileged from arrest during their
attendance a the session of the Congress or
Senate and in going to and returning from
the same for offenses punishable by not
more than six years imprisonment, and
2) Under the principles of International Law
also exempt are foreign sov ereigns,
ambassadors, ministers and persons
belonging to their official entourage.
When may the use of force be justified?
 The employment of unnecessary or
unreasonable force or greater restraint than
 what is needed for the detention of the person
arrested is prohibited. Person authorized to make
arrest may, howev er, employ force or v iolence to
the extent of effectiv ely ov ercoming activ e
resistance to an arrest. And, it is not necessary
that the person arrested make an actual attack
upon his captor. His refusal to obey and
surrender, or an attempt to escape suffices the
justification for the employment of force. (U.S. vs.
Bert ucio, 1 Phil. 47)
SECTION 3. Duty of arresting officer – It shall be the duty of
the officer executing the warrant without unnecessary
delay to arrest the accused and to deliv er him to the
nearest police station or jail.
What is essential to make a warrant of arrest valid?
 For a warrant of arrest to be v alid, it is essential
that the person to be arrested is identified by the
terms of the warrant. If ev er possible, the name
and description of the person to be serv ed with a
warrant of arrest must be inserted in it. Where the
name is unknown, the warrant must contain a
description as will enable the officer to identify
the person to be serv ed. (People vs. Veloso, 48
Phil. 169) If it does not contain the name of the
defendant or any description of designation by
which he could be known and identified as the
person sought, it is v oid.
What is “John Doe” warrant? And what is necessary to
make a sufficient warrant?
 A warrant issued upon an unnamed party is
called a “John Doe” warrant. It is necessary that
the party should be sufficiently identified. Such a
warrant must contain the best description
personae of the person to be apprehended; and
this description must be sufficient to indicate the
proper person upon whom the warrant is to be
serv ed. It should likewise state his personal
circumstances, appearance and peculiarities;
giv e his occupation and place of residence, and
any other circumstances by means of which he
can be identified. (Whart on’s Criminal
Procedure, pp. 51-56)
Does the power to arrest carry with is to confiscate articles
found in the person to be arrested? Explain.
 An officer making an arrest has no right to
confiscate any object found in the possession of
the party arrested unless 1) the object found in
his possession was used in the commission of the
crime; or 2) was the fruit of the crime, or 3) which
might furnish the prisoner with the means of
committing v iolence or of escaping; or 4) which
may be used as ev idence in the trial of the case.
(Moreno vs. Ago Chi, 12 Phil. 439)
When may irregularity in issuance of order of arrest be
considered waived?
 Irregularity in the issuance of an order of arrest is
waiv ed by posting of a bail bond. (Moreno vs.
Ago Chi, 12 Phil. 439)
SEC. 4. Execution of warrant – The head of the office to
whom the warrant of arrest has been deliv ered for
execution shall cause the warrant to be executed within
ten (10) days from receipt thereof. Within ten (10) days
after the expiration of such period, the officer to whom it
was assigned for execution shall make a return to the
judge who issued the warrant and, in case of his failure to
execute the same, shall state the reasons therefore.
SEC. 5. Arrest without warrant; when lawful - A peace
officer or a priv ate person may, without a warrant, arrest a
person:
a) When, in his presence, the person to be
arrested has committed, is actually
committing, or is attempting to commit an
offense;
b) When an offense has in fact just been
committed, and he has personal knowledge
of facts indicating that the person to be
arrested has committed it; and
c) When the person to be arrested is a prisoner
who has escaped from a penal
establishment or place where he is serv ing
final judgment or temporarily confined while
Compendium of Crime Detection and Investigation (CDI)
his case is pending; or has escaped while
being transferred from one confinement to
another.
In cases falling under paragraphs (a) and (b) hereof, the
person arrested without a warrant shall be forth with
deliv ered to the nearest police station or jail, and he shall
be proceeded against in accordance with Rule 112,
Section 7.
What must be necessary in all cases wherein the law
authorizes a peace officer to arrest without warrant?
 In all the cases enumerated wherein the law
authorizes a peace officer to arrest without
warrant, the officer making the arrest must hav e
personal knowledge that the person being
arrested has committed, is actually committing,
or is about to commit an offenses in his presence
or within his v iew, or of the time, place or
circumstances which reasonably tend to show
such breach of peace.
 The testimony of the officer on the commission of
the offense in his presence, or within his v iew by
the person arrested, or on the facts and
circumstances that tended reasonably to show
that said person had committed or was about to
commit an offense, would be sufficient basis for
the City Fiscal to file an information without
prejudice to his presenting the other ev idence
and witnesses, if any, at the trial to insure the
conv iction of the defendant. (Sayo vs. Chief of
Police, 80 Phil. 875)
What is the meaning of the phrase “commission of offense
in the presence of a peace officer or a private person?”
 An offense is committed in the presence or within
the v iew of an officer within the meaning of the
rule authorizing an arrest without warrant when
the officer sees the offense, although at a
distance, or hears the disturbance created
thereby and proceeds at once to the scene
thereof; or the offense is continuing, or has not
been consummated, at the time the arrest is
made. (U.S. vs. Samont e, 16 Phil. 516)
What is the basis for its legality of an arrest without
warrant?
 In the case of U.S. v s. Sanchez, 12 Phil. 472, our
Supreme Court held that the legality of the
detention does not depend upon the facts of
the crime, but upon the nature of the deed,
wherefrom such characterization may
reasonably be inferred by the officer of
functionary to whom the law at that moment
leav es the decision for the urgent purpose of
suspending the liberty of the citizen. Good faith,
therefore, absolves arresting officer from liability if
he arrest without warrant upon reasonable
grounds. (U.S. vs. Sant os, 36 Phil. 442)
May an escaped convict have the right to demand that a
person arresting him be armed with a warrant?
 Under paragraph (c) of Section 5, Rule 113, a
conv ict who evades sentence by escaping from
the custody of a policeman or a penal institution
may be arrested without warrant by a peace
officer or by a priv ate indiv idual. (Salonga vs.
Holland, 76 Phil. 412) An escaped conv ict,
therefore, has no right to demand that a person
arresting him be armed with a warrant. (Salonga
vs. Holland, 76 Phil. 412)
SEC. 6. Time of making arrest – An arrest may be made on
any day and at any time of the day or night.
SEC. 7. Method of arrest by officer by virtue of warrant –
When making an arrest by v irtue of a warrant the officer
shall inform the person to be arrested of the cause of the
arrest and of the fact that a warrant has been issued for
his arrest, except when he flies or forcibly resists before the
officer has opportunity to inform him or when the giv ing of
such information will imperil the arrest. The officer need
not hav e the warrant in his possession at the time of the
arrest but after the arrest, if the person arrested so requires,
the warrant shall be shown to him as soon as practicable.
In the method of arrest by officer by virtue of a warrant,
does it mean that said officer must have the possession of
the warrant at the time of the arrest? Explain.
Under Section 7, Rule 113, the officer need not hav e the
warrant in his possession at the time of the arrest but after
the arrest, if the person arrested so requires, the warrant
shall be shown to him as soon as practicable.
What the officer should do is to inform the person to be
arrested of the cause of the arrest and of the fact that a
warrant has been issued for his arrest. This method of
arrest does not apply when the person to be arrested flies
or forcibly resists before the officer has opportunity to
inform him or when the giv ing of such information will
imperil the arrest.
SEC. 8. Method of arrest by officer without warrant – When
making an arrest without a warrant, the officer shall inform
the person to be arrested of his authority and the cause of
the arrest, unless the person to be arrested is then
engaged in the commission of an offense or is pursued
immediately after its commission or after an escape, or
flees or forcibly resists before the officer has opportunity to
inform him, or when the giv ing of such information will
imperil the arrest.
Distinguish the two methods of arrest provided for in
Sections 7 and 8
The following are the two distinctions between these two
methods of arrest:
1) In section 7, when making an arrest by v irtue of
a warrant, the officer shall inform the person to
be arrested of the cause of the arrest and of
the fact that a warrant has been issued for his
arrest; while in Section 8, when making an
arrest without a warrant, the officer shall inform
the person to be arrested of his authority and
the cause of the arrest; and
2) The method required in Section 7 does not
apply when the person to be arrested flees or
forcibly resists before the officer has the
opportunity to inform him or when the giv ing of
such information will imperil the arrest, while
the method in Section 8, does not apply when
the person to be arrested is then engaged in
the commission of an offense, or is pursued
immediately after its commission or after an
escape, or flees or forcibly resist before the
officer has the opportunity to inform him, or
when the giv ing of such information will imperil
the arrest.
SEC. 9. Method of arrest by a private person – A priv ate
person when making an arrest shall inform the person to
be arrested of the intention to arrest him and cause of the
arrest, unless the person to be arrested is then engaged in
the commission of an offense, or is pursued immediately
after its commission or after an escape, or flees or forcibly
resists before the person making the arrest has opportunity
to inform him, or when the giv ing of such information will
imperil the arrest.
What must be required for a private person to make
arrests?
 The power of a priv ate person to arrest without
warrant is one that must be exercised in ut most
good fait h or else it would be an excuse for
v iolation of the individual liberties guaranteed in
the Constitution. (People vs. Gala, CA-G.R. No. L-
13244-R, Dec. 15, 1955)
SEC. 10. Officer may summon assistance – An officer
making a lawful arrest may orally summon as many
persons as he deems necessary to aid him in making the
arrest. Ev ery person so summoned by an officer shall aid
him in making such arrest, when he can render such aid
without detriment to himself.
What do you understand about an agent of authority?
 It has been held that the phrase an “agent of
authority” includes not only those persons who,
by direct prov ision of law or by appointments of
competent authority are charged with the
maintenance of public order and the protection
and security of life and property, but also such
persons who come to their aid, prov ided they
lend their assistance by v irtue of an order or
request of such agent of authority. (People vs.
Gala, CA-G.R. No. L-13244-R, Dec. 15, 1955)
 In effect, where a priv ate person makes an arrest
for an offense not committed in his presence or
Compendium of Crime Detection and Investigation (CDI)
on pursuit, he should, before making the arrest,
notify the person to be arrested of the cause of
the apprehension, but this duty is dispensed with
when the person to be arrested knows of the
intention to arrest and the case thereof.
SEC. 11. Right of officer to break into building or enclosure
– An officer in order to make an arrest either by v irtue of a
warrant or when authorized to make such arrest for an
offense without a warrant, as prov ided in Section 5, may
break into any building or enclosure in which the person to
be arrested is or is reasonably believ ed to be, if he is
refused admittance thereto, after he has announced his
authority and purpose.
What are the two instances when forcible entry of
dwellings or buildings is made by officer in order to effect
arrest?
The following are two instances when forcible entry of
dwellings or buildings may be made by officer in order to
effect arrest:
1) An officer has authority to break open the outer
or other doors of a dwelling house of the person
whose arrest is directed by the writ, and enter
and search the dwelling to arrest the offender,
wov en though it is during the nighttime. This right
to break the outer doors to make an arrest
includes, of course, the right to break open doors
of different rooms and chambers in the house to
make a thorough search of the premises.
From this point it follows that an officer who has a warrant
for the arrest of a person in a house and who upon being
refused admittance breaks the door, cannot be
considered as a trespasser ev en though, upon search, the
defendant named in the process is not found or shown to
be in the dwelling at the time. It is not necessary that the
house the officer may hav e broken into, be the property
of the defendant; it is sufficient if it is a house in which, for
the time being, he is dwelling in.
2) Arrest after escape or rescue without warrant –
From the duty of an officer to hold his prisoner in
his custody flows the right to pursue those who
illegally make their escape and while on fresh
pursuit he may arrest them without warrant, and
may make search without a warrant of any
premises in which he has reasonable ground to
believ e the prisoner is hiding for that purpose he
may, after due demand for admission and
refusal, force an entry into the building or
premises to be searched.
Does a private person in making arrest, possess the right to
break into a building?
 A priv ate person may justify breaking into and
entering another’s dwelling house if such
breaking is necessary for the purpose of making
an arrest for a felony or to prev ent the
commission of a felony.
When may notice of purpose and demand for admission
necessary? Give exception, if any.
 It is a rule that an officer or a priv ate person,
before breaking into and entering the house of
another to arrest a person, under a warrant of
arrest or order of arrest or for a crime or breach
of the peace where a warrant is not necessary,
should make known his purposes and demand
admittance. One exception is, if a person
fortifies himself in his home with the av owed
intention of defying an arrest to the extent of
shedding blood, notice of purpose and demand
for admission is not necessary.
SEC. 12. Right to break out of building or enclosure to
effect release – Whenev er an officer has entered the
building or enclosure in accordance with the prov isions of
the preceding section, he may break out therefrom when
necessary for the purpose of liberating himself.
SEC. 13. Arrest after escape or rescue – If a person lawfully
arrested escapes or is rescued, any person may
immediately pursue or retake him without a warrant at any
time and in any place within the Philippines.
SEC. 14. Right of attorney or relative to visit person arrested
– any member of the bar shall, at the request of the
person arrested or of another acting in his behalf, hav e
the right to v isit and confer priv ately with such person, in
the jail or any other place of custody at any hour of the
day or, in urgent cases, of the night. This right shall also be
exercised by any relative of the person arrested subject to
reasonable regulation.
SEARCHES AND SEIZURES
Article III, Sec. 1, No. 3 Bill of Rights,
PHILIPPINE CONSTITUTION
 The right of the people to be secured in their
persons, houses, papers, and effects against
unreasonable searches and seizures shall not be
v iolated and the warrant shall be issued upon
probable causes to be determined by the judge
after examination under oath or affirmation of
the complainant and the witnesses, he may
produce, and particularly describing the place
to be searched, and the person or things to be
seized.
Purposes of the Constitutional Provision
 The purpose is to prev ent violation of the priv ate
security on person and property, and unlawful
inv asion of the sanctity of the home by officers of
the law acting under legislativ e or judicial
sanction, and to giv e remedy against such
usurpations when attempted. (Adams vs. New
York, 192, U.S., 585)
Search and Seizure, Rule 126, New Rules of Court in the
Philippines
SECTION 1. Search Warrant Defined – A search warrant is
an order in writing and issued in the name of the people of
the Philippines; signed by a municipal or city judge and
directed to a peace officer, commanding him to search
for personal property and bring it before the court.
SEC. 2. Personal Property to be Seized – A search warrant
maybe issued for the search and seizure of the following
personal property:
a. Property subject of the offense.
b. Property stolen or embezzled and other
proceeds or fruits of the offense; and
c. Property used or intended to be used as the
means of committing an offense.
SEC. 3. Requisites for issuing a search warrant – A search
warrant shall be issued only upon probable cause in
connection with one specific offense to be determined by
the municipal or city judge after examination under oath
or affirmation of the complaint and the witnesses he may
produce, and particularly describing the place to be
searched and the persons or things to be seized.
SEC. 4. Examination of the Applicant – The municipal or
city judge must, before issuing the warrant, personally
examine on the oath or affirmation, the complainant and
any witnesses he may produce and take their depositions
in writing and attach them to the record, in addition to
any affidav its presented to him.
SEC. 5. Issuance and Form of a Search Warrant – If the
municipal or city judge is thereupon satisfied of the
existence of facts upon which the application is based, or
that there is probable cause to believe that exists, he must
issue the warrant which must be substantially in the form
prescribed by these rules.
SEC. 6. Right to break door or window to effect search –
The officer, if refused admittance to the place of directed
search, after giv ing notice of his purpose and authority,
may break any outer or inner door or window of a house
or any part of a house or anything therein to execute the
warrant or liberate himself or any person lawfully aiding
him when unlawfully detained therein.
SEC. 7. Search of a house, room or premises to be made
in the presence of witnesses – No search of a house; room
or any other premises shall be made except in the
presence of at least one (1) competent witness, resident
of the neighborhood.
SEC. 8. Time of making the Search – The warrant directs
that if it is serv ed in the daytime. Unless the affidavit asserts
that the property is on the person or in the place ordered
to be searched, in which case a direction maybe inserted
that it be serv ed at any time of the day or night.
Compendium of Crime Detection and Investigation (CDI)
SEC. 9. Validity of the Search Warrant – A search warrant
shall be v alid for ten (10) days from its date. Thereafter it
shall be v oid.
SEC. 10. Receipt for the property seized – The officer
seizing property under the arrest must giv e a detailed
receipt for the same to the person on whom or in whose
possession it was found, or in the absence of any person,
must in the presence of at least one witness, leav e a
receipt in the place in which he found the seized property.
SEC. 11. Delivery of property and inventory thereof to
court – The officers must forthwith deliv er the property to
the municipal or judge of a City Court of the Court of First
Instance who issued the warrant, together with a true
inv entory thereof duly v erified by oath.
SECT. 12. Search without a Warrant of person(s) arrested –
A person charged with an offense maybe searched for
dangerous weapons or anything which maybe used as
proof of the commission of the offense.
Why is a search of a person conducted?
A search of a person is conducted to discover weapons or
ev idence(s) or to determine identity.
Define Seizure. - Seizure is the taking into custody of
property found by searching.
1. What are t he kinds of search?
a. Preliminary Search of a Person – This is
ordinarily made at the time and scene of
an arrest. Its primary purposes are:
1. To discov er concealed weapons; and
2. Seizure of incriminating ev idence which might
otherwise be destroyed.
b. Complete Search – This is done at the
place of detention wherein the subject is
stripped and clothing’s and other
possessions are thoroughly examined.
2. Give and explain each of t he Preliminary
Searchers.
a. Wall Search – The prisoner is placed about
ten inches out or arms reach from the wall.
He is then made to lean forward against the
wall with his head down. In this position, he is
off balance. If he mov es his hand from the
wall, he will fall down. His loss of balance
prohibits any sudden mov ement or attempt
to strike a blow.
b. Position – A subject to be placed in position
for a wall search is first ordered to face the
wall with his feet approximately one yard
from the wall. During the operation, the
inv estigator stands well in the back of the
subject cov ering him with a fireman. When
the subject is in a leaning position, his feet are
forced another 12 inches from the wall so that
without support from the wall, he would fall
down. The subject is ordered to keep his
head down during the search
c. Technique – To prev ent any sudden
mov ement on the part of the subject, the
searcher places his leg in front of the subject’s
right leg. To search the left side, he places his
right leg in front of the subject’s left leg. In this
position, the subject is easily tripped if he
attempts a sudden mov ement.
To search the right side of the subject, the inv estigator
places his gun on his left hand and searches with his right
hand. For the left side, the left hand is used with the gun in
his right hand.
The following are the steps to be followed in a methodical
search:
1. Remov e the subject’s hat, examine it, and
replace it.
2. Feel along the back from the area between
the shoulder to the waist and up to the right
armpit. (The left armpit is searched later after
shifting to the left side).
3. Run the hand firmly along the right arm to the
fingers, continuously.
4. Feel the throat, chest and waist on the
appropriate side.
5. Empty the watch pocket.
 6. Empty all other pockets.
7. Examine for false pocket(s).
8. Empty the trouser pockets on the side and
back.
9. Search the crotch areas.
10. Feel down the inside of the leg to the ankle.
11. Search the trouser cuffs, sock and shoe
opening.
12. Feel the outside of the leg.
After completing the search on one side, the inv estigator
step back, shifts his gun to the other hand, and proceeds
to search the other side.
a. Kneeling Search – This is used where no wall
or upright object is av ailable for the wall
search. The subject is required to kneel with
hands raised or secured behind him with
handcuffs. The search is that which is similar
to the one used in the wall method. The
subject should be directed to remain
motionless and to face the front. The officer
should place one foot on the heel of the
subject’s foot. Should the subject attempt to
resist, the inv estigator can pin the heel of the
subject to the ground.
b. Floor Search – The subject is in a prone
position, face down touching the ground,
with arms extended ov er his head. The
inv estigator crouches at the side of the
subject at the region of the waist of the
subject.
c. Standing Search – The subject is in a standing
position with feet apart and hands raised.
The searcher stands to the rear and uses the
techniques as in wall search. This method is
only applied or employed when there are
two or more arresting officers.
What are the two (2) restraining devices?
a. Handcuffs – this is the procedure of applying the
handcuff after the completion of the wall search:
1. While the assisting inv estigator is guarding the
subject, the searching inv estigator returns his
weapon to the holster, and working from the
back of the subject, order the suspect to giv e his
right wrist, to which the inv estigator fastens one
cuff. The searching inv estigator will then order
the subject to place his right hand behind him.
2. The subject is ordered to place his head against
the wall and put his other hand in the rear. The
second cuff is then placed.
If the subject is to be transported to a great distance, it is
desirable to place the handcuffs in front and secure the
cuffs of his belt.
If there is more than one prisoner and there is only one pair
of handcuffs, one cuff is attached to one end and the
other to another subject. If there are four subjects, the
chain of one pair of cuff can be placed through the other.
 Ot her means of rest raint – If no handcuffs is
av ailable; the subject’s belt can be used.
Neckties or short pieces.
Explain the Complete Search
 If there is doubt as the thoroughness of the
preliminary search, a second and a more
thorough search should be made at the place of
detention.
 The subject should be required to remov e
clothings and place them on a table. The
subject should then be searched carefully.
In the examination of the subject and his clothings,
particular attention must be giv en to the following:
a. Articles that might be used against the searcher
or to effect an escape (firearms, kniv es, knuckles,
explosiv es, etc.)
b. Articles that might be used by the subject to
commit suicide (poisons, razor, blade, glasses,
etc.)
c. Articles that constitute the fruit of the crime
(stolen properties, or properties of any type
suspected of hav ing been stolen).
d. Articles used in the commission of the crime.
Compendium of Crime Detection and Investigation (CDI)
e. Articles of ev idence that may use to support
charges against the subject (papers, maps,
sketches, documents, names, etc.)
Legal and moral consideration to be observed during
custodial investigation.
MIRANDA DOCTRINE: (Ernesto Miranda)
 The origin is of America jurisprudence, Mr.
Miranda, a Latino was accused of a serious
offense somewhere in the state of Arizona. He
was interrogated exhaustedly by the Arizona
Police leading to his confession. Based on his
confession, he was charged, tried and
conv icted. Appeal of his conv iction was made
before the Arizona Supreme Court but his
conv iction was affirmed. The appeal was then
elev ated to the US Supreme Court where there
was a rev ersal of the decision and he was
acquitted on Constitutional grounds.
It was in this case, entitled Miranda vs. Arizona that the US
Supreme Court laid down the constitutional rights of the
accused during the custodial interrogation. It was
incorporated in our 1973 Constitution and later in the 1987
Constitution of the Philippines. This is known as the Miranda
Rule of Doctrine.
RIGHT OF THE PERSON ARRESTED, DETAINED OR UNDER
CUSTODIAL INVESTIGATION (RA 7438)
a. The right to remain silent
b. The right to hav e competent and independent
counsel, preferably of his own choice, who shall
at all-time be allowed to confer priv ately with the
person arrested, detained, or under custodial
inv estigation.
c. If such person cannot afford the serv ice of his
own counsel, he must be prov ided with a
competent and independent counsel by the
inv estigating officer.
d. Shall be allowed visits by or conferences with any
members of his immediate family, or any medical
doctor or priest or religious minister chosen by
him or by any member of his immediate family or
by his counsel, or by any national non-
gov ernmental organization duly accredited by
the Commission of Human Rights of by any
international non-gov ernmental organization
duly accredited by the Office of the President.
Note: Immediate Family includes:
Spouse Fiancé or Fiancés Parent Child Brother Sister
Grandparent Grandchild Uncle Aunt Nephew Niece
Guardian Ward
THE DUTIES OF THE ARRESTING, DETAINING
AND INVESTIGATING OFFICER
Pursuant to Republic Act # 7438 prov ides, that any public
officer or employee, or anyone acting under his order or in
his place, who arrested, detained or inv estigate any
person for the commission of an offense shall inform the
latter of the following, to wit:
a. His rights as prov ided for under Republic Act 7438
in a language known to and understood by him;
b. The custodial inv estigation report shall be
reduced to writing.
c. Before such report is signed, or thumb marked by
the person arrested, detained or under custodial
inv estigation who does not know how to read
and write, it shall be read and adequately
explained to him by his counsel or by the assisting
counsel prov ided by the inv estigating officer in
the language or dialect known to such arrested
person, otherwise, such inv estigation report shall
be null and v oid and of no effect whatsoev er.
d. Any extra-judicial confession made must be in
writing and signed by such person in the
presence of his counsel or in latter’s absence,
upon a v alid waiv er, and in the presence of any
of the parents, elder brother and sister, his
spouse, the municipal mayor, the municipal
judge, district school superv isor, or priest or
minister of the gospel as chosen by him;
e. Any waiv er under the prov ision of Article 125 of
the Rev ised Penal code, or under custodial
 inv estigation, shall be in writing and signed by
such person in the presence of his counsel.
Note: In the absence of any lawyer, no custodial
inv estigation shall be conducted and the suspected
person can only be detained by the investigating officer in
accordance with the prov ision of Article 125 of the Rev ise
Penal Code.
TRAFFIC MANAGEMENT AND TRAFFIC INVESTIGATTION
TRANSPORTATION
 Mov ement of people and goods from one
location to another.
 from the Latin word “Terans” meaning across or
and mov e and “Port are” means to carry
ANCIENT MODES OF TRANSPORATATION
MANPOWER - Early man, who had no domesticated
animals, carried his own burdens. Manpower is important
in transportation in many parts of the world.
Carrying Pole
 balanced on one shoulder is a popular carrying
dev ice.
 the ends of the pole are supported by two men,
with goods suspended from the pole in between.
Back Load and Tumpline
 In many parts of the world, goods are carried on
the back.
 pots are carried on a wooden framework
supported by a tumpline across the forehead
 the load is held on the back by a strap passing
ov er the chest.(Figure 3)
Sledge on rollers - the mov ing of heav y burdens was to
place them on sledge which rested on a series of rollers.
Sledge on runners - A simple sledge, probably man-
drawn, was in use at the end of the Old Stone Age in
northern Europe, as ev idenced by fragments of wooden
runners which surv iv ed.(Figure 5)
Travois - This trav ois, as the pole arrangement called,
serv es as a platform on which the burdens are
placed.(Figure 6)
ANIMAL POWER - The domestication of animals greatly
increased the potential power available for transportation.
Pack animals were introduced as conv eyances mainly to
sav e labor. A man can tend sev eral pack animals mov ing
together, each of which (except dogs) can carry more
than he usually can. Little adv antage in speed is gained
part of the animals’ carrying capacity is sacrificed.
OX
 were used as draft animals to draw war chariots.
 Oxen are still used as draft animals in many
regions of the world.
 In some parts of Africa, they are used as pack
animals and for riding.(Figure 7 and 8)
Reindeer - First domesticated in Siberia in the beginning of
Christian era. In Altai Mountains, they were ridden with
saddles. Elsewhere, they draw sledges somewhat like the
dog sledges of the far north.(Figure 9)
Dog - The first animal domesticated, is too slight to carry
heav y loads. The plain Indians sometimes packed light
loads on dogs’ backs, and piled goods on trav ois which
the dogs dragged. In the Far north, the dogs team
drawing sledges are the chief means of transportation;
and in Europe, the dogs are used to draw small
carts.(Figure 10)
YAK
 A long-haired type of cattle that liv es at high
altitudes on the Tibetan plateau
 used as a pack animal at heights were horses and
ordinary animal could not surv iv e.(Figure 11)
HORSE
 Around 2,000 B.C., horse drawn chariots
appeared in the southwest Asia and 1,000 years
later
Compendium of Crime Detection and Investigation (CDI)
 In Europe, horses were used to draw wheeled
v ehicles and for riding for sometime until the
introduction of mechanized v ehicles.
Camel - There are two kinds of camel, the two-humped
bactirian of Central Asia and the one-humped dromedary
of Arabia hav e long been used for transport. The bactirian
camel has plodded along the carav ans routes between
China and Iran at least 2,000 years. It is also used to draw
carts. The dromedary, which has less endurance but it is
fleeter and special fast-paced riding camel, is bred by
the
Llama - In pre-Columbian America, the Llama was the
only new world animal other than the dog capable of
domestication for use in transport. In the high Andes, the
Llama was used as a pack animal by the Incas and their
Spanish conquerors, as it’s means of transportation by
modern Andean people.Arab nomads.
Donkey - the donkey or ass, first domesticated in the
Middle East. Donkey caravans carry goods between the
cities of Southwest Asia and Egypt and the donkey is still
the chief beast of burden among farmers of the Near East,
the Mediterranean Area and Mexico, where it was
introduced from Spain.(Figure 15)
Elephant - The Cathaginians used African elephant in their
war against Rome but in recent centuries, these animals
hav e not been tamed. In India, elephants were formerly
used in war and are still employed to some extent for
ceremonial processions and big game hunting. In Burma
and Thailand, this huge animals are widely used in the
lumber industry.(Figure 16 and 17)
WIND POWER - Man realized the energy from the mass
mov ing air and learned to utilize such powers to lift rather
to drag. This pav ed way to inv ention of air lifted
transportation v essels
ANCIENT CHINESE KITE - Based on korean tradition, the
kite was first used for transport when a Korean general
employed one in building bridge.
MONTGOLFIER BALLOON
 The Mongolfier brothers of France Joseph Michel
and Jacques Entienne hav e sucessfully released
sev eral balloons.
 The balloons constructed of linen and inflated
with hot air trav eled 9,000 yards and remained in
air for 20 minutes.
SANTOS DUMONT’S AIRSHIP
 Alberto Santos Dumont, one of the pioneers of
lighter-than-air craft.
 He built the first airship, he made a 30-minute
round trip flight between St. Louis and the Eiffel
Tower.
LILIENTHAL GLIDER
 Otto Lilienthal, a German inv entor
experiemented ornithopters.
 His chief work was with gliders. His glider flights
exert profound influence on the dev elopment of
av iation.
WRIGHT BROTHERS FLYING MACHINE
 Inspired by Lilienthal’s glider experiments
 Orv ille and Wilbur Wright built biplane kite with
ov er 200 different wing types which they tested in
a wind tunnel of their own inv ention.
 They conducted their first man-carrying powered
machine on Dec. 17, 1903 at Kitty Hawk, North
Carolina.
ROADS AND VEHICLES
WHEEL
 inv ented probably in Western Asia
 one of man’s great inv entions
 It enabled him to transport burdens beyond the
power oF man or animals to carry or drag, and
permitted much greater facility of mov ements
THE ROMANS
 They brought road building to its highest point of
perfection in ancient times.
  Roman road networks reached a total of about
50,000 miles (80, 000 km) with FEEDER roads
branching out of the main highways
 It was costly because its deep foundation,
formed by layer after heav y stones, was
necessary to make roads that would carry heavy
traffic for many years.
JOHN L. MACADAM - He adv ocated the theory of feeder
road building and perfected the macadamized road in
England about 1815.
BICYCLE
 Bicycles are cheap and easy to maintain
 1700, Earlist Bicycles “DandyHorse”.
 1865, Bicycles with pedals appeared
 1883, “Penny Farthing” Bicycle.
MOTOR VEHICLE
ETIENNE LENOIR
 Frenchman, who made possible the introduction
of motorized carriages
 Inv ented the “INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE”
in the 1860’s and 70’s.
NICOLAUS OTTO AND GOTTLIEB DAIMLER
 They pioneered the manufacture of gas engines,
and later they became successful automobile
manufacturer.
RUDOLF DIESEL
 A German engineer, dev eloped an internal
combustion engine which is similar with the
gasoline engine
 It requires no electrical ignition system or
carburetor and uses other form of liquid fuel, the
diesel fuel.
HENRY FORD
 introduced the MODEL T, whichwas prov ed so
popular that by 1914,
 Ford had adopted MASS PRODUCTION methods
to meet the demand.
CANALS AND RAILWAYS
CANALS
 a body of water used to be channel of sea
transportation
 the first canal was constructed by Engr. James
Brindley
RAILWAYS
 channel of transportation wherein a parallel line
of irons were used as roads
 the first railroad is the Stockton and Darlington
line (1925)
TRAFFIC MANAGEMENT
ORIGIN OF THE WORD TRAFFIC
“TRAFICO” (Greco-Roman) and “TRAFRIGA” (Greek Word)
- mov ement of people that dates back from the dawns of
history
“COMMERCIUM” (Latin) – Mov ement and control of goods
in transit.
TRAFFIC
 Mov ement of persons, goods and v ehicles, either
powered by animals or animal drawn v ehicles or
by combustion system from one place to another
for the purpose of safe trav el.
 It refers to the mov ement of traffic units in a
traffic way.
MANAGEMENT - The skillful handling or controlling of
something successfully
TRAFFIC MANAGEMENT
 It is an executiv e function such as planning,
organizing, Directing and superv ising,
coordinating operating recording and budgeting
traffic affairs
 Is designed to make the traffic way safer for
trav elers, expedite the mov ement of traffic, and
to prov ide conv enience to the traffic facilities’
users.
Compendium of Crime Detection and Investigation (CDI)
5 PILLARS OF TRAFFIC MANAGEMENT
1. TRAFFIC ENFORCEMENT
 taken by the traffic law enforcers and the count
to compel obedience to traffic laws and
ordinances
 regulating the mov ement and use of motor
v ehicle for the purpose of creating deterrence to
unlawful behav ior by all potential v iolators
TRAFFIC LAW ENFORCER - a person duly deputized by an
agency of gov ernment authorized by law to enforce
traffic laws, rules and regulations
AGENCIES INVOLVED IN THE ENFORCEMENT OF TRAFFIC
A. Land Transportation Office (LTO)
 Tasked to enforce laws, rules and regulation
gov erning the registration of motor v ehicles,
operation of motor v ehicle and traffic rules and
regulation as prov ided by RA 4136 as amended.
B. Land Transportation Franchising and Regulatory Board
(LTFRB)
 tasked to regulate transport route
 regulate franchising
 prescribe fare rates
 inv estigate traffic cases
 perform judicial function
 promulgate rules
 impose and collect fees
 formulate and enforce rules and regulation for
transport operation for promotion of safety and
conv enience of public
 coordinate with concerned agencies and
enforce E.O. NO 125,124-A and
o E.O. 202 dated June 19,1987
C. Department of Transportation and Communication
(DOTC) - in charge of planning programs coordinating
implementing and perform administrativ e function and
promotion dev elopment and regulation of dependable
and coordinated network of transportation and
communication in order to hav e fast, safe, efficient and
reliable postal transportation and communication serv ices
(EO No. 125.)
D. Metro Manila Development Authority (MMDA) - Created
under RA. 7924 and sets policies concerning traffic in
Metro Manila, coordinates and regulates implementation
of program related to traffic
E. Traffic Management Group (TMG) - The basic serv ice of
the PNP tasked to direct and control traffic, perform
accident inv estigation, enforce the laws and issue
citations.
F. Congress and Local Council - the branch of
gov ernment primarily tasked to create laws for the welfare
of the public
G. Judiciary - the branch of gov ernment that interprets the
law through adjudication of cases
FUNCTIONS OF TRAFFIC ENFORCEMENT
A. POLICE TRAFFIC LAW ENFORCEMENT - the part
performed by the police and other agencies with police
power including deterrent to law violations created by the
presence of uniformed police officer and their special
equipment, special assistance to court and prosecutor
and incidental serv ice to highway users
B. COURT TRAFFIC LAW ENFORCEMENT- performed by the
court through adjudication and penalization
C. POLICE COURT ENFORCEMENT PROCESS – It involv es fiv e
(5) essential steps.
1. DETECTION - wholly police activ ities and entails
looking for defects in the behav ior motorist,
pedestrian, v ehicle, equipment and roadway
condition.
2. APPREHENSION - a police responsibility wherein the
police are required action to prevent continued and
future v iolation.
3. PROSECUTION - it is a court function, the police also
prov ides corresponding influence through
 preparation and introduction of ev idence or close
contact with the prosecution office.
4. ADJUDICATION - it is court function, the police
prov ides influence on this step by as a witness to the
prosecution by supplying additional ev idence. It
determines the guilt or innocence of the accused.
5. PENALIZATION - the imposition of penalty upon the
accused. Penalty can be influenced by prev ious
records of conv iction as prov ided by the police.
GOALS OF ENFORCEMENT ACTIVITIES
 Increase safety lev el
 Increase traffic efficiency
 Ensure harmony and comfortable env ironment
 Maximize safety
KINDS OF ENFORCEMENT ACTIONS
A. TRAFFIC ARREST - the taking of a person into
custody of the law. It is made when:
 the offense is serious;
 detection is needed to av oid continued
v iolation; and
 There is reasonable doubt that v iolators
may not appear in court.
B. TRAFFIC CITATION - Made to compel v iolators to
appear in court in absence of arrest. Ticket issued
to an erring driv er apprehended for certain
v iolations in exchange of his confiscated driv er’s
license for the period prov ided in the ticket.
TYPES OF TRAFFIC CITATION
 TEMPORARY OPERATOR’S PERMIT (TOP)
 Traffic citation used in the enforcement
of traffic management measures (DOTC
MC NO. 93 – 693) and other special
laws by LTO Traffic law Enforcers (Flying
Squad)
 Jurisdiction: Issuing Agency, Entire
Philippines
 Validity: 72 hours, upon its issuance (RA
4136 as amended)
 TRAFFIC VIOLATIONS REPRT (TVR)
 Traffic citation used in the enforcement
of traffic management measures
MMDA Traffic Ordinances), Traffic
Operations Center (TOC)
 Jurisdiction: Issuing Agency, Metro
Manila
 Validity: 72 hours upon its issuance (RA
7924)
 ORDINANCE VIOLATIONS RECEIPT (OVR)
 Traffic citation used in the enforcement
of traffic management measures. The
city and/ or Municipal Traffic
Ordinances MTPB in case of Manila,
Local Gov ernment officers
 Jurisdiction: Issuing Agency, The Local
Government
 Validity: 5 days upon its issuance (RA
7160)
C. TRAFFIC WARNING - an act reminding the driv er
of his v iolation in order for him to not do it again.
No arrest or citation is made.
TYPES OF WARNING
 VISUAL WARNING
 Usually used when you observ ed minor
v iolation
 Using gestures and signals.
 VERBAL WARNING
 Form of safety education
 oral warning made when there is newly
enacted law
 WRITTEN WARNING
 Combination v erbal warning and
citation.
 It has more deterrence effect than
v erbal warning
TRAFFIC PATROL - part of traffic superv ision by patrolling to
ensure public obedience
Compendium of Crime Detection and Investigation (CDI)
OBJECTIVES:
 Deterrence of v iolators
 Detection and apprehension
 Observ ation and reporting of traffic condition
and road condition
 Prov iding certain serv ices to public
TYPES OF PATROL
 Line patrol- it is assigned to a particular place
 Area patrol- type of patrol assigned to an area of
v icinity
TRAFFIC OBSERVATION
 Stationary traffic observ ation - officer is assigned
at specific place
 Conspicuous traffic observ ation - officer attracts
attention
 Visible traffic observ ation - stationary observation
that the observ er is in full v iew
 concealed traffic observ ation - observ er is not
v isible to the public
STOPPING AND APPROACHING TRAFFIC VIOLATORS
 It must be done with consideration to safety of
both parties engaging
 Upon approaching officer must be from the left
side from the rear, be alert
TRAFFIC SUPERVISION, DIRECTION AND CONTROL - an act
of ov erseeing the traffic to keep order on street and
highways within existing laws
POLICE WORKS
 Accident inv estigation
 Less serious offense
 Serious traffic offense
OFFICERS ARE REQUIRED TO BE SKILLED IN THE FOLLOWING
INSTANCES:
 Accident scene
 Emergencies
 Planned and special ev ents
 Regular points and integration control
 Directing pedestrian mov ement
OFFICERS ARE REQUIRED TO KNOW HOW TO DIRECT IN THE
FOLLOWING PLACES:
 Not signalized intersection
 Signalized intersection
 Between intersection
SUPERVISED ROUTE - A Street or highway on which traffic is
superv ised to some considerable degree
POLICE TRAFFIC DIRECTION - It inv olv es telling the public
how and when they should not stand and mov e
POINT/ AREA CONTROL - It is the part of the traffic direction
concerning the control of v ehicular/ pedestrian
mov ement
POLICE TRAFFIC ESCORT - It inv olv es mobile superv ision of
traffic mov ement, directing orally and visually are done to
allow free and safe mov ement of escorted v ehicles.
TRAFFIC DIRECTION AND CONTROL - It is the control
direction of traffic units according to proportionate time to
prev ent traffic accident to maintain smooth flow of traffic.
MEANS OF DIRECTING
 Signaling
 Whistling
 Gestures
HAND SIGNAL
 Use hand signals
 Use uniform signals
 It must be clear
 Don’t make v erbal
 Be alert, stand erect
 Look to the person when signaling
 Arm signal should be shoulder high
 Supplement it with whistle
 Hang your hand when not in use
 Constant wav ing of hands causes confusion
 Maintain 90 degrees turn of the body
  When stopping point to a man you want to stop
 Hand signal should be with arm and palm facing
the person
WHISTLE SIGNAL
 One long blast for STOP
 Two short snappy blast for GO
 Three blast to be used TO ASK FOR ASSISTANCE
TECNIQUES IN TRAFFIC DIRECTION AND CONTROL
 Keep intersection open
 Don’t all/ow motorist to cross without exit
 Stop motorist at their lane
 Prefer to stop the last mov ing v ehicle
TRAFFIC JAM - It is caused by such factors as v ehicular
accident, stalled vehicle, absence of traffic enforcer and
road construction.
PROCEDURES IN TRAFFIC JAM
 Determine the cause
 In case of accident conduct fast inv estigation
 In case of engine trouble assist the motorist in
pushing car to place
 Establish oneself and conduct systematic flow of
traffic
 Observ e the traffic flow if it smooth, if not repeat
procedure no. 1
 Implement traffic regulation to prev ent jam
RESPONSIBILITIES OF TRAFFIC ENFORCER
 Enforce the law without fear or fav or and assist
public when needed
 In an intersection, remember the following:
 personal safety of enforcer
 policeman’s v isibility
 v isibility of officers to traffic
 non obstruction to traffic
 ability to effect necessary control
 Officer shall not leav e his post during tour of duty
without permission from higher authority. In case
personal necessity he should notify the station.
 Respond immediately to emergency calls and
notify the station
 Be calm and control the temper ev en under
prov oking situation
 He should be in proper uniform
 In apprehending issue citation, and do it in one
minute
2. TRAFFIC ENGINEERING
 the science of measuring traffic and trav el, the
study of basic laws relative to the traffic law and
generation; the application of these knowledge
to the professional practice of planning,
deciding, and operating traffic system to
achiev e safe and efficient transportation of
persons and goods
 Defined as calculating manipulation or direction.
It includes forecasting of future traffic demands.
AGENCIES RESPONSIBLE FOR TRAFFIC ENGINEERING
Department of Public Works and Highways - has
responsibility of determining traffic flow planning approval
of program and budget finding of construction and
maintenance of road and instrument
Local Public Works and Engineering Offices
 local gov ernment units and instrumentalities that
hav e the same function as the DPWH
 perform such powers within their territorial
boundary
FUNCTIONS
 Fact finding surv ey and recommendation of
traffic laws
 Supervision and maintenance of the application
of traffic dev ices
 Planning of traffic regulation
OBJECTIVES
 Achiev e free and efficient and rapid flow of
traffic
 Prev ent traffic accident
 Promotion of traffic engineering
Compendium of Crime Detection and Investigation (CDI)
 Show that good police action and performance
makes engineering plans effectiv e
APPLICATION OF THE OBJECTIVES OF TRAFFIC ENGINEERING
 Habitually congested commercial areas
 Heav ily trav eled thoroughfares
 Congested local areas and intersection
 Special occasion of ev ent
 Disaster or emergency
 School crossing
METHODS IN ACHIEVING OBJECTIVES OF TRAFFIC
ENGINEERING
 PLANNING AND GEOMETRIC DESIGN
 composition of traffic stream
 traffic v olume and capacity
 origin and destination
 FACTORS INFLUENCING DESIGN
 traffic composition
 traffic v olume
 v ehicle speed
 mov ement of traffic
 performance v alue
 REGULATION AND CONTROL
 Limited to public safety and conv enience
 Limitation imposed on road users
 General rule of road use and conduct
 speed
 ov ertaking
 right of way
 lateral placement
 pedestrian right and duty
 general rules on parking
 Prohibited and restriction
 one way regulation
 speed control
 curb parking control
 turning regulation
 stop rule
TRAFFIC CONTROL DEVICE
A. ELEMENTARY REQUISITES
 They should Compel attention
 They should conv ey simple meaning at a
glance
 They should allow time for response
 They should command respect
B. FUNDAMENTAL TRAITS
 design and outward aspect
 position and placement
 maintenance and condition, appearance and
v isibility
C. TYPES OF TRAFFIC CONTROL DEVICE
 Traffic Signs – dev ice mounted or on a portable
support where a message is conv eyed by means
of words or symbols.
CLASSES OF TRAFFIC SIGNS
 Danger Warning Signs - These signs are intended
to warn road users of danger that lies ahead of
its nature.
 Regulatory Signs - These are intended to warn
road users of special obligations, restrictions or
prohibition with which they must comply. It is
subdiv ided into three categories:
 Priority Signs - These are signs intended
to regulate priority ov er a particular
road section or roadway intersection.
 Prohibitory or Restrictive Signs - These
signs can be used on specified section
of the road which will be easily seen by
motorist to indicate regulation which is
prohibitiv e or restrictiv e in nature.
 Mandatory Signs - These signs are
intended to guide road users of special
rules in which they must comply for the
safety, conv enience and smooth flow
of traffic.
 Informative Signs - These signs are intended to
guide road users while trav eling, and are
subdiv ided into:
 Advance Signs - These are the names
and distances of the principal
 destination or destination serv ed by the 35 M 2.5 M
intersecting roads. 40+ M 3.0 M
 Direction Signs - direction signs shall be
placed at the right of intersection to SIGNS and PAVEMENT MARKINGS
show the direction and destination of a
route. INTERNATIONAL SIGN
 Place Identification Signs - These may be  Round and red; regulatory mov ement
used to show the frontier between two  Round black yellow sign, warning sign
countries or for the purpose of showing the  Equilateral triangle red sign, directing to yield the
beginning and/or end of built-up areas. right of way
 Octagon red and white, STOP
 Traffic light and pedestrian signals  Red triangle and black sign, approaching
danger zone
COLOR SIGNAL
 Red- stop PAVEMENT MARKINGS - Lines and symbols on roadways
 Amber- slowdown are used to warn and direct driv ers and to control the flow
 Green- go of traffic
 WHITE LANE LINES
TRAFFIC PHASE  White lane lines are white lines separating
 Split- Number Allocated to each Phase lanes of traffic mov ing in the same direction.
 Signal Cycle- Complete Sequence of signal Crossing of solid white line requires special
indication, Red, Yellow, Green care and is discouraged
 Signal Timing- Amount of time allocated to  A solid broken white line means passing to
signal indication the left or right is allowed provided the way is
 Cycle Time- Total time required for one clear.
signal express in seconds  YELLOW LANE LINES
 Yellow lane lines are div iding lines separating
SIGNAL SYSTEM traffic trav eling opposite directions
 A solid yellow line at the left lane means, it is
AIMS OF SIGNAL CONTROL not safe to pass
 Reduce traffic conflict and delay  A broken yellow line means passing is
 Reduce accident allowed if the way ahead and rear is clear.
 Economize police time  Solid double yellow lines at the left lane
mean it is unsafe to pass. Nev er cross it to
ADVANTAGES OF SIGNAL INSTALLATION pass another v ehicle. The line maybe crossed
 Made for well-ordered mov ement only to enter or leav e a driv eway or priv ate
 Reduce accident frequency road or to make a permitted "U" turn.
 Prov ide means of interpreting heav y traffic  Double-line with both broken and solid
 Economical ov er manual control at intersection markings. A double line consisting of a single
 Coordinating in prov iding continuous flow of broken yellow line parallel to a single solid
traffic yellow line is used to show a two-way road or
 Increase traffic capacity highway where passing is permitted on the
side of the broken line, but not on the side of
ROAD CLASSIFICATION the solid line. This type of marking is often
seen on two and three-lane roadways.
A. ACCORDING TO POLITICAL SUBDIVISION
 National road- right of way 20 to 120 meters KINDS OF LANE AND ITS USES
 Provincial road- link between to municipalities,
ROW from 15 to 60 meters A. Inner lane
 City road- interlink in the city, ROW not less than  For left turn only
15 meters  Fast or ov ertaking v ehicle
 Municipal road- within town proper ROW not less  Don’t ov erlap the lane at the left
than 10 meters B. Center Lane
 Barangay road- from market to town not less  For thru mov ing v ehicle
than 2 meters  Fast and ov ertaking v ehicle
C. Outer lane
B. ACCORDING TO FUNCTIONS  Slow mov ing v ehicle only.
 Feeder Roads - Intended for farm-to-market  Right turning v ehicle.
roads.  Stopping, loading or unloading v ehicle.
 Local Collector Roads - Intended to collect traffic
from feeder road to municipal road. 3. TRAFFIC EDUCATION
 Major Collector Roads - Intended as major  is priceless gem in the entire scale of social order of
arteries to collect inter-locality traffic to prov incial the road
road.  is the process of inculcating to an indiv idual the
 Major Highway - Serv es as main artery that caters knowledge, skill, responsibilities and v alues to
on big v olumes of v ehicular traffic on national become a fully dev eloped person
roadway.  the key to smooth traffic flow is discipline and to
 Expressway - A through traffic for free-flow of acquire discipline people must be educated
v ehicular mov ement.
 Tunnel Road - A passage of wide section cut AGENCIES INVOLVED IN TRAFFIC EDUCATION
through a hill or sea to shorten circuitous
roadway. SCHOOL
 Subway - An underground conduct running  Elementary - tasked to educate children to obey
entirely under the ground for fast trav el route of traffic rules through their programmed curricula
commuters.  Secondary - tasked to educate students in
 Skyway - A modern urban system of roadway obeying tha traffic rules by imposing school
abov e street lev el for free-flow traffic. policies intended for the welfare of the students
 Higher Education - they offer subjects on driv ing
SIDEWALK and traffic safety course or any allied subjects
 integral part of roadway
 Answer to the safety of pedestrians of any road PURPOSE OF DRIVER EDUCATION
hazards.  To Instill awareness of one's legal and moral
SIDEWALK WIDTH responsibilities in traffic; and
Right of Way Minimum Width sidewalk  To teach abilities required for one to be eligible for
10 M 1.0 to 1.2 M a driv er’s license.
15 M 1.2 to 1.5 M
20 M 2.0 M SAFETY CAMPAIGN
30 M 2.0 M

Compendium of Crime Detection and Investigation (CDI)

  the aim of this campaign is to make road users
behav e properly
 focuses on public information attitudes; this is
characterized as road propaganda
BIORHYTHM
 the theory asserting that man exhibit constant
v ariation of energy and mood states
The Environmental Factors in Man’s Theorized Cycles and
Interpretation of Biorhythm
 The exchange of Light and darkness
 The four seasons
 Wet and dry seasons
 The waxing and waning of the moon
The Biorhythm Cycle
 23 days of physical cycle
 28 days of emotional cycle
 33 days of intellectual cycle
4. TRAFFIC ENVIRONMENT - the study of potentially
disastrous population explosion, changes in urban
env ironment due to the scale and density of new urban
concentration and new activ ities carried out, air pollution,
water pollution and crowding, transport congestion which
result therein
5. TRAFFIC ECONOMICS
 deals with the benefits and adv erse effects of
traffic to our economy
 deals with the productiv e resources to produce
commodities and distribution and consumption
LICENSING SYSTEM
Driver’s License
 Issued to person, who has all the qualification as
prov ided by law.
 It is not a Right but only a priv ilege
 It is also a public document, which had the legal
presumption of genuineness
 A tourist is allowed to operate a motor v ehicle if
he has been issued a license in his origin country
within 90 days.
LICENSING PROCEDURES
1. Age requirement
2. Be able to read and write
3. Physically and mentally fit
4. Clinically free from contagious diseases
KINDS OF DRIVING PRIVILEDGES
A. Student Driver’s Permit
 Age requirement: At least 16 years old
 Validity: 1 Year from the date of Issuance
 Restriction: Allowed to drive only in a presence of
a duly license driv er.
 1 Month Eligible for Non-Professional
 5 Months Eligible for Professional
B. Non-Professional Driver’s License
 Age Requirement: 17 years old for non-
professional
 Validity- 3 years from the date of issuance and
Renewable every 3 birth Month succeeding year
 Restriction: Allowed to driv e own v ehicle or any
priv ate v ehicle not to earn liv elihood.
C. Professional Driver’s License
 Age Requirement: 18 years old for professional
 Validity- 3 years from the date of issuance and
Renewable every 3 birth Months
 Restriction: Can driv e own v ehicle and use
Driv ing as a means of Liv elihood
D. International
E. Government/Military
RESTRICTION CODE
 Restriction Code No 1 - limited to driv e motor
motorcycles
 Restriction Code No 2 - limited to driv e v ehicle
weighing not more than 4500 kg
 Restriction Code No 3 - limited to driv e v ehicles
weighing more than 4500 kg
 Restriction Code No 4 - limited to driv e weighing
4500 kg and with automatic transmission only
Compendium of Crime Detection and Investigation (CDI)
 Restriction Code No 5 - limited to driv e v ehicle
with automatic clutch and weighing more than
4500 kg
CLASSIFICATION OF VEHICLES
 PRIVATE – Not use hire under any circumstances
 FOR HIRE - Vehicles cov ered by certificate of
public conv enience or special permit issued by
LTFRB.
 GOVERNMENT- Vehicles owned by the Philippine
Gov ernment or nay of its political subdiv isions
 DIPLOMATIC – Vehicles owned by Foreign
gov ernment or their diplomatic officers in
Philippines
DRIVER - Licensed operator of a v ehicle
DUTIES OF DRIVER IN CASE OF ACCIDENTS
 Stop immediately.
 Show the license to the v ictim and giv e the true
name, address and contact number.
 Driv er is not allowed to leav e the scene without
aiding the v ictim.
EXCEPTIONS:
 If he is in imminent danger of being seriously
harmed by reason of accident;
 If he reports the accident to the nearest police
station; and
 If he has summoned the physician or nurse to aid
the v ictim.
CONDUCTOR - Licensed person allowing limited number of
passengers, freight or cargo in public utility truck or buses
TEN COMMANDEMENTS OF TRAFFIC SAFETY
1. KEEP RIGHT - (two lanes, two ways) in case of one
way the left lane shall be the fast lane and the
slow lane is the right.
2. OBSERVE ROAD COURTESY- yield to emergency
v ehicle, pedestrians, trains, v ehicle with right of
way, v ehicles ahead, large vehicles, uphill traffic,
v ehicles with momentum, straight traffic, and
traffic signs.
Emergency Vehicles:
 Vehicle with physician
 Ambulance on emergency call
 Vehicle with wounded or sick person
 AFP/ PNP v ehicle on official call
 Vehicle in pursuit of criminals
 A police or fire on call
RIGHT OF WAY RULE - the right to proceed ahead of
another v ehicle or pedestrian
 Intersection- when two or more v ehicle is
entering an intersection the one on the left will
giv e way to the right v ehicle.
 Pedestrian- driv ers should yield to pedestrian
crossing except at intersection whereas the
mov ement of v ehicles is regulated by a police
officer.
 Through highway/ railroad crossing- the driv er
shall bring to a full stop before trav ersing to an
intersection. If there is no hazard the driv er may
slowdown to 5mph.
 Police /emergency vehicle- all driv ers should
yield to emergency to emergency v ehicle
except as directed by traffic enforcer. Fire trucks
are accepted to speed limit but they are
prohibited to hav e unnecessary speed.
 From private road to highway- v ehicle from
priv ate road must yield to that on a highway.
3. PROHIBITED PARKING
Places where parking is prohibited:
 Near an intersection
 Crosswalk/ pedestrian lane
 Within 6 meters from driv e way of any response
installation, fire hydrant and priv ate roads
 Double parking
 Sidewalks, alleys, foot of the bridge
 Places wherein official signs are posted
4. WHEN IN DOUBT, DO NOT OVERTAKE.
  ov ertaking lane is the lane to the left of
ov ertaken v ehicle going in the same direction,
ov ertaken v ehicle is the priv ileged v ehicle
CONSIDER THESE IF YOU OVERTAKE:
 Signal the intention.
 Make sure that the ov ertaking lane is clear and
free of oncoming v ehicle for sufficient distance
to facilitate proper ov ertake.
 Maneuv er at own risk, the v ehicle being
ov ertaken is the priv ileged v ehicle. Driv ers keep
his lane, maintain speed and yield to ov ertaking
v ehicle.
 He shall increase his speed until the ov ertaken
v ehicle has cleared the way
 In a two lanes, on a div ided roadway, they may
use either of the lanes.
 In an expressway with fast and slow lanes, on a
div ided roadway, they may use either of the
lanes.
 Ov ertaking is prohibited at crest of a grade
curv e, railway crossing, at the intersection and
between construction and caution.
5. THE BUS STOP RULE
 The buses queue up in a single file in their order
arriv al.
 Lead bus mov ing toward the center of column of
busses lining on the bus stop zone, and remain
until zone is filled with busses, but longer than
three minutes.
6. RULE TO PREVENT OR UNTANGLE TRAFFIC JAMS
 Keep lanes and intersection open in heav y and
slow traffic to av oid overtaking. In a construction,
v ehicles should merge alternately.
7. OBSERVE TRAFFIC MANAGEMENT MEASURES
 Observ e and obey traffic notices sign like notices
and pav ement markings.
8. THE PHILOSOPHY OF PINOY DRIVER
 Motorist should observ e equity of the lead
v ehicle, doctrine of the last clear chance on
rotunda driv e.
9. ON PEDESTRIAN
 Keep off the roadway except when crossing on
crosswalk. Wait embark and alight at bus or
jeepney stop.
10. REMEMBER THE INTERNATIONAL SAFETY REMINDER -
“SAFETY FIRST”
TRAFFIC ACCIDENT INVESTIGATION
ACCIDENT- that occurrence in a sequence of ev ents
which usually produces unintended injury, death or
property damage
TRAFFIC ACCIDENT- an accident inv olv ing trav el
transportation on a traffic way
PURPOSES OF TRAFFIC ACCIDENT INVESTIGATION
 Ev eryone inv olv ed is curious about causes and
circumstances of the accident.
 Police are also interested in finding out whether
there is enough ev idence of law v iolation in the
accident to take enforcement action.
 Insurance agencies and adjusters want to
determine negligence on the part of the driv ers
inv olv ed in the accident so that damage claims
can be properly adjusted.
 Gov ernment officials and other concerned
authorities want specific information about
accidents to know better how to prev ent future
accidents.
KINDS OF TRAFFIC ACCIDENTS
1. NON-MOTOR VEHICLE TRAFFIC ACCIDENT - refers
to any accident occurring on a traffic way
inv olving persons using the traffic way or trav el or
transportation, but not involv ing a motor v ehicle
in motion (ex. Pedestrian and a cyclist in a traffic
way)
Compendium of Crime Detection and Investigation (CDI)
2. MOTOR VEHICLE NON -TRAFFIC ACCIDENT - any
motor v ehicle accident which occurs entirely in
any place other than a traffic way (ex. Accident
on a priv ate driv eway)
3. MOTOR VEHICLE TRAFFIC ACCIDENT - any motor
v ehicle accident occurring on a traffic way (ex.
Collision between automobiles on a highway)
CHAIN OF EVENTS IN A VEHICULAR ACCIDENT
1. PERCEPTION OF HAZARD – it is seeing, feeling or
hearing and understanding the usual or
unexpected mov ement or condition that could
be taken as a sign of an accident about to
happen
2. START OF EVASIVE ACTION – it is the first action
taken by a traffic unit to escape from a collision
course or otherwise av oid a hazard
3. INITIAL CONTACT – the first accidental touching
of an object collision course or otherwise av oids
a hazard
4. MAXIMUM ENGAGEMENT – it is the greatest
collapse or ov erlap in a collision; the force
between the traffic unit and the object collided
with are greatest at maximum engagement
5. DISENGAGEMENT – it is the separation of a traffic
unit in motion from an object with which it has
collided; the force between the object ceases at
this time
6. STOPPING – this is when the traffic units inv olv ed
come to rest; it usually stabilizes the accident
situation
7. INJURY – it is receiv ing bodily harm; this ev ent
does not necessarily occur after the accident
but within any of the chain of ev ents; it may also
happen right after the ev asiv e action taken by
the driv ers inv olv ed or during the initial contact
CLASSIFICATION OF ACCIDENT ACCORDING TO SEVERITY
 Property Damage = It is nay motor v ehicle
accident in which there is no injury to any person
but damage to the motor v ehicle, to other
property including injury to animals.
 Non-Fatal = is any motor v ehicle accident that
results in injuries other than fatal to one or more
persons. The injuries maybe as follows:
o Serious Visible Injury It is a bleeding
wound, distorted member, or any
condition that requires the v ictim to be
carried from the scene of the accident.
Consider the injury to be v isible if
symptoms are present ev en though the
injury itself is not v isible.
o Minor Visible Injury It is an abrasion,
bruise, swelling, limping, or obv iously
painful mov ement.
o Non-Visible Injury It is complaint of pain
without v isible signs of injury; or
momentary unconsciousness.
 Fatal It is any motor v ehicle accident that
results in fatal injuries to one or more persons.
STEPS TO BE TAKEN DURING TRAFFIC ACCIDENT
INVESTIGATION
STEP 1. UPON LEARNING THE INCIDENT CHECK THE
FOLLOWING
1. What happened
2. Who are inv olv ed
3. Where and when it happened
4. How it happened
5. Why it happened
STEP 2. WHEN EMERGENCY UNDER CONTROL
1. Preliminary question to driv er
a. who is driv ing
b. ascertain sign of nerv ousness
2. Gather clues for identification
3. Ask other witnesses
4. Examine driv er’s condition
a. check the license and other record
 b. check registration  Broken headlamp manifest a run ov er
c. v erify ownership  Paints might stick at v ictim belonging
d. account step by step ev ents  Don’t forget to bring paper and pencil for initial
5. Position and location of v ehicles note taking
a. lights
b. gear position EXAMINATION OF RECOVERED VEHICLE
c. mark the position of v ehicle  Recov er physical ev idence immediately
d. look for the unusual things inside the car  Measure the v ehicle
6. Form preliminary opinion  Photograph the vehicle, debris and chipped off
7. Photograph skid mark and location for later part
measuring  Check the interior of the car for driv er’s identity
8. Record place in which person/ damaged
v ehicle is placed DOCUMENTS TO BE FILED IN CASE OF DEATH
 Referral slip
 Arrest report
STEP 3. AFTER GETTING SHORT-LIVED EVIDENCE  Traffic accident report (TAIC)
1. Make a test skid  Affidav it of parties inv olv ed
2. Ascertain if the v iolation is tantamount to arrest  Witness’ statement
3. Complete examination of v ehicle  Photograph
4. Locate key ev ent or point of impact
5. Additional photographs DOCUMENTS TO BE FILED IN CASE OF INJURY
6. v ehicle damages  Memorandum of preliminary inv estigation
7. v iew obstruction  TAIC
a. Present condition  Estimated amount of damage, it is made by
b. control dev ices authorized repair shop
8. Measure scale or diagram  Affidav it of parties inv olv e
9. Get additional facts at the scene  Witness statement
10. Report to station by radio  photograph

STEP 4. AFTER LEAVING THE SCENE B. DRUNKEN DRIVERS

1. Get the medical report
2. Notify the relativ es DRUNKEN DRIVERS- it is a driv er who driv es under the
3. Dev elop the photographs influence of alcohol with 10% of intoxicating lev el
4. Analyze the specimen
5. Complete accident report, made copies and FIELD SOBRIETY TEST
file. 1. Walk on straight line
6. Complete data on the inv estigators’ report 2. One foot balance
7. Reconstruct the accident 3. Reading
8. Complete the inv estigation and file it 4. Spelling
5. Counting from 1 to 10
STEP 5. IF THE CASE GOES TO COURT 6. Video tape the mov ement
1. Seek the desire of the prosecutor to strengthen 7. Photograph the unguarded mov ement
the case.
2. Return to the scene of the incident to gather CHEMICAL TEST
additional data 1. Blood test
3. Make a pre-trial conference 2. Urine test
4. Testify in court 3. Perspiration test
5. Arrange the file for future purposes 4. Breath test
5. Skin test
SPECIAL TRAFFIC INVESTIGATION
EVIDENCE AGAINST DRUNKEN DRIVERS
A. HIT-AND-RUN INVESTIGATION 1. Driv ers admission
2. Co-occupants testimony
HIT AND RUN INVESTIGATION This applies to driv ers who 3. Material witnesses testimony
failed to stop at a road accident 4. Photograph of drunken driv er
5. Video/ v oice tape of driv er
LEGAL CASES TO BE FILED: 6. Officers testimony
 Abandonment of one’s v ictim
 Failure to lend assistance LEGAL ACTION AGAINST DRIVER
 Reckless imprudence resulting to homicide 1. Submit him to the nearest laboratory for testing
 Reckless imprudence resulting to damage to 2. Impound the v ehicle
property 3. Confiscate the license
 Failure to render assistance to v ictim 4. Recommend the suspension of priv ilege
 Violation of section 55 of RA 4136 5. Sue him for v iolation
 Civ il liability 6. If acquitted recommend suspension of license

COMMON NATURE OF HIT-AND-RUN DIFFERENT LAWS AFFECTING ALL KINDS OF

 Ran ov er pedestrian TRANSPORTATION
 Sideswiped pedestrian 1. RA 4136- Land Transportation Code
 Collided with mov ing v ehicle while ov ertaking 2. RA 7924- Creation of MMDA
 Collided with mov ing vehicle while overtaking on 3. RA 8750- Seat Belt Law
opposite direction 4. LOI 229- Early Warning Dev ice (4 Meters)
 Damaged parked v ehicle 5. PD 207- Signage’s Adoption 1968
 Crushed police road block 6. PD 96- Declaring unlawful the use of Sirens
 Bumped by stray animal 7. PD 98- Regulating Plate Numbers
8. PD 856- Code of Sanitation
INVESTIGATING FOR UNKNOWN FACTS 9. RA 8749- Clean Air Act
 Victim’s identity 10. PD 1151- Philippine Env ironmental policy
 Kind of v ehicle 11. LOI 112- Load capacity of Public Roads & Bridges
 The make of v ehicle 12. l. RA 6539 - Anti-Carnapping Act of 1972
 The driv er 13. PD 1686 – Imposing a tax on ev ery motor v ehicle
 The eyewitnesses equipped with air conditioner.

FAST TRACKED INVESTIGATION

 Send the corpse to laboratory after inv estigating
 Obtain fingerprint and other specimen and send
it to laboratory
 Splintered glass can be a lead

Compendium of Crime Detection and Investigation (CDI)

SPECIAL CRIME INVESTIGATION
INTRODUCTION
• Special Crime Inv estigation deals with the study
of major crimes based on the application of
special inv estigativ e technique.
• The study concentrates more on physical
ev idence, its collection, handling, identification
and preserv ation in coordination with the crime
laboratory. Special Crime Investigation involv es a
close relationship between the prober in the field
and the crime laboratory technician. They work
together as a team, reacting to and extending
one another’s theories and findings both working
patiently and thoroughly to solv e a crime from
their inv estigativ e discov eries.
• The present criminal justice system in our country,
the court relies more on physical ev idence rather
than extra- judicial confession.
Cases subject of Special Crime Investigation
 Homicide (Generic term which includes
Murder, Parricide, Infanticide or death
where death where suicide is suspicious.
 Sex Crimes
 Robbery ( theft and car-napping RA
6539)
 Arson (PD !613)
 Swindling or Estafa
 Bank frauds
 Kidnapping (Crimes against Liberty)
The cases discussed therein after are only those which, by
their nature are difficult of complex.
Investigation defined: (LIE) - The collection of facts to
accomplish a threefold aim.
o To identify the offender
o To locate the offender
o To prov ide evidence against the
offender in a Judicial proceeding
Interrogation defined:
 Interrogation is made to gathered information
from the suspect in which case for the solution of
the problem or crime but not in the parameter
that inv ades the right of the suspect under
custodial inv estigation or RA 7438.
 Interrogation is a forceful / rigid questioning of a
person suspected of hav ing committed an
offense or a person who is reluctant to make full
disclosure of information in his/her possession
which is pertinent to the inv estigation
What are the purposes of Interrogation? (FARAC)
 To obtain confession to the crime
 To induce the suspect to make admission
 To learn the facts of the crime
 To learn the identity of the accomplice
 To dev elop the information which will lead to the
recovery of the fruits of the crime
 To discov er the details of other crimes
participated by the suspect
 To minimized the monetary aspect
 To giv e fear and feel by the suspect if he giv e
false in formation he will be under to correctional
facility of the said country
Homicide Investigation - Homicide Inv estigation is the
official inquiry made by the police on the facts and
circumstances surrounding the death of a person which is
expected to be unlawful.
Primary Job of the Investigator
1. To discov er whether an offense has been
committed under the law
2. To discov er how it was committed
3. Who committed it and by whom it was
committed
4. When it was committed
5. And under certain circumstances why it was
committed
Responsibilities of a Homicide Investigator
1. When called upon to inv estigate v iolent death,
he stands on the dead man’s shoes to produce
his instincts against those suspects.
Compendium of Crime Detection and Investigation (CDI)
2. The enthusiasm and intelligence the inv estigator
brings in the case marks the difference between
a murderer being conv icted and set free.
3. If he interprets a criminal death as accidental or
natural, a guilty person is set free.
4. Remember that the police is the first line of
defense in the effectiv e application of criminal
justice.
Mistakes in the Homicide Investigation
• The mistakes of the homicide inv estigator cannot
be corrected.
• The homicide inv estigator should not cross the
three bridges which he burns behind him. It is
important that competent personnel adequately
handle the case.
Three Bridges:
a. The dead person has been mov ed
b. The cadav er is embalmed
c. The body is burned or cremated
Basic Guide for the Inv estigator:
• Corpus delicti or facts that crime was committed.
• Method of operation of the suspect
• Identity of the guilty party
Title 8 Crimes Against Persons (Destruction of Life)
ART 246. Parricide
• Committed by any person who shall kill his father,
mother, or child, whether legitimate or
illegitimate, or any of his ascendants or
descendants, or his spouse. Penalty: Reclusion
perpetua (20 yrs & 1 day to 40 yrs) to death.
ART 248. Murder
Any person, who, not falling within the prov isions of Art 246
(Parricide), shall kill another, shall be guilty of murder if
committed with any of the following attendant
circumstances:
1. With treachery, taking adv antage of superior
strength, with the aid of armed men, or
employing means to weaken the defense, or of
means or persons to insure or afford impunity;
2. In consideration of a price, reward or promise;
3. by means of inundation, fire, poison, explosion,
shipwreck, stranding of a v essel, derailment or
assault upon a railroad, fall of an airship, by
means of motor v ehicles, or with the use of any
means inv olv ing great waste and ruin;
4. On occasion of any of the calamities
enumerated in the preceding paragraph, or of
an earthquake, eruption of a v olcano,
destructiv e cyclone, epidemic, or any other
public calamity;
5. With ev ident premeditation;
6. With cruelty, by deliberately and inhumanly
augmenting the suffering of the v ictim, or
outraging or scoffing at his person or corpse.
7. Penalty: Reclusion perpetua (20 yrs & 1 day to
40 yrs) to death.
ART 249. Homicide
• Committed by any person who, not falling within the
prov isions of Art 246 (Parricide) shall kill another
without the attendance of any of the circumstances
enumerated in ART 248 (Murder) shall be deemed
guilty of homicide.
• Penalty: Reclusion temporal ( 12 yrs & 1 day to 20 yrs)
ART 255. Infanticide
• Committed by any person who shall kill any child less
than three days of age( less than 72 hours).
• Penalty: The penalty prov ided in parricide & murder
shall be imposed
• If the crime penalized in this article be committed by
the mother of the child to conceal dishonor, she shall
suffer the penalty of prision mayor (6 yrs & 1 day to 12
yrs). If committed by maternal grandparents or either
of them, the penalty shall be reclusion temporal ( 12
yrs & 1 day to 20 yrs)
Robbery Investigation
Article 293- Robbery in General
• Any person who, with intent to gain, shall take any
personal property belonging to another by means of
 v iolence or intimidation of any person, or by using
force upon anything shall be guilty of robbery.
Elements of Robbery
1. Unlawful taking of personal property
2. The property must belong to another
3. The taking is done with v iolence against,
intimidation of any person or force upon
things
4. The taking is with intent to gain
How Robbery is committed?
The malefactors shall enter the house or building in
which the robbery was committed, by any of the
following means:
1. through an opening not intended for
entrance
2. By breaking any wall, roof, floor or breaking
any window or door.
3. By using false key or picklocks
2. By using fictitious name or pretending the
exercise of public authority
3. By breaking of doors, wardrobes, closets or
any kind of locked or sealed furniture or
receptacle
4. By taking such furniture or objects away to
be broken or forced open outside the place
of the robbery
General types of Robbers
1. Amateurs - motiv ated by greed, the desire for a
thrill and self-testing.
2. Professionals - are those people who worked as a
robbery as a trade making it their liv ing and
hav ing no other means of income.
Notes: Robbery-This is the taking or personal property
belonging to another, with intent to gain, by means of
v iolence against, or intimidation of any person, or using
force upon anything.
Investigative Techniques in Robbery cases:
a. The prober must initiate similar preliminary steps
upon reaching the crime scene.
b. Determine the point of entrance and point of exit
by the perpetrator.
c. Determine the v alue of stolen articles.
d. The full and detailed description of the stolen
articles.
e. Gather physical ev idence.
f. Determine the modus operandi of the
perpetrator as it would giv e leads in the
identification and arrest of the suspect.
g. Full and detailed description of a get- away
v ehicle if any, or v essel, boat in cases of piracy.
h. Coordinate with other law enforcement
agencies.
i. Exploit inv estigativ e leads.
j. Written testimony of the complainant witness.
k. Accumulate clues and traces at the scene of a
crime which will serv e to identify the offender.
l. Dev elop informants in the local underworld who
are aware of the activ ity of robbery, particularly
the activ ity of the semi-skilled amateur
groups.(usually the addict-robber).
m. Conduct a surv eillance of likely fences and
uncov er and trace back stolen property from its
receiv er to the robber.
n. Conduct surv eillance of known burglars to
ascertain if they are presently committing
robbery.
o. Accumulate information on v arious types of
robber, the known and new comers, whether
they are in or out of prison, whether they are
activ e.
p. Be alert on a modified modus operandi.
q. In cases homicide is committed; follow the
pattern of homicide inv estigation.
Physical Evidence to be collected:
1. Footprints
2. Fingerprints
3. Areas of break
4. Closets- prints may be found in door and jambs
5. Door knobs
6. Dressers
7. Pieces of furniture
8. Bottles and glasses
Compendium of Crime Detection and Investigation (CDI)
9. Walls
10. Tools
11. Desks
Clothings - sometimes the robbers exchange their own
jackets with that one found.
if a window was broken in effecting entry, glass particles
maybe presents in the trouser cuffs and pockets of
suspect. Samples of broken glass should be collected for
possible future comparison in the ev ent that a suspect is
picked up.
 Paint - if a crowbar has been used to force the
window, paint may adhere to the tool. Paint
samples should be taken for future comparison.
 Tool marks
 Tools
 Observ ed odd behav ior patterns in the crime
scene.
 cords and ropes used
 Firearms used
 means of escape
Anti-Piracy and anti-highway robbery law of 1974 (P.D.
532)
• Piracy - any attack upon or seizure of any v essel, or
taking away of the whole or part thereof or its cargo,
equipment or the personal belonging of its
complements or passengers, irrespectiv e of v alue
thereof, by means of v iolence against or intimidation
of persons or force upon things, committed by any
persons, including a passengers or member of the
compliments of said v essels in Philippine waters.
Anti-Cattle Rustling Law of 1974 (P.D. 533)
• Cattle Rustling - Is the taking away by any means,
methods or scheme, without the consent of the
owner/raiser, or any of the abov e animals (cow,
carabao, horse, mule or other domesticated member
of the bov ine family) whether or not for profit or gain,
or whether committed with or without v iolence
against or intimidation of any person or force upon
things. It includes the killing of large cattle, or taking its
meat or hide without the consent of owner/raiser
Anti-fencing law of 1979 (P.D. 1612)
• Fencing - is the act of any person, who, with intent to
gain, for himself or for another shall buy, possess,
keep, acquire, concealed, sell or in any other way,
deal on any articles, items, objects, or anything of
v alue which he knows to have been deriv ed from the
proceeds of crime or robbery or theft.
Fence - includes any person, firm, organization, association
or corporation or partnership and other organization who/
which commits the act of fencing.
Arson Investigation
1. Elements of Arson
• .Actual burning took place
• Done with malicious intent.
• the burned is done by a person who is criminally
and civ illy liable.
2. Consummated Arson
A. The mere discoloration or scorching of a wooden
wall by a fire is consummated arson.
B. If the scorching is on the concrete wall where
there is remote possibility of the fire to spread, it is
attempted arson.
C. The to set fire with the preparation of
inflammable material at the placed to be
burned is attempted arson. There is no frustrated
arson.
• Fire triangle theory - the graphical presentation of the
three elements of fire, namely: oxygen, heat, and
fuel.
• Each side is just as important as either of the other two
sides. There cannot be fire without all the three parts
present in equal proportion.
• Using the same theory, there are three ways to
extinguish fire.
1. Remov e the fuel
2. Cut-off the oxygen supply
3. Reduce the temperature (cooling)
Elements of fire
1. Heat – A form of energy generated by the
transmission of some other form of energy, as in
combustion or burning.
a. Heat sources:
b. Open flame
c. Electrical circuit
d. Sparks
e. Hot surfaces
f. Friction
g. All sources of ignition
2. Oxygen – A colorless, odorless, gas and one of
the composition of the air which is approximately
21% by v olume
Oxygen sources
1. 21% of normal oxygen
2. 2.78% of nitrogen
3. 3.1% of other gasses
Oxygen Requirements
1. 12% - no fire
2. 14% - flash point
3. 3.21% - fire point
3. Fuel – any substances which reacts chemically
with oxygen and produces flames.
Fuel Sources :
a. Solid - molecule are closely packed together
b. liquid - molecules are loosely packed
c. Gas - molecules are free to remov ed
Fire Tetrahedron - The fire triangle theory describe the
three elements of fire as shown in figure.
1. Another explanation of the requirements of the
combustion uses a four sided figure of the
tetrahedron as shown in figure
2. Both theories are used to explanation what
causes fire
The fourth elements of tetrahedron explanation is known
as chemical reactiv ity, or chemical reaction.
Components / elements of the fire tetrahedron;
1. Oxygen (oxidizing agent) - Oxidizing agents are those
materials that yield oxygen or other oxidizing gases during
the process of a chemical reaction. Oxidizer are not
themselv es combustible, but they support combustion
when combine with a fuel for purposes of discussion, the
oxygen in the air the surrounding area is consider the
primary oxidizing agents
2. Fuel ( Reducing Agents ) - Fuel is the materials or
substances being burned in the combustion process. In
scientific terms, the fuel in a combustion reaction is known
as the reducing agents. Most common fuels contain
carbon along with combination of hydrogen and oxygen.
3. Heat ( temperature ) - Heat is the energy components of
the fire tetrahedron, when heat comes in contact with a
fuel, the energy supports the combustion process.
Combustion - Fire and combustion are term that are often
used interchangeable. Technically speaking, fire is a form
of combustion. Combustion is a self-sustaining chemical
reaction producing energy or products that cause more
reaction of the same kind. Combustion is an exothermic
reaction
Products of combustion
Four (4) categories of products of combustion:
Fire gases – are those that remain when other products of
combustion cool to normal temperature. Common
combustibles contain carbon, which forms carbon dioxide
and carbon monoxide when burned. Other fire gases
include hydrogen sulfide, sulfur dioxide, ammonia,
hydrogen cyanide, nitrous and nitric oxide, phosgene,
hydrogen chloride.
 The fire gases that form depend on the chemical
composition of the fuel, the percent of oxygen
present, and the temperature of the fire.
Compendium of Crime Detection and Investigation (CDI)
 The records of fatal fires show that more people
died from inhaling these super-heated and toxic
fire gases than from any other cause.
 The complete combustion of fuels containing
carbon will produce CO2, but seldom will there
be enough oxygen for complete combustion.
When only part of the carbon is oxidized, carbon
monoxide is formed. While carbon monoxide is
not the most toxic fire gas, it causes more deaths
than any other because it robs the body of
oxygen.
 It burns rapidly when combined with oxygen at
high temperatures, causing dangerous back
draft explosions. Carbon monoxide, which is also
produced by slow oxidation, is found in sewers,
cav es, wells, stov es, furnances, and automobile
exhaust.
Types of Poisonous Gases:
1. Hydrogen sulfide (H2S) – A fire gas formed during
fires inv olv ing organic material containing sulfur,
such as: rubber, hair, wood, meats, and hides. It
is colorless, highly, toxic gas with the strong odor
of rotten eggs. Exposure for ev en a short time is
dangerous. It will ignite at 500d degrees F (260
Degrees C ).
2. Hydrogen cyanide (HCN) – a toxic fire gas found
in oxygen-starv e fires inv olv ing nitrogen-
containing materials such as wool, silk, urethane,
polymides, and acrylics. This gas is also used as
fumigant which can pose serious danger to fire
firefighters working in recently fumigated
buildings. Hydrogen cyanide smells like bitter
almonds which may not be easily detected.
3. Hydrogen chloride (HCL) – A Gas which can be
fatal after only a few breaths is produced in fire
inv olving chloride-containing plastic. Plastic can
be found anywhere ; from furnishing to electrical
insulation, conduit and pipings.
Flame - It is the luminous body of a burning gas which gets
hotter and less luminous when mixed with more oxygen.
Flame fades when carbons burns completely, so flame is
considered a product of incomplete combustion.
Heat - A form of energy measured in degree of
temperature, it is the product of combustion that spread
the fire. It cause burns and other injuries such as
dehydration, heat exhaustion, and respiration tract injuries.
Heat, oxygen depletion, and carbon monoxide formation
are the primary hazards in fires
Smoke - It is the v isible product of incomplete combustion
usually a mixture of oxygen, nitrogen, carbon dioxide,
carbon monoxide, finely div ided particles of soot and
miscellaneous assortment of product release from the
burning materials
Back draft - Firefighter operating at fires in building must
use precautionary measures when opening a building to
gain entry by prov iding v entilation either by the horizontal/
cross v entilation ( opening doors or windows ) or v ertical
v entilation ( opening a hole at the highest portion of the
affected part of the building. As the fire grows in the
confine area, large v olume of hot, unburned fire gases
can collect in unv entilated spaces. These gases may be at
or abov e their ignition temperature but hav e insufficient
oxygen av ailable to actually ignite. Any action taken
during firefighting operations that allows air to mix with
these hot gases can result in an explosiv e ignition called
backdraft.
The danger for backdraft can be minimized with proper
application of v ertical v entilation causing the unburned
gases rise and release through the opening before an
entry is made.
Flashover - Flashover occurs when a room or other area is
heated enough that flames sweep over the entire surface.
Firefighter originally believ e that combustion gases
released during the early stages of the fire cause flashov er
by collecting at the ceiling and mixing air until they burst
into flames.
Four (4) classes of fire
A. Class A – material inv olv ing v egetable fibers,
wood, paper straw, gain and grass; combustible
 minerals such as coal and coke. Nearly all thrash
fires are considered as class A.
B. Class B – material including petroleum products
such as gasoline, fuels oil, lubricants oils, and
greases; animal fats such as butter, lard, and
tallow, v egetable extract such as alcohol,
linseed oil, and turpentine; vegetable compound
such as shortening and oleomargarines; natural
gases and compressed gases such as butane,
propane, hydrogen, and acetylene.
C. Class C - this type of fire inv olv es electrical
motors, electrical appliances, and apparatus.
Actually a class C fire is composed usually of
class A and class B materials combination of
both. Use of water is usually dangerous because
of the risk of electrical shock.
D. Class D – these are materials inv olv ing
combustible metals, alloys, or metals compound
either in a solid, semi-solid or liquid state. They
may further reduce in shav ings, grinding,
granules, or dust. Some liquid metals are kept in a
liquid state under pressure. Usually these liquid
metals are; sodium (NA), magnesium, titanium,
sodium potassium, and uranium as well as
pyrophoric organometallic reagents such as
alkylithiums, grignards and diethylzinc. These type
of materials burn at high temperature and will
react v iolently with water, air, and/or other
chemicals.
Type of heat transmission (RCC)
1. Conduction - it is the transmission of heat
through an object / medium or conductor,
such as pipe, metal, hot-air, wire, or ov en wall.
2. Radiation - the transmission through the
discharge and spread of heat form a heated or
burning source. This radiation takes place
through the air or through space that cause
another flammable object to ignite.
3. Convection - It is the transmission of heat by
mov ing current of liquid or gas. When these
gases or liquids are heated, they start to mov e
within themselv es; and by their free motion,
circulation starts.
Flame Contact - Heat may be conducted from one
body to another by direct flame contact. Fire spreads
along or through burning material by flame contact.
When a material is heated to the point where
flammable v apors are release, the v apors may be
ignited. Any other flammable materials may be
heated to its ignition temperature by direct contact
with the flame or burning v apors.
Intensity - Intensity of fire means simply “how hot the fire is
burning.” some types of fuels naturally burn hotter (more
intensely) than others. For examples, a gasoline fire burns
hotter than a wood fire, while an acetylene flame is hotter
than a gasoline flame.
Factors to determine the intensity of fire:
– type of fuel
– percentages of oxygen present
Magnitude of fire - The magnitude of fire means the size of
a fire, and it is gov erned by the surface area of fuel
exposed to the air. The magnitude of fire is not always
determined by the amount of fuel inv olv e but more often
buy the amount of fuel exposed to the air.
Prima facie evidence of arson (PD 1613and Art.326-B, RPC)
A. If the fire started simultaneously in more than one
part of the building or establishment;
B. if substantial amount of flammable substances or
materials are stored within the building not
necessary on business of the offender or for
household use;
C. if after the fire, materials or substances soaked in
flammable or any mechanical, electrical,
chemical, or electronic contriv ance design to start
a fire or ashes or traces of any of the fire going are
found.
D. if the building or property is insured substantially
more than it actual v alue at the time of the fire
E. if during the lifetime of the corresponding fire
insurance policy, more than two fires had
occurred in the same or other premises owned
and under the control of the offender or insured.
Compendium of Crime Detection and Investigation (CDI)
F. if shortly before the fire, a substantial portion of
the stocks insured and stored inside the building
were withdrawn not connected with the ordinary
course of business.
G. if a demand for money or other v aluable
considered was made before the fire in
exchange for the desistance of the offender or
for the safety of the person or property of the
v ictim.
Special Aggravating circumstances of arson (Sec. 4 PD
1613)
A. Committed with intent to gain.
B. Committed for the benefits of the others.
C. Offender is motiv ated by spite, rev enge or
hatred towards the owner or occupant of the
house.
D. Committed by the syndicate. A syndicate
consists of three or more persons who planned
and carried out the crime.
Methods in Incendiary Fire
A. Plants and trailers – a preparation to set a fire is
term, PLANT it is designed to feed the fire as
rapidly as possible when the ignition dev ice is
lighted.
a. A trailer can be compared with the
wick that must cause fire not only in one
place but could conceivably create an
instantaneous fire throughout an entire
building.
B. Combustible material and substances – like
gasoline, kerosene, alcohol, paints, thinner,
v arnish and others,
C. Mechanical contrivances – Matches lighted
cigarettes, candles, flares, etc.
D. Gas and electrical appliances - gas range,
toaster, hot plate, iron, switches, soldering iron,
and etc.
E. Chemical contrivances – acids, phosphorus or
calcium hypochlorite – contact with soda pop
cola produces immediate chemical reaction
and result of fire.
Types of fire setters;
A. Arson for profit (insurance)
B. Solitary fire setters – they set fires secretly for
rev enge or spite. The reasons are low intellect,
senility, intoxication and psychological disorders.
Include in this category are pyromaniacs,
security guards who want to be a hero, the
teenager who will set fire to help the fireman the
house wife who wants the husband to come
home at night, the psychotic fire setter and the
sexual deriv es sexual gratification for seeing the
fire.
C. Group fire setter – as a means of v andalism by
teenager or by peer pressure, riot fire is also done
by group as an outburst of v iolence, tension or
social unrest as a result of mob role.
How to locate the origin of fire;
A. By witness – the first who discov ered the fire.
B. Low point burning – the lowest point of burning
should be giv en the out most consideration in
locating the origin of fire. Fire will burn upward.
C. Charring (aligatoring) – the char will generally be
deepest from the where fire originated. When
the fire is extinguished quickly the charring is only
slightly below the surface.
Color of smoke
A. Steam and smoke - presence of humid
substances in contact with combustible materials
B. White smoke – indicates the presence of
phosphorus.
C. Grayish smoke - cause by ashes and soots of
loosely packed materials such as straw or hay.
D. Black smoke – coming from a material with
petroleum base such as rubber, tar, coals,
turpentine, or petroleum gum.
E. Reddish brown of yellow smoke – presence of
nitrates or substances compounded with nitrates
such as nitric acid plastics, films. or cellophanes.
3.3 Scientific approach and procedures in conducting
crime scene search, sketch, collection and care of
physical evidence on special cases;
CRIME SCENE INVESTIGATION - It is the conduct of
processes, more particularly, the recognition, handling,
preserv ation and documentation of physical ev idence to
include the identification and interv iew of witnesses and
the arrest of suspect/s at the crime scene.
What Constitute a Crime Scene?
• The crime scene can be understood to include
all areas in which the criminal, any possible
v ictim, and any eyewitness move during the time
the crime was committed.
• The boundaries must be established so that the
entire crime scene can be effectiv ely preserv ed.
• In some crimes, howev er, the crime scene may
actually comprise sev eral different sites.
THE CRIME SCENE A crime scene can be defined as a - at
which an offense was committed and where the potential
for ev idence of that crime may exist. A crime scene may
include a home, automobile or a remote location in the
woods.
Crime Scene Locations
1. Indoor crime scenes
 affords the crime scene protection from
weather
 allows to take time and process the scene in a
slow, methodical manner without concern for
weather influences.
2. Outdoor crime scene
most v ulnerable to weather condition
3. Nighttime outdoor crime scene
presents the most problems
BASIC PRINCIPLES IN THE INITIATION OF AN EFFECTIVE
INVESTIGATION
• Rapid response to the crime scene by patrol
officers.
• Anything and ev erything should be considered
as ev idence.
• After the scene is secured, immediate and
appropriate notification must be made to the
Scene of Crime Operation.
First Responder - Must be able to properly preserv e the
crime scene in order to get maximum scientific information
that will help in the successful prosecution of the
perpetrator of the crime.
The First Responder shall:
1. Cordon the area
2. Ev acuate injured persons to the nearest
hospital;
3. Cordon off crime scene with whatever available
materials like ropes, straws, human barricade,
police line;
4. Prepare to take the “dying declaration” of
sev erely injured person, if any;
5. Prev ent entry/exit of persons within the cordoned
area; and
6. Prepare to brief the CSI Team Leader of the
situation upon their arriv al.
Composition of the CSI Team
1. Team Leader
2. Ev idence Collectors
3. City or Municipal/Health Officer
4. Crime Photographer
5. Sketcher/Measurer
6. Ev idence Custodian/Security Officer
7. Security and Protection of the crime Scene
Team Leader
• Coordinate with the inv estigator – assume
control
• Conduct initial walk-through for purpose of
making a preliminary surv ey.
• Determine search patterns and make
appropriate assignment for each members.
• Designate command post location
• Release the scene after a final surv ey and
inv entory of the ev idence.
Photographer
• Photograph entire area before it is entered.
• Photographs v ictims, crowd and v ehicles.
Compendium of Crime Detection and Investigation (CDI)
• Photograph entire scene with ov erall, medium
and close-up cov erage using measurement
scale when appropriate.
• Photograph major ev idence items before they
are mov ed
• Photograph all latent prints and other impression
ev idence
• Prepare photographic log and photographic
sketch.
Sketcher
• Diagram immediate area of scene and orient
sketch with north.
• Set forth on sketch major items of ev idence.
• Indicate adjacent buildings, rooms, furniture and
so forth as needed.
• Obtain appropriate assistance for taking
measurements
• Ensure necessary administrativ e information, such
as scale disclaimer (not drawn to scale) is
recorded on sketch
Evidence Recorder
• Prepare the ev idence recov ery log
• Coordinate ev idence packaging and
preserv ation
• Receiv e and record all ev idence
• Maintain chain of custody
• Function as the Ev idence Custodian
Evidence Collectors
• Balance of team members
• Conduct search
• Collect and package ev idence
– Make sure all items collected are
photographed, located on sketch, and
logged
Specialists
• Consider what specialists might be necessary to
assist with the processing of the crime scene
• Specialists include pathologists, anthropologists,
entomologists, botanists, geologists, fingerprint
specialists, bomb technicians, engineers etc...
Preparation
1. Basic Equipment
2. Police line
3. Marker
4. Camera with film
5. Ev idence collection kit
6. Video camera and tape recorder
7. Measuring device e.g. ruler and measuring tape
8. Flood lights, hand glov es, masks, eye goggles,
hairnet
SCENE OF CRIME OPERATION
PREPARATION PRIOR TO THE CONDUCT OF SOCO:
1. Ensure the av ailability of packaging and
collection materials necessary for typical search
circumstance.
2. Prepare the preliminary format for the paperwork
needed to document the conduct of search.
3. Discuss upcoming search with the inv olv ed
personnel.
4. Make preliminary personnel assignments before
arriv al at scene, if practicable.
5. Consider the safety and comfort of search
personnel. Be prepared for probable
impediments which maybe poised by weather or
terrain. Ensure that basic crime scene search
equipments are functional. These should consist
of the communication, lighting, first aid, and
security equipments.
6. Ensure that all SOCO Team elements tasked to
enter the crime scene must be wearing surgical
glov es and other protectiv e gears as maybe
necessary.
7. Assess the personnel assignments normally
required to successfully process a crime scene
and ensure that such assignments are in keeping
with the training, experience, attitude, and
aptitude of each indiv idual.
Approaching the Crime Scene
1. Be alert for discarded ev idence
 2. Make pertinent notes as to possible entry and
exit points of the perpetrator
General SOCO Procedures
1. Preparation Prior to Conduct of SOCO
2. Crime Scene Approach
3. Preliminary Crime Scene Surv ey
4. Ev aluation of Physical Ev idence
5. Narrativ e Description of the Crime Scene
6. Crime Scene Photography/Videography
7. Sketch of Crime Scene
8. Detailed Crime Scene Search
9. Physical Ev idence Recording and Collection
10. Final Crime Scene Search
11. Turn-Ov er/Release of Crime Scene to
Inv estigator-on-Case
12. Designation of a Command Post
• Command Post- an area which, is ideally
located adjacent to the Crime Scene where
the CSI Ev idence Custodian stays and
receiv es the pieces of ev idence turned over
to him for safekeeping by the other
ev idence collectors.
Initiation of Preliminary Survey
a. Makes a general assessment
b. Takes a cautious walk- through
c. Takes down extensiv e note to document
important factors
d. Establishes the ev idence most likely to be
encountered
e. Defines the extent of the search area
f. Determines the personnel and equipment
needed, and makes specific assignments
g. From his assessments, he dev elops a general
theory of the crime scene.
h. Remov able inferences about what happened
are produced from the crime scene
appearance and information from what
happened. These theories will giv e the crime
inv estigator to document specific conditions
and recognize v aluable physical ev idence.
Documentation of the Crime Scene - The photographer
begins taking photographs as soon as possible. The
ev idence collectors do not touch or mov ed any evidence
once it is located until it has been identified, measured
and recorded.
Crime Scene Photography
• Main Objective - To create an accurate
objectiv e visual record of the crime scene before
any item is mov ed or remov ed as possible
physical ev idence.
Guidelines for taking photographs of a Crime Scene
• Photographs of a crime scene should be taken
as soon as possible, before note taking, sketching
or a search for ev idence begins.
The pictures should illustrate the original, uncontaminated
condition of the crime scene.
Photographs should be taken of the crime scene only,
without spectators or police personnel.
• To adequately present the crime scene initially,
the photographs must form an organized
sequence and show all relev ant locations and
objects.
• The crime scene photographs must progress from
general to specific.
Three Major Types of Pictorial Views
1. Long- range photograph of the ov er all scene
2. Distance: From the doorway to the room and
other corners of the room
3. Mid- range photograph
4. Distance: Eight or ten feet from the v ictim
5. Close - up photograph
The investigator himself should ensure that;
1. Ov erall photos of the scene are taken to show
the approach to the area, street signs, and street
light locations in relation to the actual scene,
street addresses and identifying objects at the
scene. Pictures should also be taken of ev ery
room in the house, ev en if their relationship to the
crime scene is not readily apparent.
Compendium of Crime Detection and Investigation (CDI)
2. Photograph the scene in a clockwise pattern
before altering the body's position or any other
ev idence within the scene. Photograph the
scene from at least 2 opposite corners, but from
all four corners is ev en better. This way, nothing is
missed or hidden from v iew by interv ening
objects.
3. Photograph the body and the immediate vicinity
around the body. If you hav e a camera boom,
take pictures from ceiling height down of the
v ictim and any other evidence. This perspectiv e
often shows things missed when v iewed from
ground or eye lev el.
4. Keep a photo log.
5. The most important prerequisite for
photographing a crime scene is for it to be in an
unaltered condition. Unless there are injured
parties inv olv ed, objects must not be mov ed until
they hav e been photographed from all
necessary angles. As items of physical ev idence
are discov ered, they are photographed to show
their position and location relativ e to the entire
scene.
6. After these ov erviews are taken, close-ups should
be taken to record the details of the object itself.
When the size of an item is of significance, a ruler or other
measuring scale may be inserted near the object and
included in the photograph as a point of reference.
Crime Scene Sketches
 Sketches are useful in questioning of suspects
and witnesses as well as in the writing of
inv estigativ e reports.
 A rough sketch is prepared indicating the actual
measurement of things with scale and proportion
observ ed and oriented to the North Pole. All
necessary information is placed in the sketch.
Sketches of the scene are made:
 Rough Sketch —A draft represent at ion of all
essent ial informat ion and measurement s at a
crime scene. This sket ch is drawn at t he crime
scene. It shows all recovered it ems of physical
evidence, as well as ot her important feat ures of
t he crime scene
 Finished Sketch —A precise rendering of t he
crime scene, usually drawn t o scale. This t ype is
not normally complet ed at t he crime scene
Unlike the rough sketch, the finished sketch is drawn with
care and concern for aesthetic appearance
 Sketches are excellent companions to
photograph. Where photograph prov ide exact
details, sketches offer accurate information
about the placement of objects and they show
relationship and distances between things.
Elements of sketch
a. Measurement
b. Compass direction
c. Essential items
d. Scale and proportion
e. Legend
f. Title
Specific kinds of sketch
A. Locality- giv e picture of the scene, the crime
and its env irons, including neighboring buildings,
roads etc.
B. Background - picture of the scene of the crime
with its nearest physical surrounding.
C. Details- the immediate scene only
D. Exploded/ cross projection- giv es the clear
impression of the scene in cases where blood
stains or bullet holes are found
Note Taking - Note taking must be a constant activ ity
throughout the processing of the crime scene.
 Notes must include:
o Detailed written description of the
Crime Scene with locations of physical
ev idence receiv ed
o The time when the physical ev idence
was discov ered
o The person who discov ered and
collected physical ev idence
 o How the ev idence was packaged and
marked
o The disposition of the item when it was
collected
Documentation - This documentation is made by the crime
scene inv estigator for purposes of future crime scene
reconstruction which help the prosecutor and the judge
understand conditions at the crime scene.
Crime Scene Search
 The search for physical ev idence is done using
the accepted methods of search depending
upon the actual location to be searched.
 A crime scene search could only be started
after it has been photograph and sketched.
Objectives of a Crime Scene Search
 To systematically look for physical ev idence that
may prov e useful in establishing that a crime has
been committed.
 To determine what method of operation the
perpetrator may hav e used.
Different Search Methods
 Strip - the searchers will proceed at the same
pace along the path parallel to one side of the
rectangle.
 Spiral - the searchers will follow each other in the
path of a spiral, beginning in the outside and
spiraling towards the center. Clockwise/ counter
clockwise.
 Zone - the area to be searched is div ide into four
quadrants and each searcher is assigned to one
quadrant.
 Wheel - for area to be searched approximately
circular or ov al
 Point to point - searcher will stand in a straight line
and mov e forward together
Collection of Physical Evidence
 The competence to recognize and properly
collect physical ev idence is critical to both
solv ing and prosecuting crimes.
 The team leader is always informed of significant
ev idence located. The ev idence collectors shall
put his initial, location and date of collection on
the item and turn it ov er to the ev idence
custodian for documentation and safekeeping.
INTRODUCTION
 Whatev er you are searching for, you must do it
systematically and thoroughly. Additionally,
when you are searching a crime scene and
many onlookers are nearby, you must appear to
know what you are doing. If you carry out your
search in a haphazard and careless manner, you
will cause irreparable damage to your reputation
and that of your department. A sloppy search
indicates that the searcher is probably sloppy in
ev erything he or she does.
 The community policing programs that inv olv e
your department and the public hav e a v ery
positiv e effect because the public is more
inv olv ed, but a cautionary note is that those
people are watching their officers more carefully,
and they are more likely to recognize sloppy
police work. The ubiquitous media, especially
those presenting “breaking news,” will be nearby
to record your activ ity for posterity, and many
armchair detectives will critique your work ev ery
time your act is shown on local news programs. A
word of adv ice: Be thorough and be
professional.
 As the crime scene inv estigator, do not begin to
search or process the scene when a suspect may
still be present. If you are the primary
inv estigating officer who is also responsible for
CSI, you need to first dev ote your full attention to
searching for suspects who might still be on the
premises.
 Once you determine that suspects are in custody
or hav e left the scene, then you can
concentrate on the collection of ev idence. It is,
of course, prudent to remember that it is possible
to miss a suspect during a search, or a suspect
may return to the scene while you are processing
the scene. In that ev entua1it it is wise to hav e
Compendium of Crime Detection and Investigation (CDI)
another officer on the scene while you are
dev oting your attention to the crime scene
inv estigation.
PLAN YOUR SEARCH - All searches require that you
proceed according to an organized and coordinated
plan. There are different kinds of searches, depending on
what you are looking for, such as searches for people
(missing and lost children and adults, and suspects of all
ages and genders) and searches for objects. You may be
searching the premises where a burglar has taken away
stolen objects and left behind ev idence. You may be
searching an office building for bombs purported to hav e
been planted on the premises. In all searches you are
looking for ev idence of all types. Planning is your key to
greater success in finding what you are looking for, as well
as many items you had no idea you would find. Whether
you work alone or with other searchers, draw a plan on
paper and apportion the search so that each area is
searched at least twice, and each time by a different
person. Draw your search plan, assign searchers, and
check off each area when the search is complete. If
curious onlookers are nearby, post a guard to watch the
searched areas to prev ent contamination or ev idence
planting.
INTERIOR SEARCHES
 Try to arrange for optimum lighting conditions,
utilize av ailable lights at the scene, bring in more
flood lamps with portable generators, and use
your battery-operated flashlights as well. If you
are searching a building where the electricity is
off, your only av ailable lighting will probably be
your flashlights and portable floods. Under these
conditions, when you mov e from a lighted area
where your eyes are conditioned to the light into
a dark room or area, stop for a few seconds
when you enter the dark and let your eyes adjust
to the light change. The rods and cones of your
eyes rev erse functions when going from dark to
light and v ice versa, and the more dramatic the
change, the longer the transition time.
 Wear glov es for your search. If you believ e there
is the possibility of a suspect still being on the
premises, you may choose to mov e with your
weapon to a ready position. In those situations it
is also wise to open each door by slamming it
open until it strikes the wall or doorstop. If you
hear a loud “Ugh” when you slam the door open,
you hav e probably located a suspect hiding
behind that door. In most crime scene searches,
you or your colleagues hav e probably already
cleared the area of any suspects, so it will not be
necessary to mov e with a weapon in your hand
or to slam doors open. You have now mov ed on
to the ev idence search phase of the
inv estigation.
 As you mov e from room to room or from one
section of the search to another, stop frequently
and listen for sounds, try to identify odors, and
absorb. the atmosphere of the scene. Sounds
such as air conditioning or heaters turning on and
off, or the foundation settling, and odors, such as
perfume, cigar, or pipe smoke, and aftershav e
lotion may prov e v aluable to your inv estigation
later. For example, a person confessing to the
crime may at some time state that the air
conditioner was on full blast and made him
shiv er. As for odors, you may recognize the odors
on the suspect’s person as being similar to those
you smell earlier during your crime scene search.
 Take Polaroid photos or start v ideo recording the
scene as you enter and mov e around the scene
to get an ov erall v iew before you start your
intensiv e searches. If you have neither a Polaroid
camera nor a camcorder, use a v oice-activ ated
tape recorder or take good notes. These will be
your initial observ ations. You will later begin using
your 35mm SLR camera for the more detailed
ev idence photos that we will cov er in Chapter
Nine. If you hav e a notepad in hand, make a
rough sketch of the crime scene and the general
area for orientation purposes. You will prepare
more detailed sketches later. These photos and
rough sketches may help you reconstruct the
scene in your mind when you are preparing your
reports, and sometimes the initial photos may
show certain items that may not show up later in
 your more detailed photographs. It may lead you
to discov er that something has possibly
contaminated the scene or someone just
inadv ertently mov ed something. In the
celebrated Jeffrey McDonald murder case
sev eral years ago, it was rev ealed that one of
the ambulance driv ers picked up and pocketed
an item at the scene, believ ed to be a wallet
belonging to McDonald.
 Ev en though you are wearing glov es, touch
nothing that you believ e might bear trace
ev idence until you are sure that touching will not
wipe away fingerprints or other traces. Shine a
light obliquely across the surface of the floor and
other flat surfaces before you walk on them to
search for footprints or shoe prints in the dust that
has settled since the last time the surface was
dusted. Use the oblique light procedure ov er all
surfaces that might hav e been disturbed.
Sometimes undisturbed dust ma yield information
also. For example, one of the authors was taking
a burglary report from an auto parts shop owner,
who listed dozens of items that had been stolen,
but about a month’s accumulation of
undisturbed dust was on the shelv es where the
v ictim claimed the merchandise had been
stored. Then it was pointed out to the v ictim that
if merchandise had been on those shelv es, the
merchandise and not the shelv es would be
cov ered with dust. The owner then admitted he
was “padding” the report a little for his insurance
claim. It is reasonable to assume that he
probably dusted his shelves more frequently after
that.
 Div ide the room or area into halves or quadrants,
depending on the number of people you hav e
inv olved in the search, and assign indiv iduals or
teams to each section. Next, divide the room into
lev els at which the search will be performed,
such as one-third of the wall from the floor up,
then the second one-third, and finally the rest of
the way to the ceiling, followed by the spaces
above the ceiling or false ceiling and crawl hole.
Later, when each officer or team of officers has
completed their part of the search, switch
searchers and repeat the process. It is not
unusual for one person to miss something that
another person will find. As you know, sometimes
we have blind spots where we look at something
yet do not see it. Has it ev er happened to you
that a close friend comes within your v isual range
at a conference, for example, and didn’t see
that person until perhaps a half-hour later, and
your excuse was “1 didn’t see you come in”? In
the more serious crimes, a secondary search
should be considered mandatory, and
preferably at a time when the lighting conditions
are at an optimum lev el.
Ceiling Area - Look for false ceilings, and search the
area between that structure and the real ceiling, and
the attic where there are accessible crawl spaces.
Burglars hav e been known to climb up into crawl
holes that one would not imagine could bear such
weight and bulk. The moral here is to search ev en the
most illogical places for people and contraband, so
your search is truly more thorough than if you were to
search only the obv ious places. Search inside the
ceiling light fixtures and ducts for air conditioning,
v entilation, and heating systems. Sound or speaker
systems, power conduits, other pipes, and enclosed
areas should be giv en meticulous attention. Look
behind and inside moldings and frames if they are
loose or appear to have been disturbed. Search an’
facade or other object that appears to be part of the
room design but might he hollow and hide
contraband.
Windows and Door Frames - Look for access points to
hollow cores of doors and framing that hav e been
disturbed or that could possibly conceal small hidden
items, such as bindles of drugs or folded paper.
Curtain and drape rods are good hiding places.
Walls - The spaces between walls are extremely good
hiding places. Sometimes a false wall can conceal an
entire room that has been sealed off with plaster and
wallboard. If you think there might be such a hidden
Compendium of Crime Detection and Investigation (CDI)
room, take outside measurements of the structure
and compare that with inside measurements. If you
discov er an unexplained difference of sev eral feet, it
could well be that a sealed closet space that has
been designated as a hiding space, which is perhaps
accessible from the attic or a crawl hole in the ceiling
of the basement. Switch plates, plug plates, and
spaces behind photos and other wall hangings
prov ide access to the walls. Merely tapping on the
wall will produce a hollow sound because most walls
are hollow. Look around the edges of the wall, such
as at the ceiling and floor and door and window
frames. In v ery critical searches, it may be necessary
to tear out part of the wall.
Floors - Check the floor carefully for any loose boards,
recently-installed tiles or carpeting, or recent repair
work to the floor or its cov ering. Color differences of
floor cov ering may indicate that stains hav e been
remov ed. You may search any area that might hav e
contained bloodstains with tests that are described in
Chapter Seven. In a murder case sev eral years ago,
the murderer decided to break up with his girlfriend.
When she objected to such an abrupt end to their
relationship, he acceded to a final fling, but he
wanted it to be a threesome with another woman
participating. They had their menage a trois with the
second woman videotaping a sex act between the
two who were breaking up, during which the man
tortured and murdered the v ictim. This was all on
tape. Afterward, the v ideographer handed the tape
to the killer and went home. Some time later, the killer
was questioned about the disappearance of his
former girlfriend,, then ev entually arrested and
prosecuted for her murder. The third party in the sex
scene who took the pictures testified to what had
happened that fateful night and told about the tape.
The police could not find the tape and relied only on
that witness’s account of the murder. The defendant
testified that he was innocent and knew nothing of his
former lov er’s whereabouts. The defense then
brought up enough ev idence of alcoholism and
mental instability of the prosecution’s star witness that
the jury v oted for acquittal of the murderer.
EXTERIOR SEARCHES
 Once you and your colleagues have established
the parameters of the crime scene and search
areas, div ide each area into workable portions
and delegate each subarea to yourself and your
colleagues, who are working either solo or in
teams of two. If you are conducting the search
by yourself, sketch out the entire area, break it
into workable subareas, then search one
subarea at a time, checking off on your sketch
each part of the search area as you complete
that part of the search.
 You may choose to use any method you believ e
best for each indiv idual search, such as a spiral,
quadrants, ev er-expanding or contracting
circles, or back and forth in a straight line in a
pattern as one follows when mowing a lawn.
What you call it is of lesser importance than how
thoroughly you conduct your search. Even when
you are working alone, go back and search
again, changing your method so as to maximize
the chances of finding something you might
hav e missed the first time. You not only must be
efficient, but also you must present the image
that you know what you are doing. This is true
especially when you have people watching you
work, such as that news photographer in a tree
nearby, or some Monday morning quarterback
who will tell ev eryone within earshot how sloppy
you were when looking for ev idence. It may
sound a little paranoid, but believe us, what you
do and how you do your job reflect on other
people’s assessment of your department. You do
not want your operation to be called a
“cesspool of incompetence.” In other words, you
must not only know what you are doing, but you
must appear as though you know what you are
doing.
 If the weather is working against you, such as
rain, snow, or high winds, you are probably going
to change the sequence of your inv estigation so
that you may search for those items that are
most likely to be destroyed or altered. Shoe prints
 in a mud puddle or pools of blood that will be
washed away unless collected immediately will
take precedence ov er ev idence that can wait
until you hav e taken care of tie short-liv ed
ev idence. If you are conducting your search on
a street, a highway, or a heav ily-trav eled
sidewalk during rush hour, you will want to plan
your search so that your inv estigation will not
suffer yet will get the traffic mov ing as soon as
possible.
 There is no sense or reason where people
choose hiding places. For that reason, you must
expect to find people and objects where one
would least likely find them. Desperate people
can fit into places so small that it takes the fire
department and its jaws of life to get them out.
People have been found in trash compactors (a
nine-year-old boy), air-conditioning and heating
ducts, chimneys, kitchen and bathroom
cabinets, ev en desk or dresser drawers. Ev en
when you are looking for larger items, consider
that the person who hid them has possibly
dismantled them and hidden their parts in
sev eral places. A postal inspector once told the
story that a soldier during the Korean War sent a
souv enir of an enemy’s confiscated gun home,
but not all in one piece. As the story goes, an
alert postal clerk discov ered a single piece of the
gun. When the soldier sent the last piece, the
postal inspector put all the separate pieces
together and reconstructed the whole gun. He
then charged the soldier with sending a firearm
through the mails. Ev en though the story sounds a
little “fishy,” it does make the point that people
do ingenious things to skirt the law.
 If it does not complicate your inv estigation, have
someone familiar with the place to be searched,
possibly an employee or tenant, accompany
you while you search for items that are missing or
that hav e been left behind by the perpetrator.
Be cautious when listening to claims about
certain items stolen or mov ed, and do not
accept at face v alue ev ery word that person
tells you. He or she may hav e a secret agenda,
which might include misleading the investigation
or exaggerating his or her losses to defraud the
insurer. Some people play burglars and thieves to
steal their cars or merchandise so that they can
collect the insurance and split their earnings with
the people who allegedly v ictimized them.
SEARCHES FOR BOMBS
 Searches for suspected bombs or phoned-in
bomb threats should be left to the specialists who
are trained and equipped for such searches. But,
as a crime scene inv estigator, you may find
yourself the first one on the scene and searching
for suspicious objects until the bomb squad
arriv es. Be careful to leav e in place any object
that you suspect might be a bomb, ev acuate
the area, and stand by until the experts arriv e. If
the suspected object is in a building, ev acuate
the entire building. If you do conduct such a
preliminary search, take along someone who is
familiar with the building and its contents to
adv ise you of objects disturbed or perhaps a
package left on the premises that was not there
earlier. Parcel deliv eries, including packages that
arriv ed by a postal carrier, should be handled as
though they were bombs until the bomb squad
has cleared them.
 When searching for a bomb or similar dev ice, do
not use any radio equipment, turn on or off any
light switches, or operate any dev ice that might
spark and set off a dev ice of some sort. Do not
allow anyone to smoke, and av oid inserting and
pulling out electric plugs. Some explosiv e devices
hav e spring-wound clocks for timing and may be
heard ticking if you are searching in absolute
silence. If and when you find what you recognize
as a bomb or what you suspect might be a
bomb, and once you hav e v erified that the
bomb squad is on its way to the scene, withdraw
from the area and make sure the surrounding
area has been ev acuated. After the bomb has
been remov ed and/or neutralized, then continue
your crime scene search.
Compendium of Crime Detection and Investigation (CDI)
THE SEARCH CONTINUES
 If practical, put plastic cov ers ov er your shoes,
wear glov es to avoid leav ing impressions of your
own at the scene, and continue your search. We
hav e conv eniently forgotten the name of the
author, hut one writer of an inv estigation text
recommends that you keep your hands in your
pockets while searching a crime scene. This is
neither wise nor practical, as ev idence can he
collected only by mov ing and collecting things.
Your responsibility is to determine if a crime has,
in fact, been committed and to conduct a
thorough inv estigation. Keep an open mind
throughout the entire time you are on the
premises, and av oid forming any preconceiv ed
notions about the outcome of your search. If you
hav e a fixed objectiv e, you may find only what
you expect to find during your search. Sometimes
claims made by crime v ictims may not be borne
out by the facts. If your inv estigation is thorough,
the ev idence will speak for itself and either v erify
or disprov e the statements made by the v ictims.
 As you continue the process of inv estigating, stop
occasionally and conceptualize the crime as it
might hav e happened. What would be the likely
point of entry? Exit? What route of trav el did the
perpetrator(s) take while committing the crime?
Imagine that you are in the perpetrator’s shoes
and how you would have carried out the action.
Consider the timing. How much can be
accomplished in the time “window” when the
crime must hav e occurred? For example, in an
armed robbery of a gold v ault, the two owners of
the company stated that they were held up at
gunpoint and tied up. Then several million dollars’
worth of gold bricks were remov ed from the v ault
in 20 minutes by two men who used a three-
quarter-ton pickup truck to cart away the loot.
Gold is heav y, as the officers knew. All they did
was add up the tons of gold that had allegedly
been stolen, then estimate that a pickup truck of
that size would hav e had to make sev eral trips
ov er a couple of hours to cart all that gold away.
After pointing this out to the v ictims when
questioning them separately, one of the v ictims
confessed that actually they had only about a
half dozen bricks in all in, their v ault, which they
showed to the owners who wanted to look at
their gold. They used the same gold bricks to
show all the people and did not expect anyone
to take their gold out of the v ault because gold
has to be assayed and weighed each time it is
mov ed. Handling gold causes small particles to
be scraped off with fingernails or by such objects
as rings or bracelets, and consequently handling
reduces its v alue. The two vault owners panicked
when they receiv ed a surprise notification from
one of their customers, who became suspicious
of their activ ities and told them that he had gone
to the police to inv estigate what he believ ed to
be a major scam. They feared that the police
would come with a search warrant and find that
they had been selling the same few gold bricks
many times ov er, and that there were actually
only a half dozen gold bricks in the entire
building. The v ault owners were subsequently
conv icted for major felony fraud and the
misdemeanor charge of filing a false police
report was dropped.
 In order to av oid allegations of incompetence or
dishonesty, he sure to document your search
v ery carefully with accurate notes, photographs,
and fellow officers paying attention to each
other throughout the inv estigation. Do not
ov erlook the possibility of using a v ideographer
for the express purpose of liability protection, as
cov ered earlier. You will want to document
discrepancies between what v ictims and
witnesses describe happened and what did or
did not happen. For example, a witness may
distinctly remember having seen the culprit crawl
in through the window. When you examine the
window, you will see that the glass has been
broken, and jagged pieces of the glass still
sticking up in the frame, but no blood or
snagged clothing on the jagged edges of the
glass or on the windowsill, which would surely be
there if someone had crawled through that
 window. Your photos or v ideo will show this
discrepancy without your hav ing to editorialize
that the reporting party has probably lied.
 Sometimes a so-called “v ictim” will try to
conv ince you that a window was broken from
the outside and entry was made though that
window. Your inv estigation shows that the
window was broken from the inside, because it
had been raining during the past few hours, and
there are no muddy footprints in the flowerbed
below the window, and there are no muddy
scuff marks on the outside wall, which would
hav e been placed there by a person climbing in
through the window.
 It is not usual for a bona fide crime to be
enhanced by v ictims who magnify their losses,
either intentionally or unintentionally. Under
extreme emotional stress, three assailants may
appear as fiv e, or a man, who is fiv e foot, three
inches, may seem to be much taller and heavier.
Some v ictims are embarrassed to say that they
were beat up by someone smaller and who
might appear weaker than they are. Some
v ictims exaggerate their losses so that the
insurance will pay them for their entire loss and
also cov er their deductible amount, or to
replace worn-out tools that they would rather the
insurance company buy for them. Other v ictims
make simple errors in describing the ev ent and
calculating their losses.
RECORDING THE SEARCH
 We hav e already mentioned the use of
recording dev ices, such as a tape recorder,
v ideo camcorder, Polaroid camera, and other
cameras. When your inv estigation team is large
enough one of the members of the team should
be the scribe. Otherwise, you are the scribe
along with your other duties. Ev ery action taken
by the team members should be written down
exactly as it happens, and whenever a discovery
of some new information or ev idence is made,
the scribe should record the time, exact location,
description of the find, and precisely who made
the discov ery
 The scribe should also keep a log to record
arriv als and departures of all persons at the
scene for any reason whatsoev er. If a superv isor
just drops by at 8:47 A.M. to check on the
progress of the inv estigation, the time and name
of that superv isor should be entered on the log.
You should take photos of their shoes or their
fingerprints if they have touched anything during
their v isit to the scene. Include all persons,
because sometime later it may be discov ered
that one of those people may hav e left shoe
impressions at the scene
 The scribe’s log will be incorporated into the
completed package of reports. Some crime
reports and supplemental reports add up to
thousands of pages before the case finally goes
to court. In addition to the scribe’s log, each
participant inv olv ed in the inv estigator’ will be
required to complete an indiv idual report with a
complete account of exactly what he or she did
and might have found and all the details f his or
her participation. The officer assigned as
principal inv estigator of the case will hav e the
responsibility of collecting and coordinating all of
those reports, and the principal inv estigator puts
them together so that they will hav e continuity
and clarity for those who will read them. All
participants should later read through the reports
of their indiv idual actions to check for the
accuracy of their contributions.
TRANSIENT OR SHORT-LIVED EVIDENCE
 Be careful to identify and protect transient
ev idence that is not likely to last long because of
weather conditions such as rain, snow, or
warming sunlight, or because of v ehicular or foot
traffic that is likely to destroy the ev idence if it is
not addressed immediately (Figure 6.3). Skid
marks on a heav ily-trav eled roadway will soon
blend in with previous and subsequent skid marks
and may not be distinguishable from each other.
Shoe or foot impressions in dust will blow away
with the next strong gust of wind. Wet prints on a
Compendium of Crime Detection and Investigation (CDI)
dry floor will dry as the sun rises. The wet marks
should be noted and sketched, and
photographed when first observ ed, or they will
be lost forev er. In the rain, muddy shoe prints
might wash away. Sometimes you run across the
well-meaning person who will start cleaning up
the mess at the scene ev en before you hav e
completed your inv estigation. It is not unusual for
sex crime v ictims to destroy the ev idence of the
attack on their own bodies by bathing or
douching, and putting stained bedclothes in the
washing machine. These victims are probably not
ev en thinking of the harm they are causing to
your inv estigation because of their personal
emotional trauma.
 These items of transient ev idence may not prov e
to be your most crucial ev idence, but when you
are searching the scene and collecting all
av ailable evidence, you may not be in a position
to know which items of ev idence are best and
which are not. Meticulously and completely
collect all items that are, or that might be,
ev idence, and then the ev idence itself will often
tell you what role it will play in your case.
CONDITIONS RELATED TO THE CRIME
 Although they may not be counted as ev idence,
certain circumstances may help you determine
the nature of the crime, the time of day, and
perhaps something personal about the
perpetrator, such as taste in food or preferences
in radio or telev ision shows. Here are some of the
things you should be aware of while conducting
your search.
1. Discarded candy and gum wrappers, cigarette
and cigar butts or ashes, sales slips and receipts
that might hav e fallen out of the perpetrator’s
pockets during the crime.
2. Doors that are locked or unlocked, which are
different than how the occupant left them
before the crime.
3. Is there ev idence of damage or destruction of
the door or the lock that would indicate a
forcible entry?
4. If doors or windows were damaged, was the
damage done from the inside or the outside? This
may indicate whether it is a point of exit or entry.
5. Was entry made with use of a key? Follow -up
inv estigators will find out who had keys.
6. Is there ev idence that a lock was picked, as
indicated by metal shav ings and broken pieces
of a lock pick?
7. Are there small pieces of metal on the premises,
possibly from a tool that the perpetrator took
away from the scene?
8. Are the windows open or closed? Is the weather
outside consistent with this? On a cold day, and
usually at night for security reasons, the windows
are closed and locked by the occupants.
9. Are the shades or drapes open or closed? Their
position may indicate that the people inside like
dark interiors during the daytime or that it was
nighttime and the window coverings were closed
for priv acy. Some nudists and other people who
are allergic to sunlight keep their windows
cov ered day and night. Some burglars close the
blinds and shades so that they may work where
people outside cannot see them.
10. If a window or door has been broken and the
debris on the sill and surrounding area is
undisturbed, you may surmise that nobody could
hav e gone through that opening without cutting
himself or herself and/or disturbing the debris,
11. Are the lights on or off? Which lights may indicate
whether a person went into the kitchen or used
the bathroom? The status of the lights may also
giv e you a clue as to whether the crime was
committed during the day or night.
12. Specific lighting during any time of the day might
indicate what the victim was doing at the time of
the day might indicate what the v ictim was
doing at the v ictim was doing at the time of the
crime, such as working at a desk with the desk
light on. This also might indicate that a thief might
hav e turned on a desk light to see better when
riffling through a desk drawers. Something like this
might indicate that the perpetrator knew the
 location of his or her objectiv e, which might point
suspicion toward someone familiar with the
premises.
13. What is the status of the heating and air
conditioning? Some systems arc designed to
keep the ambient temperature constant.
Alternating heat and air, hut most are set at one
position or the other. Air conditioning on at full
blast might indicate that the occupants last
touched the controls during the heat of the day,
or at night. Some burglars like to work in comfort
and may set the controls themselv es.
14. How about the food preparation areas in the
kitchen? What meal was the last one eaten or
prepared by the occupants? Are the dishes and
cups left in the same condition as they were seen
last by the v ictims? Perhaps the perpetrator(s)
had a bite to cat to sustain themselv es during
their exploits. Check the kitchen sink and
dishwasher for their contents to see if you get any
hints about the modus operandi or identity of the
culprits.
15. Is there an indication that perhaps guests were
expected or had arriv ed, and were the guests
possibly inv olv ed in the crime? Do the number of
place settings equal the number of residents?
This is especially important information to hav e if
the residents hav e been murdered.
16. Can you detect any identifiable odors, such as
perfumes, tobacco smoke, or medications, such
as mentholated chest rub, and other substances
that are foreign to this particular place of
business or residence?
17. Check the sinks in the kitchen, bathrooms, and
laundry room if you hav e a blood-related crime,
such as a homicide or assault. Sometimes the
assailant might attempt to wash blood off of
tools or weapons. Ev en though the sink may
appear to be clean, the elbow -shaped trap
beneath the sink may contain v aluable
ev idence because the perpetrator did not let
the water run long enough to clear the pipes.
18. A toilet that has not been flushed completely
may yield such ev idence as cigarette butts or
human waste deposited by the perpetrator,
which may lead to determination of blood type
or DNA of the perpetrator.
19. What is the condition of the bedding in the
bedrooms? In sexual attack cases, you will
collect all bedding to search for the presence of
body fluids, hairs and fibers, and other ev idence
to substantiate the charges.
20. What is the state of dress or undress of the v ictims
of assault or homicide v ictims? A rape suspect,
for example, may claim that the sex was
consensual, while the torn clothing of the v ictim
may prov e that extreme force was used.
21. Look at clocks and watches around the
premises, and on those worn by the v ictims and
suspects. A wall plug may hav e been pulled
loose during the commission of a crime, or the
time showing on a watch worn by a witness may
be incorrect, and statements made may be
crucially connected to his or her reference to the
time on that watch or clock.
22. The “star 69” feature on a telephone will possibly
call the phone number of the last party who
called the residence or business where the crime
occurred. Or you may choose to press the
“redial” button to find out if the intruder made at
least one phone call while on the premises and
to whom that call was made.
23. If a cellular phone or pager was stolen in the
crime, call the number of that unit and find out if
anyone answers. Lost units are also found that
way by calling the number and hearing the ring
or buzz and leading you to its location. A car
theft v ictim called the cell phone in his car. The
person who answered was a friend waiting for
the car thief tç get out of class. A brief
conv ersation led the v ictim and the local police
to a high school in another city, where the car
thief was arrested and the car recov ered without
damage.
24. Small areas, such as stairways, foyers, and
hallways, may rev eal items that hav e dropped
out of an intruder’s pockets. Have you sometimes
taken your car keys out of your pocket and
Compendium of Crime Detection and Investigation (CDI)
accidentally also remov ed coins or some other
items at the same time?
25. Was the place ransacked by a person who was
looking for anything of v alue, or did the intruder
know exactly what he or she was looking for? This
may identify the culprit as a member or friend of
the family instead of a stranger.
26. If you hav e one, ask your tour guide through the
crime scene if there is anything at all out of the
ordinary supporting our theory of transference.
Marking of Latent Fingerprint Evidence
• All such ev idence should be marked in some
distinctiv e manner, such as is the case with any
other type of physical ev idence. Precautions
should be taken, when marking ev idence, not to
damage or destroy potential latent fingerprints.
• Lifted, dev eloped latents should also be marked
or sealed in marked env elopes.
• Photograph-developed latents with and without
identifying markings and scale.
Preservation of Fingerprint Evidence
• The primary precaution in all cases is the
prev ention of adding fingerprints to ev idence, or
of destroying those already present.
• Most fingerprints submitted will be on paper,
glass, metal, or other smooth surfaced objects.
When articles containing latents must be picked
up, touch as little as possible, and then only in
areas least likely to contain identifiable latents,
such as rough surfaces.
• While glov es or handkerchiefs may be used to
pick up such exhibits, any unnecessary contact
should be av oided. Although using a cloth to
pick up exhibits prevents leaving additional prints
on the articles, the cloth will frequently wipe off
or smear any prints originally present, unless great
care is taken.
• Large articles containing latent such as glass,
metal articles, and firearms should be placed on
wood or heav y cardboard and fastened down
with string to prev ent shifting and contact with
other objects in transit. Where such ev idence is to
be examined frequently, a pegboard should be
obtained on which wooden pegs can be moved
as desired to support exhibits and keep them
from mov ing. Bottles and glasses may be placed
v ertically on a board and placed in the bottom
of a box. The base of the bottle or glass can be
surrounded with nails to hold it in place, and the
top can be either inserted through a hole in a
piece of cardboard or held in position with a
wooden board nailed to the container's lid.
• Papers and documents containing latent prints
should be placed individually in a cellophane or
manila env elope. Such a container can be
sandwiched between two sheets of stiff
cardboard, wrapped, and placed in a box for
mailing.
Firearms Evidence
• Nev er submit a loaded gun to the Laboratory,
unless it is deliv ered in person. Unfired cartridges
may be left in the magazine of a weapon,
prov ided the magazine is remov ed from the gun.
A firearm with the cartridge in the chamber
should nev er be shipped by any method, ev en if
the weapon is not cocked or on safety.
• Nev er clean the bore, chamber, or cylinder
before submitting a firearm, and nev er attempt
to fire the gun before it is examined in the
Laboratory.
• Nev er pick up a weapon by placing a pencil or
other object in the end of the barrel.
• Record serial number, make, model, and caliber
of the weapon, and mark it in some
inconspicuous manner that does not detract
from its v alue before sending it to the Laboratory.
Marking firearms is important since duplicate
serial numbers are sometimes found on different
guns of the same make and general type. Do
not confuse model numbers or patent numbers
with serial numbers.
• Place weapons in strong cardboard or wooden
boxes, well packed, to prevent shifting of guns in
transit.
• Rifles or shotguns should not be taken apart.
 • If blood or any other material, which may pertain
to an inv estigation is present on the gun, place a
clean paper around the gun and seal it with
tape to prev ent mov ement of the gun and loss
of the sample during shipment.
• If the gun is to be examined for latent fingerprints,
use appropriate procedures .
Blood Stains Evidence
• Blood that is in liquid pools should be picked up
on a gauze pad or other clean sterile cotton
cloth and allowed to air dry thoroughly, at room
temperature. It should be refrigerated or frozen
as soon as possible and brought to the
Laboratory as quickly as possible. Delays beyond
48 hours may make the samples useless.
• If close to the Laboratory, deliv er stained object
immediately.
• If unable to deliv er to the Laboratory, or if the
object must be mailed, allow the stain to air dry
completely before packaging.
• Do not heat stained material or place it in bright
sunlight to dry. Hang clothing and similar articles
in a room where there is adequate v entilation.
• If not completely dry, label and roll in paper or
place in a brown paper bag or box and seal and
label container. Place only one item in each
container. Do not use plastic containers.
Dried Blood Stains
• On clothing, if possible, wrap the item in clean
paper, place the article in a brown paper bag or
box and seal and label container. Do not
attempt to remov e stains from the cloth.
• On small solid objects, send the whole stained
object to the Laboratory, after labeling and
packaging.
• On large solid objects, cov er the stained area
with clean paper and seal the edges down with
tape to prev ent loss or contamination. If
impractical to deliv er the whole object to the
Laboratory, scrape the stain onto a clean piece
of paper, which can be folded and placed in an
env elope. Do not scrape directly into ev idence
env elope. Scrape blood from objects using a
freshly washed and dried knife or similar tool.
Wash and dry the tool before each stain is
scraped off. Seal and mark the env elope.
• Do not mix dried stains. Place each stain in a
separate env elope.
• Nev er attempt to wipe dried stains from an
object using a moistened cloth or paper.
Standard Blood Specimens
 Autopsy Blood Samples
Request that pathologist obtain the sample
directly from the heart into a yellow (ACD) or
purple stoppered vacutainer (some labs request
both). In rare cases when no liquid blood is
av ailable, ask pathologist to collect a section of
liv er, bone, and/or deep muscle tissue and
freeze for typing. In such cases, proceed also
with collection of a secondary standard as
described below.
Blood Samples From Live Individuals
 For typing purposes, hav e sample drawn into
yellow and purple stoppered v acutainers. Note
these are distinguished from the BA tubes which
hav e grey stoppers.
 If the v ictim is injured to the extent that a
transfusion is necessary, make an effort to obtain
or begin necessary procedures to obtain the pre-
transfusion sample collected by the hospital.
These samples are not retained for long periods
by the hospital, so it is important to act promptly.
Also, make sure that some bloodstained garment
worn by the indiv idual has been air dried and
frozen to serv e as a secondary standard.
Handling and Storage of Physiological Fluid Evidence
Liquids (generally standards)
Blood
Compendium of Crime Detection and Investigation (CDI)
 Refrigerate, do not freeze standards collected in
yellow stoppered v acutainers.
 Submit to the lab as soon as possible.
o Saliv a
 Collect on a sterile gauze pad or swabs, allow to
air dry and package in paper. Do not use plastic
containers.
Seminal Stains
• Seminal stains are often, but not always, found on
clothing, blankets, sheets. Allow any stains to air dry,
wrap in paper, and package ev idence in paper
bags. Do not use plastic bags.
• For sex offense cases, the v ictim should always be
examined by a physician or medico-legal officer. A
Sexual Assault Ev idence Collection Kit is used to
collect ev idence from the v ictim. It is v ery important
that the instructions on the kit be followed with care in
order to gain the greatest benefit from the collected
ev idence.
• Label all garments such as undershorts, panties, or
other exhibits and package each garment
separately.
• If damp, allow fabric to dry completely before
packaging.
• Handle fabrics as little as possible.
Hair
• An examination of human hair can occasionally
rev eal the possible race of the indiv idual from whom it
came and the part of the body from which it
originated.
• Human hair can be compared to determine whether
or not two samples could have had a common origin.
The v alue of the Laboratory examinations of such
specimens will depend upon the amount of hair
recov ered and the characteristics found in the
examinations.
• Recov er all hair present. If possible, use the fingers or
tweezers to pick up hair, place in paper bindles or
coin env elopes which should then be folded and
sealed in larger env elopes. Label the outer sealed
env elope.
• If hair is attached, such as in dry blood, or caught in
metal or a crack of glass, do not attempt to remov e it
but rather leav e hair intact on the object. If the
object is small, mark it, wrap it, and seal it in an
env elope. If the object is large, wrap the area
containing the hair in paper to prev ent loss of hairs
during shipment.
In rape cases, the v ictim's pubic region should be combed
prior to collecting standards. Obtain known hair samples
from the v ictim, suspect, or any other possible sources for
comparison with unknown specimens. The recommended
method for collecting head hairs is to start by hav ing the
person from whom they are being collected bend ov er a
large sheet of clean paper, rubbing or massaging their
hands through the hair so that loose hair will fall out on the
paper. More should then be gathered by plucking them
from representativ e areas all ov er the head. A total or 50-
100 hairs is desired. Do not cut the hair. This same method
may be used to collect hairs from other parts of the body.
30-60 pubic hairs are required. When the person is a
suspect, hair should be gathered from all parts of the body
ev en though there may only be an interest in hair from the
head at that particular time.
Recovery of Evidence Samples
• Shoes and clothing of suspects or other objects
contaminated with glass should be wrapped in paper
and submitted to the Laboratory for examination.
• All glass found at hit-and-run scenes should be
recov ered. The search should not be limited to the
point of impact, since headlight glass may be
dropped off at some distance away as the car leaves
the crime scene. Glass from different locations should
be kept in different containers. All glass should be
collected because more than one type may be
present. In addition, if just a few representativ e
samples are sav ed, indiv idual pieces that could be
physically matched with glass remaining in the
headlight shell of the suspected v ehicle may be
ov erlooked.
• Place small glass fragments in paper bindles, then in
coin env elopes, pill boxes, or film cans which can be
marked and completely sealed.
• Place large glass fragments in boxes. Separate
indiv idual pieces with cotton or tissue to prev ent
breakage and damaged edges during shipment.
Seal and mark the box containing them.
Standards for Comparison
• Windows: If the broken window is small, send the
whole window or all glass remaining to the
Laboratory. If the window is large, recov er sev eral
samples from different areas of the window. If the
ev idence glass is large enough for physically
matching the broken edges or comparing the
fracture lines, hackle marks, surface abrasions or
contamination, the whole broken window is
necessary.
• Auto Glass - Auto Headlights: All glass remaining in the
shell should be recov ered. If it is suspected that a new
glass has been installed, this should be remov ed and
a careful examination made for small chips remaining
in the shell from the prev ious lens which is broken. In
such cases, also submit the new lens to the
Laboratory.
• Other Glass: When bottles or other glass objects are
broken, recov er all remaining glass.
Headlights and Taillights of Motor Vehicles
• As part of the inv estigation of v ehicle accidents, it
may be of importance to determine whether or not a
headlight or taillight was illuminated at the time the
light was broken.
• Recov ery of the filaments is of primary importance.
These are quite small and their location may require a
careful search. If recov ered, they should be placed in
a paper bindle or a small pill box sealed with tape.
Whether or not the large filaments are located, all
remaining parts of the lamp socket, glass env elope, or
sealed beam headlight unit should be wrapped in
paper and sav ed for Laboratory study.
Fibers and Threads
• Such ev idence is often found in fabric abrasions or
caught in torn materials or other areas on hit-and-run
v ehicles. In some burglary cases, it may be found
caught in torn screens, broken glass, or other
locations
• Examination of fibers can normally be conducted to
determine the type or color of fiber. Such
examinations will sometimes indicate the type of
garment or fabric from which they originated.
• Fibers and threads can also be compared with
suspects clothing to determine whether or not they
could hav e come from this clothing.
• If threads or large fibers are found, they can often be
picked up with the fingers and placed in a paper
bindle, then in a coin env elope, which can be sealed
and marked. Nev er place loose fibers directly into a
mailing env elope since they can be lost from this type
of env elope.
• If the fibers are short or few in number, and if it is
possible to do so, wrap the area or the entire item
containing the fibers in paper and send the whole
exhibit to the Laboratory.
• Pick up fibers on tape only if the laboratory in your
jurisdiction allows it and giv es you its requirements.
When fibers or threads are recov ered, always send all
clothing of persons from which they might hav e
originated to the Laboratory for comparison purposes.
• In sex offenses, assaults, and some other cases, it may
be possible to indicate or demonstrate contact
between two indiv iduals or between one other
indiv idual and some other object, such as a car seat,
by comparing fibers. Such examinations are only of
v alue when it is known no contact occurred between
the two indiv iduals or an indiv idual and some other
object prior to, or subsequent to, the offense. Extra
care must be taken to keep each article of clothing
of each indiv idual or other object separated. Each
garment should be-laid on a clean sheet of paper,
and separately rolled up in the paper after marking
the exhibit. If the clothing of one subject touches the
clothing of another, or if it is laid down on the table of
placed on the car seat contacted by the clothing of
the other suspect, the comparisons may be of no
v alue.
Proper documentation of crime scene investigation and
techniques involving special cases;
SEAL
Compendium of Crime Detection and Investigation (CDI)
To maintain integrity of the specimen; to further prov e that
no tampering took placed.
“MARKINGS” on the specimen
These are information to ensure that the items can be
identified by the collector at any time in the future.
This precaution will help immeasurably to established the
credibility of the collector’s report or testimony and will
effectiv ely avoid any suggestions that the item has been
misidentified.
Markings on Evidence during the collection
Markings on the specimen must at least contain the
following:
A. Exhibits and/or SOCO Case # (for SOCO
personnel)
B. Initials and or signature of the collecting officer.
C. Time and date of collection.
It is also important to note the place or location where the
ev idence was collected.
Note: ENCIRCLING THE STAIN WITH A MARKER OR INK MUST
BE DONE ONLY WHEN:
a. To indicate a particular stain to be examined.
b. There is a suspicion for a possibility that the stain
will further fade through time.
c. The stain is not prominent or hardly v isible to the
naked eye.
d. In rape cases, bed sheets, blankets, pillows,
couch cov ers, etc.. Are just some sample of
materials where seminal stains are commonly
found.
This type of stains is unstable and fades through time.
ENCIRCLING THE STAIN IS RECOMMENDED
Labeling through Tagging
A. Tagging could be applied to mov able objects
such as this knife where placing markings on any
of its surfaces is not possible.
B. The tag must contain the markings and other
information about the specimen.
C. It is adv isable to place same markings such as
exhibit and initials on a secured portion of the
specimen for the following reasons:
a. The possibility for the tag to be
dislodged or remov ed due to loose
tagging or incautious transport of the
specimen;
b. To further intensify identification of the
specimen if ev er the need arises (e.g.
court of law/proceedings)
Physical Evidence - These are the articles and materials
which re found in connection with the inv estigation and
aid in establishing the identity of the suspect.
What are the procedures needed for the care of physical
evidence?
A. In order to introduce physical ev idence in court,
three important factors must be considered:
B. The article must be properly identified
C. Chain of custody must be prov ed
D. The ev idence must be material and relev ant
What is chain of custody?
 It is the number of persons who handle the
ev idence between the time of the commission of
the offense and the ultimate disposition of the
case and should be kept to minimum.
Methods and techniques in identifying deceased victims,
person, etc;
Establishing Death
• The first essential step of the homicide
inv estigation is to establish that the v ictim is,
indeed, dead. Police officers do not hav e the
legal authority to pronounce death, only
physicians/ medical doctor can establish the
fact of death. For this reason, the police officer
should nev er assume death unless the condition
of the v ictim’s body demonstrates death in a
totally obv ious manner.
Identifying the Cadaver
• Establishing the identity of the v ictim is important,
it will prov ide tracing clues to the motiv e and
identity of the perpetrator, with the identity
known, the inv estigator can focus attention on
the v ictim’s background and establish a possible
motiv e through such information.
• If fingerprint identification is unsuccessful, the
inv estigator must rely on other methods to
establish identity. Dental structures are highly
resistant to destruction, and are frequently useful
when the other portions of the body are totally
decomposed.
• (Forensic Odontology). The skeletal remains of
the v ictim may also help to determine identity, as
well as yield other types of information. If bone
fractures are noted, they may be used to identify
the deceased, but if only corresponding medical
records can be located.
• The widths of the pelv ic bones are excellent
indicators of the v ictim’s sex; Determination of
the v ictims age maybe more difficult, in that the
v ictims past the age of eighteen years hav e
generally achiev ed their maximum skeletal
growth. Howev er, general age determination
can be established v ia dental structure.
Law of Multiplicity of Evidence - The greater the number of
points of similarities and dissimilarities of two persons
compared, the greater is the probability for the conclusion
to be correct.
Determination of time of death - A determination of the
time of death should be attempted in all homicide
inv estigations. This fact is significant because of its
inv estigativ e importance in corroborating or disputing
alibis, or in establishing the v ictim’s mov ements prior to
death. Determining death is not an exact science.
Post- mortem changes
• Livor Mortis (Discoloration of the body; Setting of
blood in the dependent regions following death)
It is a reddish purple to purple coloration in dependent
areas of the body due to accumulation of blood in the
small v essels of the dependent areas secondary to grav ity.
This pooling of blood begins immediately after death and
becomes fixed in approximately 8- 12 hours.
• The inv estigator can press on the skin in the
dependent regions and if the skin blanches,
death has probably occurred less than 12 hours.
This becomes fixed after while and can tell if the
body has been mov ed. This is not a reliable
indicator of time of death. This is a better
indicator of whether the body has been mov ed
since death.
The color of liv idity may indicate the cause of death
• Carbon monoxide poisoning/ cyanide- cherry
red to pinkish color
• Asphyxia- dark liv idity
• Phosphorus poisoning- dark brown
Types of Lividity
• Hypostatic. Blood is still in fluid form inside blood
v essel; Change as position of the body change.
Blood remains fluid in the blood v essel for 6- 8
hours
• Diffusion. Coagulated inside blood v essel;
Change in position will change its location.
Rigor Mortis (Stiffening of the body)
• Chemical reaction that causes rigidity in the
muscle groups or stiffening of the body after
death due to the disappearance of Adenosine
Triphosphat e (ATP) from the muscle.
• Rigor mortis disappears with decomposition
• Cold and/ or freezing will delay the onset of rigor
mortis as well as prolong its presence
• Inv olv es all muscles the same time at the same
rate. It appears first in the smaller muscles such as
the jaw and then gradually spread to upper and
lower extremities.
Instantaneous rigidity can also be found following
ingestion of cyanide and strychnine poison.
Compendium of Crime Detection and Investigation (CDI)
Algor mortis (Cooling of the body) - The body cools
following death at approximately 1.5 degrees F per hour,
under normal conditions and assuming the body’s
temperature at death is 98.6 degrees F (37 degrees C).
Factors affecting algor mortis
1. illness
2. clothes
3. obesity
4. room temperature
Examination of the Cadaver at the crime scene
• External post mortem appearances are v ery
informativ e. The areas of the body showing
liv idity indicate the position after death. Wounds
and their appearance are particularly significant
as they often assist in reconstructing the
circumstances of a crime, the nature of the
murder weapon and the manner of its use.
• Defense wounds are the result of a person’s
instinctiv e reaction of self-protection. It may be
found on the hand in the effort of the v ictim to
grasp the wounding instrument or by raising the
hand to protect the v ital parts of the body.
Absence of defense wound does not eliminate
the possibility that the v ictim made some form of
defense.
Other external violence Marks
1. Contusion - an injury in the substance of the skin,
discoloration of the surface due to extrav esation
of blood. This is due to the application of a blunt
instrument.
2. Hematoma- this is the extrav esation of blood in
the newly formed cav ity.
3. Incised Wound- produced by forcible contact on
the body by sharp edge instrument.
4. Stab wound- produced by the forcible
application and penetration of a sharp
instrument.
5. Punctured wound- penetration of a sharp
pointed weapon
6. lacerated wound- tearing of the skin due to
forcible contact of a blunt instrument.
INCISED WOUNDS
• SUICIDE:
• “The hallmark of self-infliction is repetition.”
• Usually grouped incisions, parallel
• Usual site: throat and wrist.
• “trial or tentativ e cuts”
• Homicidal cut throat is dev oid of tentativ e cuts
and is sev ere.
• Homicidal cut throat can be multiple and
irregular.
• In suicidal cut throat, left side of the neck has
more deep incision.
• Suicidal stabbing does not inv olv es the clothing.
HANGING, STRANGLING AND SUFFOCATION
• Hanging is almost always suicidal.
• Self manual strangulation is impossible.
• Strangulation by ligature.
• Horizontal v s. diagonal marks on the neck.
• Chemical asphyxia.
• Choking is almost always accident
Two types of gunshot wounds:
1. entrance wound (POE)
2. exit wound (POX)
Determination whether the wound is suicidal, homicidal or
accidental
SUICIDE or HOMICIDE:
1. GSW is arm’s reach
2. Weapon should be present
3. Usually the mouth, temple, anterior neck chest.
4. Not in the eye, abdomen or back
5. Woman rarely use gun.
6. Multiple GSW suggest homicide.
Evidence to prove that gunshot wound is suicidal
The fire is usually contact or near contact, as
shown by the presence of burning, singeing and
tattooing of the area around the gunshot
wound.
• The presence of usually but one gunshot wound.
In most cases, after a shot, especially at the
 head, the v ictim can no longer v oluntarily act to
inflict another shot.
Portions of the body inv olv ed are those
accessible to the hand of the v ictim utilized in
committing suicide, he will not think of the
difficult way of ending his life unless he has the
intention of deceiv ing the inv estigators
History of despondency, family problem which
may cause him to commit suicide
Evidence to show that the wound is accidental
1. Usually there is but one shot.
2. There is no special area of the body inv olv ed
3. Testimony of the witnesses
Evidence to show that the wound is homicidal
1. The site or sites of the wound of entrance has no
point of election.
2. The fire is made when the v ictim is usually some
distance away from the assailant
3. Signs of struggle/ defense wound maybe present
in the v ictim
4. There maybe disturbance of the surrounding on
the account of the prev ious struggle.
5. Wounding firearm is usually not found at the
scene of the crime.
6. Testimony of the witnesses.
Collection, handling, and preservation of physical
evidence on special or high profile cases.
MORE ON COLLECTION, HANDLING AND
PRESERVATION OF EVIDENCE
 Sources of physical ev idence in the crime scene
and any traces may lead to the identity of the
perpetrator of a crime. For purposes of
understanding, physical ev idence is any solid,
semisolid, or liquid substances (no matter how
microscopic in nature) connected in the
commission of a crime, which may help
determine the facts/truth. It establishes a case for
or against a suspect by way of leads, clues or
ev idence itself. It may confirm statements of
witnesses or deny false testimony.
 Collection, handling and preserv ation of
ev idences may require expert processing or
require scientific examination by laboratory
technicians. Therefore, ev idence collection,
markings for identification, packaging,
transporting for safe storage or for laboratory
examination ‘and preserv ation should be
carefully done after such ev idences hav e been
located, recognized and recorded through a
systematic search. Carelessness or mishandling
may ruin ev identiary v alue.
possible relationships should be packaged in
separate containers to prev ent any cross-
contamination.
11. Ev idences should be turned ov er to (he
ev idence custodian after it has been properly
processed. Ev idences turned ov er should be
cov ered by officially approv ed receipts and
signed by the receiv ing ev idence custodian
indicating time and date when receiv ed and
from whom. This is also important for purposes of
accountability and responsibility especially in
cases where problems of loss, substitution, or
alteration of the ev idence(s) may arise.
12. In packaging physical ev idences, the
appropriate tools needed should he used such
as scissors, sealing tape, forceps, rubber glov es,
pentel pens, pen and similar instruments.
Containers usually used are plastic
env elopes/bags, plastic or non plastic bottles
(transparent or non transparent) wrapping
papers, ev idence boxes, etc.
13. Blood and similar substances should be stored in
a refrigerator. Stain on clothing should be
wrapped separately, appropriately marked and
packaged. Documentary evidences should not
be folded and should be placed in env elopes
as appropriate. For fibers, hair and other similar
small items, this can be placed in objects with
stains; this should be placed in containers taking
care that no other substance may contaminate
the ev idence and brought to crime laboratory
for analysis immediately. Food, fluids and other
similar substances should be placed separately
in moisture proof containers like bottles properly
sealed. All other ev idences are collected and
preserv ed as appropriate depending on its
nature or condition and ev identiary v alue.
14. In the transport of ev idences where distance is
the problem, it should be shipped through
insured parcel post or registered mail as the
case maybe.

Depending on what crime was committed, the collection,

handling and preservation of evidences must be carefully
and systematically done observing certain guidelines.
1. Ev idence containers should be on hand.
2. Conduct proper search to locate ev idences.
3. Where more officers are needed to conduct
search, they should be assigned specific areas
with proper instructions to follow.
4. Take photos of ev idences found.
5. Record location and description of ev idences
found.
6. Sketch crime scene indicating location of
ev idences when found.
7. All ev idences collected should be placed in
containers made for the purpose like boxes,
env elopes, plastic bags etc. and sealed.
8. Identify ev idences with appropriate markings by
writing complete description of the ev idence,
date/time collected, where collected,
nature/condition of ev idence and the name of
officer who discov ered and collected the
ev idence.
9. Inv estigator, for purposes of identifying
ev idences, should place the evidence itself or in
its container where appropriate. He should
howev er take care not to obliterate, alter
originality or contaminate ev idence(s).
10. In packaging ev idence(s), it should be done in
such a way that there will be no breakage, loss,
or contamination during handling or in transit.
Ev idences that need comparison analysis for

Compendium of Crime Detection and Investigation (CDI)

 DRUGS AND VICE CONTROL
DRUGS - Any chemically activ e substance rendering a
specific effect on the central nerv ous system of man.
o A chemical substance that affects the processes
of the mind and body
o It can either be natural and synthetic/artificial.
DRUG ABUSE
o Deliberate use of medically useful drugs which
hav e the capacity to alter mood and behav ior
without the benefit of a prescription.
o It refers to the use of a medically useful mood-
altering drug for a purpose different from the one
for which the drug has been indicated.
o It refers to the use of a drug with such frequency
that it causes physical or mental harm to the user
or impairs social functioning.
DRUG DOSAGE
o A dose of a drug is the amount taken at one
time.
o The doses taken become an extremely
important part of drug abuse.
o The most common drug in a dose can be
described as:
 Minimal dose – the amount
needed to treat or heal, that is,
the smallest amount of drug
that will produce a therapeutic
effect.
 Maximal dose – the largest
amount of a drug that will
produce a desired therapeutic
effect without any
accompanying symptoms of
toxicity.
 Toxic Dose – the amount of
drug that produces untoward
effect or symptoms of
poisoning.
 Abusive dose – the amount
needed to produce the side
effects and action desired by
an indiv idual who improperly
uses it.
 Lethal dose – the amount of
drug that will cause death.
DRUG DEPENDENCE
o Also called as DRUG ADDICTION.
o The users continue to take a drug ov er an
extended period of time.
o The users find it difficult to stop using the drug.
o The users stop taking their drug – only if their
supply of the drug is cut off, or if they are forced
to quit for any reason – they will undergo painful
physical or mental distress. (Withdrawal
Syndrome)
o Drug dependence may lead to drug abuse –
especially the illegal drugs
TYPES OF DRUG DEPENDENCE
A. PHYSICAL DEPENDENCE - can only be discernible
when drug intake is decreased or stopped and
an inv oluntary illness called the withdrawal
syndrome occurs.
o Tolerance
- Occurs when the body
becomes accustomed to a
drug as the drug is repeatedly
taken in the same dose.
- It now requires ev er- increasing
larger doses to achiev e the
same desired effect.
o Addiction - Sev ere crav ing for the drug
ev en to the point of interfering with the
person’s ability to function normally.
B. PSYCHOLOGICAL DEPENDENCE - Exhibited when
a user relies on a drug to achiev e a feeling of
well- being.
o Habituation
- Characterized by continuous
desire for a drug.
- A person believ es that the drug
is needed to function at work or
home because drugs often
Compendium of Crime Detection and Investigation (CDI)
produce an elated/ excited
emotional state.
CLASSIFICATIONS OF DRUG ABUSERS
A. Situational Users
o Those who use drugs to keep them
awake or for additional energy to
perform an important work.
o Indiv idual may or may not exhibit
psychological dependence.
B. Spree Users
o School age users who take drugs for
“kicks’, an adv enturous daring
experience, or as a means of fun.
o There may be some degree of
psychological dependence but little
physical dependence due to the mixed
pattern of use.
C. Hard Core Addicts
o Those, whose activ ities rev olv e almost
entirely around the drug experience
and securing supplies.
o They show strong psychological
dependence on the drug.
D. Hippies - Those who are addicted to drugs
believ ing that drug is an integral part of life.
ROUTES OF DRUG ADMINISTRATION
A. ORAL INGESTION - The drugs is taken by the
mouth and must pass through the stomach
before being absorbed into the bloodstream, the
one of the most common ways taking a drug.
B. INHALATION - Drug in gaseous form enter the
lungs and are quickly absorbed by the rich
capillary system, it is probably the second most
commonly used route of drug administration.
C. INJECTION - The drug can be administered into
the body by the use of syringe and hypodermic
needle in the following ways.
o Subcutaneous (SC) - Drug is
administered by injecting the drug just
below the surface of the skin; this is
sometimes called “skin popping.”
o Intramuscular (IM) - Administration
inv olv es the injection of a drug into a
large muscle mass that has a good
blood supply, such as the gluteus
maximus, quadriceps, or triceps.
o Intravenous (IV) - The most efficient
means of administration which inv olv es
depositing drug directly into the
bloodstream, this is also the most rapid
method of drug administration.
D. SNORTING - Inhalation through the nose of drugs
not in gaseous form, it is sometimes inhaling a
powder or liquid drug into the nose coats of the
mucous membrane.
E. BUCCAL - The drug is administered by placing
them in the buccal cavity just under the lips and
the activ e ingredients of the drug will be
absorbed into the bloodstream through the soft
tissues lining of the mouth.
F. SUPPOSITORIES - The drug is administered through
the v agina or rectum in suppository form and the
drug will also be absorbed into the bloodstream.
REASONS WHY PEOPLE TURN TO DRUG ABUSE
A. POVERTY
o This is the most prev alent factor that prompt
pushers and abusers alike to indulge in
dangerous drugs.
o Pushers were forced by the circumstances
to the retailing of prohibited drugs as a
meant or source of liv elihood.
o Many abusers use dangerous drugs as a
v ehicle to escape the realities of pov erty
and its related problems.
B. IGNORANCE - Lack of knowledge and
information about how dangerous drugs look like,
their bad effects, legal ramifications or
consequences and other aspects of prohibited
drugs
C. PARENTAL INFLUENCES
o Unhappy home, parents showing little or no
interest in their children, Abuses committed
 by parents such as harsh physical
punishments
o Lack of parental v alues; parents who are
permissiv e and liberal; parental neglect;
domestic v iolence; role modeling.
D. PEER INFLUENCES - Drug using friends encourage,
pressure ev en, a youth to experiment with drugs.
E. PERSONALITY FACTORS
o Curiosity or the desire to experience a new
state of consciousness
o Escape from physical and mental pain, relief
from boredom and frustration, and desire to
escape from harsh realities
o Unable to conform to social standards; weak
personality or low sense of self-esteem.
DRUG TRAFFICKING
o Otherwise known as DRUG TRADE
o Generally refers to the sale and distribution of
illegal drugs
o It refers to the illegal process through
which narcotics and other illegal drugs
are produced, transported, and sold.
o Drug Trafficking is the illegal cultiv ation, culture,
deliv ery, administration, dispensation,
manufacture, sale, trading, transportation,
distribution, importation, exportation and
possession of any dangerous drug and/or
controlled precursor and essential chemical.
A. First Important Drug Traffic Route
 Middle East – discov ery, plantation, cultiv ation,
harv est
 Turkey - preparation for distribution
 Europe - manufacture, synthesis, refine
 USA – marketing
B. Second Major Drug Traffic Route
 Drugs that originates from the Golden Triangle
Burma/ Myanmar
Laos Thailand
In Southeast Asia the “Golden Triangle” approximately
produced 60% of opium in the world, 90% of opium in the
eastern part of Asia. It is also the officially acknowledged
source of Southeast Asian Heroin.
 Drugs that originates from the Golden Crescent
 Iran
 Afghanistan
 Pakistan
 India
In Southwest Asia the “Golden Crescent is the major
supplier of Opium poppy, Marijuana and Heroin products
in the western part of Asia. It produces at least 85% to 90%
of all illicit heroin channeled in the drug underworld
market.
 Drugs that originates from the Silver Triangle
 Peru
 Columbia
 Boliv ia
THE WORLD’S DRUG SCENE
A. Middle East
 The Becka Valley of Lebanon is considered to be
the biggest producer of Cannabis in the Middle
East.
 Lebanon is also became the transit country for
cocaine from South America to European illicit
drug markets.
B. Spain - This is known as the major transshipment point
from international drug traffickers in Europe and became
“the paradise of drug users in Europe.
Compendium of Crime Detection and Investigation (CDI)
C. South America
o Columbia, Peru, Uruguay, and Chile are the
principal sources of all cocaine supply in the
world due to the robust production of the coca
plants- sources of the cocaine drug.
o Columbia: Coca/Cocaine
D. Mexico - It is known in the world to be the number one
producer of marijuana.
E. Philippines
o The second in Mexico as to the production of
Marijuana.
o It also became the major transshipment point for
the worldwide distribution of illegal drugs
particularly shabu and cocaine from Taiwan and
South America.
o It is noted that Philippines today is known as the
drug paradise of drug abusers in Asia.
F. India - The center of the world’s drug map, leading to
rapid addiction among its people.
G. Indonesia
 Northern Sumatra has traditionally been the main
canabbis growing area in Indonesia.
 Bali Indonesia is an important transit point for
drugs en route to Australia and New Zealand.
H. Singapore, Malaysia and Thailand - The most fav orable
sites of drug distribution from the “Golden Triangle” and
other parts of Asia.
I. China
 The transit route for heroin from the “Golden
Triangle” to Hong Kong.
 It is also the country where the “ephedra” plant is
cultiv ated- source of the drug ephedrine- the
principal chemical for producing the drug shabu.
J. Hong Kong - The world’s transshipment point of all forms
of heroin.
K. Japan - The major consumer of cocaine and shabu
from the United States and Europe.
CONTROLLED SUBSTANCE - The Controlled Substance Act
of 1970 separates drugs that maybe abused into fiv e
Categories (Schedule) based on the use and biological
effects of the drugs.
A. Schedule 1
 Almost all the drugs in this schedule are
illegal.
 All hav e a high potential for dependence
and abuse, and it is illegal to have them in
your possession.
 Ex. Heroin, LSD, Mj
B. Schedule 2
 These drugs are highly addictiv e but, despite the
risk, they remain in medical use because no
satisfactory non-addictive alternativ e medication
is av ailable.
 Ex. Cocaine, AMP, morphine and barbiturates.
C. Schedule 3
 This schedule includes drugs that hav e
some potential for abuse or dependence.
 Ex. Acetaminophen or aspirin with
codeine and some appetite suppressants.
D. Schedule 4
 These drugs are considered less likely to
cause dependence or to be abused as
much as the drugs in Schedule 3.
 Ex. Diazepam, Chloral Hydrate,
Phenobarbital
COMMONLY ABUSED DRUGS - Drugs that are commonly
abused depending on their pharmacological effects may
be classified into:
A. Sedatives - Drugs which reduce anxiety and
excitement such as barbiturates, non-
barbiturates, tranquilizers and alcohol.
 B. Stimulants - Drugs which increase alertness and
activ ity such as amphetamines, cocaine and
caffeine.
C. Hallucinogens/Psychedelics
 Drugs which affect sensation, thinking,
self-awareness and emotion.
 Changes in time and space perception,
delusions (false beliefs) and
hallucinations) may be mild or
ov erwhelming, dispensing on dose and
quality of the drug.
 This includes LSD, mescaline and
marijuana.
D. Narcotics
 Drugs that reliev e pain and often
induce sleep.
 The opiates, which are narcotics,
include opium and drugs deriv ed from
opium, such as morphine, codeine and
heroin.
TYPES OF DANGEROUS DRUGS
A. DEPRESSANTS
 Also known as “downers”, are drugs which act
on and depresses the central nerv ous system
causing initial relaxation leading to drowsiness
and sleep.
 Used of downers results to impairment of
judgment, hearing, speech and muscle
coordination.
 They dull the minds, slow down the body reaction
to such extends those accidental deaths and
suicides usually happen.
SIDE EFFECTS & LONG TERM EFFECTS DEPRESSANTS
 Loss of body control may result to bone fractures
 Impaired blood pressure regulation and balance
control
 Cognitiv e impairment, memory loss and /pseudo-
dementia
 Nocturnal urinary incontinence
 Worsening sleep
 Respiratory problems
 Dependency
 Ov er sedation may lead to death
TYPES OF DEPRESSANTS
A.1 Narcotics
 The term narcotic basically refers to drugs that
produce a depressant effect on the CNS.
 Medically they are potent pain killers, cough
suppressant and active component of anti-
diarrhea preparations.
OPIUM & ITS DERIVATIVES
A.1.1 Opium
 It is deriv ed from the Oriental poppy plant
papaver somniferum.
 Raw opium is dark brown in color and is bitter in
taste.
 Street name: “gum”, “gamot”, “kalamay” or
“panocha”.
A.1.2 Morphine
 It is the most important alkaloids and
constitutes about 10 % of the use raw opium
 Friedrich Serturner, isolated morphine from
opium.
 Street Name; M, DREAMER, EMMA, EMSEL, Pulbos
A.1.3 Heroin
 Most commonly abused narcotic in the world.
 It was discov ered by Alder Wright (1896),
 Most powerful derivatives of Opium, bitterer
and commonly injected.
 Street Name: BLANCO, BROWN, SUGAR,
KABAYO, KENGKOY, GAMUT, MATSAKO,
PULBOS, SAPSAP, TINIK
A.1.4 Codeine
 Also known as Methylmorphine.
Compendium of Crime Detection and Investigation (CDI)
 its effect is weaker in intensity. Cough
preparations.
 Street Name: SCHOOL BOYS
A1.5 Methadone
 A synthetic narcotic used as treatment of heroin
dependence but also fallen to abused.
 Other than methadone, other most commonly
known synthetic opiate substitute are meperidine
 (demerol) and darv on.
A.2 Barbiturates
 are drugs used for inducing sleep in persons
plagued with anxiety, mental stress, and
insomnia.
 Street Name: LILY, BALA, DOWNERS, YELLOW
JACKETS, BLUE HEAVENS
A.3 Seconal - Sudden withdrawal from these drugs is ev en
more dangerous than opiate withdrawal.
A.4 Tranquilizers
 Are drugs that calm and relax and diminish
anxiety?
 They are used in the treatment of nerv ous states
and some mental disorders without producing
sleep.
A.5 Volatile Solvents - Gaseous substances popularly
known to abusers as “gas”, “teardrops”.
A.6 Alcohol
 The king of all drugs with potential for abuse.
 Most widely used, socially accepted and most
extensively legalized drug throughout the world.
B. STIMULANTS
 Also known as “Uppers” Drugs which induce
alertness, wakefulness, elevated mood,
increased speech, mental and motor activity,
relieve fatigue or boredom and decreased
appetite.
 E.g. Shabu, Cocaine, Ecstasy
IMMEDIATE EFFECTS OF STIMULANTS
 Dilated pupils
 Increase in blood pressure / Heart rate /
Breathing rate / Body Temperature
 Involuntary muscle twitching
 Less hunger
 Slurred speech
TYPES OF STIMULANTS
B.1 Cocaine
 The drug taken from the coca bush plant
Ertyroxylon coca understably called “snow” in
the junkie jargon.
 It is one of the strongest short acting stimulants.
 Taken orally, injected or sniffed as to achieve
euphoria or an intense feeling of “highness”.
 Street Name: COKE, CRACK, DUST, HEAVEN’s
DUST, STARDUST, WHITE GIRL, SPEED BALLS
B.2 Amphetamines
 Usually prescribed to reduce appetite and to
relieve minor cases of mental depression.
 This drug is representativ e of a broad class of
stimulants known as “pep pills”.
 Street Name: EYE OPENER, LID POPERS, UPPERS,
HEARTS
B.3 Shabu/ “poor man’s cocaine”
 Chemically known as methamphetamine.
 It is a central nerv ous system stimulant and
sometimes called “upper” or “speed”. It is white,
colorless crystal or crystalline powder with a bitter
numbing taste.
 It can be taken orally, inhaled (snorted), sniffed
(chasing the dragon) or injected.
 It is considered as the most abused stimulants in
the Philippines.
 Street Name: SHASHA. SPEED, SPLASH, UABS, S,
ICE, SHA
B.4 Methylenedioxymethamphetamine - (MDMA) -
“Ecstasy”
  It is a white, yellow or brown in color with a bitter
taste and comes in the form of a tablet, capsule
or powder.
 Its tablet form comes in v arious designs and
shapes hence
 it is dubbed as “designer drugs”.
C. HALLUCINOGENS (PSYCHEDELIC)
 Natural or synthetic psychoactive drugs that
produce reactions such as perceptual alterations
and changes in the state of consciousness.
 They consist of a v ariety of mind-altering drugs,
which distort reality, thinking and perceptions of
time, sound, space and sensation.
IMMEDIATE EFFECTS
 Hallucinations/illusions
 Faster heart beat and pulse rate
 Bloodshot Eye/blurred vision/Rapid Eye
Movement (REM)
 Dry mouth and throat
 Forgetfulness/inability to think
 Altered sense of time/ disorientation
 Impaired reflexes, coordination and
concentration
 Acute panic anxiety reaction
 “Food-trip” & sleepiness (MJ)
C.1 Lysergic Acid Diethylamide (LSD)
 Deriv ed from the fungus claviceps purpurea
which infects wheat.
 It was discov ered by Dr. Albert Hoffman while
working in a Swiss Pharmaceutical company.
 Known on the street as “acid”, it is the best
known and most powerful hallucinogens.
 Street name: XTC, ADAM, ESSENCE, HERBALS, E.
C.2 Mescaline
 Aka STP which stands for serenity- tranquility-
peace- a drug deriv ed from the dried tops of the
peyote cactus, a small cactus nativ e to Mexico.
 Street Name: CACTUS, BUTTONS, BEAN
C.3 Psilocybin
 hallucinogenic compound obtained in
mushroom, psilocybe Mexicana
 Street Name: MAGIC MUSHROOM
C.4 Phencyclidine (PCP)
 considered as a danger and highly dangerous
drug because it can be easily synthesized,
 It is popularly known as angel dust.
C.5 Marijuana (Cannabis Sativa)
 Marijuana is a Mexican term meaning
pleasurable feeling.
 The flowering tops of both male and female
plant produce a sticky resin which contains
Tetrahydrocannabinol or THC.
 Street Name: Mary Jane, MJ, Flower, Pampapogi,
Brownies, Damo, Pot, Joint, Dope
SYMPTOMS OF ABUSE ON THE DANGEROUS DRUGS
A. DEPRESSANTS
 Narcotics
 lethargy, drowsiness
 pupils are constricted and fail to respond to
light
 inhaling heroin in powder form leav es traces of
white powder around nostrils causing redness
 injecting heroin leav es scars, usually on the inner
surface of the arms and elbows although user
may inject drug in the body where needle
marks will not be seen readily
 user often leav es syringes, bent spoons, bottle
caps, eye droppers, cotton and needles in
lockers at school or hidden at home
 user scratches self frequently
 loss of appetite
 sniffles, running nose, red watery eyes, coughing
which disappears when user gets a “fix”
 Barbiturates/Tranquilizers
 symptoms of alcohol intoxication without odor or
alcohol on breath
 staggering or stumbling
 falling asleep unexplainably
 drowsiness, may appear disoriented
Compendium of Crime Detection and Investigation (CDI)
 lack of interest in school and family activ ities
 Volatile Solvents
 odor of substance on breath and clothes
 excessiv e nasal secretions, watering of eyes
 poor muscular control
 increased preference for being with a group
rather than being alone
 plastic or paper bags or rags, containing dry
plastic cement or other solv ent, found at home
or in locker at school or at work
 slurred speech
2. STIMULANTS
 Amphetamines/Cocaine/Speed/Bunnies/Ups
 pupils may be dilated
 mouth and nose dry, bad breath; licks lips
frequently
 goes long periods without eating or sleeping;
nerv ous; has difficulty sitting still
 chain smoking
 if injecting drug, user may hav e hidden eye
droppers and needles among possession
 Shabu
 produces elev ations of mood, heightened
alertness and increased energy
 some indiv iduals may become anxious, irritable
or loquacious
 causes decreased appetite and insomnia
3. HALLUCINOGENS
 Marijuana
 may appear animated with rapid, loud talking
and bursts of laughter
 sleepy or stuporous
 pupils are dilated
 odor(similar to burnt rope) on clothing or breath
 remnants of marijuana, either loose or in partially
smoked “joints” in clothing or possessions
 LSD/STP/DMT/THC
 user usually sits or reclines quietly in a dream or
trance – like state
 user may become fearful and experience a
degree of terror which makes him attempt to
escape from his group
 senses of sight, hearing, touch, body image and
time are distorted
 mood and behav ior are affected, the manner
depending upon emotional and env ironmental
condition of the user
VARIOUS TEST FOR DANGEROUS TEST
A. Physical Tests
 weight / volume
 Appearance: color, texture,
 odor, homogeneity
 pH
 Solubility
 Microscopic
B. Chemical Test
 Marquis Test – Amphetamines
 Simon’s Test – Methamphetamines
 Chen-Kao’s Test- Ephedrine
 Cobalt Thiocyanate Test- Ephedrine
 HNO3 Test- Opium Alkaloids
 Zwikker’s Test- Barbiturates
 FBS Test- Marijuana
 Micro-Diffusion Test- Volatile Substance
C. Field Test for Dangerous Drugs
 Marijuana- Duquenois- Lev ine test (Red)
 Shabu- Symone’s test (purple)
 LSD- Van urk test (Blue purple)
 Opium- Marquis Test (v iolet)
 Amphetamines- Marquis test ( red/ orange)
 Barbiturates- Dilli Koppanyi/ Zwikkers test (v iolet/
blue)
 Cocaine- Cobalt thiocynate (blue)
DRUGS INVESTIGATION PROCESSES
A. Initial Investigation
 Gathered information by personnel and
from other sources – processing
 Use of informants or special agent (counter
surv eillance)
 Casing
 Tests buy
 Entrapment/Poseur buying/buy bust
operation NOT INSTIGATION
PROCEDURES:
 Preparation of needs & known as Dangerous Drug Act of 1972
coordination
 Coordinated instructions
between all members of the
team
 Test buy using marked money
 Pre-arranged signal
 Search Warrant and how it is enforced
 Arrest
B. Investigation Proper – completion of needed
documents for inquest to include crime lab
examination of the confiscated contraband.
C. Filing of investigation records
D. Testimonies
OPERATIONAL PLANS AGAINST THE DRUG PROBLEM
 Oplan Thunderbolt I – operations to create
impact to the underworld.
 Oplan Thunderbolt II – operations to neutralize
suspected illegal drug laboratories.
 Oplan Thunderbolt III – operations for the
neutralization of big time drug pushers, drug
dealers and drug lords.
 Oplan Iceberg – special operations team in
selected drug prone areas in order to get rid of
illegal drug activ ities in the area.
 Oplan Hunter – operations against suspected
military and police personnel who are engaged
in illegal drug activ ities.
 Oplan Mercurio – Operations against drug stores,
which are v iolating existing regulations on the
scale of regulated drugs in coordination with the
DDB/DOH and BFAD.
 Oplan Tornado – Operations in drug notorious
and high profile places.
 Oplan Greengold – NARCOM’s nationwide MJ
eradication operations in coordination with the
local gov ernments and NGO’s.
 Oplan Sagip-Yagit – A civ ic program initiated by
NGO’s and local gov ernment offices to help
eradicate drug syndicates inv olv ing street
children as drug conduits.
 Oplan Banat – the newest operational plan
against drug abuse focused in the barangay
lev el in cooperation with barangay officials.
 Oplan Private Eye – sumbong mo shabu kapalit
premyo
PHILIPPINE DRUG ENFORCEMENT AGENCY (PDEA)
 Headed by Director General with the rank of
Undersecretary, appointed by the President.
 The head of the PDEA is assisted by 2 deputies
Director General, with the rank of Assistant
Secretary, 1 for Operations and 1 for
Administration, also appointed by the President.
 In July 2002, PDDG Anselmo Av enido (Ret.)
appointed as first Director General of PDEA.
 On April 6, 2006, Gen. Dionisio R. Santiago (Ret)
appointed as PDEA Director General v ice
Anselmo Av enido.
 In January 2011, PCSUPT Jose Gutierrez (Ret) was
appointed as PDEA Director General v ice Gen.
Dionisio R. Santiago (Ret).
 the secretariat of the National Drug Law
Enforcement and Prev ention Coordinating
Center or DEP Center has been absorbed by the
new agency
 Narcotics Group of the PNP;
 Narcotics Div ision of the NBI; and
Narcotics Interdiction Unit of the Bureau of Customs hav e
been abolished
POWER AND DUTIES OF PDEA
 Cause the effectiv e and efficient implementation
of the national drug control strategy,
 Enforcement of the prov isions of Art II of this Act,
Compendium of Crime Detection and Investigation (CDI)
 Undertake inv estigation, make arrest and
apprehension of v iolators and seizure and
confiscation of dangerous drugs,
 Establish forensic laboratories,
 Filing of appropriate drug cases,
 Conduct eradication programs,
 Maintain a national drug intelligence system,
 Close coordination with local and international
drug agencies.
DANGEROUS DRUG BOARD (DDB)
 Created by v irtue of Republic Act 6425 otherwise
subsequently repealed by RA 9165.
 the policy-making & strategy-formulating body in
the planning & formulation of policies &
programs on drug prev ention & control.
 It shall dev elop and adopt a comprehensiv e,
integrated, unified and balanced national drug
abuse prev ention and control strategy.
POWER AND DUTIES OF DDB
 Formulation of Drug Prev ention and Control
Strategy,
 Promulgation of Rules and Regulation to carry
out the purposes of this Act,
 Conduct policy studies and researches,
 Dev elop educational programs and info driv e,
 Conduct continuing seminars and consultations,
 Design special training,
 Coordination with agencies for community
serv ice programs,
 Maintain international networking,
COMPOSITION
DDB composed of 17 members wherein 3 of which are
permanent members, the other 12 members are ex - officio
capacity and 2 regular members.
THREE (3) PERMANENT MEMBERS
 At least 7 years of training and experience in the
field of the ff: fields in law, medicine, criminology,
psychology or social work.
 Appointed by the president.
 One designated as the Chairman with the rank
of Secretary (with the term of 6 years) and the
two other regular members as undersecretary
(one with 4 years term and the other 2 years but
succeeding appointment will serv e six years and
until their successors shall hav e been duly
appointed and qualified.
TWELVE (12) EX- OFFICIO MEMBERS
 Secretary or representativ e of the following
Department:
 DOJ, DOH, DND, DOF, DOLE, DILG, DSWD, DFA,
DepEd,
 Chairman CHED, NYC
 Director General - PDEA
TWO (2) REGULAR MEMBERS
 President of Integrated Bar of the Philippines
(IBP).
 Chairman or President of a non- gov ernment
organization inv olv ed in dangerous drug
campaign to be appointed by the President.
NOTE: The Director of NBI and Chief, PNP are the
permanent consultant of the DDB.
ESSENTIAL FEATURES of RA 9165
RA 9165
 The Comprehensive Dangerous Acts of 2002
 Signed by GMA on June 7, 2002
 Took effect July 4, 2002
TERMS TO PONDER
 Administer – Any act of introducing any
dangerous drug into the body of any person,
with or without his/her knowledge, by injection,
inhalation, ingestion or other means, or of
committing any act of indispensable assistance
to a person in administering a dangerous drug to
him/her unless administered by a duly licensed
practitioner for purposes of medication.
 Clandestine Laboratory – Any facility used for the
illegal manufacture of any dangerous drug
 and/or controlled precursor and essential
chemical.
 Confirmatory Test – An analytical test using a
dev ice, tool or equipment with a different
chemical or physical principle that is more
specific which will v alidate and confirm the result
of the screening test
 Deliver– Any act of knowingly passing a
dangerous drug to another, personally or
otherwise, and by any means, with or without
consideration.
 Den, Dive or Resort– A place where any
dangerous drug and/or controlled precursor and
essential chemical is administered, deliv ered,
stored for illegal purposes, distributed, sold or
used in any form.
 Dispense– Any act of giv ing away, selling or
distributing medicine or any dangerous drug with
or without the use of prescription.
 Drug Syndicate– Any organized group of two (2)
or more persons forming or joining together with
the intention of committing any offense
prescribed under this Act.
 Financier – Any person who pays for, raises or
supplies money for, or underwrites any of the
illegal activ ities prescribed under this Act
 Protector/Coddler – Any person who knowingly
and willfully consents to the unlawful acts
prov ided for in this Act and uses his/her influence,
power or position in shielding, harboring,
screening or facilitating the escape of any
person he/she knows, or has reasonable grounds
to believ e on or suspects, has v iolated the
prov isions of this Act in order to prev ent the
arrest, prosecution and conviction of the v iolator.
 Pusher – Any person, who sells, trades,
administers, dispenses, deliv ers or giv es away to
another, on any terms whatsoever, or distributes,
dispatches in transit or transports dangerous
drugs or who acts as a broker in any of such
transactions, in v iolation of this Act.
 Sell – Any act of giv ing away any dangerous
drug and/or controlled precursor and essential
chemical whether for money or any other
consideration.
 Use– Any act of injecting, intrav enously or
intramuscularly, of consuming, either by chewing,
smoking, sniffing, eating, swallowing, drinking or
otherwise introducing into the physiological
system of the body, and of the dangerous drugs.
COMPARISON OF RA 6425 AND RA 9165
RA 6425 of 1972 RA 9165 2002
Dangerous drugs are categorized All drugs are categorized as
as Regulated & Dangerous Drugs
Prohibited
Accused can av ail of Parole, These priv ileges are curtailed
Pardon and Probation
Planting of ev idence as a violation Applies to any person
applies only to Law Enforcers
Penalties are low er Penalties has increased
Quantity & quality of drugs is It does not consider quality as
considered in the imposition of basis for the imposition of penalty
penalties
Procedures after arrest & Procedure after arrest &
confiscationof drugs does not confiscation of drugs has become
inv olv e other personalities complicated it requires the
presence of other personalities
Destruction of Drugs is done in Destruction Procedures on-
bulk Dangerous Drugs happens
immediately ex cept
retained samples
THE UNLAWFUL ACTS PUNISHABLE BY LIFE IMPRISONMENT
AND FINE RANGING FROM 500K TO 1M
A. Importation or bringing into the Philippines of
dangerous drugs using diplomatic passport or
facilities or any means inv olv ing his/her official
status to facilitate unlawful entry of the same (sec
4, Art II).
B. Upon any person who organizes, manages or
acts as “financiers” of any of the activ ities
inv olv ing dangerous drugs (sec 4, 5, 6, 8 Art II).
C. Sale, Trading, Administration, Dispensation,
Deliv ery, Distribution and transportation of
Compendium of Crime Detection and Investigation (CDI)
Dangerous Drugs and/or Controlled Precursors
and Essential Chemicals within 100 meters from
the school (sec 5, Art II).
D. Drugs pushers who use minors or mentally
incapacitated indiv iduals as runners, couriers
and messengers or in any other capacity directly
connected to the dangerous drug trade (sec 5,
Art II).
E. If the v ictim of the offense is a minor or mentally
incapacitated indiv idual, or should a dangerous
drug and/or controlled precursors and essential
chemical inv olv ed in the offense be the
proximate cause of death of the v ictim (sec 5,
Art II).
F. When dangerous drug is administered, deliv ered
or sold to a minor who is allowed to use the same
in such a place (sec 6, Art II).
G. Upon any person who uses a minor or mentally
incapacitated indiv idual to deliv er equipment,
instrument, apparatus and other paraphernalia
for dangerous drugs (sec. 10, Art II).
H. Possession of dangerous Drugs during Parties,
Social Gatherings or Meetings (sec. 13), and
Possession of Equipment, Instrument, Apparatus
and other Paraphernalia for Dangerous Drugs
during Parties, Social Gatherings or Meetings
(sec. 14)
POSSESSION OF DANGEROUS DRUGS (Sec.11)
PENALTY - Life imprisonment and fine ranging from Php
400K to 500K
A. 50 grams or more of shabu
B. 500 grams or more of marijuana
C. 10 grams or more for any Dangerous Drugs
PENALTY- Imprisonment of 20 years and 1 day to life
imprisonment and fine ranging from Php 400k to 500k
A. 10 grams but not more than 50 grams of Shabu
B. 300 grams or more but less than 500 grams of
Marijuana
C. 5 grams or more but less than 10 grams of any
Dangerous Drugs
PENALTY- imprisonment of 12 years and 1 day to 20 years
and a fine ranging from Php 300K to 400K
A. Less than 10 grams of Shabu
B. Less than 300 grams of Marijuana
C. Less than 5 grams of any Dangerous Drugs
USE OF DANGEROUS DRUGS (Sec.15)
 1st offense- minimum of six (6) months rehabilitation in
a gov ernment center
 2nd offense- imprisonment ranging from 6 years and 1
day to 12 years and a fine ranging from 50K to 200K,
prov ided did not v iolated section 12
CUSTODY AND DISPOSITION OF CONFISCATED, SEIZED,
AND/OR SURRENDERED DANGEROUS DRUGS... (SEC. 21)
A. The apprehending team hav ing initial custody
and control of the drugs shall, immediately after
seizure and confiscation, physically inventory
and photograph the same in the presence of the
accused or the person/s from whom such items
were confiscated and/or seized, or his/her
representative or counsel, a representative from
the media and the Department of Justice (DOJ),
and any elected public official who shall be
required to sign the copies of the inv entory and
be giv en a copy thereof
B. 24 hours- upon confiscation or seizure,
quantitative or qualitative examination
C. 24 hours- Certification of Examination results if the
v olume can’t be completed within the time
frame extended for another 24 hours.
D. 72 hours- after filling of criminal case, court shall
conduct ocular inspection.
E. 24 hours- order of destruction
LABORATORY EXAMINATION OF APPREHENDED OFFENDERS
(SEC. 38)
A. 24 hours- subject to screening laboratory
examination
B. 15 days- results of the screening laboratory
examination or test shall be challenged after
receipt of the result through a confirmatory test
PLEA-BARGAINING PROVISION (SEC. 23) - Any person
charged under any prov ision of this Act regardless of the
imposable penalty shall not be allowed to avail of the
provision on plea-bargaining.
MANDATORY DRUG TESTING
A. applicants for driv ers license
B. applicants for Firearms license & PTCFOR
C. members of the PNP, AFP, & other LEA
D. All persons charged with criminal offense with
penalty of not less than 6 years.
E. All candidates for public office national/ local
RANDOM DRUG TESTING
A. Students of secondary and tertiary schools
B. Officers and employees of public & priv ate offices
JURISDICTION OVER DANGEROUS DRUG CASES
 The Supreme Court shall designate special courts
from among the existing RTC in each judicial
region to exclusiv ely try and hear cases involv ing
v iolation of RA 9165.
 The DOJ shall designate special prosecutors to
exclusiv ely handle cases involv ing violation of RA
9165.
PROCEDURE TO BE FOLLOWED IN VIOLATION OF RA 9165
A. Regional Trial Court (RTC)- Holds the Jurisdiction
of Violations of RA 9165
B. 30 days- Conduct of Preliminary Inv estigation
C. 24 hours- filling of information
D. 48 hours- Filling of information of the MTC judge
who conduct PI to the proper prosecutor.
E. 15 days- Termination of the reinvestigation when
prosecutor disagree to the MTC judge.
F. 60 days- Trial period of the case
G. 15 days- Decision shall be rendered
H. 15 days- If no appeal was taken the decision
shall become final.
VICE - Any immoral conduct or habit, the indulgence of
which leads to deprav ity, wickedness and corruption of
the minds and body.
THE DIFFERENT FORMS OF VICES
 Drug Addiction
 Alcoholism
 Prostitution
 Gambling
IMPORTANCE OF THE STUDY OF VICE
 The study of v ice is important because these
crimes are ev er present and persistent in all forms
of society.
 It is important because its ev il effects are more
disastrous, morally and physically that other
crimes.
 It is important because commercialized v ice
disrupt the social make-up of the community.
 It is important because vice effect the daily liv es
of more people that nay other crime.
 It is important because its existence caused a
serious problem in law enforcement.
ALCOHOLISM
TERMS TO PONDER
 Alcoholism – state or condition of a person
produced by drinking intoxicating liquors
excessiv ely and with habitual frequency. (State
v s. Savage, 89 Ala. 17 LBA 426, 7 South, Rep. 183).
It is a condition wherein a person is under the
influence or intoxicated with alcohol. His
physical condition and behav ior has been
modified to a certain extent by the effects of
alcohol.
 Alcoholic Liquor – is any bev erages or
compound, whether distilled, fermented, or
otherwise, which will produce intoxication or
which contains in excess of one percentum of
alcohol and is used as a bev erage. (State v s.
Oliv er, 133 S.C. 125, 130 S.S. Rep. 213).
 Drunkard – is a person who habitually takes or
use any intoxicating alcoholic liquor and while
under the influence of such, or in consequence
of the effect thereof, is either dangerous to
himself or to others, or is a cause of harm or
Compendium of Crime Detection and Investigation (CDI)
serious annoyance to his family or his affair, or of
ordinary proper conduct. He has lesser
resistance to the effect of alcohol.
 Chronic Alcoholics – person who, from the
prolonged and excessiv e use alcoholic
bev erages, finally develops physical and psycho-
changes and dependence to alcohol. The
person consciously or unconsciously begins to
demand on alcohol’s narcotic effects for a
“pick-up”, to sleep at night, to feel “good”, to
cope with business or domestic problems, to
enjoy social gatherings, to get away from
oneself, to repress inner urges or rebellion or
resentment, and to reliev e distressing restlessness.
NOTE: This person dev elops physical and moral
deterioration, difficulties with the law, loss of his job and
family problems.
DRUNKNESS AS A CRIME
 In the Philippines, drunkenness in itself is not a
crime because a person may drink to excess in
the priv acy of his home or in the party and
commit no crime at all.
 It is only when a drunken person exhibits his
condition publicly, or disturbs, endangers, or
injured others, that he became an offender and
therefore, subject to arrest and punishment.
 Before and during elections, it is unlawful to sell or
drink intoxicating liquor, as prov ided in the
election law.
 Under RA 4136, as amended, driv ing under the
influence of liquor is prohibited.
 Under Article 15 of the Revised Penal Code,
intoxication is considered as Alternative
Circumstances.
 It is considered a mitigating circumstance when
the offender has committed a felony in a state of
intoxication, if the same is not habitual.
 It is considered an aggrav ating circumstance,
when the intoxication is habitual or intentional.
KINDS OF INTOXICATION
 Involuntary – when a drunken person does not
know the intoxicating strength of bev erage he
has taken.
 Intentional – when a person deliberately drinks
liquor fully knowing its effects, either to obtain
mitigation or to find the liquor as stimulant to
commit crime.
 Habitual – when the person finds that drinking
has a constant necessary and the vice ultimately
takes hold of him.
VARIOUS DEGREE OF INTOXICATION
 Slight Inebriation – there is reddening of the face.
There is no sign of mental impairment, in
coordination and difficulty of speech.
 Moderate Inebriation – the person is
argumentativ e and overconfident. There is slight
impairment of mental difficulties, difficulty of
articulation, loss of coordination of finer
mov ements. The face is flushed with digested
eyeball. He is reckless and shows motor in
coordination. The person maybe certified by the
doctor as being under the influence of liquor.
 Drunk – the mind is confused, behav ior is
irregular and the mov ement is uncontrolled. The
speech us thick and in coordinated. The
behav ior is uncontrollable.
 Very drunk – the mind is confused and
disoriented. There is difficulty in speech and
marked motor incoordination and often walking
is impossible.
 Coma – the subject is stuperous or in comatous
condition. Sometimes it is difficult to differentiate
this condition with other conditions having coma.
METHODS OF THERAPY ON ALCOHOLISM
A. The Aversion Treatment
 This treatment seeks to create an av ersion from
alcohol by the administration of a Nauseating
drug to be followed by a drink of liquor, and thus
dev elops a dislike of alcohol.
 The method maybe rather costly since
hospitalization maybe required.
 Moreov er, the effect is not always lasting and
treatment must be repeated.
  Yet, it is said that this method has prov en
effectiv e in more than half of the cases.
B. The Psychotherapy Method
 This cure depends upon showing that the real
problem of the alcoholic is not the
 Alcohol itself but the emotional problem that led
the alcoholics to drink.
 This method therefore, aims to eliminate these
emotional tensions.
 Through therapeutic interv iews, it undertakes to
make the alcoholics aware of why he drinks and
to prov ide him with the strength necessary to
combat his problems.
C. The Program of Alcoholics Anonymous
 This method is based on conv ersion and
fellowship.
 It emphasizes that alcoholics understand
alcoholism better than anyone else
 man is dependent upon God and must turn to
Him for help; that the alcoholic must sincerely
desire to stop drinking
 He must admit that he is an alcoholic and
cannot drink in moderation.
PROSTITUTION
TERMS TO PONDER
 Prostitution- It is an act or practice of a woman
who engage or habitually in sexual intercourse
for money or profit.
 Prostitute - A woman who engage in
discriminate sexual intercourse or acts with males
for hire.
 Pimp - One who provides gratification for the lust
of others.
 Operator or Maintainer – one who owns or
manages houses of ill-refute where the
business of prostitution is conducted. Sometimes
they are called “madame or mama san”.
 White Slavery-The procurement and
transportation of women cross stateliness for
immoral purposes.
 Whores/Knocker - It is a name often used for
all types of prostitute.
VAGRANTS AND PROSTITUTES (RPC)
 Any person hav ing no apparent means of
subsistence, who has the physical ability to work
and who neglects to apply himself or herself to
some lawful calling.
 Any person found loitering about public or semi-
public building or places, or tramping or
wandering about the country or to the streets
without v isible means of support.
 Any idle or dissolute person who lodges in houses
of ill-fame, ruffians or pimps and those who
habitually associate with prostitutes.
Republic Act No. 10158
 Signed last March 27, 2012, amended Article 202
of the Rev ised Penal Code remov ing v agrancy
from the country's list of crimes amid concerns it
only targets the poor and the disadv antaged.
 Although the poor or homeless people can no
longer be hauled to jail for v agrancy, the new
law continued to penalize women engaged in
prostitution.
 RA 10158, defined prostitutes as "women who for
money or profit, habitually indulge in sexual
intercourse or lascivious conduct."
 A person found guilty of prostitution is punished
by imprisoned from one to 30 days or a fine not
exceeding P200.
 In case of recidiv ism, they are punished by
arresto mayor in its medium period to prison
correctional in its minimum period or a fine
ranging from P200 to P2,000, or both, depending
on the court.
 With the enactment of the law, all pending
v agrancy cases meantime shall be dismissed
and all persons serv ing sentence for v iolating the
v agrancy law shall immediately be released.
TYPES OF PROSTITUTES ON THE BASIS OF OPERATION
CALL GIRLS
 These are the part-time prostitutes.
Compendium of Crime Detection and Investigation (CDI)
 They have their own legitimate work or profession
but works as a prostitutes to supplement their
income. Sometimes they are tellers, sales-ladies
of department stores, waitresses, beauticians, or
engage in similar jobs that they use to make
contacts with customers.
 They receiv e telephone calls from a selected
group of customers and make arrangements to
meet them at a designated place.
 She may work alone or in partnership with an
intermediary with whom she shares her earnings.
HUSTLER
 Professional type of prostitutes.
 She maybe a bar or tav ern “pick-up” or a “street
walker”.
 The bar or tav ern “pick-up” frequents places
where liquor is sold, sometimes operating with the
consent and knowledge of the
management.
 The streetwalker is the oldest and the most
common type of prostitute.
 She may work with taxi-driv ers and commits
prostitution in a taxi-cab. Her common
customers are the tourists, gamblers, criminals,
Addicts and others.
 Their operation is oftentimes associated with
swindling their customers.
DOOR KNOCKER
 This is the occasional or selectiv e type of
prostitute.
 She is usually a newcomer in the business
Oftentimes, they are motiv ated by extreme
 Desire for money due to pov erty or supporting
their other v ices.
 She makes contact thru information coming from
the professional and hustler who are friends who
giv es her addresses of prospectiv e customers
FACTORY GIRLS
 Is the real professional type of prostitutes?
 She works in regular houses of prostitution or
brothels.
 She accepts all comers and has nothing to do
with the selecting and soliciting the customers.
 She works in regular hours or tour of duty under
the direct superv ision of the madam or operator
of the prostitution house.
 She gets her share of the earnings by commission
or per customers.
TYPES OF PROSTITUTION HOUSES
DISORDERLY HOUSES
 Usually ridges sev eral numbers of factory girls or
professional prostitutes and under the control of
an organized crime ring.
 A “madam” or “maintainer” superv ises the
operation supported by a staff of teller (cashier),
bell or room boys, register clerks, watchmen,
pimps and security guards known as bouncer.
 Their operation appears to be a legitimate
business entity mostly under the protection of
crooked policemen or law enforcement
authorities and their location is prominently
known to all their customers.
 They hav e number of small rooms with the
prostitutes staying there at where they wait for
customers. At times, the house prov ided with
secret exits ready for escaping in case of police
raids.
FURNISHED ROOM HOUSE
 usually operated by an experienced “madam”
who rent rooms to legitimate roomers in order to
maintain an appearance of responsibility
Purposely, the madam leav es sev eral rooms not
rented to legitimate roomers for ready use of the
prostitution.
 These prostitutes are mostly the call girls who
make the room their designated places in
perpetrating their business.
 Their rent is on per customers basis or they
maintain the rent continuously but the prostitutes
do not liv e there permanently but elsewhere to
maintain their anonymity and identity.
  These houses could be found mostly in flashy
subdiv ision or residential areas.
CALL HOUSES
 This is where the customers call and the madam
makes the arrangement and sends the girls by a
transporter who is a man or woman to the place
arrangement.
 The house appears to be a legitimate business
house such as serv ice agencies, trav el offices,
coffee shops, beauty parlors and the like duly
licensed and registered as such with the
gov ernment office.
 However, the telephone number is limited only to
qualified customers as recommended by their
pimps who conducts the background
inv estigation on the ability of the prospectiv e
customers to pay.
MASSAGE CLINICS
 These houses are operated under a licensed or
permit issued by the gov ernment but acts as a
front for prostitution where the act maybe done
or as per arrangement.
 They operate with barbershops with manicurists
or“attendants” and “massagists” who while
serv icing their customers may make contacts or
the prostitutes or themselv es.
 These prostitutes are sometimes the newcomers
in the business who do not earn much as
attendants or massagists.
CONTROL AND PREVENTION OF PROSTITUTION
A. THE SCHOOL OF REGULATORY CONTROL
 This method maintains the idea that we cannot do
away with prostitution unless we consider the
problems and remov e the causes of prostitution.
 The following regulatory policy has been adopted
to prov ide the necessary protection for the society.
 Segregation of brothels and soliciting to
restricted districts.
 Public licensing of houses of prostitution
 Registration of prostitutes to protect them from
the exploitation of white slav e trade
 Periodic medical examination of prostitutes
and public health education.
 Legalization of the practice of prostitution
under gov ernment superv ision and control to
make it more realistic.
 That arrest of prostitutes be handled by non-
police agencies but should be taken care by
social workers and medical men.
 Finally, the rehabilitation of prostitutes by
prov iding them jobs and facilities to earn a
decent liv ing.
B. THE SCHOOL OF TOTAL REPRESSION
 This method believ es that prostitution is both a
crime and a v ice and therefore, should be
repressed and totally prohibited.
 It maintains that chastity and continence should
be the rule of conduct for ev erybody and to allow
prostitution would be to abet immorality and white
slav e trade
 As to licensing of prostitution, this school of
thought argues that it inv ites men to enjoy
promiscuity free and easy and without fear of the
law.
GAMBLING
TERMS TO PONDER
 GAMBLING Wagering of money or something of
material v alue on an ev ent with an uncertain
outcome with the primary intent of winning
additional money and/or material goods.
 ILLEGAL NUMBERS GAME Any form of illegal
gambling activ ity which uses numbers or
combination as factors in giv ing out jackpots.
 JUETENG llegal numbers game that inv olv es the
combination of numbers as a form of local lottery
where bets are placed and accepted per
combination .
 MASIAO llegal numbers game where the winning
combination is deriv ed from the results of the last
game of Jai Alai or the Special Llav e portion
Compendium of Crime Detection and Investigation (CDI)
 LAST TWO Illegal numbers game where the
winning combination is deriv ed from the last two
numbers of the first prize of the winning
Sweepstakes ticket.
 BETTOR (Mananaya) Any person, who places bets
for himself/herself or in behalf of another person,
other than the personnel or staff of any illegal
numbers game operation.
 COLLECTOR or AGENT (Cabo, Cobrador) Any
person who collects, solicits or produces bets in
behalf of his/her principal for any illegal numbers
game who is usually in possession of gambling
paraphernalia
 MAINTAINER, MANAGER OR OPERATOR Any
person who maintains, manages, or operates
any illegal number game in a specific area.
 FINANCIERS OR CAPITALIST Any person who
finances the operations of any illegal numbers
game.
 PROTECTOR OR CODDLER Any person who lends
or prov ides protection, or receiv es benefits in any
manner in the operation of any illegal numbers
game.
CLASSIFICATION OF GAMBLING GAMES
1. Those who are absolutely or per se prohibited
a. Under Art. 195, RPC – monte, jueteng, other form
of lottery, policy, banking or percentage game
and dog races;
b. Faro and roulette is absolutely prohibited by the
Gambling Law.
2. Those which are regulated by law. These games are
regulated in the sense that the law allows the same to be
played except on certain specified of the day.
a. Cockfighting under Art. 199, Rev ised Penal Code
b. Horse Racing under Art. 198, Rev ised Penal Code
c. Panguingue, cuajo, domino, mahjong, entre
cuatro, and other under Sec. 828, Rev ised
Ordinances of the City of Manila
LAWS RELEVANT TO GAMBLING
Article 195 of RPC
 Acts punishable in gambling – any person
directly or indirectly take part in any game of
Monte, jueteng, other form of lottery, policy,
banking or percentage game, dog races or any
other game the result of which depends wholly
upon a chance wherein wagers consisting of
money, articles of v alue, or representativ e of
v alue are made.
 Article 195 of RPC. The penalty of arresto mayor
or a fine not exceeding two hundred pesos, and,
in case of recidiv ism, the penalty of arresto
mayor or a fine ranging from two hundred or six
thousand pesos,
 The penalty of prision correccional in its
maximum degree shall be imposed upon the
maintainer, conductor, or banker in a game of
jueteng or any similar game.
Article 196 (RPC)
 Penalizing any person who shall import into the
Philippine Islands from any foreign place or port
any lottery ticket or advertisement, or in
conniv ance with the importer, shall sell or
distribute the same.
 The penalty of arresto mayor in its maximum
period to prision correctional in its minimum
period or a fine ranging from 200 to 2,000 pesos,
or both, in the discretion of the court
Article 197 (RPC). Betting in sports Contest
 Penalizing any person who shall bet money or
any object or article of v alue or representativ e of
v alue upon the result of any boxing or other
sports contest.
 The penalty of arresto menor or a fine not
exceeding 200 pesos, or both,
Article 198 (RPC). Illegal betting on horse races
 Penalizing any person who, except during the
periods allowed by law, shall bet on horse races.
 The penalty of arresto menor or a fine not
exceeding 200 pesos, or both,
Article 199 (RPC). Illegal cockfighting –
 Penalizing any person who directly or indirectly
participates in cockfights, at a place other than
a licensed cockpit.
 The penalty of arresto menor or a fine not
exceeding 200 pesos, or both, in the discretion of
the court

RA 3063 – Approved June 17, 1961

 authorizing licensed race tracks and racing clubs
and their authorized agent to offer, take or
arrange bets outside the place, enclosure of
track where the races held.
 Penalty - fine of not less than one thousand pesos
not more than two thousand pesos or by
imprisonment for not less than one month or
more than six months, or both, in the discretion of
the court. If the offender is a partnership,
corporation or association, the criminal liability
shall dev olv e upon its president, director, or any
other official responsible for the v iolation.

PD 449 – Cockfighting Law of 1974 – Approv ed May 9,

1974.
PD 483 - Penalizing Betting, Game-fixing or point shav ing
and Machinations in Sports Contents. Approv ed on June
13, 1974.
PD 1602 – Approv ed June 11, 1978. prescribing stiffer
penalties on illegal gambling.
RA 9287 – Approv ed 2, 2004 An Act increasing the
penalties for illegal numbers games, amending certain
prov isions of P.D. 1602, and for other purposes.

Compendium of Crime Detection and Investigation (CDI)

 FIRE TECHNOLOGY AND ARSON INVESTIGATION
Technology and causes of fire;
Fire Triangle Theory
 The graphical representation of the three
elements of fire, namely: Oxygen, Heat, and Fuel.
 Each side is just as important as either of the
other two sides. There cannot be fire without all
the three parts present in equal proportion.
 Using the same theory, there are three ways to
extinguish fire:
1. Remov e the fuel
2. Cut-off the oxygen supply
3. Reduce the temperature (cooling)
Elements of Fire
 Heat - a form of energy generated by the
transmission of some other form of energy, as in
combustion or burning.
Heat Sources:
1. Open flame
2. Hot surfaces
3. Electrical circuit
4. Friction
5. Sparks
6. All sources of ignition
 Oxygen - a colorless, odorless gas and one of the
compositions of air which is approximately 21%
by v olume.
Oxygen Sources: Oxygen
Requirements
1. 21 % of normal oxygen
2. 12 % - no fire
3. 78 % of nitrogen
4. 14 % - flash point
5. 1 % of other gases
6. 21 % - fire point
 Fuel - any substance which reacts chemically
with oxygen and produces flames. The most
important element of fire.
Fuel Sources:
1. Solid - molecules are closely packed together
2. Liquid - molecules are loosely packed
3. Gas - molecules are free to mov ed
Fire Tetrahedron
 The fire, triangle theory describes the three
elements, of a fire as shown in Figure 1.1. Another
explanation of the requirement of combustion
uses a four-sided figure called tetrahedron as
shown in Figure 1.2. Both theories are used to
explain what causes fire. The fourth element of
the tetrahedron explanation is known as
chemical reactiv ity, or chemical reaction.
o For Combustion to occur, four elements
are necessary:
 Oxygen (oxidizing agent)
 Fuel
 Heat
 Self - sustaining chemical
reaction.
These elements can be graphically described as the fire
tetrahedron. Each element of the tetrahedron must be in
place for combustion to occur. This theory is extremely
important to students of fire suppression, prev ention, and
inv estigation. Remov ing any one of the four elements
combustion will not occur. If ignition has already started,
the fire is extinguished, if one of the elements is remov ed
from the reaction.
Components/Elements of the Fire Tetrahedron:
 Oxygen (Oxidizing Agent) - Oxidizing agents are
those materials that yield oxygen or other
oxidizing gases during the process of a chemical
reaction.
 Fuel (Reducing Agent) - Fuel is the material or
substance being burned in the combustion
process.
 Heat (Temperature) - Heat is the energy
component of the fire tetrahedron. When heat
Compendium of Crime Detection and Investigation (CDI)
comes in contact with a fuel, the energy
supports the combustion process.
Combustion Reactions/Process:
 Causes pyrolysis or v aporization of solid and liquid
fuels and the production of ignitable vapors or
gases;
 Prov ides the energy necessary for ignition;
 Causes the continuous production and ignition of
fuel v apors or gases to continue the combustion
reaction.
Types of Energy: (Common Sources of Heat)
1. Chemical Energy - It is the most common source
of heat in combustion reactions. When any
combustibles are in contact with oxygen
oxidation occurs. The reaction of this process
results in the production of heat. Examples: Heat
generated from a burning match, Self-heating
(spontaneous heating).
2. Electrical Energy - Electrical energy can
generate temperatures high enough to ignite
any combustible materials near the heated area.
3. Nuclear Energy - Nuclear heat energy is
generated when atoms either split apart (fission)
or combine (fusion). Examples:
 Fission heats water to drive steam turbines
and produce electricity.
 The solar energy is a product of a fusion
reaction (a form of nuclear energy).
4. Mechanical Energy - An energy created by
friction and compression.
 Heat of Friction - is the mov ement of two
surfaces against each other. This
mov ement produced sparks being
generated.
 Heat of Compression - heat is generated
when a gas is compressed in a container
or cylinder.
Self-Sustained Chemical Reaction (the fourth element) -
Combustion is a complex reaction that it requires a fuel
(gaseous or v apor state), an oxidizer, and heat to
combine in a v ery specific way. Once flaming starts, it can
only continue when enough heat or energy is produced to
cause the continued chain reaction. Chain reaction is a
series of ev ents that occur in sequence with the results of
each indiv idual reaction being added to the rest.
Combustion - Fire and combustion are terms that are
often used interchangeably. Technically speaking, fire is a
form of combustion. Combustion is a self-sustaining
chemical reaction producing energy or products that
cause more reactions of the same kind. Combustion is an
exothermic reaction. Fire is a rapid, self-sustaining
oxidization process accompanied by the release of heat
and light of different intensities. The time it takes a reaction
to occur determines the type of reaction that is observ ed.
Products of Combustion
Four (4) Categories of products of combustion:
Fire gases
 Are those that remain when other products of
combustion cool to normal temperature.
Common combustibles contain carbon, which
forms carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide
when burned. Other fire gases include hydrogen
sulfide, sulfur dioxide, ammonia, hydrogen
cyanide, nitrous and nitric oxide, phosgene, and
hydrogen chloride.
 The records of fatal fires show that more people
died from inhaling these super-heated and toxic
fire gases than from any other cause.
 The complete combustion of fuels containing
carbon will produce CO 2, but seldom will there
be enough oxygen for complete combustion.
When only part of the carbon is oxidized, carbon
monoxide is formed. While carbon monoxide is
not the most toxic fire gas, it causes mote deaths
than any other because robs the body of oxygen
Types of Poisonous Gases:
 Hydrogen Sulfide (H 2S)
 Hydrogen Cyanide (HCN)
 Hydrogen Chloride (HCl)
Flame
 It is the luminous body of a burning gas which
gets hotter and less luminous when mixed with
more oxygen. Flame fades when carbon burns
completely, so flame is considered a product of
incomplete combustion.
 It is the manifestation of fire when the fire is in its
gas-phased combustion.
Nature of Fire - Ev en the most flammable materials (capable of being easily
results. This process is known as Pyrolysis.
Pyrolysis
 It refers to the chemical process whereby fire
consumes the most solid part of the fuel. It is the
thermal decomposition of a solid fuel through the
action of heat.
 The process of Pyrolysis inv olv es the following:
o The fuel is heated until its temperature
reaches its fire point;
o Decomposition takes place — moisture in
the fuel is conv erted to v apor;
o Decomposition produces combustible
v apors that rise to the surface of the fuel.
These combustible v apors are technically
termed as free radicals;
o Free-radicals undergo combustion if
proper amount of oxygen is present.
 The most common type of free-
radicals - (combustible v apors):
 Hydrogen gas
 Carbon monoxide
 Carbon dioxide
 Nitrogen
 Most fires will inv olv e incomplete combustion,
producing CO and carbon particles along with
heat, water v apor, and CO 2.
 A fire inv olving material other than hydrocarbons
and oxygen will produce combustion products
composed of the atoms and molecules forming
the material together with the ox idizer used for
the support of the combustion. This is the reason
a poisonous fuel may giv e off poisonous fumes
and smoke.
Heat - A form of energy measured in degree of
temperature, it is the product of combustion that spread
the fire. It causes burns and other injuries such as
dehydration, heat exhaustion, and respiratory tract injuries.
Heat, oxygen depletion, and carbon monoxide formation
are the primary hazards in fires.
Smoke - It is the v isible product of incomplete combustion,
usually a mixture of oxygen nitrogen, carbon dioxide,
carbon monoxide, finely div ided particles of soot and
carbon, and miscellaneous assortment of product
released from the burning material.
Properties of Fire
Physical Properties
 Specific gravity - the ratio of the weight of a solid
or substance to the weight of an equal v olume
of water
 Vapor density - the weight of a v olume of pure
gas compared to the weight of a v olume of dry
air at the same temperature and pressure
 Vapor pressure - the force exerted by the
molecules on the surface of the liquid at
equilibrium.
 Temperature - the measure of thermal degree of
the agitation of molecules of a giv en substance;
the measure of the molecular activ ity within a
substance.
 Boiling point - the constant temperature at which
the v apor pressure of the liquid is equal to the
atmospheric pressure.
 Ignition temperature or kindling temperature -
the minimum temperature to which the
substance in the air must be heated in order to
initiate or cause self-contained combustion
without the addition of heat from outside
sources.
 Fire point - the temperature at which the
material will giv e off ample v apors to keep
burning. There is usually about 5-to 10º difference
between the flashpoint and the fire point of most
materials. Since these two are just a few degrees
apart.
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 Flashpoint - the temperature at which a material
is not hot enough to keep burning, but still giv es
off enough v apors to cause a flame to “flash”
across the surface. The term “flashpoint” is used
to express the condition of a fuel v aporizing,
whether or not it is v aporizing fast enough to
keep burning.
Chemical Properties:
 ignited)
Endothermic
do not reaction
actually burn.
- areThe
changes
vapor giv
whereby
en off by a material
energy (heat) is absorbed or is added before the
reaction takes place.
 Exothermic reaction - reactions or changes that
release or giv e off energy (heat) thus they
produce substances with less energy than the
reactants.
 Oxidation - a chemical change in which
combustible material (fuel) and an oxidizing
agent react.
 Combustion/flame - the manifestation of fire
when the fire is in its gas-phased combustion. A
matter that is produced by fire.
 Vapor Density - The term used to explain the
weight of v apors is “v apor density”. In order to
measure the weight of these v apors we usually
compare them to air, which is considered to
hav e a vapor density of 1.00. Therefore, if we say
that a substance has a v apor density of 1.5; it
means that it is on-and-a-half times as heav y as
air under the same conditions of pressure and
temperature. If a substance has a v apor density
of .7, it is lighter than air, weighing only 7/10 as
much as an equal v olume of air.
Phases of Burning / The Three Stages of Fire
 The methods firefighters use to extinguish a fire
will depend largely on the phase in which they
find the fire.
 Factors to be considered in determining phases
of burning:
1. The amount of time the fire has burned;
2. The v entilation characteristics of the
confining structure;
3. The amount and type of combustibles
present
Fires generally have three (3) progressiv e stages based on
the abov e factors:
 Incipient/Beginning phase - it is the initial stage
of fire.
 Free-Burning Phase - the second phase of
burning in which materials or structures are
burning in the presence of adequate oxygen.
 Smoldering Phase - the final phase of burning
wherein flame ceases but dense smoke and
heat completely fill the confined room.
Backdraft
 Firefighters operating at fires in buildings must use
precautionary measures when opening a
building to gain entry, by prov iding v entilation
either by horizontal/cross v entilation (opening
doors or windows), or v ertical v entilation
(opening a hole at the highest portion of the
affected part of the building. As the fire grows in
a confine area, large v olumes of hot, unburned
fire gases can collect in unv entilated spaces.
These gases may be at or abov e their ignition
temperature but hav e insufficient oxygen
av ailable to actually ignite. Any action taken
during firefighting operations that allows air to
mix with these hot gases can result in an
explosiv e ignition called backdraft.
 The danger for backdraft can be minimized with
proper application of v ertical ventilation causing
the unburned gases rise and release through the
opening before an entry is made.
Conditions that indicate the danger for backdraft
a. Pressurized smoke exiting small openings
b. Black smoke becoming dense gray
yellow
c. Confinement and excessiv e heat
d. Little or no v isible flame
 e. Smoke leav ing the building in puffs or at
interv als
f. Smoke stained windows
Flashover - Flashover occurs when a room or other area is
heated enough that flames sweep over the entire surface.
Firefighters originally believ ed that combustible gases
released during the early stages of the fire cause flashov er
by collecting at the ceiling and mixing with air until they
burst into flames.
Combustible material is grouped into one of four
classifications.
These classes of fuel help to simplify firefighting methods
and techniques.
Classification of Fire
 By knowing the classes of fire a certain material
will fall into, you will be able to make intelligent
firefighting decisions.
A. Based on Cause:
1. Natural fire
2. Accidental fire
3. Intentional fire
B. Based on Burning Fuel
Four (4) Classes of Fire
Class A - Materials inv olv ing v egetable fibers, wood,
paper straw, grain, and grass; combustible minerals such
as coal and coke. Nearly all thrash fires are considered as
Class A.
Class B - Materials including petroleum products such as
gasoline, fuel oils, lubricating oils, and greases; animal fats
such as butter, lard, and tallow; v egetable extracts such
as alcohol, linseed oil, and turpentine; v egetable
compounds such as shortenings and oleomargarines;
natural gases and compressed gases such as butane,
propane, hydrogen, and acetylene.
Class C - This type of fire inv olv es electrical motors,
electrical appliances and apparatus. Actually a Class C
fire is composed usually of Class A and Class B materials or
a combination of both. Use of water is usually dangerous
because of the risk of electrical shock.
Class D - These are materials inv olv ing combustible metals,
alloys, or metal compounds either in a solid, semi-solid or
liquid state. They may further reduce in shavings, grindings,
granules, or dust. Some liquid metals are kept in a liquid
state under pressure. Usually these liquid metals are
extremely dangerous. Some of the more unusual metals
are: sodium, magnesium, titanium, sodium potassium, and
uranium as well as pyrophoric organometallic reagents
such a alkylithiums, grignards, and diethylzinc. These type
of materials burn at high temperatures and will react
v iolently with water, air, and/or other chemicals.
Spontaneous Heating - Spontaneous heating and
spontaneous ignition start as a result of a chemical
reaction within the material a reaction independent of
any outside source of heat. Spontaneous heating begins a
cycle of oxidation that builds up heat v ery slowly in its first
stage. The condition that builds up temperature high
enough to cause ignition is called spontaneous heating.
At this point, it becomes spontaneous ignition. In most
materials this process dev elops slowly and does not reach
its ignition point for days or ev en weeks; consequently, fires
may break out today, that were actually started days
before. Usually there is enough air to oxidation, but not
enough air to carry the heat from the area. Some of the
common materials that may spontaneously heated and
ignited are animal oils, mixed fish oils, linseed oil, coal,
coke, charcoal, sawdust, hay, grain and cotton.
Propagation of Fire - Propagation of fire simply means the
spread of fire. As a substance burns, fire propagation will
be increased by the transmission of heat by nearby
materials. This condition causes additional v apors to be
released thereby spreading the fire.
Types of Heat Transmission:
Conduction - It is the transmission of object/medium or
conductor, such as pipe, metal, hot air duct, wire, or ev en
wall.
Compendium of Crime Detection and Investigation (CDI)
Radiation - The transmission through the discharge and
spread of heat from a heated or burning source. This
radiation takes place through the air or through space
that cause another flammable object to ignite.
Convection - It is the transmission of heat by the mov ing
currents of liquid or gas. When these gases or liquids are
heated, they start to mov e within themselv es; and by their
free motion, circulation starts.
Flame Contact - Heat may be conducted from one body
to another by direct flame contact. Fire spreads along or
through burning material by flame contact. When a
material is heated to the point where flammable v apors
are released, the v apors may be ignited. Any other
flammable material may be heated to its ignition
temperature by direct contact with the flame or burning
v apors.
Intensity of Fire - Intensity of fire means simply “how hot the
fire is burning.” Some types of fuels naturally burn hotter
(more intensely) than others. For example, a gasoline fire
burns hotter than a wood fire, while an acetylene flame is
hotter than a gasoline flame.
Factors to determine the intensity of fire:
1. Type of fuel
2. Percentage of oxygen present
Explosive Limits
 The term “explosive limits” means the amount
(expressed in percent) of fuel v apor that can be
mixed with air to form and explosiv e or
flammable mixture. If less that this amount is
used, the mixture will not burn. This is known as
“lean” to burn. If more than this amount is used,
the mixture is called too “rich” and will not burn.
 There is a minimum proportion of v apor-to-air
below which the vapor will not burn and there is
also a maximum proportion of v apor-to-air
abov e which the v apor will not burn. The
minimum (lower) and maximum (upper) limits of
the carton of v apor-to-air in which the mixture
will ignite or explode are known as the lower and
upper explosiv e limits.
Magnitude of Fire - The Magnitude of fire means the size of
a fire, and it is gov erned by the surface area of fuel
exposed to the air. The magnitude of fire is not always
determined by the amount of fuel inv olv ed but more often
by the amount of fuel exposed to the air.
Flashpoint - The temperature at which the material is not
hot enough to keep burning, but still giv es off enough
v apors to cause a flame to “flash” across the surface.
Firepoint - The temperature at which the material will giv e
off ample v apors to keep burning. There is usually about 5
to 10 degrees difference between the flashpoint and
firepoint of most materials. Since the two are just a few
degrees apart, the term “flashpoint” is express the
condition of a fuel v aporizing, whether or not it is
v aporizing fast enough to keep burning.
Ignition Temperature - Ignition temperature is the degree
of heat necessary to ignite flammable v apors. This
temperature can come from an external source (match,
spark, and friction): or if the fuel itself is raised to this
temperature, auto-ignition (self-ignition) will occur.
Oxidation - In nearly all fires, oxidation takes place by
using the oxygen that is present in the atmosphere.
Howev er, in some cases, certain chemical compounds
known as oxidizing agents are inv olv ed. Though not
flammable themselv es, when they are heated or when
they come in contact with water, they giv e off which in
turn, supports the burning of flammable materials.
The more common Oxidizing Agents:
1. Nitrates
2. Chlorates
3. Peroxide
If a small quantity of potassium chlorate is added to a pile
of sugar, flour, or starch, and heat is applied, the mixture
will burst into flame and burn v iolently. Without the
addition of the oxidizing agent, these same fuels would be
extremely slow in igniting.
Basic principles in Fire and Arson investigation
FIRE INVESTIGATION
 This chapter will point out the main features of fire
Inv estigation. Fire inv estigation is by nature the
basis for fire prev ention program. Only an in-
depth analysis of what sequences of ev ents
enable a fire to start, enabled it to spread, and
how and where it was controlled (e.g.,
firefighting, structural design, lack of fuel) can
help prev ent future fires. Additionally, fire
inv estigation includes the observ ations of
ev eryone inv olv ed, and at the fires themselv es
there are many firefighters who will able to shed
light on the nature of the fire, its progress, and so
forth.
 One of the most difficult problems to solv e is to
determine the cause of the fire, since the flames
generally consume any ev idence of what
occurred. This is the reason that the cause of
most fires cannot be determined without a long
and careful inv estigation.
 Firefighters often make snap judgments at the
scene as to the cause of a fire, without an
adequate evidence or sufficient inv estigation on
which to base their decision. Apparently, there is
hesitation on the part of the firefighters to admit
that they do not really know the real cause of the
(approximately 4% of those reported) are listed
as “cause known.” Instead, the fire is attributed
to v arious causes without apparent regard to
actual ev idence or to lack of it.
 Some of the fav orite causes listed by firefighters,
when they are not certain of the actual cause,
are faulty wiring, children playing with matches,
spontaneous combustion, sparks from stov e,
burning rubbish, and careless disposal of smoking
materials.
 The v ery general and indefinite nature of these
causes indicates that, in most cases, they are
based on assumptions, rather than on ev idence.
 In this relation, the material or book will assist you
in performing or conducting inv estigation to
determine the causes and origin of a fire.
 No matter how small, fire must be inv estigated.
Fire inv estigations prov ide authorities with
information needed to guide fire prev ention
educational programs, help fire inspectors in
spotting and eliminating new or prev iously
ov erlooked hazards, and dev elop meaningful
information for training fire protection personnel.
 As far as fire inv estigation is concerned, they
must be defined as:
o Cause - that which made the fire start;
and
o Reason - that which led to the cause of
a fire (a motiv e leading to the action).
 Both cause and reason must be established to
satisfactorily complete a fire inv estigation. The
“cause” explains the existence of fire, or the
WHAT of inv estigation; while the “reason”
establishes the WHY of the fire and inv estigation.
Both are required to correctly classify the fire,
and also to prov ide guidance in establishing
correctiv e action to preclude a recurrence of
the incident.
The importance of the establishment of a fire cause is the
knowledge of the physical aspects of fire.
Four General Classes of Fire Causes
Natural Fire
 fire caused naturally without human interv ention
or aid; such as lightning, spontaneous ignition,
mechanical malfunction of equipment.
Accidental Fire - fire causes where human action is
inv olv ed directly or indirectly. i.e. a). Careless disposal of
smoking materials; b). workers using welding-cutting
equipment
Arson - fire cause as a result of the willful and criminal
action of some persons, i.e., incendiary fire.
Compendium of Crime Detection and Investigation (CDI)
Unknown Fire - fires which are not classified as to cause.
Three General Classifications of Fire
 Innocent fire - e.g. natural and accidental
causes
 Incendiary fire - e.g. arson cases
 Unknown fire - e.g. fire of unknown causes.
Fire Investigation and Evidence Kit
Ev idence kit prov ides equipment for use in the
inv estigation and for the preserv ation of any ev idence
found at the scene after that ev idence has been
photograph in its original location.
o Special clothing such as: cov erall, glov es, boots
used to protect uniform;
o Flashlight and electric lantern;
o Measuring tape and small ruler for making
measurements;
o Labels (gummed and stringed) used to identify
items;
o New or sterile glass jars with rubber airtight seals
used for the collection of samples;
o Env elopes, boxes, plastic bags, metal cans used
for the collection (assorted sizes) used for
collection of samples.
Basic Steps in a Fire Scene Examination
 Search systematically
 Observ e
 Take photograph
 Work by the Process of Elimination
 Check and Verify
 Take Note
 Draw diagrams
Areas to Conduct Fire Investigation
Exterior - Determine where the fire v ested first by
comparing burn char, smoke, and heat patterns around
windows, doors, and roof.
Look for the following:
 exterior points of origin;
 unusual, burn patterns of flammable liquid;
 tools and flammable liquid containers;
 footprints and scuff, marks at suspected points of
entry.
Interior - Conduct a cursory examination or general surv ey
of the entire structure of interior for the extent of fire
damage. Establish the class of fire duration approximate
burn time by checking the following:
o Window glass condition;
o Depth of wood char, at or in close
proximity to the point of origin;
o Penetration of fire restrictiv e wall
cov erings by fire;
o Electric clock that has been stopped by
fire damage.
o Note the time stopped and compare
with alarm time. The time factors should
be estimated and considered as
approximation only.
Steps on How to Determine the Point of Origin
1. Examine the entire interior of the building and
determine which room or areas hav e receiv ed
the most sev ere fire damage. Generally, this will
be the area where the fire burned extensiv ely or
the longest and will v ery likely be where it
originated.
2. Determine the lev el or origin within the room by
examining and comparing the bottom side of
the tables, shelv es, and chairs.
3. Examine the ceiling and look for the following
patterns:
a) fire penetration and
b) heav iest fire exposure
4. Examine the light bulbs within the room. The side
of the bulbs which is initially exposed to heat
begin to swell or bulge and lose shape at about
900 ºF when exposed to heat for 10 minutes or
more actually point to the area of fire origin.
5. Examine walls within the room and look for fire
patterns or fire cones. Fires generally burn
upward and outward, leaving corresponding fire
patterns on wall as a result of heat transfer
through conv ection and radiation. The steepness
 or relativ e, pitch of the angle seen on the fire
cone is indicativ e of the type of burning, e.g
smoldering or flaming
Debris - Examine the fire debris and the floor in the
following manner:
o Conduct a detailed search of the debris,
examining it layer by layer until the floor is
reached;
o Completely clean the floor on all debris and char
dust. The floor and floor cov ering should be
clean enough to observ e and photograph the
significant burn and char patterns -and should
be dry.
o Carefully reconstruct and replace furnishings and
other articles in their original positions by using
burn patterns and corresponding protected
areas. During fire progress, legs and bases of
furniture and other items on the floor will protect
the floor, leav ing unburned marks which will aid
in repositioning.
o Examine the floor cov erings and floor for
significant patterns.
Furnishings - Examine fire damaged furnishing such as:
upholstered furniture couches, chairs, beds, etc.
Two (2) General Types of Burn Pattern
o Burn pattern that inv olv es a surface burning of
the item. This pattern is indicative of the presence
of a smoldering source of ignition. Examination of
supporting springs will disclose that tension still
exists.
o Burn, patterns involv ing deep penetration of one
portion with corresponding collapse of springs
and frame destruction: Spring collapse is caused
when the heating process occurs ov er an
extended length of time, causing the springs to
lose their tension and collapses of their own
weight.
Types of Fire/Arson Investigation
Basic Investigation
Purposes:
1. to determine what property was damage;
2. what the causes and reasons were;
3. the number and extent of injuries or fatalities;
and
4. the recommended correctiv e actions to prevent
recurrence.
Technical Investigation- It is an in-depth inv estigation to
determine more specific details of the cause and effects,
and to establish necessary correctiv e action.
Reasons in Conducting Technical Investigation
1. there is suspicion of arson in connection with any
fire;
2. there is suspicion of negligence or v iolation of
regulations;
3. the cause of any fire is undetermined (to
establish the most probable cause);
4. there is ev idence of negligence or
mismanagement in the fire suppression or rescue
operation,
5. loss of life or disabling as a result of fire.
Arson Investigation - The direct result of the basic or
technical inv estigation or it may be brought about from
outside knowledge.
FIRE SUPPRESSION, CONTROL AND EXTINGUISHMENT, AND
EXTINGUISHING AGENTS - The proper selection of an agent
or method of control or extinguishment is the most
important factor in determining the degree of a success of
a firefighting operation.
Fire Suppression - means showing down the rate of
burning, whereas, control means keeping the fire from
spreading or holding the fire to one area. Extinguishment is
putting the fire completely out.
Four Methods of Fire Extinguishment and How It Works
 Extinguishing fire is somewhat comparable to the
elimination of life. For example; the cooling of the
fire may be compared to asphyxiation
(elimination of the oxygen supply), and
separation may be compared with malnutrition
Compendium of Crime Detection and Investigation (CDI)
or starv ation. The tetrahedron concept adds a
fourth element - chemical reaction.
 Under the triangle-of-fire-concept, there are
three (3) ways of suppressing, controlling, and
extinguishing a fire, namely:
Cooling - The cooling process uses an extinguishing agent
whose primary characteristic, is heat absorption. Water is
the best general cooling agent for firefighting purposes.
Used on Class A fires, the water absorbs the heat
generated at the surface of the burning material, thus,
reducing the temperature of the material below its flash
point.
Smothering - excludes the oxygen from the fuel so that
the gases or v apors of the fuel cannot ignite and continue
the combustion. CO 2 and AFFF are used for this purpose.
Separation - The remov al of the fuel, as in the example of
turning off a v alv e in a gas line prev ents the fuel and
oxygen from coming together. If fuel is not av ailable, then
heat, regardless of the temperature, cannot affect the
fuel, Therefore, there is no fire.
 These three methods of extinguishment explain
how fires are extinguished with the used of water,
CO 2, and foam. They do not entirely account for
the results obtained by v aporizing liquids or dry
chemicals.
 Vaporizing liquids could not possibly absorb
enough heat to hav e the same effect as water,
and dry chemical do not exclude sufficient
oxygen to smother a fire in the same manner as
carbon dioxide.
 The next paragraph will explain the fourth
element, the chemistry of fire in terms of the
theory of reactiv ity.
Chemical Chain Reaction
 The fourth method of extinguishment is known as
inhibition or the interruption of chemical reaction.
 The sequence of ev ents in suppressing or
extinguishing a fire with dry chemicals or
v aporizing liquids includes some aspects of the
first three methods.
 Using the potassium bicarbonate (dry chemical)
as an example, you can follow the process of the
fourth method of extinguishment. Remember this
is a rapid reaction and does not necessarily
happen one step at a time.
 First, the heat of the fire v aporizes the potassium
bicarbonate thereby producing water, carbon
dioxide, and potassium dioxide. In the process of
v aporization and the change of these
compounds, a substantial amount of heat is
absorbed by the water and some smothering
occurs due to the release of CO 2.
 Second, the chemical reaction resulting, when
the potassium dioxide unites with the water
formed by the fire creates an amount of
potassium hydroxide.
 Third, some potassium hydroxide reacts with
certain products released from the fuel, thus
forming water and potassium monoxide. Other
potassium hydroxide molecules react with the
free hydrogen of the combustion to form’ a
potassium atom and molecules of water.
 Finally, this combination of reactions halts the
process of fuel uniting with oxygen of the air,
thereby breaking the chemical chain reaction
and stopping the fire.
Extinguishing Agentsv-vThe effectiv eness of an
extinguisher on a particular fire depends on the amount
and type of agent in the extinguisher. Different
extinguishing agents can be used to put out a certain
class of fire by one or more methods.
1. Remov ing oxygen;
2. Remov ing the fuel;
3 Remov ing heat; and
4. Interrupting the chemical chain reaction.
 Some extinguishing agents may be able to
extinguish more than one class of fire. They are
marked with multiple letters or multiple
numerical-letter ratings.
  The following are the most common extinguishing
agents, the class of fire they are used, and the
extinguishing methods used:
1. Water
 Used only on Class A fires. Water is the
most effectiv e in cooling the burning
material below its ignition temperature.
It is the most commonly used agent in
firefighting.
 In its natural state, it is highly stable and
may be used to extinguish most types of
fire if properly applied. Due to its
conductive properties, water should not
be used on electrical fires.
Additives:
 There are many additiv es for water
used in firefighting. Each of these has a
specific purpose and effect on the
water.
Ways or Methods Water Extinguishes Fires
Cooling - The outstanding heat absorbing qualities of
water make it an excellent cooling agent. In the cooling
process, water is applied in large enough amounts to
reduce the temperature of the surface of the burning
material to below its flashpoint. The amount of water
required depends on the burning material (temperature)
and the manner in which water is applied (straight or fog
stream).
Smothering - When water is used to smother a fire, stream
must be generated in sufficient amounts to exclude or
displaced air. If the steam generated is confined in the
combustion zone, the smothering action will be
enhanced. In ordinary combustibles, the cooling effects of
the water not the smother - normally causes
extinguishment. The smothering effect does not
completely extinguish the fire; rather, it has a tendency to
suppress flaming.
Usage
o Water is generally used on Class A fires. Fires
inv olving high flashpoint liquids (such as heavy fuel
oil, and asphalt) may be extinguished when water
is effectiv ely applied in spray form. Water may also
be used to extinguish Class C and Class D fires in
some cases. In these cases, use extreme caution
to av oid injury to personnel and/or damage to
equipment.
Carbon Dioxide (CO2)
o A number of its properties make CO 2 a desirable
extinguishing agent. It is non-combustible and
non-reactive with most substances. CO 2 prov ides
its pressure for discharge from storage cylinders or
extinguishers. Being a gas, CO 2 can penetrate and
spread to all parts of fire.
Effects:
o Extinguishment with CO 2 is primarily by smothering.
It cov ers or blankets the burning materials and
reduces the oxygen content to below lev els
needed for combustion. Ev en though it is v ery
cold, it has a little cooling effect on a fire when
compared with equal amounts of water. This is the
reason when fires that hav e been apparently
extinguished with CO 2 re-ignite from hot surfaces
or embers as the CO 2 dissipates.
Usage:
o Due to its non-conductiv ity, CO 2 is v ery effectiv e
for use on Class C fires. It is also used on Class B
fires, but another agent is needed in blanketing or
smothering on large are fires to prev ent re-ignition.
 CO 2 can cause unconsciousness and
death in connections needed for
extinguishment. A 9% concentration is
about all most people can take without
becoming unconscious within just a few
minutes.
Dry Chemical
 The dry chemical extinguishing agents in use
today are mixtures of powders and v arious
additiv es that improv e the storage, flow, and
water repellency of the powders. Sodium
Compendium of Crime Detection and Investigation (CDI)
bicarbonate, potassium bicarbonate, and mono
ammonium phosphate are some of the pow ders
commonly used today. Dry chemical is stable at
low temperatures, but it has an upper storage
temperature of 140 ºF. At temperatures abov e
140 ºF some caking or sticking of the powder
occurs. These agents are said to be non-toxic,
but in discharging large amounts they may
cause some breathing and v isibi1ity problems.
Effects:
 Flames banish almost at once when dry
chemical is applied directly to the fire area. But
the exact chemistry and mechanism of the
extinguishing agent are not fully known. It has
been suggested that the dry chemical agents
inhibit the chain reaction in the combustion zone
has a greater effect in the extinguishment than
the smothering or cooling actions and radiation
shielding hav e.
Dry Powder
 Dry powder is a generally term for agents used to
extinguish combustible metal fires. No one dry
powder has been found to be effectiv e, on all
types of combustible metals.
Effects:
 Dry powder generally extinguishes fires by
excluding air from the combustible metal. To
some extent, heat is absorbed by the powder to
lower the temperature of the metal to below
ignition point (as with G.I. powder).
Usage:
 Dry powder is used primarily on Class D fires and
should not be used on other types of fire, due to
its limited v alue on these fires.
Aqueous Film Forming Foam
 has replaced protein foam for all around
firefighting purposes. Protein base foam is now
used primarily for runway foaming operations
and for some training purposes.
Effects:
 The quick “knock-down” and “heat reduction”
properties of AFFF hav e prov n it to be a highly
effectiv e agent. These properties, combined with
its ability to seal the surface of burning
hydrocarbon fires to prev ent “flashback”, make
it an outstanding and effectiv e extinguishing
agent with which to work. When AFFF is applied
to the surface of a flammable liquid fire, the
surface activ e material (surfactant) prov ides a
v apor sealing effect. This is not only extinguishes
the fire but also prev ents the release of fuel
v apors which could result in flashbacks. This
v apor seal is also v ery hard to break-up by
walking, or mov ing some hose lines through it.
Usage:
 As with any other extinguishing agent, its
effectiv eness depends on the proper
application. The AFFF is designed to be applied
at a 6 % mixture (94 parts water to 6 parts AFFF
concentrate). This mixture should be applied in a
rainfall manner, or lobbing effect to allow rapid
spreading ov er the surface. It is used primarily to
extinguish on Class B fires. It may be used on
Class A fires but may be less effectiv e than plain
water. Foam spray (fog) is more conductiv e than
plain water fog, because the material contained
in the foam allows the water to conduct
electricity.
Halons (Halogenated Agents)
 These agents hav e been used for ov er 50 years.
Continuous research has brought these agents to
the present high degree of effectiv eness in
interrupting the chain reaction they possess
along with a decrease in life safety hazard.
 The older (better known) agents such as carbon
tetrachloride (Halon 104) and
chlorobromomethane (Halon 1011) are less
effectiv e and more toxic than the newer agents
now in use.
Effects:
 Halogenated agents work chemically to
extinguish fire. They stop combustion process by
breaking the fire chain reaction and prev ent
further fire propagation. This chemical fire-
stopping action happens with only a low
concentration of halogenated agent used.
Application of the agent may be applied locally
by using a compressed bottle of noncombustible
gas similar to a carbon dioxide fire extinguisher.
This type of application is effectiv e in controlling
or extinguishing surface fires inv olv ing flammable
liquid, solids, or gases, such as dip tanks, quench,
tanks, spray booths, oil-filled transformers, or
v apor v ents.
Usage:
 Halogenated agents are v ery effectiv e on Class
B and Class C fires and hav e some effects or
success on Class A fires.
FIRE EXTINGUISHERS
 First aid is the immediate and temporary care
giv en to an injured or sick person before or until
the arriv al of qualified personnel/doctor. When
the term first aid is used to describe a piece of
equipment, the same general meaning applies.
 Portable (first-aid) fire extinguishers are designed
to be used on fires as soon as possible after they
start and before the fire gets too far along. These
extinguishers may be able to extinguish the fire or
hold it in check until larger firefighting equipment
arriv es.
 Extinguishers are designed primarily for use by
people other than firefighters. The skill and
knowledge in their operation may mean the
difference between using one small fire
extinguisher or a big operation inv olv ing many
fire trucks and dozens of people to extinguish a
fire.
Fire Extinguisher Defined:
 It is a mechanical device usually made of metal,
containing chemicals, fluids, or gases for
stopping fires, the means for application of its
contents for the purpose of putting out fire
(particularly small fire) before it propagates, and
is capable of being readily mov ed from place to
place.
 It is a portable dev ice used to put out fires of
limited size.
Classes of Fire Extinguishers:
Portable Fire Extinguisher
 Portable fire extinguishers offer the greatest
potential for immediately controlling workplace
fires.
 Their portability and relativ ely easy operation
often make them ready for use within seconds.
Howev er, training and education is critical to
know more on the operations and use of an
extinguisher. Users should know how to identify
extinguishers, what types are av ailable, where
they are in the work place, and abov e all, how
to use them.
Dry Chemicals
 Dry Chemical extinguishers are usually rated for
multi-purpose use. It contains an extinguishing
agent and uses a compressed, non-flammable
gas as a propellant.
o Regular or ordinary (sodium and potassium
bicarbonate respectiv ely used only Class B
or Class C fires.
o Multi-purpose dry chemicals (ammonium
phosphate) used on Class A, Class B, and
Class C.
 Dry chemicals inhibit the chain reaction and, to a
certain degree, cool and smother the fire. These
agents are chemically treated with a substance
to keep them water resistant and free flowing.
This also helps prev ent packing of the chemical
while stored inside the extinguisher. These dry
chemical extinguishers may be found in sizes
which range from 2 ½ to 30 pounds.
Compendium of Crime Detection and Investigation (CDI)
Carbon Dioxide
 used on Class B and Class C fires. CO 2
extinguishes fire by smothering, reducing the
oxygen lev el, below that which supports
combustion. Under certain conditions, the
coldness of the gas also helps put out the fire. It is
an inert gas. When CO 2 is stored under pressure
in a cylinder or tank such a fire extinguisher, it
changes from a v apor to a liquid. When it passes
through the discharge v alv e of a fire extinguisher,
it changes from a liquid to a gas and the
expansion chills it to low temperatures so that
approximate 30% of the liquid CO 2 is conv erted
into a solid dioxide “snow” or “dry ice.” The
cooling will often cause ice to form around the
“horn” where the gas is expelled from the
extinguisher. Since there is the possibility that the
fire could re-ignite, continue to apply the agent
ev en after the fire appears to be out.
Foam
 used only on Class A and B fires. Foam remov es
fuel by forming a layer ov er a burning liquid and
prev enting flammable v apors from escaping.
Foam will also smother by keeping oxygen from
mixing with the v apors and cool with a constant
layer of water bearing foam
Halons
 used on Class B and C fires. These liquefied gases
are most effectiv e in interrupting the chain
reaction, but they also hav e slight smothering
and cooling effects. These are made up of
carbon and one or more halogen elements like
fluorine, chlorine, iodine, and bromine. These
types of extinguishers are often used to protect
v aluable electrical equipment since they leav e
no residue to clean up unlike CO 2. Halon
extinguishers have a limited range, usually from 4-
6 feet. The initial application should be made at
the base of the fire, ev en after the fires hav e
been put out.
Metal/Sand Extinguishers
 these types of extinguishers are primarily used for
flammable metals (Class D) and hav e the
characteristics of a blanketing effect
(smothering) on the fire. The most common
extinguishing agent used is sodium chloride.
 The following are different types of Metal/Sand
Extinguishing Agents:
Sodium chloride
 used for metal fires inv olving magnesium, sodium
(spills and in depth), potassium,
sodium/potassium alloys, uranium and powdered
aluminum. Heat from the fire causes the agent to
harden and form a crust that excludes air and
dissipates heat.
Powdered Copper Metal (Cu metal)
 used for fires inv olving lithium and lithium alloys. It
is the only known lithium fire fighting agent which
will cling to a v ertical surface thus making it the
preferred agent used on three dimensional and
flowing fires.
Graphite-based powders
 these are designed for use on lithium fires. It is
also effectiv e on fires inv olv ing high melting
metals such as zirconium and titanium.
Specially-designed sodium bicarbonate-based dry agents
 used to suppress fires with most metal alkyls,
pyrophoric liquids which ignite on contact, with
air, such as triethylaluminum.
Sodium-carbonate-based dry powders
 can be used with most Class D fires inv olv ing
sodium, potassium or sodium/potassium alloys.
This agent is recommended where stress,
corrosion of stainless steel must be kept to an
absolute minimum.
Halotron I Extinguishers
 These extinguishers are intended for use on class
B and Class C fires. Halotron I is an ozone-friendly
replacement for Halon 1211 (which was banned
 by international agreements starting 1994). This
“clean” agent discharges as a liquid, has a high
v isibility during discharge, does not cause
thermal or static shock, leav es no residue and is
non-conducting. These properties make it ideal
for computer rooms, clean rooms,
telecommunications equipment, and electronics,
and it is expensiv e.
FE-36 - (Hydrofluorocarbon-236fa or known as HFC-236fa)
 it is a DuPont-manufactured Halon 1211
replacement. This agent is less toxic than both
Halon 1211 and Halotron I. It has a zero ozone-
depleting effect or potential. FE-36 is not
scheduled for phase-out whereas Halotron I
production is slated to cease in 2015.
Water Mist Extinguishers
 Ideal used for Class A fire where a potential Class
C hazard exists. Unlike an ordinary water
extinguisher, the misting nozzle prov ides safety
from electric shock and reduces scattering of
burning materials. In non-magnetic v ersions,
water mist extinguishers are the preferred choice
for MRI or NMR facilities or for deployment on
mine sweeper.
 Portable fire extinguishers are no substitute for
sprinkler systems, hose streams, or other fire
fighting dev ices. They contain a limited supply of
extinguishing agent, and their discharge range
and time is limited. But they are necessary ev en
when property is protected by an automatic fire
protection dev ice.
Steps in using portable fire extinguishers:
1. Pull the pin at the top of extinguisher. When in
place, the pin keeps the handle from being
pressed, breaking the plastic or wire inspection
band. Point the nozzle or outlet toward the base
of thefire. If the hose is clipped to the extinguisher
body, unclip it first.
2. Press the handle abov e the carrying handle to
discharge the agent. To stop the discharge,
release the handle.
3. Sweep the nozzle in side to side motion before
the flames to spread the extinguishing agent.
Direct the agent at the base of the flames. After
the fire is out, probe for smoldering hot spot or
liquids that could reignite. Make sure the fire is
out. Back away from the fire area to protect
yourself from possible danger or flashback.
Semi-Portable/Wheeled Extinguisher
 These types of extinguishers prov ide a way of
getting a sizeable amount of extinguishing agent
to a fire rapidly. These units are designed for in
plant protection and offer a considerably longer
agent discharge period and greater firefighting
power. Capacities range from 100 to 350 lbs. of
dry chemical agent. Generally, nitrogen in a
separate tank releases the agent through a
flexible hose tipped with a spray nozzle. The units
typically hav e a 50 foot (15 m) hose that allows
considerable maneuv erability while combating
fires.
Steps to Operate, a wheeled type extinguisher:
1. Open the compressed gas cylinder to pressurize the
agent;
2. Free the hose from its reel and mov e toward the fire;
3. Point the nozzle toward the base of the fire;
4. Squeeze the nozzle to discharge the agent. To stop
discharging, release the nozzle action.
Inspection and Maintenance of Extinguishers:
 Once a fire extinguisher is purchased and
installed, it becomes the responsibility of the
owner to maintain the extinguisher so that it
remains fully operable. To fulfill this responsibility,
there should be a program to prov ide for the
periodic inspection of each extinguisher and an
effectiv e distinguisher maintenance program
 Fire extinguisher maintenance is a specialized
activ ity and should be performed by competent
persons. Fire extinguishers provided to protect life
and property and there should be no doubt as to
their reliability in time of emergency.
Compendium of Crime Detection and Investigation (CDI)
 The more common types of extinguishers that
you may come in contact with are the following
1. Water
2. Carbon Dioxide
3. Dry Chemical
4. Dry Powder
Carbon Dioxide Extinguishers
 CO 2 is an inert gas that extinguishes fires by
smothering rather than by cooling. The heat-
absorbing capacity of CO 2 is v ery limited, being
only 10 % that of water.
 When CO 2 is stored under pressure in a cylinder
or fire extinguisher, it changes from a v apor to a
liquid. When it passes through the discharge
v alv e of a fire extinguisher, the change takes
place from a liquid to a gas and the expansion
chills it to low temperature.
 Internal pressure generated by CO 2 stored in a
tank or cylinder is proportional to the
temperature; therefore, these extinguishers
should not be placed in locations where heat is
intense and they must be protected from the
direct rays of the sun during hot weather. At
room temperature, the CO 2 gas exerts a pressure
of more than 800 psi in the extinguishers. The high
internal pressure at normal temperatures requires
that container must be made of heavy materials.
 An empty 15-pound capacity extinguisher
weighs approximately 35 pounds. The 15-pound
hand extinguisher and 50-pound hand-drawn
wheel-type extinguisher are the most commonly
used in firefighting operation.
Dry-Chemical Extinguishers
 Various compounds of dry-chemical agents are
used. Some of the more common ones are
sodium bicarbonate, potassium bicarbonate,
and an ammonium phosphate which is a multi-
purpose agent. These agents are chemically
treated with a substance to keep them water
resistant and free flowing.
 This also helps prev ent packing of the chemical
while stored inside the extinguisher. These dry-
chemical extinguishers may be found in different
sizes which range from 2 Y2 to 30 pounds. The 30-
pound size is the most common size used.
 The extinguishers may be cartridge-operated or
may be of stored- pressure type. The design of
the stored-pressure type is similar to the
pressurized-water type.
Dry-Powder Extinguishers
 These types of extinguishers are designed for use
on Class D fires. Their sizes may v ary from the
small 1 lb., to the 350-pound wheeled type
extinguishers. The 30-pound type is the most
common type used in the U.S. Air Force. The
agents used I the extinguishers may be in powder
or in granule form.
 Using these agents on the wrong type of metal
fire may result .in a serious explosion, release of
toxic gases, or both, thus endangering the users
and others. One agent can be used on sev eral
types of metal fires, while another agent v an be
used only on one specific type of metal fire.
These agents are also treated to remain water-
resistiv e and free-flowing under stored conditions.
The law on destructive arson
LAWS ON ARSON
 This chapter will present and point out what are
the reasons that contribute to the spread of fire.
There are three principal causes of fire namely:
men, women, and children. This statement still
has considerable significance because most of
the more than one and a quarter million building
fires that occur ev ery year in the United States
and Asian countries particularly the Philippines
are cause by human errors either of omission or
commission. For that reason considerable
importance is placed upon educating the public
along fire prev ention lines or programs. For many
years we hav e referred to the “causes” of fire.
This was not always strictly correct. For example,
flammable liquids hav e been listed as on of the
causes of fire, yet flammable liquids cannot
 alone cause a fire unless some ignition source is
prov ided, and one may well ask, “What caused
the fire, the flammable liquid or the ignition
source?
 In the United, States, the inv estigation of fires for
their causes and the detection and
apprehension of arsonists is correctly the function
of the fire department. Arson and the malicious
activ ities of many persons cause a significant
impact each year in this country and abroad.
There are many motiv es that contribute to these
crimes.
 The legal authority for inv estigating fires and
prosecuting people who arranged for a fire is
usually giv en to the State Fire Marshall. But
prov ing a case of arson against one or more
persons is another matter entirely, and may not
be possible no matter how conv inced the
inv estigator may be of the guilt. The choice of
whether to prosecute is up to the District
Attorney’s office as part of the criminal justice
system.
 In the Philippines, under the DILG or PNP Law, the
Bureau of Fire Protection and Public Safety is the
main gov ernment agency responsible for the
prev ention and suppression of all destructiv e fires
on buildings, houses and other structures, forest,
land transportation v ehicles and equipment,
ships or v essels docked at piers or major seaports,
petroleum industry installations, plane crashes
and other similar incidents, as well as the
enforcement of the Fire Code (P.D. 1185) and
other related law.
 It has the major power to inv estigate all causes of
fires, and if necessary, file the proper complaints
with the proper authority that has jurisdiction over
the case (R.A. 6975, sec 54).
What Constitute Arson?
 Burning - there must be burning or changing, i.e.,
the fiber of the wood must be destroyed or
decomposed, its identity or physical state
changed.
 Willfulness - the act was done purposely and with
intention.
 Motive - the mov ing cause that induces the
commission of the crime.
 Malice - it denotes hatred or a desire for
rev enge.
 Intent - the purpose or design with which the act
is done and inv olv es the will to do the act
Methods of Proof in Arson
 Most of the physical ev idence in arson is often
destroyed. To prov e arson was committed,
Corpus Delicti (the Body of the Crime) must be
shown and the identity of the arsonist must be
established.
What is Corpus Delicti? - It is the fact of that crime was
committed.
Factors involved
 Burning - that there was fire that may be shown
by direct testimony of complainant, firemen
responding to the crime, and other witnesses of
the fire incident. Burned parts of the building may
also indicate location.
 Crimina1 Design - a willful and intent action
done must be shown. The presence of incendiary
dev ices, flammable substances/materials such as
gasoline and kerosene may indicate that the fire
is not accidental.
 Evidence of Intent - when v aluables were
remov ed from the building before the fire, the ill-
feeling between the accused and the
occupants of the building inv olv ed or burned -
absence of effort to put off the fire and such
other indications.
Points of Origin of Fire - Initially, the important point to be
established is the point of origin of the fire, or what
particular place in the building the fire started. This may be
obtained or established by an examination of witness/es
by the arson inv estigator, by inspection of the debris at the
fire scene, and by studying the fingerprint of fire
Compendium of Crime Detection and Investigation (CDI)
The fingerprint of fire - This occurs during the free-burning
stage of the fire, or when it undergoes pyrolytic
decomposition or heated gases mov e upward on the
walls leav ing a burnt pattern.
Witnesses must be questioned as to:
 His identity;
 What attracted his attention;
 The time of observ ation;
 His position in relation to the fire at the time of
his observ ation;
 Exact location of the blaze;
 The rapidity or the speed of spread of the fire;
 Color of flame and odor if he/she is in position to
observ e this;
 Size and intensity;
 Any other person in the v icinity seen by the
witness.
Note Fire Setting Mechanism:
 matches
 candles
 electrical system
 mechanical means
 chemical methods
Motive
Persons with motives.
 those with desire to defraud the insurer
 employees or such other person who has
griev ance
 those with desire to conceal ev idence of crime
 those who set fire for purposes of intimidation.
Persons without motive
 those who are mentally ill
 pathological fire-setters
 Pyros (pyromaniac)
 Psychos
In determining motiv e, the arson investigator concentrates
on the three (3) Major Factors namely:
1. Point of Origin
2. Modus Operandi
3. Beneficiaries
What are the common motives of arsonist?
Economic Gain
 Insurance fraud – benefits
 Desire to dispose merchandise - loss of market
v alue being out of season, lack of raw materials,
ov er supply of merchandise.
Profit by the Perpetrator other than the Insured Person
 Insurance agent wishing business with the insured
person
 Business competitors plan to driv e others
 Person seeking job as personnel protection
 Salv agers and contractors wishing to contract
another building.
Concealment of Crime - when the purpose of hiding a
crime or committing a crime, arson was used as a means.
Pyromania
 the uncontrollable impulse of a person to burn
anything without any motivation.
o Abnormal youth - epileptics, imbeciles
and morons
o Hero type - a person responsible setting
a building on fire and pretends to
discov er it, turn the alarm or make some
rescue works to appear as “hero”.
o Drug Addicts and Alcoholics
o Sexual Deviates and Perverts
Development of Prime Suspects
 This identification results from the full
dev elopment of leads, clues and traces, the
testimony of persons particularly eyewitnesses
and the dev elopment of expert testimony.
Techniques used in investigating Arson Incidents
 search of the fire scene for physical ev idence
 protection of the scene
  mechanics of search
 collection and preserv ation of ev idence
 laboratory aids
 background study of policy holders, occupants
of the premises, owner of the building or other
person hav ing major interest in the fire.
 interv iew and interrogations of person/s who
discov ered the fire, the person who activated
the fire alarm, firemen, and eyewitnesses.
 surv eillance
Tell Tale Signs - These signs maybe obv ious that the first
fireman at the fire scene will suspect arson:
Burned Building - the type of building may indicate a set
fire under certain circumstances. A fire of considerable size
at the time the first apparatus arriv es at the scene is
suspicious if a modern concrete or semi-concrete building
is inv olv ed.
Separate fires - when two or more fire breaks out within a
building, the building is certainly suspicious.
Color of smoke
 some fire burn with little or no smoke but there
are exceptions to this. The observ ation of the
smoke must be made at the start of the fire since
once the fire has consumed a major proportion;
the v alue of the smoke is lost, because the smoke
will not indicate the material used by the arsonist.
 When white smoke appears before the water
from the fire hose comes in contact with the fire,
it indicates humid materials burning. Examples:
hay, v egetables, phosphorous with garlic odor.
 Biting smoke indicates lack of air but if
accompanied large flames it indicates
petroleum products and rubber.
 Reddish-brown smoke indicates nitrocellulose.
SI,H 2, SO 4, HNO 3, HCl.
Indication of Color of Smoke and Fire
Color of Smoke Material/Substance
Black smoke with deep red Petroleum products
flame such as tar, rubber,
plastics, etc.
Heavy brown with bright red Nitrogen products
flame
White smoke with bright Magnesium products
flame
Black smoke with red and Asphalt
blue green flame
Purple-v iolet flame Potassium products
Greenish-yellow flame Chloride and
manganese products
Bright reddish-yellow flame Calcium products
Smoke Marks - an experienced investigator will determine
the v olume of smoke inv olved at a fire and the character
as residue deposited on walls or elsewhere. Smoke marks
hav e often been of assistance in determining the
possibility of a fire hav ing more than one place of origin.
Color of Flame - The color of the flame is a good indicator
of the intensity of the fire, it is an important factor in
determining incendiarism.
o A reddish glow indicates heat of about
5000 ºC., a real light red about 1000 º
o Red flames indicate presence of petroleum
products
o Blue flame indicates use of alcohol as
accelerant
Size of fire - The size of fire is important when correlated
with the type of alarm, the time receiv ed and the time of
arriv al of the first responder at the fire scene. Fire makes
what might be termed a normal progress. Such progress
can be estimated after an examination of the material
burned in the building, and the normal v entilation offered
to the fire. The time element and the degree of headway
much by the flames became important factors to
determine possible incendiarism.
Direction of Travel - While it is admitted that no two fires
burn in identical fashion, yet it can be shown that the fire
makes normal progress through v arious types of building.
Considering the type of construction, the building
Compendium of Crime Detection and Investigation (CDI)
materials, combustibility of contents, channel of v entilation
and circumstances surrounding the sending of alarm, an
experienced inv estigator can determine whether a fire
has spread abnormally fast.
Intensity - The degree of heat giv en off by a fire and the
color of its flame often times indicate that some
accelerant has been added to the material normally
present in a building and the investigator must look further
for more ev idence used of such accelerant. Difficulty in
extinguishing the fire is often a lead to suspect presence of
such fluid or liquid as gasoline and kerosene.
Odor - The odor of gasoline, alcohol, kerosene and other
flammable liquids which are often used as an accelerant
is a characteristics, and often times an arsonists is trapped
because of this tell tale sign. Most of fire-setters are
inclined to use substances which will make the blaze
certain and at the same time burn up any ev idence of
their crime.
Condition of Content - Persons tending to set their house
on fire frequently remov e objects of v alue either materially
or sentimentally. Store and other business establishments
remov e a major portion of their content or replace
v aluable merchandise with, out of style articles.
Doors and windows - Locked doors and obstructed
entrance and passageways are sometimes point to an
attempt to impeded firemen in their operation to put out
the fire. Doors and windows showing signs of forced entry
may point to arson preceded by burglary or arson by
someone without a key to the premises.
Other Suspicious Circumstances - Interested by-standers of
familiar faces and discov ery of some objects which might
be part of a mechanical fire-setting device among debris.
Arson and other crimes involving destruction
Arson
 It is the intentional or malicious destruction of
property by fire.
 The Legal Aspect’s of Arson/Fire Inv estigation
o It is the concern of the fire inv estigator to
prov e malicious intent of the offender.
Intent must be prov ed, otherwise no crime
exist.
o The law presumes that a fire is accidental,
hence criminal designs must be shown.
o Fire caused by accident or criminal design
must be shown.
o Fire caused by accident or negligence
does not constitute arson.
Basis of Criminal Liability in Arson:
1. Kind and character of the building burned;
2. Location of the building;
3. Extent of v alue of the damage;
4. Whether inhabited or not.
Destructive Arson is committed by burning of the following:
 Any arsenal, shipyard, storehouse, military
installation, powder or firework factory,
ordinance, storehouse, archives or general
museum of the gov ernment;
 Any passenger train or motor v ehicle in motion,
or v essel out of ports;
 In an inhabited place, any storehouse or factory
of inflammable or explosiv e materials; and
 Any theatre, church, cockpit arena, or other
buildings where meetings are held, when
occupied by numerous assemblage.
Other forms of Arson
 Setting fires to any buildings, farmhouse,
warehouse, hut shelter, or v essel in port, knowing
it to be occupied at the time by one or more
person/s;
 Building burned is a public and purpose is to
destroy ev idence kept therein to be used in
legislativ e, judicial or administrativ e proceedings,
irrespectiv e of the damage, if the ev idence is to
be used against the dependant of any crime
punishable under existing law;
 Burned building is a public and the purpose is to
destroy ev idence kept therein to be used in
 instituting prosecution for punishment of v iolators reaching the bottom where he will find the “pot
of law, irrespectiv e of the amount of damage. of gold”, the ev idence.

Arson of Property of Small Value (Art. 323, RPC)
Elements
 Burning of any uninhabited hut, storehouse, barn,
shed, or any other property;
 Value of property does not exceed twenty five
pesos(25.00).
 Under circumstances clearly excluding all
danger of the fire spreading.
Crimes involving Destruction
 Offender causes destruction by any of the
following means:
o explosion;
o discharge of electric current;
o inundation, sinking or stranding of a v essel;
o taking up the rails from a railway, track;
o malicious changing of railway signals for the
safety of mov ing train;
o by using any other agency or means of
destruction;
o destroying telegraph wires and telegraph
post or those other communication system.
Article 325, RPC
 Burning of ones own property as a means of
committing Arson. This article punishes the
burning of one’s, own property for the purpose of
committing arson or great destruction of
property.
Article 326, RPC
Setting fire to property exclusively owned by the offender.
This article prov ides the purpose of the offender to:
 defraud or cause damage to another, or
 damaged is actually caused upon another’s
property ev en such purpose is absent, or
 thing burned is a building in an inhabited place.
P.D. No. 1613 - Amending the Law on Arson
Special
Aggravating Circumstances in Arson
 If committed with intent to gain;
 If committed with the benefit of another;
 If the offender is motiv ated by spite or hatred
towards the owner or occupant of the property
burned;
 If committed by a syndicate (three or more
persons).
Steps in Tracing the Origin of Fire and Searching for
Evidence
External/Outside Survey
 careful conduct of inspection to the burned
building
Internal/Inside Survey
 enter the building to correlate the same with the
outside surv ey of the structure in question
 Locate the point of origin of fire, the ceiling area
must checked first.
Look for Prima Facie Evidence of Arson
 Entering the Building: When entering the building,
the inv estigator should observe the following:
 Look for mark on doors and windows not burned
for possible indication of forcible entry.
 Notice whether the intruder has discarded tools
used for forcible entry.
 Notice unusual arrangement of the building
content.
 Stocks or substitution of stocks, new expensiv e
stocks hav e been remov ed, substituted by
second hand or old stocks
Guidelines in the Investigation of Arson:
Arrival and Observation
 observ e person/vehicle leaving the area
 characteristics of person/v ehicle leaving the
area
 unusual road/street condition
 barricade showing the progress of response
 v ehicle parked in such a manner as to create
obstruction to the fire scene.
Observation
 identify the person who called the fire
department
 first person who leav e the fire scene
 did the fire occur during or after business hour?
 Was it during daytime or night time?
 Condition of traffic in the area.

Prima Facie Evidence of Arson

 If the fire started simultaneously in more than one
part of the building or establishment;
 If substantial amount of flammable substances or
materials are stored within the building not
necessary in the business of the offender nor for
household use;
 If gasoline, kerosene, petroleum, or other
flammable or combustible substances or
materials soaked therewith or containers thereof,
or any mechanical, electrical, chemical, or
electronic contriv ance designed to start a fire, or
ashes, or traces of any of the foregoing are
found in the ruins or premises of the burned
building or property;
 If the building or property is insured for
substantially more than its actual v alue at the
time of the issuance of the policy;
 If during the lifetime of the corresponding fire
insurance policy more than two fires hav e
occurred in the same or other premises owned or
under the control of the offender and/or insured;
 If shortly before the fire, a substantial portion of
the effects endured and stored in a building or
property had been withdrawn from the premises;
 If a demand for money or other v aluable
consideration was made before the fire in
exchange for the desistance of the offender or
for the safety of the person or property of v ictim.

Searching for Evidence

 The safest procedure is for the inv estigator to start
at the top of the heap and carefully remov ing
the objects one by one, laying them aside until

Compendium of Crime Detection and Investigation (CDI)

 ORGANIZED CRIME INVESTIGATION (INTTODUCTION TO
TRANSNATIONAL CRIME)
1. Charles “Lucky” Luciano - Father of “Modern
Organized Crime” in United States
2. Alphonese Gabriel “the Scar Face’ Capone - boss
of Chicago Outfit
3. Toto Riina - “Mafia Boss” and was arrested on 1993
4. Amado Carillo Fuentes - Lord of the Skies
5. Rodrigo Orejuela Crime Group (Columbia) - Founder
of Cali Colombia “Drug Cartel
6. Bernardo Provenzado
 The Tractor
 The Accountant
 The Boss of all the Boss
o Joe Pistone
o “Donnie” name of Operation
ORGANIZED CRIME INVESTIGATION (PRC)
1. Concepts, nature, and attributes of organized
crime;
2. Kinds, origin, and modes of operations OC;
3. Transnational or borderless crimes;
1. Trafficking in Persons
2. Terrorism
3. Drug Trafficking
4. Cybercrime/ Cyber/Technology crimes;
(RA 10175)
5. Money Laundering
6. Env ironmental Crime
7. Economic crime
8. Intellectual Property Theft
9. Piracy and Armed Robbery Against
Ships
10. Illicit Trade (smuggling) of Small Arms
and Light Weapons
4. Organized syndicates;
5. International and national laws, decrees, treaties
and statutes.
Concept of Organized Crime
 Organized Crime poses a direct threat to
national and international security and stability,
and continues a frontal attack on political and
legislative authority. Organized crimes disrupt
and compromise social and economic
institutions, thus causing a loss of faith in
democratic process.
WHAT IS ORGANIZED CRIME?
 An organized criminal group shall mean a
structured group of three or more persons,
existing for a period of time and acting in
concert with the aim of committing one or more
serious crimes or offences in order to obtain,
directly or indirectly, a financial or other material
benefit. (UN, PALERMO ITALY, 2000)
 All illegal activ ities engaged in by members of
criminal syndicates operativ es throughout the
United States and all illegal activ ities engaged in
by known associates and confederates of such
members. (U.S Department of Justice)
 Group activ ities of three or more persons, with
hierarchical links or personal relationships, which
permits their leaders to earn profits or control
territories or markets, internal or foreign, by
means of violence, intimidation or corruption,
both in furtherance of criminal activity and to
infiltrate the legitimate economy.
 Any enterprise or group of persons engaged in a
continuing illegal activ ity which has as its primary
purpose the generation of profits and
continuance of the enterprise regardless of
national borders. (INTERPOL, according t o P.J.
Ryan and G.E. Rush)
 any group hav ing some manner of formalized
structure and whose primary objective is to
obtain money through illegal activities(FBI,
according t o H. Abaddinsky)
 Planned commission of criminal offenses,
determined by the pursuit of profit and power,
inv olv ing more than two persons ov er a
prolonged or indefinite period of time, using a
commercial or business license scheme,
v iolence, and/or intimidation. (BKA, Germany—
BUNDESKRIMINALAMT)
 Is any crime committed by a person occupying,
in an established div ision of labor, a position
Compendium of Crime Detection and Investigation (CDI)
designed for the commission of crimes prov iding
that such div ision of labor includes at least one
position for corrupter, one position for corruptee,
and one position for an enforcer(FBI)
For Organized Group to Work usually it has at least the
following:
1. AN ENFORCER
2. A CORRUPTER
3. A CORRUPTEE
AN ENFORCER - The one who makes for the arrangements
for the killing (injuring or carrying out the task physically,
economically or psychologically) the members or non-
members.
A CORRUPTER - the one who corrupts or bribes, intimidate
or threatens, negotiate or “sweet talks” into a relationship
with public officials, law enforcement officer, or anyone
who would be of help in obtaining security and immunity
from possible arrest, prosecution and punishments.
o RA 3019 “Anti-Graft and Corruption”
o RA 7080 “Plunder”
o PD 1379”I’ll gotten wealth”
o RA 9160, RA 9160, 9194, RA 10167”Anti-Money
Laundering
o PD 46 Giv ing gift to the Public Officer
A CORRUPTEE - a public officials, law enforcement officers
or anybody who not a member of the organization who
can helps the organization
o Ex. Public officer or Coddler
Scale of Organized Criminal
1. Any hierarchical structure
2. internal support
3. money laundering
4. corruption and bribery of legal system officials
5. inv olv ement in more than one illegal activ ity
6. organizations that hide behind front companies
7. criminal activ ities which take place ov er a long
period of time
8. Members who act v iolently against competitors.
CHARACTERISTICS OF ORGANIZED CRIMES
 It is a conspiracy activ ity inv olv ing coordination
of members.
o Conspiracy “the act of one is the act of
all”
 Economic gain is the primary goal.
 Economic goal is achiev ed through illegal
means.
 Employs predatory tactics such as intimidation,
violence and corruption.
 Effectiv e control ov er members, associates
and v ictims.
 Organized crimes do not include terrorists
dedicated to political change.
ATTRIBUTES OF ORGANIZED CRIMES (HI – PEDICHI)
1. Has no political goal
2. Is hierarchical
3. Has a limited or exclusiv e membership
4. Constitute a unique subculture
5. Perpetuates itself
6. Exhibits a willingness to use illegal v iolence and
bribery
7. Demonstrates specialization/ div ision of labor
8. Is monopolistic
9. Is gov erns by explicit rules and regulations
Have no Political Goals - Organized crime is basically
motivated by money and power. It is not social doctrine
neither political belief nor ideological concerns that
motiv ated leaders and members of the organized crime
groups. Political inv olv ement may be part of its activ ities
for the purpose of gaining protection for its illegal
activ ities.
Is Hierarchical - An organized crime has a v ertical power
structure with at least three (3) ranks. The aut horit y is
inherent in t he posit ion and does not depend on who
happens t o be occupying it at any given t ime. See
mentioned abov e the corruptee, corrupter and enforcer
Limited or Exclusive Membership - The criteria such as
ethnic background, race, kinship, criminal record and
other similar consideration seems to be the basis for
membership in an organized crime group.
 Sponsorship by a ranking members and behavior
characteristics also plays important factors for
recruitment such as but not limited to: willingness
to commit criminal act, follow the rules and
regulations and secrecy in the organization.
Constitute a unique subculture - Members of the organized
crime group considered themselv es distinct from the
conventional society. They look at the society as “weak
and st upid” and t reat them with derisions if not contempt ,
and therefore not subject to its rules. This is sometimes
referred to as “the underworld”.
Perpetuates itself (to last longer) - An organized criminal
group constitutes an ongoing criminal conspiracy
designed to persist through time; that is, beyond the life of
the current membership. In order for the group to surv iv e,
it must have an institutionalized process for inducting new
members and inculcating them with the values and ways
of behaving of the social system. This is shown by the
depth of the sub-cultural orientation exhibited by the
group.
Willingness to use Illegal Violence and Bribery - Violence is
readily av ailable and acceptable in an
organized crime group as a means to achiev e its
goal. Bribery becomes necessary so as to
protect its operation and insure lesser chance of
detection and suppression.
Demonstrate Specialization/Division of Labor - There is a
need for established functional position filled with qualified
members. Commonly, there is a need for:
1. An enforcer, one who carries out difficult
assignments inv olv ing the use of v iolence,
including murder, in a rational manner. He
may use members or non-members or ev en
a specialist to carry out the assignment; and
2. A corrupter (fixer/money mov er), excels in
dev eloping contacts.
MONOPOLISTIC - An organized crime group eschew
competition. It striv es for hegemony ov er a particular
geographic area, a particular “industry”, legitimate or
illegitimate, or a combination of both.
 A monopoly, of course, restrains “free trade” and
increases profits. An organized crime monopoly is
maintained by v iolence, by the threat of
v iolence, or by corrupt relationships with law
enforcement officials. A combination of both
methods, v iolence and corruption, may be
employed.
GOVERNS BY EXPLICIT RULES AND REGULATION
 An organized crime group, like a legitimate
organization, has a set of rules and regulations
that members are expected to follow.
 In an organized crime group, howev er, a”rule-
violating member is not fired but, more likely,
fired upon”
 In a conv ersation with his brother-in-law (the son
of a murdered mob boss and an attorney who
had filed a lawsuit against his business partner in
the Genov ese Family), Salv atore Profaci, a
caporegime in the Colombo Family, pointed out,
“Goodfellas don’t sue goodfellas. Goodfellas kill
goodfellas”. These attributes are arrayed in a
structure that enables the OC group to achiev e
its goals-money and power
STRUCTURE OF ORGANIZED CRIME GROUPS
 The bureaucratic / Corporate model
 Patrimonial/ Patron Client
The Bureaucratic/ Corporate Model
 Max Weber – coined the word ”Bureaucracy”
 It is characterized by specialized function
 The corporation, the police, and the military are
examples of bureaucracies, that mode of
organization essential for efficiently carrying out
large scale tasks.
o A complicated hierarchy
o An extensiv e div ision of labor
o Positions assigned on the basis of skill
o Responsibilities carried out in an impersonal
manner
Compendium of Crime Detection and Investigation (CDI)
o Extensiv e written rules and regulations
o Communication from the top of the hierarchy to
persons on the bottom, usually
o in written (memo) form
Whenever an entity-club, business, crime group-continues
to expand, at some point it will hav e to adopt the
bureaucratic style of organization. For example, a “mom
and pop grocery” need not hav e any of the attributes of
a bureaucracy. The owners and workers are related, and
the structure is informal and kinship based. If the business
expands-the owners establish many groceries-a formal
hierarchy becomes necessary as do skilled persons and a
div ision of labor; there will be extensiv e written rules and
regulations, and directiv es will be v ia the hierarchy. Thus,
the model of organization adopted by an entity-legitimate
or criminal-will depend on the scope of its operations and
the organizational experience of its leaders. We will
examine the structure of the outlaw motorcycle club best
explained by the military experience of its early members-
the military is the quintessential bureaucracy.
Patrimonial/ Patron Client (Inherent)
 It is a characteristic of traditional societies that
centers on families, patrons and their clients, and
other personalities networks.
Many aspects of bureaucracy are impractical for criminal
organizations because they must be concerned with the
v ery real possibility that communications are being
monitored. Telephone use must be limited (often only to
arrange for in-person meetings), and written
communication is av oided. Information, as well as orders,
money, and other goods, is transmitted on an intimate,
face-to-face basis. Lengthy chains of command,
characteristic of modem bureaucracy, are impractical for
OC, and this limits the span of control. A Randall Collins
point out that control is a special problem for patrimonial
organizations. Bureaucracies dev elop, he argues, to
ov ercome such problems: “Patrimonial organizations
cannot be v ery well controlled much beyond the sight of
the master.” He notes that when the geographic range
becomes too great, the organization collapses into
feudalism. In OC, this can hav e deadly consequences:
When Lucchese crime Family boss Vittorio (“Little Vic”)
Amuso of New York lost control of the New Jersey faction
of his Family, he declared them outlaws and ordered the
entire crew executed.
The patrimonial organization is a characteristic of
traditional societies that “centers on families, patrons and
their clients, and other personalistic networks. The
emphasis is on traditional rituals that demonstrate the
emotional bonds among men.” In contrast, personal ties in
the modem bureaucratic organizations “are weaker, less
ritualized, and emotionally demonstrativ e; in their place is
the allegiance to a set of abstract rules and positions. The
different class cultures in patrimonial and bureaucratic
organizations are accordingly affected. Patrimonial elites
are more ceremonious and personalistic. Bureaucratic
elites emphasize a colder set of ideals”.
Patrimonial/patron-client networks characterize most
American Mafia groups.
A network consists of a collection of connected
points or junctures. Ev ery person is embedded in a social
network, notes Jeremy Boissev ain, “the chains of persons
with whom a giv en person is in contact.” Because contact
can be through a chain of persons, an indiv idual can send
“messages” to far more people than he or she knows
directly. These are the “friends of friends,” a phrase that in
Sicily refers to mafiosi: “Every individual provides a point at
which networks interact. But not everyone displays the
same interest in and talent for cultivating relationships with
strategic persons for profit”. To be successful, each
member of OC from the boss down to a soldier-just like
Sicilian Mafiosi-must display such interest and talent. This is
done by acting as a patron.
When a social exchange relationship becomes
unbalanced, we hav e a patron-client relationship. The
patron “prov ides economic aid and protection against
both the legal and illegal exaction of authority. The client,
in turn, pays back in more intangible assets”- for example,
esteem and loyalty. He may also offer political or other
important support, thus making the relationship reciprocal.
The patron acts as a power broker between the client and
the wider society; both legitimate and illegitimate.
The member of the American M afia, acting as a patron,
controls certain resources as well as strategic contacts
with people who control other resources directly or who
hav e access to such persons. The member-as-patron can
put a client “in touch with the right people.” He can
bridge communication gaps between the police and
criminals, between businessmen and syndicate-
connected union leaders; he can transcend the world of
business and the world of the illegitimate entrepreneur. He
is able to perform important fav ors and be rewarded in
return with money or power. There is a network surrounding
the patron, a circle of dyadic relationships orbiting the OC
member in which most clients hav e no relations with one
another except through the patron.
GENERIC TYPE OF ORGANIZED CRIMES
1. Political Graft - Committed by political criminals for
purposes of gaining profit though v iolence or force for
the attainment of political goals or ambitions such as
used of private armies, buying of votes or threatening
voters.
2. In-Group Oriented Organized Crime - Manned by
semi-organized indiv idual with the end v iew of
attaining psychological gratification such as
adolescent gangs.
3. Mercenary/Predatory organized crime - Perpetuated
for the attainment of direct personal gain but prey
upon unwilling v ictims.
4. Syndicated Crimes
 Comes with a structure organization that
participates in illicit activity in society using force,
or intimidation.
 Drug Syndicate. – Any organized group of two (2)
or more persons forming or joining together with
the intention of committing any offense
prescribed under this Act. (Sec. 3, RA 9165)
TYPICAL ORGANIZED CRIME ACTIVITIES
1. THEFT and FRAUD
 Victimizing business:
Hijacking of cargo trucks
Robbery/Highway Brigandage
Bankruptcy fraud (“bust-out”)
Insurance Fraud
Stock Fraud (Inside Trading)
 Victimizing individual persons:
Car theft (chop-shop or export)
(RA 6539)
Burglary (robbery in a building)
Stock Fraud (pumps and dumps scam)
 Victimizing State:
Bid-rigging public projects
Counterfeiting of Money (Act 3815)
Cigarettes – butt legging)
Rum-running, or bootlegging, is the
illegal business of transporting
(smuggling) alcoholic bev erages where
such transportation is forbidden by law.
Smuggling is usually done to circumv ent
taxation or prohibition laws within a
particular jurisdiction.
Providing immigrant workers to avoid taxes
2. PROVIDING ILLEGAL SERVICES and GOODS
 Loan Sharking
 Murder for hire (Art. 248)
 Book making
 Toxic Substance
 Gambling
 People Smuggling/Human Smuggling
 Prostitution
VAGRANTS AND PROSTITUTES (RPC) - Any person having no
apparent means of subsistence, who has the physical
ability to work and who neglects to apply himself or herself
to some lawful calling.
 Any person found loitering about public or
semi-public building or places, or tramping
or wandering about the country or to the
streets without v isible means of support.
 Any idle or dissolute person who lodges in
houses of ill-fame, ruffians or pimps and
Compendium of Crime Detection and Investigation (CDI)
those who habitually associate with
prostitutes.
Republic Act No. 10158
 Signed last March 27, 2012, amended Article
202 of the Rev ised Penal Code remov ing
v agrancy from the country's list of crimes
amid concerns it only targets the poor and
the disadv antaged.
 Although the poor or homeless people can
no longer be hauled to jail for v agrancy, the
new law continued to penalize women
engaged in prostitution.
 RA 10158, defined prostitutes as "women
who for money or profit, habitually indulge in
sexual intercourse or lasciv ious conduct."
 A person found guilty of prostitution is
punished by imprisoned from one to 30 days
or a fine not exceeding P200.
 In case of recidiv ism, they are punished by
arresto mayor in its medium period to prison
correctional in its minimum period or a fine
ranging from P200 to P2,000, or both,
depending on the court.
 With the enactment of the law, all pending
v agrancy cases meantime shall be
dismissed and all persons serv ing sentence
for v iolating the v agrancy law shall
immediately be released.
 Trafficking in human beings(RA 9208)
 Drug Trafficking
o Shabu in the Philippines mainly comes
from Southern China particularly from
Guandong and Fujian. Prev iously,
“ephedra” or “ephedrine” is processed
in China and smuggled in the
Philippines as shabu. Howev er, the
discov ery of a big clandestine shabu
laboratory in Cagayan in northern
Luzon in 1 999 showed that the dreg
syndicates have also started processing
ephedririe into shabu right in the
Philippines. Intensified campaign
against illegal drugs resulted in more
discov eries of shabu laboratories ev en
in the National Capital Region and
shown in the TV and in the front of page
of daily newspapers.
 Economic Crime
 Arms dealing/Arms Smuggling
o Firearms or arms as herein used,
includes rifles, musket s, carbines,
shot gun, pistol, revolvers, and all ot her
deadly weapons, to which a bullet, ball,
shot , shell, or ot her missiles maybe
discharge by means of gun powder or
ot her explosives. This t erm also includes
air rifle, except such of being of small
caliber and limited range used as t oys.
The barrel of any firearm shall be
considered a complet e firearm for all
purposes hereof. (Sec 877 Revised
Administrative Code/ Sec. 290 national
Internal Revenue Code).
 Pornography (RA 9775)
Gambling, Loansharking, Theft, Fencing, Sex, and
Trafficking in Persons
Gambling includes a wide array of games of chance and
sporting ev ents on which wagers are made. Some of these
are legal, for example, state licensed horse- and dog-
racing tracks, casinos, and gov ernment-operated off-
track betting parlors. Most states operate lotteries, and
licensed casino gambling is often operated by Nativ e
Americans on Indian land. State, county, and municipal
gov ernments earn a great deal of money from these
authorized gambling activities. At the same time, there are
unauthorized (illegal) gambling operations whose control
is the responsibility of these same gov ernments. In such an
ambiguous env ironment, it is easy to understand why
gambling enforcement may not generate a great deal of
public support. The estimated amount of illegal betting
increased tenfold between 1983 and 1995, while arrests for
illegal gambling declined significantly, particularly in urban
centers. In 1960, 123,000 persons were arrested for illegal
gambling, but by 1995, that number was down to about
15,000.
Bookmaking (taya sa karera)
 Bookmakers “book” bets on two types of ev ents -
horse and sometimes dog races and sporting
ev ents such as football, basketball, baseball, and
boxing. In earlier days, “horse parlors” or “wire
rooms,” neighborhood outlets, were often set up
in the back of a legitimate business. Results
coming in ov er the wire serv ice were posted on a
large chalkboard for waiting bettors. Today, most
bets are placed by telephone directly or through
a rov ing “handbook,”“runner,” or “sheetwriter”
who transmits the bet to the bookmaker. To
maintain security, some bookmakers change
locations frequently, often monthly, or they may
use cellular telephones. Many use a “call back”
system. The bettor calls an answering serv ice or
answering machine and leav es his or her
number. The bookmaker returns the call from a
v ariety of locations, and the bet is placed.
 Bets are written down and may be tape-
recorded by a machine attached to the phone.
This helps av oid any discrepancies about what
arrangements were actually made ov er the
phone. The bookmaker usually employs clerks
and handbooks, runners, or sheetwriters. The
clerks handle the telephone, record the bets,
and figure out the daily finances. The runners call
the clerks and are giv en the day’s totals for the
bets they booked. Based on this information, the
clerks either collect or pay off. The runners
receiv e a portion of the winnings, usually half,
and they must also share in the losses.
Horse-Race Wagering
 The oldest of the major bookmaking activ ities,
illegal horse-race wagering ranks behind sports
wagering. This discrepancy has increased with
the adv ent of legalized off-track betting in
places such as New York, Connecticut, and
Illinois. The typical bettor is middle-aged or older,
and wagers are usually modest. Information on
the horses running at each track on a giv en day
may be obtained from a local newspaper or a
“scratch sheet” such as the Armstrong Daily
News Review, Turf and Sports Mirror; or the Daily
Racing Form. Voluminous data are av ailable in
the Daily Racing Form, and the scratch sheets
prov ide information on the time and nature of
each race, the jockeys, the post positions, and
the weights carried the probable odds, and the
handicapper’s estimates of horses’ finishing
position. This information, especially what is
gleaned from the scratch sheet, is the basic data
needed by the bookmaker in handling wagers.
LOANSHARKING (USURY) (Pautang na malaki ang tubo)
 The generally negativ e v iew of money lending is
highlighted in the Bible, which on three separate
occasions cautions against charging interest -
neshek (to “bite”): “If thou lend money to any of
My people, ev en to the poor with thee, thou
shalt not be to him as a creditor; neither shall ye
lay upon him interest”; “And if thy brother be
waxen poor . . . thou shalt not giv e him thy
money upon interest nor giv e him thy v ictuals for
increase”. Howev er, “Unto a foreigner thou
mayest lend upon interest [for business
inv estment purposes]; but upon thy brother thou
shalt not lend upon interest.” Thus, the Hebrews
could not charge interest on a loan to another
Hebrew. Later, the Church adopted a similar
interpretation: Christians could not charge
interest on loans to other Christians. This
prohibition created problems for commercial
enterprises and led to a paradoxical situation.
 Within organized Jewish communities, the
Hebrew Free Loan Society dev eloped to loan
money to Jews without interest, and laws and
regulations restricting the ability of Jews to
purchase land and enter guilds resulted in Jews
becoming moneylenders to Christians. William
Shakespeare’s character Shylock, in the
Merchant of Venice, is based on this historical
irony. Shakespeare depicted the unsav ory
Shylock as a money-lending Jew demanding a
pound of flesh from a hapless borrower as
repayment for a delinquent loan. At the time
Shakespeare was writing, there were no Jewish
Compendium of Crime Detection and Investigation (CDI)
moneylenders in England - all Jews had been
expelled from that country by Edward I in 1290,
and they did not return until the l650s. And
Shakespeare’s father had twice been accused
of v iolating usury laws. The name “Shylock”
reportedly became slurred by illiterate criminals
into “shark,” and the word loanshark was born.
As noted earlier, the Hebrew term for interest is
nesbek, to bite, something for which sharks are
noted.
THEFT AND FENCING
 Members of Cosa Nostra do not usually engage
directly in theft, burglary, or robbery although
many hav e criminal records for such activ ities
that typically precede their entry into OC.
However, members will prov ide information and
financing, arrange for necessary firearms or
stolen cars, and help link criminals to carry out
more predatory crimes such as payroll robberies,
large-scale commercial burglaries, hijackings,
and thefts of stocks and bonds. Cosa Nostra
members will finance frauds, swindles, and any
conv entional criminal activity that can bring in a
profit substantial enough to make the effort
worthwhile. They will help market stolen
merchandise such as securities, checks, and
credit cards. Members of OC are in a unique
position to prov ide these serv ices. Their
widespread connections to both legitimate and
illegitimate outlets prov ide a link between
conv entional criminals and the business world.
Organized crime serv es as a catalyst for a great
deal of “disorganized” crime. In 1997, for
example, an FBI sting resulted in the v ideotaping
of members and associates of a Gambino Family
crew in Canarsie, Brooklyn, disposing of $6 million
worth of stolen merchandise, much of it hijacked
ov er a two-year period.
 Burglary = breaking into and entering a home or
structure for the purpose of committing a felony
 Robbery = taking or attempting to take
something of v alue by force or threat of force
and/or by putting the victim in fear.
 Art. 308. Theft1 (Pang-uumit) - committed by any
person who with intent to gain but without
v iolence against, or intimidation of persons nor
force upon things, shall take personal property of
another without the latter’s consent.
Elements of theft:
o There is a taking of personal property;
o The property belongs to another;
o The taking was done with intent to gain;
o The taking is not done with the use of
force upon things, or v iolence against
or intimidation of persons.
Stolen Securities
 The late l960s and early l970s saw a dramatic in-
crease in the v olume of securities being traded,
which provided a lucrativ e source of income for
OC. Because of the large v olume of trade,
security grew lax. Paperwork began to back up,
and brokerage houses and banks were
frequently completely unaware that hundreds of
thousands of dollars’ worth of securities were
being taken from their v aults. Thus, the securities
were not ev en reported as missing for sev eral
months. The securities industry employs a great
many persons - clerks, runners - whose pay is
relativ ely low Employees with gambling or loan
shark debts or those merely seeking to
supplement their incomes found a ready market
for such “paper.” All that was needed was an
OC connection. In some cases, armed robbery
1
Theft is likewise committed by: a. Any person having found
lost property shall fail to deliver the same to the local
authorities or its owner; b. any person after having maliciously
damaged the property of another, shall remove or make use of
the fruits or object of the damage caused by him; c. any
person who shall enter an enclosed estate or field where
trespass is forbidden or which belongs to another and without
the consent of its owner, shall hunt or fish upon the same or
shall gather fruits, cereals or other forest or farm products.
 or “giv e ups” (faked robberies) of messengers
were used.
 Although many people may hav e access to
v aluable securities, few can put stolen securities
to immediate use. Organized crime groups serv e
as the intermediate link in the criminal enterprise.
Bookmakers and loan sharks who may hav e
exerted the pressure that induced the thief to
take the securities frequently serv e as the conduit
by which the stolen securities get into the hands
of other OC figures. Passing through the network
of OC, the stolen securities will ev entually reach
the hands of someone who does hav e the
expertise, the capital, and the personnel to
effect a profitable disposition.
Fencing (PD 1612)
 The fence prov ides a readily av ailable outlet for
marketing stolen (“hot”) merchandise. He thus
prov ides an incentiv e for thiev es and may also
organize, finance, and direct their operations. In
her research on fences, Walsh found that about
13 percent of the fences she studied were part of
OC. “For these indiv iduals fencing appeared to
be just another enterprise in a v aried and totally
illegal business portfolio.” In addition to fencing,
she notes, these persons were activ e in
loansharking and gambling, and some were
enforcers. In the Genov ese Family, for example,
Anthony (“Figgy”) Ficcorata (or Ficcarata)
forced jewel thiev es to deal only with certain
fences, from whom Ficcorata would receiv e a
commission. In Chicago, eight “independent”
burglars “were murdered for refusing to dispose
of their loot through syndicate-connected
fences”. Because of his connection with criminals
(and otherwise) legitimate businessmen, the wise
guy is in a unique position to arrange for the
disposition of stolen goods.
THE BUSINESS OF SEX
 Organized crime’s inv olv ement in sex as a
moneymaker has changed with the times. House
prostitution (whorehouses or bordellos) was an
important social phenomenon during the days of
large-scale immigration; immigrants were most
often unattached males, single or trav eling
without their wiv es. Commercial sex, usually
confined to infamous v ice (“red light”) districts in
urban areas, was a target of social and religious
reformers. The campaign against this activ ity
became known as the war on the “white slavery”
trade, which at the turn of the century was an
international problem. In a book entitled White
Slavery, Edwin W Sims, U.S. attorney for Chicago,
states: “The recent examination of more than
two hundred “white slav es” by the office of the
United States district attorney at Chicago has
brought to light the fact that literally thousands of
innocent girls from the country districts are ev ery
year entrapped into a life of hopeless slav ery
and degradation because parents in the country
do not understand conditions as they exist and
how to protect their daughters from the ‘white
slav e’ traders who hav e reduced the art of
ruining young girls to a national and international
system.”
TYPES OF PROSTITUTES ON THE BASIS OF OPERATION
CALL GIRLS
 These are t he part -t ime prost it ut es.
 They have t heir own legitimate work or profession
but works as a prost it ut es t o supplement t heir
income. Somet imes t hey are t ellers, sales -ladies
of department stores, waitresses, beauticians, or
engage in similar jobs t hat t hey use t o make
cont act s wit h cust omers.
 They receive t elephone calls from a select ed
group of cust omers and make arrangement s t o
meet t hem at a designat ed place.
 She may work alone or in part nership wit h an
int ermediary with whom she shares her earnings.
HUSTLER
 Professional t ype of prost it ut es.
 She maybe a bar or t avern “pick-up” or a “street
walker”.
Compendium of Crime Detection and Investigation (CDI)
 The bar or t avern “pick-up” frequent s places
where liquor is sold, sometimes operating with the
consent and knowledge of t he
management .
 The streetwalker is t he oldest and t he most
common t ype of prost it ut e.
 She may work wit h t axi -drivers and commit s
prost it ut ion in a t axi -cab. Her common
cust omers are t he t ourist s, gamblers, criminals,
Addict s and ot hers.
 Their operat ion is oft ent imes associat ed wit h
swindling t heir cust omers.
DOOR KNOCKER
 This is t he occasional or select ive t ype of
prost it ut e.
 She is usually a newcomer in t he business
Oft ent imes, t hey are mot ivat ed by ext reme
 Desire for money due t o povert y or support ing
t heir ot her vices.
 She makes contact t hru information coming from
t he professional and hustler who are friends who
gives her addresses of prospect ive cust omers
FACTORY GIRLS
 Is t he real professional t ype of prost it ut es?
 She works in regular houses of prost it ut ion or
brot hels.
 She accept s all comers and has not hing t o do
wit h t he selecting and solicit ing t he cust omers.
 She works in regular hours or t our of dut y under
t he direct supervision of t he madam or operat or
of t he prost it ut ion house.
 She get s her share of t he earnings by commission
or per cust omers.
TYPES OF PROSTITUTION HOUSES
DISORDERLY HOUSES
 Usually ridges several numbers of fact ory girls or
professional prostitutes and under t he cont rol of
an organized crime ring.
 A “madam” or “maintainer” supervises t he
operation supported by a staff of t eller (cashier),
bell or room boys, regist er clerks, wat chmen,
pimps and securit y guards known as bouncer.
 Their operat ion appears t o be a legit imat e
business ent it y most ly under t he prot ect ion of
crooked policemen or law enforcement
aut horit ies and t heir locat ion is prominent ly
known t o all t heir cust omers.
 They have number of small rooms wit h t he
prostitutes staying t here at where t hey wait for
cust omers. At t imes, t he house provided wit h
secret exits ready for escaping in case of police
raids.
FURNISHED ROOM HOUSE
 Usually operated by an experienced “madam”
who rent rooms to legitimate roomers in order t o
maint ain an appearance of responsibilit y
Purposely, t he madam leaves several rooms not
rent ed to legitimate roomers for ready use of t he
prost it ut ion.
 These prost it ut es are most ly t he call girls who
make t he room t heir designat ed places in
perpet rat ing t heir business.
 Their rent is on per cust omers basis or t hey
maint ain t he rent continuously but the prostitutes
do not live t here permanent ly but elsewhere t o
maint ain t heir anonymit y and ident it y.
 These houses could be found most ly in flashy
subdivision or resident ial areas.
CALL HOUSES
 This is where t he customers call and t he madam
makes t he arrangement and sends t he girls by a
t ransporter who is a man or woman t o t he place
arrangement .
 The house appears t o be a legit imat e business
house such as service agencies, t ravel offices,
coffee shops, beaut y parlors and t he like duly
licensed and regist ered as such wit h t he
government office.
 However, t he t elephone number is limited only to
qualified cust omers as recommended by t heir
pimps who conduct t he background
 invest igat ion on t he abilit y of t he prospect ive
cust omers t o pay.
MASSAGE CLINICS
 These houses are operat ed under a licensed or
permit issued by t he government but act s as a
front for prostitution where t he act maybe done
or as per arrangement .
 They operate with barbershops wit h manicurist s
or“at t endant s” and “massagist s” who while
servicing t heir customers may make cont act s or
t he prost it ut es or t hemselves.
 These prostitutes are sometimes t he newcomers
in t he business who do not earn much as
at t endant s or massagist s.
TRAFFICKING IN PERSONS
 Trafficking in persons “is a form of modern-day
slavery”. Trafficking organizations prey on
indiv iduals who are poor, often women who are
lured with false promises of good jobs and better
liv es and, instead, are forced to work under brutal
conditions. Under federal law, the technical term is
“sev ere forms of trafficking in persons.” In the United
States, the gov ernment estimates that
approximately 50,000 women and children are
trafficked annually.
 International trafficking in women for the sex
industry has been a characteristic of modern
transnational OC. Italian, Albanian, Russian,
Chinese, and Japanese criminal groups have been
at the center of a global trade that often enslav es
female adults and (sometimes male) children for
sale. In the states of the former Sov iet Union and
the v olatile Balkans region, women are recruited for
lawful foreign employment only to find themselv es
in the hands of criminals who force them into the
sex trade. As part of a nefarious web that spreads
across the Balkans and into Western Europe, “tens
of thousands of women hav e been caught up by
the traffickers and hav e suffered rape, extreme
v iolence and slav ery at the hands of criminal
groups renowned for their brutality and greed”.
Ev en traditional enemies such as Albanians and
Slays readily deal with one another in this trade.
Women are recruited through ads in newspapers,
magazines, and the Internet offering employment
as dancers, waitresses, maids, and babysitters in no
specified western countries.
 Many countries grant “artistic” or “entertainer” visas
that facilitate the mov ement and exploitation of
trafficking v ictims. Women are granted these
temporary v isas upon presentation of a work
contract or offer of engagement by a club owner,
proof of financial resources, or medical test results.
 Employment agencies, often licensed under the
laws of the origin and destination countries, play a
key role in the deception and recruitment of these
women. On arriv al at their destination, v ictims are
stripped of their passports and trav el documents
and forced into situations of sexual exploitation or
bonded servitude. Having ov erstayed or otherwise
v iolated the terms of the v isa, v ictims are coerced
by their exploiters with threats to turn them ov er to
immigration authorities.
 Turkey, where prostitution is legal, has lax v isa
requirements and a growing sex trade in Slav ic
women from the former Sov iet Union.
3. BUSINESS and LABOR RACKETEERING
 Casino skimming
 Setting up monopolies in rigid market low tech
industries.
 Bid-rigging
 Abusing labor unions
 Extortion (e.g. construction, transport, etc)
 Use of non-union labor and pocketing the wage
difference.
 Monopolizing the supply of immigrant workers
with the associated people; smuggling.
4. Miscellaneous Activities:
 Money laundering; RA 9160, 9194, RA 10167
 Political corruptions;
 Bullying; and
 And Piracy.
Compendium of Crime Detection and Investigation (CDI)
THEORIES OF CRIME
1. The strain of anomie
2. Differential association
3. Subcultures and social disorganization
4. Social control theory
5. Ethnic succession
MAFIA
 is a term used to describe a number of criminal
organizations around the world
 the first organization to bear the label was the
Sicilian Mafia based in Italy, known to its
members as Cosa Nostra (Family – Affair)
 In sum, mafia means
o protection against arrogance of the
powerful,
o remedy to any damage,
o sturdiness of body,
o strength and serenity of spirit, and
o The best and exquisite part of life.
 Apparently Sicilian-Arabic deriv ed from terms
meaning
o to protect and to act as guardian;
o a friend or companion;
o to defend; preservation,
o power, integrity,
o strength, and
o A condition that designates the remedy
of damage and ill.
OMERTA
 Is a code of silence and secrecy that forbids
Mafiosi from betraying their comrades to
the authorities?
 Ideal of manliness
 Noncooperation with authorities
 Self-control in the face of adv ersity
 Vendetta-blood washes blood
 Neither gov ernment nor church to be trusted
The foundation of the entire mafia is respect. Fear is the
engine, and money is the fuel. But longev ity of the mafia
as an enterprise is built upon an abiding and uncommon
sense of respect.
The penalty for transgression is death, and relatives of the
turncoat may also be murdered. Mafiosi generally do not
associate with police (aside perhaps from corrupting
indiv idual officers as necessary). For instance, a mafioso
will not call the police when he is a victim of a crime. He is
expect ed t o t ake care of t he problem himself. To do
ot herwise would undermine his reput at ion as a capable
prot ector of ot hers, and his enemies may see him as weak
and vulnerable.
According to legend, the word Mafia was first used in the
Sicilian rev olt – the Sicilian Vespers – against rule of the
Capetian House of Anjou on 30 March 1282. In this legend,
Mafia is the acronym for "Morte Alla Francia, Italia Anela"
(Italian for "Death to France, Italy cries!"). Howev er, this
v ersion is now discarded by most serious historians.
RULES OF AMERICAN MAFIA
 Always show respect to those who can
command it.
 Report any failure to show respect to one’s
patron immediately.
 Violence must be used, ev en if only a limited
type, to ensure respect.
 Nev er ask for surnames.
 Nev er resort to v iolence in a dispute with a
member or associate of another family.
 Nev er resort to, or ev en threaten, v iolence in a
member of your family.
 Do not use the telephone except to arrange a
meeting place, preferably in code, from which
you will then trav el to a place to discuss business.
 Av oid mentioning specifics when discussing
business-for example names, dates, and places-
beyond those absolutely necessary for
understanding.
 Keep your mouth shut-anything you hear,
anything you see, stays with you, in your head;
do not talk about it.
 Do not ask necessary questions. The amount of
information giv en to you is all you need to carry
out your instructions.
 Never engage in homosexual activities.
  If your patron arranges for two parties to work
together, he assumes responsibility for arbitrating
any disputes between the parties.
 The boss can unilaterally direct v iolence,
including murder, against any member of his
family, but he cannot engage in murder-for-hire,
that is, make a profit from murder.
 The boss cannot use v iolence against a member
or close associate of another family without prior
consultation with that family’s boss.
 The principal form of security in the American
Mafia is an elaborate system of referral and
v ouching. Vouching for someone who turns out
to be an informant or undercov er officer entails
the death penalty.
RUSSIAN ORGANIZED CRIME
 Semion Mogilevich – “Don Semyon” boss of all
bosses
 Vyacheslav “Yaponchik” Ivankov – first Major
ethically prosecuted.
VORY V ZAKONE
 aka “ thieves with code of honor”
 It is the Sicilian counterpart, linked to a territorial-
based prov ision of protection serv ices and to
alliance between upper world and the
underworld. It is characterized by the three t ypes
of act ors in crime pict ure at Russia namely:
a. corrupt gov ernment officials,
b. shady business tycoons (oligarch); and
c. Members of criminal gang headed by so
called authorities and loosely tied with
criminal fraternity known as “thieves in law”
bounded by codes. (Vory V. Zakone). They
were able to create protectiv e roof through
their financial and fraternity connection.
ORGANIZED CRIME IN NORTH AMERICA (LATINO GANGS)
 It first formed in the barrios in the 1920s. By 1990s,
the Major Latino gangs had joined into two
syndicates, the Nort enos based in northern
California and the Surt enos based in Southern
Califoria.
 The Nortenos include such gangs as Big Hazard,
the Breed Street Gang and the Silv er Leaf
Nortenos (SLN).
 The Surtenos include the Assasins, King Kobra and
Mara Salv atrucha.
In the Midwest
 The Latino gang coalesced (to grow together)
into two syndicates, the Folk Nation and the
Peoples Nation based in Chicago.
 In Texas, Mexican American gangs hav e
proliferated with the Mexican Mafia, the PRM
(Partido Revolucionario Mexicano), and Mexicles
being t he most prominent .
In the Eastern United States
 The major syndicates are La Gran Raza (The
Great Race) and La Gran Familia (The Great
Family). The Dominican Gangs became the
major player in Drug t rade in Met ropolit an New
York and in Nort hern New Jersey.
In Miami and Dade County, Florida,
 The Cuban Mafia has built a strong base, hav ing
taken adv antage of an alliance with Santo
Trafficante’s Italian American Mafia family based
in Tampa.
 In Puerto Rico, the Neta Association began as a
prison gang, but it has spread beyond the island
and beyond the prison walls.
ORGANIZED CRIME IN ASIA
China Organized Criminal Groups
1. Gangs (Triad) = work in cooperativ e v entures
inv olv ing black market activ ities, burglaries and
thefts, hijackings and extortions.
 Black Market – illicit trade in goods
commodities in v iolation of official
regulation, in which case the price is
lower than the suggested retail
price(SRP)
Compendium of Crime Detection and Investigation (CDI)
2. Criminal Syndicates = commonly inv olv ed in
sophisticated crimes such as prostitutions, human
trafficking and other organized form of both are
inv olv ed in drug trafficking particularly of heroin
from the golden triangle as well as Exploitation of
women and children and smuggling of illegal
immigrants v ices.
Dragon Syndicates (HEM)
 Is another name for the Chinese Triads, a name
popularized by Martin Booth’s much acclaimed
study “The Dragon Syndicates: the Global
Phenomenon of the Triads (New York: Carroll and
Graf, 2000).
 The Triad came from the symbolic triangle in their
flag which indicates the three (3) elements: The
Heaven, The Earth and the Man.
Hong Kong Organized Criminal Groups - Triads, such as
“Wo Sing Wo” and 14K are two of the many triads in
Hongkong. They are inv olved in v arious activ ities ranging
from drug trafficking to corruption.
ICAC- Independent Commission against Corruption - is
one of the most activ e Criminal Justice Unit inv olv ed in
controlling illicit activ ities of these triads
JAPAN
Yakuza (8-9-3) or Boryokudan
 Is the most influential organized crime group in
Japan?
 Yakuza makes billions of dollars through
corporate extractions and the Sokoiya
(shareholders meet ing men).
 Other activ ities that they are inv olv ed include
exploitation of women, prostitutions (mostly
coming from the Philippines, Thailand and
Taiwan) and gambling den.
 Most Americans hav e heard of the Mafia, Lucky
Luciano, Al Capone, and their “soldiers” - but
what about the Yamaguchi-gumi, Kazuo Taoka,
Hideomi Oda, and their yakuza? The
Yamaguchi-gumi (gumi means “group”) is a
criminal organization that dominates the
industrialized, densely populated region
extending from Kyoto through Osaka to Kobe, as
well as Tokyo and most other major centers in
Japan. The Yamaguchi-gumi is the largest
boryokudan (“v iolent groups”), organizations that
constitute Japanese OC. These organizations
hav e been in existence for about three hundred
years and hav e their roots in the Tokugawa
period, when Japan united under a central
system of gov ernment. With the end of Japanese
feudalism, samurai (knights) lost their role in life,
and many roamed the countryside as free-lance
mercenaries. The yakuza - master less samurai,
unscrupulous itinerant peddlers, professional
gamblers, and common criminals - ev entually
formed structured groups, boryokudan. Under
the leadership of their kumi-cho (boss), they
were able to exert control ov er sections of
Japan’s urban areas. By adhering to rules of
conduct that preclude v iolence against the
police and innocent civilians, yakuza syndicates
hav e been able to operate openly, with high-
profile headquarters.
 The term yakuza “is deriv ed from an old Card
game . . . whose object was to draw three Cards
adding up as close as possible to 19 without
exceeding it,” similar to our game of “21” or
blackjack. “Ya-ku-za represents the Japanese
words for 8, 9, 3, which total 20, a useless number.
Basically, yakuza means ‘good for nothing”. Like
many of their American counterparts, the yakuza
“were born into pov erty and graduated from
juv enile delinquency into organized crime”. The
Al Capone of Japan, Kazuo Taoka, was, like
Capone, born into a poor family. He began his
criminal career as a bouncer in Kobe, much as
Capone filled this capacity in Brooklyn before
going to Chicago. Taoka, like Capone, played a
major role-in the gang conflicts of the day, and
both men rose to prominence because of their
penchant for v iolence and talent for
organization. When Taoka, 68, died of a heart
attack in 1981 his funeral was attended by more
 than 1,200 yakuza. “Taoka’s friendships and
contacts extended to the highest lev els of
gov ernment, with two former prime ministers. . .
among his friends. That kind of relationship
reflected not only Taoka’s personal success but
also historic ties between gangsters and
prominent gov ernment figures”.
CAMBODIA
 Drug trafficking and human smuggling are the
most notable organized criminal activ ities in
Cambodia which are widely controlled by the
Chinese and Myanmorese.
 Other activ ities inv olv ed gambling, corruption,
prostitution and money laundering. Due to
people’s belief of the effect of hav ing sex with
v irgin women, prost it ut ion became one of the
most expensive organized crime.
 Virgin women are the highest valued
commodities.
o MORAL VIRGINITY = state of not knowing
the nature of sexual life and not hav ing
experienced sexual relation.
o PHYSICAL VIRGINITY = a condition
whereby a woman is conscious of the
nature of the sexual life but not
experienced sexual intercourse. Applies to
women who hav e reached sexual
maturity but not experienced sexual
intercourse.
 TRUE PHYSICAL VIRGINITY = a
condition wherein the hymen
is intact, with the edges
distinct and regular, and the
opening is small to barely
admit the tip of the smallest
finger of the examiner ev en if
the thighs are separated.
 FALSE PHYSICAL VIRGINITY = A
condition wherein the hymen
is unruptured but the orifice is
wide and elastic to admit two
or more fingers of the
examiner with a lesser degree
of resistance.
o DEMI-VIRGINITY = a condition of a woman
who permits any form of sexual liberties as
long as they abstain from rupturing the
hymen by sexual act.
o VIRGO INTACTA = applied to women who
hav e had previous sexual act but not yet
giv en birth.
DEFLORATION = the laceration or rupture of the hymen as
a result of sexual intercourse.
Golden Triangle
 Burma/Myanmmar
 Laos
 Thailand
Golden Crescent (IPIA)
 Iran
 Afghanistan
 Pakistan
 India
Silver Triangle (PBC)
 Peru
 Columbia
 Bolivia
REPUBLIC OF KOREA
KEANDAL EMENING SCARUPS
 Although not considered as criminal groups, they
also engage in criminal activ ities someway to
help the weak and the poor. They are notable for
their loyalty and faithfulness.
 Organized criminal groups come in the form of
political groups used as henchmen (Right hand)
to attack political riv als
 Sev eral organized groups are associated with
YAKUZA and other groups in the United States are
inv olv ed mostly in drug trafficking, prostitution
and exploitation of women.
Compendium of Crime Detection and Investigation (CDI)
MYANMAR - Myanmar has the largest organized crime
groups controlled by milit ary Junt a. It includes the
following:
o United Wa State Army (UWSA) – under the
command of Wei-Huseh-Kong – has connection
with Southeast Asian and North America.
o Kinkang Chinese – in coordination with MNDAA,
protects cultiv ation areas and refining of drugs.
o Myanmar National Democratic Alliance Army –
control the plantations and refine opium into heroin
and also produced methamphetamine. Trafficking
of women and children to Pakistan and Thailand
and corruption are also some of the activities of the
group.
TAIWAN
 Taiwan organized crime has close connection
with the Chinese Triads and Hong Kong
particularly the United Bamboo Gang(UBG). They
are inv olv ed in drug trafficking, prostitution,
women and child trafficking.
 Four Seas Gang (FSG)
SINGAPORE - This is the country with the lowest cases of
organized activities due to stringent laws and sev ere
penalties and the gov ernment’s strong will power for the
implementation of laws. Consider as the safest city.
THAILAND - The country considered to be the most
notorious in the world in terms of sex industry. Supplies or
imports about one (1) million women in different countries
in Asia. Because prostitution is legal.
VIETNAM
 “Nam Cam Gang” is one of the most noted
organized crime group in Vietnam and known for
drug trafficking and one of the major transit point
of drugs in Laos, Myanmar, China and Taiwan
from Cambodia.
 Viet-Ching - headed by Mink Chee Phy
INTRODUCTION
Despite the gains achiev ed in the area of law
enforcement, the problem on organized crime has
persisted. This is mainly because of the fact the while our
law enforcement agencies hav e taken strides in
adv ancing their techniques in crime inv estigation,
detection and control, criminals hav e likewise skillfully
organized themselv es to keep up with the pace.
Moreov er, with the v ast amount of resources at their
disposal, organized crime groups (OCGs) have “procured”
the best ‘brains” and acquired the most sophisticated and
adv anced technology to serv e their illicit ends, giv ing
‘hem pronounced advantage ev er legitimate institutions
to include ev en gov ernments and their law enforcement
agencies.
This report intends to prov ide information on organized
crime in the Philippines and shall cov er the following
organized crime under Philippine laws, current definition of
OCG being used by the Philippine National Police,
organized crime groups, organized crime situation, and
the gov ernment initiativ es and counter measures.
The Philippines has specific criminal laws that deal squarely
with specific crimes. These laws can he found in our
Rev ised Penal Code and Special Penal Laws passed by
the Congress of the Philippines. There is howev er, no law
that defines organized crime. Organized crime, is not
regarded as a crime per se, likewise, an indiv idual cannot
be regarded as a criminal by mere association with an
OCG.
In the absence of specific law in. the Philippines against
organized crime, the prov ision in the Rev ised Penal Code
on conspiracy may find application. Conspiracy is not a
felony per se but only a manner in incurring criminal
liability. Article 8 of the Rev ised Penal Code states that: “A
conspiracy exists when two o” more persons come to an
agreement concerning the commission of a felony and
decide to commit it.” Thus, conspirators share equal
criminal liabilities regardless of their lev els of participation.
However, under Philippine Special Laws, there are crimes
like Illegal Recruitment, Trafficking in Persons and Estafa
which are punishable when committed by a syndicate. It
becomes a syndicate when carried out by a group of
three or more persons conspiring or confederating with
one another.
It has been said that me common denominator among
OCGs is the objectiv e to acquire “dirty money” through
their illicit activ ities. Thus, denying the OCGs to enjoy the
fruits of their criminal act can serv e as effectiv e
deterrence to these groups. Along thi3 line of argument,
the Anti-Money Laundering Act (AMLA) or Republic Act
(RA) 9160 was enacted in 2001 and amended by RA 9194.
Among others, the AMLA criminalizes money laundering
and Provides for the penalties therefore, and the freezing
and forfeiture of assets,
THF ORGANIZED CRIME GROUP
The international law enforcement community has yet to
find a univ ersally accepted definition for OCG. In the
United Nations Conv ention against Transnational
Organized Crime, organized crime group is characterized
as a “structured group of three or more person’s existing
for a period of time and acting in concert with the aim of
a committing one or more serious crimes or offenses
established pursuant to this Convention in order to obtain,
directly, or indirectly, a financial or other material benefit”
On the other hand, based on the definition adopted by
Philippine law enforcement agencies, organized crime
group is a profit motiv ated and highly capable group of
persons or an enterprise organized to undertake
widespread, regular or long term, large scale, high profile
and diversified criminal activities that has high-impact on
the economy and national security. The latter definition, in
effect, cov ers wider range of groups and may include
terrorist groups that threaten the security of the state.
Nev ertheless, a common denominator exists among these
groups as can be deduced from the v arious definitions, -
that is their common objectiv e to acquire “dirty money”
through a premeditated criminal act or acts.
The Organized Crime Group (OCC)
The known traditional OCGs such as the Mafia,
Yakuza and the Triads have evolv ed through centuries into
highly cohesiv e groups that are rich in traditions of
discipline, loyalty and rigid adherence to the “family”
hierarchy. Compared to their counterparts, the Filipino
OCGs are relativ ely new. While they may hav e acquired
the sophistication in the conduct of criminal activ ities and
operations of the traditional ones, OCGs in the Phi1ippnes
hav e yet to adopt if ev er, a more rigid and pronounced
organizational structure. In a way, this less defined
structure results in obscurity. Thereby providing safeguards
for the identities of members and leaders of the OCG.
Filipino OCOs are engaged in, among others, drug
trafficking, kidnapping-for- ransom (KFP), car napping,
robbery hold-up, prostitution, illegal gambling and
smuggling. The following are profiles of selected examples
of OCGs in the Philippines:
PHILIPPINES
 The country considered as the heaven for t he sex
industry. A number of women are sent abroad as
entertainers but later end-up as prostitutes.
Thailand, Japan and other Asian Countries are
common places of their destination. Young
children for pedophiles are also being catered.
1. Francisco Group
 Dragon or Kuratong Baleleng Group, now led by
Manuel Francisco, operates in Visayas and
Mindanao
 Mindanao MAFIA (1995(
 Founder – Octavio “Ongkoy” Parojinog
2. Pentagon Group
 Operates in Mindanao headed by Tahir Alonto, a
creation of MILF to generate funds. Alonto is a
nephew of MILF Chairman AL HAJ MURAD
 Liguasan Marsh – safe place
 Former Leader – Faisal Morohombsar.
3. Lexus Group
 specializes in carnapping and operates in NCR
and Luzon
4. Rex “Wacky” Salud Group
 engaged in illegal gambling and operates in
Cebu
Compendium of Crime Detection and Investigation (CDI)
5. Vic Yu Group - engages in illegal gambling and
operates in Visayas.
6. Superable Family - a kidnapping for ransom (KFR) group
with a 1 Million prize for the leader’s head who was killed
in action during a shoot-out with law enforcers
7. Martires KFR group - killed in Action (KIA)
8. Waray-Waray Group - an ethnic group engaged in
kidnap for ransom operations. Members are either belong
from the family clan or nativ es from Samar and Leyt e.
Their leader was arrested on September 24, 2005.
9. Lupo Rhu Group - lead by Lupo Miguel Tuliao; Agustin
Cav ilan; and Nestor Merin.
10. Red Scorpion Group
 Northern Luzon
 Kidnapping
 Joey De Leon
11. Ozamis Group
 Responsible for bombing at Robinson Galleria on
March 29, 2012.
 Willy Enriquez, Gregorio Dela Cruz
TRANSNATIONAL ORGANIZED CRIME
CONCEPT OF TRANSNATIONAL CRIME
The concept of transnational crime was coined
by the United Nations (UN) Crime Prevention and Criminal
Justice Branch to identify certain criminal phenomena
transcending international borders, transgressing the laws
of sev eral states or hav ing impact on another country.
TRANSNATIONAL CRIME - A continuing illegal activ ity of
group of person which is primarily concerned with the
generation of profits, irrespectiv e of national boundaries as
a result of globalization.
GLOBALIZATION - Refers to the rapid dev elopment of the
western culture that ultimately affects other cultures in the
world as brought by intellectual and technological
adv ances, in which some crimes occurring in other
countries are attributed.
TRANSNATIONAL ORGANIZED CRIME
 is a crime perpetuated by organized criminal
group which the aim of committing one or more
serious crimes or offenses in order to obtain
directly or indirectly, a financial or other material
benefits committed through crossing of borders
or jurisdictions
ORGANIZED CRIMINAL GROUP
 shall mean a structured group of three or more
persons, existing for a period of time and acting
in concert with the aim of committing or more
serious crimes or offenses established in
accordance with this conv ention, in order to
obtain, directly or indirectly , a financial or
material benefit
SERIOUS CRIME
 shall mean conduct constituting an offence
punishable by maximum depriv ation of liberty of
at least four years or a more serious penalty
An offense is transnational in nature if:
 It is committed in more than one State;
 It is committed in one State but substantial part
of its preparation, planning, direction or control
takes place in another State;
 It is committed in one State but inv olv es an
organized criminal group engages in criminal
activ ities in more than one State; or
o It is committed in one State but has
substantial effects in another State.
Factors Making a Nation “hospitable” to Transnational
Crimes
1. Corruption
2. Incomplete or weak legislation
3. Poor enforcement of existing laws
4. Non-transparent Financial institutions
5. Unfav orable economic conditions
6. Lack of respect for the rule of law in society
 7. Poorly guarded national borders  Pov erty
8. Lack of political will to establish rule of law  power relations and gender inequality
9. Geographic location (e.g. along arms or  Lure of migration
narcotics trafficking route)  Consumerism
10. Regional geopolitical issues (e.g. long-standing  Supply and demand
territorial dispute).
Pull factors to trafficking
PRIMARY STRATEGIES AGAINST TRANSNATIONAL  Increased ease of trav el (cheaper and faster
ORGANIZED CRIME trav el opportunities, easier access to passport);
o Good Gov ernance  Higher salaries and standard of liv ing in larger
o The Rule of Law cities and countries abroad (greater possibilities
o International Cooperation for acquiring new skills and education, increased
job opportunity, and mobility);
Executive Order No. 265  Established migration routes and ethnic, national
 creating the OSETC for a stronger campaign communities;
against transnational crime  Activ e demand for migrant workers in destination
o the Office of the Special env oy on countries combined with the existence of
Transnational Crime is the agency recruitment agencies and persons willing to
concerned in resolv ing ov erlaps in facilitate jobs and trav el; and
systems and procedures and  High expectations of opportunities in other
determines the appropriate agency countries boosted by global media and internet
competent to address a specific access and stories of returning migrants or those
transnational crime issue whose families hav e profited from remittances.

Transnational Crimes Global Status of Human Trafficking

 Trafficking in Persons
 Terrorism
 Drug Trafficking
 Cybercrime
 Money Laundering
 Env ironmental Crime
 Economic crime
 Intellectual Property Theft
 Piracy and Armed Robbery Against Ships
 Illicit Trade (smuggling) of Small Arms and Light
Weapons
HUMAN TRAFFICKING
TRAFFICKING IN PERSON (TIP)
 a form of modern-day slav ery
 refers to the recruitment, transportation, transfer
or harboring, or receipt of persons with or without
the v ictim's consent or knowledge, within or
across national borders by means of threat or use
of force, or other forms of coercion, abduction,
fraud, deception, abuse of power or of position,
taking adv antage of the v ulnerability of the
person, or, the giv ing or receiv ing of payments or
benefits to achiev e the consent of a person
hav ing control ov er another person for the
purpose of exploitation which includes at a
minimum, the exploitation or the prostitution of
others or other forms of sexual exploitation,
forced labor or serv ices, slav ery, serv itude or the
remov al or sale of organs. Section 3a, RA 9208
Push Factors to Trafficking
1. Indiv idual lev el
2. Family
3. Community
4. Society
 In 2004, according to U.S gov ernment 600,000 to
800, 000 people were v ictims of trafficking
worldwide.
o (mostly female and minors and 70
percent were trafficked for sexual
exploitation)
 According to the data of International Labour
Organization 12.3 Million people were trafficked
around the world (across borders and indiv idual
countries)
 300, 000 children were trafficked to serv ed in
armed conflicts (UNICEF)
TIP in Asia
 9.5 million Were trafficked in Asia (ILO).
(1/3 trafficked for other form of economic
exploitation, the rest are for commercial sexual
exploitation)
Status of Human Trafficking in the Phil.
 According to the United Nations Children's Fund
(Unicef)an estimated 60,000 to 100,000 children
in the Philippines are involv ed in prostitution rings.
 According to the International Labour
Organization (ILO) about 100,000 children are
inv olv ed in prostitution.
 US gov ernment reports, the number of child
v ictims in the Philippines range from 20,000 to
100,000, with foreign tourists, particularly other
Asians, as perpetrators.
 The Philippines is ranked under Tier 2 Watch List in
the 2009 Trafficking in Persons Report of the
United States (US) State Department due to the
Philippine gov ernment’s alleged failure to show
ev idence of progress in conv icting trafficking
offenders, particularly those responsible for labor
trafficking.

Individual level Vulnerable sector - Profiles of women trafficked show that

 Lack of education and information they are mostly young, without or less education coming
 History of abuse and exploitation from the rural areas and poor families, which include
 Women’s aspiration women displaced in Central Luzon due to the eruption of
Mt. Pinatubo or the landslide in Guinsaugon Southern
Family Leyte.
 Domestic v iolence or marital discord
 Desertion Philippine Government manifested its Commitment against
 Separation TIP through the Creation/Amendment of other legislative
 Neglect of parents acts such as:
 Breadwinner or desire to improv e the family’s  Mail-Order Bride (RA 6955)
economic condition  Anti-Rape law of 1997 (RA 8553)
 Rape Victim Assistance and Protection Act of
Community 1988 (RA 8505)
 Congested neighborhood  Special Protection of Children Against Abuse,
 Poor housing and liv ing conditions Exploitation and Discrimination Act (RA 7610)
 Lack of employment opportunities  An Act Prohibiting the Employment of Children
 Lack of basic social serv ices Below 15 Years of Age in Public and Priv ate
Undertakings (RA 7658)
Society  Migrant Workers and Ov erseas Filipinos Act of
 Political and economic insecurity 1995 (RA 8042)
 Political corruption  Philippine Passport Act of 1996 (RA 8239)
 Conflict  Inter-Country Adoption Law (RA 8043)
 Structural adjustment policies resulting in the
rising cost of liv ing

Compendium of Crime Detection and Investigation (CDI)

Republic Act 9208
 Anti-Trafficking in Persons Act of 2003
 Approv ed May 26, 2003
 Consolidation of Senate Bill No. 2444 and House
Bill No. 2444
Section 4. Act s of Trafficking in Persons. - It shall be unlawful
for any person, natural or juridical, to commit any of the
following acts:
a. To recruit, transport, transfer; harbor, prov ide, or
receiv e a person by any means, including those
done under the pretext of domestic or ov erseas
employment or training or apprenticeship, for
the purpose of prostitution, pornography, sexual
exploitation, forced labor, slav ery, inv oluntary
serv itude or debt bondage;
b. To introduce or match for money, profit, or
material, economic or other consideration, any
person or, as prov ided for under Republic Act
No. 6955, any Filipino woman to a foreign
national, for marriage for the purpose of
acquiring, buying, offering, selling or trading
him/her to engage in prostitution, pornography,
sexual exploitation, forced labor, slav ery,
inv oluntary serv itude or debt bondage;
c. To offer or contract marriage, real or simulated,
for the purpose of acquiring, buying, offering,
selling, or trading them to engage in
prostitution, pornography, sexual exploitation,
forced labor or slav ery, involuntary serv itude or
debt bondage;
d. To undertake or organize tours and trav el plans
consisting of tourism packages or activ ities for
the purpose of utilizing and offering persons for
prostitution, pornography or sexual exploitation;
e. To maintain or hire a person to engage in
prostitution or pornography;
f. To adopt or facilitate the adoption of persons
for the purpose of prostitution, pornography,
sexual exploitation, forced labor, slav ery,
inv oluntary serv itude or debt bondage;
g. To recruit, hire, adopt, transport or abduct a
person, by means of threat or use of force,
fraud, deceit, v iolence, coercion, or intimidation
for the purpose of remov al or sale of organs of
said person; and
h. To recruit, transport or adopt a child to engage
in armed activities in the Philippines or abroad.
Section 5. Act s t hat Promot e Trafficking in Persons. - The
following acts which promote or facilitate trafficking in
persons, shall be unlawful:
a. To knowingly lease or sublease, use or allow to be
used any house, building or establishment for the
purpose of promoting trafficking in persons;
b. To produce, print and issue or distribute unissued,
tampered or fake counseling certificates,
registration stickers and certificates of any
gov ernment agency which issues these
certificates and stickers as proof of compliance
with gov ernment regulatory and pre-departure
requirements for the purpose of promoting
trafficking in persons;
c. To adv ertise, publish, print, broadcast or
distribute, or cause the adv ertisement,
publication, printing, broadcasting or distribution
by any means, including the use of information
technology and the internet, of any brochure,
flyer, or any propaganda material that promotes
trafficking in persons;
d. To assist in the conduct of misrepresentation or
fraud for purposes of facilitating the acquisition
of clearances and necessary exit documents
from gov ernment agencies that are mandated
to prov ide pre-departure registration and
serv ices for departing persons for the purpose of
promoting trafficking in persons;
e. To facilitate, assist or help in the exit and entry of
persons from/to the country at international and
local airports, territorial boundaries and seaports
who are in possession of unissued, tampered or
fraudulent trav el documents for the purpose of
promoting trafficking in persons;
f. To confiscate, conceal, or destroy the passport,
trav el documents, or personal documents or
belongings of trafficked persons in furtherance of
trafficking or to prev ent them from leav ing the
Compendium of Crime Detection and Investigation (CDI)
country or seeking redress from the gov ernment
or appropriate agencies; and
g. To knowingly benefit from, financial or otherwise,
or make use of, the labor or serv ices of a person
held to a condition of inv oluntary serv itude,
forced labor, or slav ery.
Section 6. Qualified Trafficking in Persons. - The following
are considered as qualified trafficking:
a. When the trafficked person is a child;
b. When the adoption is effected through Republic
Act No. 8043, otherwise known as the "Inter-
Country Adoption Act of 1995" and said
adoption is for the purpose of prostitution,
pornography, sexual exploitation, forced labor,
slav ery, involuntary serv itude or debt bondage;
Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS).
c. When the crime is committed by a syndicate, or
in large scale. Trafficking is deemed committed
by a syndicate if carried out by a group of three
(3) or more persons conspiring or confederating
with one another. It is deemed committed in
large scale if committed against three (3) or
more persons, indiv idually or as a group;
d. When the offender is an ascendant, parent,
sibling, guardian or a person who exercises
authority ov er the trafficked person or when the
offense is committed by a public officer or
employee;
COMPUTER CRIME
 Any crime accomplished through special
knowledge of computer technology.
 Any crime where computer is used as a tool or as
a target or incidental to the commission of a
crime.
 Also known as Cybercrime.
 William Gibson – Coined the word CYBERSPACE
 Any illegal act in which knowledge of computer
technology is used to commit the offense. (L. E.
Quaratiello)
 All illegal activ ities that are committed by or with
the aid of computer or information technology or
in which the computers are the target of the
criminal enterprise. (Martin L. Forst)
CYBER CRIME IN THE PHILIPPINES
The LOVE BUG
 By far the most popular incidence of cybercrime
in the Philippines is the “ILOVEYOU Virus” or the
LOVE BUG. The suspect in the case, a 23-year old
student(Onel De Guzman) from a popular
computer university in the Philippines drafted the
v irus with the vision of creating a program that is
capable of stealing passwords in computers,
ultimately to hav e free access to the internet.
 During the height of the LOVE BUG incident,
Reuters has reported: "The Philippines has yet to
arrest the suspected creator of the 'Lov e Bug'
computer v irus because it lacks laws that deal
with computer crime, a senior police officer said".
The fact of the matter is that there are no laws
relating to Cybercrime in the Philippines. The
National Bureau of Inv estigation is finding it
difficult to legally arrest the suspect behind the
'Lov e Bug' computer v irus.
 As such, the need for countries to legislate
Cyberlaws relating to Cybercrime arises on an
urgent priority basis. Due to the incident, the
Philippines hav e seen the necessity for the
passage of a law to penalize cybercrimes, thus
the enactment of Republic Act 8792 otherwise
known as the Electronic Commerce Act.
RA 8792
 legislated because of I lov e you v irus
 This Act shall be known and cited as the
"Electronic Commerce Act.“
 Approv ed June 14, 2000
Common Types of Cyber Crimes already handled by NBI
1. HACKING / CRACKING
2. MALICIOUS EMAIL SENDING
3. INTERNET PORNOGRAPHY
 4. LAUNCHING OF HARMFUL COMPUTER VIRUSES
5. DISTRIBUTED DENIAL OF SERVICE ATTACKS (DOS)
6. WEBSITE DEFACEMENT
7. ACQUIRING CREDIT CARD INFORMATION FROM
AN E-COMMERCE WEBSITE
8. INTERNET SHOPPING USING FRAUDULENTLY
ACQUIRED CREDIT CARDS
9. WIRE TRANSFER OF FUNDS FROM A FRAUDULENTLY
ACQUIRED CREDIT CARD
10. ON-LINE AUCTION FRAUD
WHAT ARE COMMON METHODS AND STANDARD TERMS
USED TO DESCRIBE CYBER CRIME?
Hacking - is the act of illegally accessing the computer
system/network of an indiv idual, group or business
enterprise wit hout t he consent or approval of t he owner of
t he syst em
Cracking - is a higher form of hacking in which the
unauthorized access culminates with the process of
defeat ing t he security system for the purpose of acquiring
money or informat ion and/or availing of free services
Malicious Sending of E-mails - the sending of malicious
and defamatory electronic mails for the purpose of
extorting money, or threatening prospectiv e v ictims
Internet Pornography - The trafficking, distribution, posting,
and dissemination of obscene material including
children’s nude pictures, indecent exposure, and child sex
slav ery posted into the internet, live streaming videos aired
through the internet
A computer virus - is a computer program that can copy
itself and infect a computer without permission or
knowledge of the user
Launching of Harmful Computer Virus
1. Virus
2. Worm
3. Trojan Horse
Worm - spread itself to other computers without needing
To be transferred as part of a host
Trojan horse - Is a file that appears harmless until executed.
Trojan horses do not insert their code into other computer
files
Logic bomb
 a set of instructions secretly inserted into a
program that is designed to ex ecute if a
particular program is satisfied
 the bomb lies dormant until a particular date is
reached or command entered
Identity theft - defined as the criminal act of assuming
person’s name, address, social security number, and date
of birth in order to commit fraud
Phishing - sending fraudulent e-mails or website pop-ups,
to get v ictims to div ulge sensitiv e financial information
such as credit card numbers or social security numbers
Distributed Denial of Service Attacks - DDoS attacks can
be committed by employing multiple computers
controlled by a single master computer serv er to target a
particular serv er by bombarding it with thousands of
packets of data in an attempt to ov erwhelm the serv er
and cause it to crash
Website defacement - is the unauthorized modification of
a website
Acquiring Credit Card Information from a Website that
offers E-Services
 When you shop online, the most conv enient way
to pay for the items you order is through your
credit card. When you pay thru your credit card,
you need to disclose information such as your
complete name, your postal address, zip code,
state, phone number credit card account
number, its expiration date and its security
code/pin. Upon entering the abov e-mentioned
information, it will be v erified “real-time” by the
site merchant. It usually takes a minute to v erify
whether the credit card is v alid or inv alid. If valid,
the information you entered will be stored in the
Compendium of Crime Detection and Investigation (CDI)
website’s database serv er. Hackers look for the
file containing the credit card information of all
the customers who bought from a certain e-
commerce site. Upon acquisition thereof, it will
be decrypted to make it readable and all the
information of the transactions will be made
av ailable. Hackers prefer VISA, AMERICAN
EXPRESS and MASTERCARD when filtering credit
card information. It is because VISA and
MASTERCARD are widely accepted by almost
ALL Internet Shopping Sites. American Express on
the other hand has no CREDIT LIMIT
 Credit card numbers of American Express start
with the number 3, MasterCard credit cards start
with the number 5 while VISA Credit cards start
with the number 4
 American Express credit cards hav e 15 digits
Account Number while Visa and Mast ercard
credit cards contain 16.
Internet Shopping Using Fraudulently Acquired Credit Card
 Hackers, upon acquiring the desired credit card
information now conducts “window shopping”,
hopping from one shop site to another, looking
for cellphones, gadgets, apparels, computer
peripherals, softwares etc. When he finds what
he wants to buy, he then add/s his desired item/s
to the shopping cart and checkouts. He will then
supply the Credit Card information of the
fraudulently acquired credit card such as the
Complete name of the cardholder, address, zip
code, state, email address, credit card number
and expiration date. Other pertinent information
such as shipping address of the items ordered will
hav e to be supplied too.
Wire Transfer of Funds from Fraudulently Acquired Credit
Card
 When a hacker knows your complete credit card
information, he can extract CASH from the
acquired credit/debit card online. By signing up
with Western Union Money Transfer
(http://www.westernunion.com) using the
fraudulently acquired credit card information, he
can pretend that he will just send money to his
relativ e and western union will directly debit the
credit card and it will reflect on the billing
statement of the original credit card holder. Wire
transfer of funds using credit cards require the
credit card security number.
Online Auction Fraud
 First, the fraudster should sign up for an account at an
online auction site such as e-bay, yahoo auctions or
U-Bid
 The fraudster falsifies all information that he enters on
the signup page. The only true information is his email
address, for he will be contacted by interested
bidders by means of email. He will be asked to
prov ide a credit card. This is where he will need the
fraudulently acquired credit card. When all of the
required fields are signed up, his application will be
approved and he will be a registered member of the
said auction site. He is now then allowed to bid, and
auction any item. A fraudster will auction expensiv e
items such as laptops, cellphones, PDA’s (handheld
dev ices), desktop computers, camcorders and hard
to find memorabilias. He will then sell it at a lower
price for legitimate bidders to bid immediately. An
online fraudster only accepts payments thru personal
checks, money order, wire transfer and western union
money transfer. It is bluntly stipulated in his auction
page.
TECHNICAL TERMS
1. ISP - Stands for Internet Serv ice Prov ider. It
prov ides internet serv ice to internet users.
2. IP Address - series of numbers assigned by an
Internet Service Provider to an internet user when
it connects to the Internet
3. Dynamic IP Address - a type of IP Address that
changes ev erytime the internet user accesses his
Internet Service Prov ider. It is usually assigned to
dial-up or base speed broadband serv ice
 subscribers (eg. ISP Bonanza, Surfmaxx, PLDT
myDSL 128kbps serv ice etc.)
4. Static IP Address - a type of IP Address that is
constant regardless of the time or number of
attempts the internet user accesses the internet.
It is usually assigned to High-Speed Internet Users
or Corporate Accounts (eg. ADSL (Asymetric
Digital Subscriber Line) connections, E1 Internet
Connections, OC3 Internet Connections, T1
Internet Connections, Leased Line Internet
Connections)
5. Website - a portfolio of a person / organization /
entity / company which is posted on the Internet
for accessibility worldwide.
 The INTERNET PROTOCOL (IP) ADDRESS is the
anchor of the inv estigation of all crimes
committed v ia the internet. The identification of
the IP Address leads to the identity of the Internet
Serv ice Provider (ISP) used to access the internet
and ev entually the subscriber of the account
where the internet activ ity was performed.
 The IP Address as giv en by the ISP depends on
the type of internet account a subscriber
maintains, whether it is a DYNAMIC IP or STATIC
IP.
If Static:
 Subscriber information (name, billing address,
installation address, type of internet account,
usage and costs etc.) if applicable
If Dynamic
 log reports indicating telephone number used to
make “dial-up” access
VERY IMPORTANT:
 The address of the subscriber as giv en by the ISP
or Phone Company should be analyzed to
determine whether it is a Billing Address or an
Installation Address.
 For purposes of a search warrant application, the
Installation Address is the more important matter
to consider. The purpose of a Search Warrant
application/ implementation in a cybercrime
inv estigation, as with any other offense is to
confiscate and seize the instruments/implements,
tools used in the commission of the offense. Since
the crime was committed with the aid of a
computer, the same and its peripherals are the
instruments used in its commission.
TOP TEN SECURITY TIPS FOR COMPUTER USERS
1. Nev er send an e-mail that you wouldn't let your
wife or boss to read.
2. Turn off your computer when you are not using it.
It is the only sure way to keep the hackers out.
3. Use a password to log onto your computer. Most
operating system let you set a password and to
change it regularly.
4. Don’t accept cookies. If you hav e to, delete
them when you are finished surfing.
5. Use the latest v ersions and software patches for
your e-mail and your browser. New security
loopholes are constantly being discov ered.
6. Keep your antiv irus up to date. Hackers nev er
rest. Ev ery email attachment can contain a virus,
so scan it before you open it.
7. Watch your laptop at the airport. Be specially
careful at X-ray security machines, which is
where most laptop theft occur.
8. Don’t use the same password ov er and ov er.
Make new v ariations.
9. Use a paper shredder. Don’t just throw out
unsolicited credit card application. Shred them.
10. Nev er giv e out your social security number,
online or off. This information in a wrong hand is
license to steal.
TERRORISM
 the word terror deriv es from the Latin word
terrere, meaning “to frighten”
 the use or threatened use of force design to
bring about political change. (Brian Jenkins of
the Rand Corporation)
 the unlawful use of force or v iolence against
persons or property to intimidate or coerce a
gov ernment, the civ ilian population, or any
segment thereof, in furtherance of political or
social objectiv es (FBI)
Compendium of Crime Detection and Investigation (CDI)
 an action the urban guerilla must execute with
the cold-bloodedness, calmness and decision
(Modern godfather of urban guerilla, Carlos
Marighella)
 a premeditated, politically motiv ated v iolence
perpetuated against noncombatant targets by
groups of clandestine state agents, usually
intended to influence an audience (U.S
Department of State)
 Paul Pillar, an erstwhile deputy chief of the CIA
counter-terrorist center, opined that terrorism has
four basic components or elements prov iding
guides to defining it, namely:
1. It is premeditated, planned in adv ance, rather
an impulsiv e act of rage;
2. It is political and not criminal, but designed to
change existing political order;
3. It is aimed at civ ilians and not a military targets or
combat ready troops; and
4. Sub-national groups execute it, not the army of a
giv en country.
 the unlawful or threatened use of force
or v iolence by a person or an organized
group against people or property. With
the intention of intimidating or coercing
societies or gov ernments, often for
ideological or political reasons,
(Webster Dictionary)
 a threat or actual use of force or
v iolence for political or other purpose,
to foster fear, distrust, insecurity, and
unrest among specific or the general
population
 v iolence for effect not primarily, and
sometimes not all for the physical effect
on the actual target, but rather for its
dramatic on an audience
 the calculated use of v iolence or the
threat of v iolence to attain goals, often
political or ideological in nature
 v iolent criminal behav ior designed to
generate fear in the community, or a
substantial segment of it, for political
purpose
International terrorism - politically-oriented extreme
v iolence that is perpetrated by residents or representativ es
of one or more countries against the interest of another
country or by members of a v iolent foreign politically
directed organization not affiliated with the country being
attacked for the purpose of forcing a change in
gov ernment or in how society functions
Al Qaeda
 in Arabic, this means The Base
 founded by Osama bin Laden in 1980
 Osama bin Laden
o Organized al Qaeda
o born in 1955 or 1957 in the city of Riyadh
o responsible for truly heinous terrorist
incidents, including the 2001
destruction of the World Trade Center
o died killed in Pakistan on May 2, 2011
(Operation Neptune Spear)
Ayman Mohammed Rabie al-Zawahiri
- Born June 19, 1951
- An Egyptian physician, Islamic theologian and
current leader of al-Qaeda.
Hamas
 "enthusiasm“
 an acronym of Ḥarakat al-Muqāwamah al-
ʾIslāmiyyah "Islamic Resistance Mov ement")
 is the Palestinian Sunni Islamic or Islamist political
party that gov erns the Gaza Strip.
 Sheikh Ahmed Yassin & Mahmoud Zahar
 “Hamas is an extremist group...it is one of the
deadliest terrorist organizations in the world
today.” George W. Bush
Hezbollah
 literally "Party of God“
 is a Shi'a Muslim militant group and political party
based in Lebanon.
 receiv es financial and political support from Iran
and Syria, and its paramilitary wing is regarded as
 a resistance mov ement throughout much of the
Arab and Muslim worlds
 the United States, the Netherlands United
Kingdom, Israel, Australia, and Canada classify
Hezbollah as a terrorist organization, in whole or
in part
Jemaah Islamiya
 Dates of operation: 1993- present
 Aliases: "Islamic Congregation, Islamic
Community, Islamic Group
 Base of Operation: Indonesia; Malaysia;
Philippines; Singapore
 Founding Philosophy: Create an Islamic state
across Southeast Asia to include Singapore,
Indonesia, Malaysia, Brunei, southern Thailand,
and southern Philippines.
 JI was added to the United Nations 1267
Committee's list of terrorist organizations linked to
al-Qaeda or the Taliban on 25 October 2002
under UN Security Council Resolution 1267
Domestic Terrorism
 politically oriented extreme v iolence that is
perpetrated by residents of a country within that
country in order to force a change in
gov ernment or how in society functions
TERRORIST IN THE PHILIPPINES
Rajah Solaiman Movement
 aka “Balik Islam” or “Back To Islam”
 founder Hilarion del Rosario Santos III aka
Hannah Santos, aka Ahmed Santos, aka Hilarion
del Rosario, conv erted to Islam in 1993 and
married into the top ranks of the leadership of
the Abu Sayyaf Group (ASG)
 one of the latest groups affiliated with ASG, MILF
and JI
ABU SAYYAF GROUP (ASG)
Aliases:
 Al-Harakat Al-Islamiyyah, Bearer of the Sword,
Father of the Swordsman
Founding Philosophy
 The Abu Sayyaf Group (ASG) was formed in 1991
during the peace process between the
Philippine gov ernment and the
nationalist/separatist terrorist group, the Moro
National Liberation Front (MNLF). Angered by the
mov ement toward a peaceful resolution, certain
MNLF members formed Abu Sayyaf
DIFFERENT TYPES OF TERRORISM
1. Anti-colonial Terrorism
2. Ideological Terrorism
3. Religious Terrorism
Ethnocentric - The category of terrorist organization which
is aimed at est ablishing a dominant or superior race that
will be looked upon by the entire populace in the world.
Revolutionary - The category of terrorist group which is
dedicated to overt hrow an est ablished order and
replacing it wit h a new polit ical or social st ruct ure.
Political - The category of terrorist group which aims in
rest ruct uring t he societ y.
Nationalistic - Those who commit acts of v iolence due to
their loyalt y or devot ion t o t heir count ry.
ROOT CAUSES OF TERRORISM
1. Political Ideologicalism
2. Religious Fanaticism
Jihad
 The term which refers to t he holy war waged by
members of the Islamic religion against t he Jews .
IDEOLOGY
 body of ideas affecting the social needs and
aspirations of an indiv idual or group, a class or a
culture”
Compendium of Crime Detection and Investigation (CDI)
 Bov ier defines it as “a set of doctrines or beliefs
that from the basis of a political, economic and
other systems”.
TERRORIST TACTICS
1. Bombings
2. Assassinations and Assaults
3. Kidnapping
4. Hostage-taking/skyjacking
5. Weapons of mass destruction(WMD)
WHAT IS WEAPON OF MASS DESTRUCTION (WMD)?
 term used to describe a massiv e weapon with
the capacity to indiscriminately kill large number
of people
 it could be nuclear, biological and chemical
weapons
Categories of chemical agents (mostly in liquid form)
1. Nerv e agents
2. Blistering agents
3. Chocking agents
4. Nerv e agents
1. Nerve Agents
 agents that disrupt the mechanism by which
nerv es communicate with organs they stimulate
 in other words the agents gets the nerv es to send
the wrong signal to the muscles they control and
hence, disrupt muscle function of the body
 ex. Sarin Gas
2. Blistering Agents
 There are three common of this type; the most
widely known are mustard gas, lewisite, and
phosgene oxime. Mustard gas, first used in World
War I, will caused blistering on the exposed
portions of the body, as well as on internal
organs. It will generally cause blindness and then
death by respiratory failure
3. Chocking Agents
 One of the deadliest choking agents is phosgene
gas. This agent damages the respiratory system
and causes the lungs to fill with water, and thus
chokes the v ictim.
Ex. chlorine
Biological Agents (liquid or dry form)
1. Anthrax
2. Botulinum toxin
3. Brucellosis
4. Cholera
5. Plague
6. Typhoid fev er
7. Rickettsia
Anthrax
 a single cell organism that is produced by a
fermentation process, such as that by which beer
is made
 caused by Bacillus anthracis and the effects of
exposure include a sev ere infection that attacks
the skin, lungs, and gastrointestinal tract
 direct contact will cause formation of dry scabs
all ov er the victims body and can dev elop into
systematic infection
 when inhaled, the agent attacks the respiratory
system with symptoms appearing from one to
sev en days
Botulinum toxin
 a protein made by the clostridium botulinum
bacteria
 exposure to the toxin, the nerve cell synapses are
affected, causing palsy, spasms, and then
paralysis
Brucellosis
 also known as undulant fever
 symptoms can include intermittent or prolonged
fev er, headaches, profuse sweating, chills, pains
in the joints and muscles and fatigue
Cholera
 an acute gastrointestinal disease caused by
Vibrio Cholera
  symptoms include a sudden onset of nausea and
or v omiting accompanied by sev ere diarrhea
and a rapid loss of body fluids
Plague
 in natural transmittal form, the plague may the
bubonic plague, or black death that eradicated
a great number of European in the middle ages
 transmitted from person to person by respiratory
transmission, through rats, or from the bite of an
infected flea
 symptoms are high fev er accompanied by
general aches, sev ere weakness, and
pneumonia
Typhoid fever
- caused by an organism called salmonella
typhosa which causes fev er and frontal
headaches and is usually accompanied by rose
colored spots on the skin
- must employed through food and limited water
contamination
Rickettsia
- disease that appears in domesticated animals
such as sheep, cattle, and goats
- spread to human through inhalation of particles
contaminated with organism
- incubation period, ranging from 10 to 14 days
BOMBING
Terrorist commit bombings for a number of reasons:
1. To gain media attention, particularly the target is
v isible or symbolic.
2. Bombing is a cost effectiv e and efficient way to
attack a facility.
3. Bombing can be accomplished with a small
number of personnel.
4. Bombing is inexpensiv e in comparison to
alternativ es such as kidnapping or hostage-
taking.
5. Random bombing make a considerable impact
on the population, because more people fear a
bomb attack than being kidnapped or taken
hostage.
6. Explosiv es are readily av ailable through theft,
sympathetic supporters, or purchase. Explosiv es
can be constructed through the use legitimately
purchased chemicals, fertilizers, and other
material.
Types of bombers
1. Amateur - can be described as experiments
2. Professional - builds or bombs or does both for
profit
3. Psychopathic - acts without rhyme or reason
4. Suicidal - major attack weapon in recent years,
particularly among Islamic terrorist groups
Number of elements which are almost universal in modern
terrorist activities
- The use of v iolence to persuade
- Bombings or other attacks are employed to
“make a point” with target v ictims.
- Selection of targets and v ictims for maximum
propaganda v alue-
- The use of unprov oked attacks
- Maximum publicity at minimum risk
- Use of surprise to circumv ent countermeasures
- Threats, harassment, and v iolence
- Disregarding women and children as v ictims
- Propaganda is used to maximize the effect of the
v iolence
- Loyalty to themselv es or kindred groups
R.A. 9372
- Human Security Act of 2007
- Approv ed on March 6, 2007
- Effectiv e on May 15, 2007
Terrorism
 any person who commits an act punishable
under any of the following prov isions of the RPC:
(Sec. 3)
1. Article 122 (Piracy in General and Mutiny in the
High Seas or in the Philippine Waters);
2. Article 134 (Rebellion or Insurrection);
Compendium of Crime Detection and Investigation (CDI)
3. Article 134-a (Coup d’ etat), including acts
committed by priv ate persons;
4. Article 248 (Murder);
5. Article 267 (Kidnapping and Serious Illegal
Detention);
6. Article 324 (Crimes Inv olv ing Destruction)
7. or under
- Presidential Decree No. 1613 (The Law on
Arson);
- Republic Act No. 6969 (Toxic Substances and
Hazardous and Nuclear Waste Control Act of
1990);
- Republic Act No. 5207, (Atomic Energy
Regulatory and Liability Act of 1968);
- Republic Act No. 6235 (Anti-Hijacking Law);
- Presidential Decree No. 532 (Anti-piracy and
Anti-highway Robbery Law of 1974); and,
- Presidential Decree No. 1866, as amended
(Decree Codifying the Laws on Illegal and
Unlawful Possession, Manufacture, Dealing in,
Acquisition or Disposition of Firearms,
Ammunitions or Explosives)thereby sowing and
creating a condition of widespread and
extraordinary fear and panic among the
populace, in order to coerce the gov ernment
to giv e in to an unlawful demand shall be
guilt y of t he crime of t errorism and shall suffer
the penalt y of fort y (40) years of imprisonment,
wit hout t he benefit of parole as prov ided for
under Act No. 4103, otherwise known as the
Indeterminate Sentence Law, as amended.
R.A. 9372, SEC. 4. Conspiracy t o Commit Terrorism
- Persons who conspire to commit the crime of
terrorism shall suffer the penalty of forty (40)
years of imprisonment
- There is conspiracy when two or more persons
come to an agreement concerning the
commission of the crime of terrorism
The prov isions of Republic Act No. 4200 (Anti-Wire Tapping
Law) to the contrary notwithstanding, a police or law
enforcement official and the members of his team may,
upon a written order of the Court of Appeals, listen to,
intercept and record, with the use of any mode, form, kind
or type of electronic or other surv eillance equipment or
intercepting and tracking dev ices, or with the use of any
other suitable ways and means for that purpose, any
communication, message, conv ersation, discussion, or
spoken or written words between members of a judicially
declared and outlawed terrorist organization, association,
or group of persons or of any person charged with or
suspected of the crime of terrorism or conspiracy to
commit terrorism.
Provided, That surveillance, interception and recording of
communications between lawyers and clients, doctors
and patients, journalists and their sources and confidential
business correspondence shall not be authorized.
MONEY LAUNDERING
- MONEY LAUNDERING IS A CRIME.
- MONEY LAUNDERING IS ALSO THE WORLD’S THIRD
LARGEST INDUSTRY BY VALUE.
- Cash is a bearer instrument and completely
replaceable and easily conv ertible, lends
anonymity to many forms of criminal activ ity and
of course is the preferred medium of exchange in
the criminal world.
- “Cov ers all procedures to change, obscure or
conceal the beneficial ownership or audit trail of
illegally obtained money or v aluables so that it
appears to hav e originated from a legitimate
source.”
- “A process through which the existence of an
illegal source of unlawful application of illicit
gains is concealed or disguised to make the
gains legitimate, thereby helping to ev ade
detection, prosecution, seizure and taxation.”
“Money Laundering” is called what it is because the term
perfectly describes what takes place, illegal or dirty
money is put through a cycle of transactions, or “washed”,
or “laundered”, so that it comes out the other end as
legal, or clean money.
In other words, the source of illegally obtained funds is
obscured through a succession of transfers and deals in
order that those funds can eventually be made to appear
legitimate income.
How serious is the problem?
 Money laundering allows criminals to preserve and
enjoy the proceeds of their crimes, prov iding them
with the incentive and means to perpetrate such
activ ities and at the same time expand and
consolidate their forces.
 Corrupts financial institutions, control sizeable
sectors of the economy through inv estments and
ev en bribe and infiltrate governments. In extreme
cases, it may lead to the v irtual take-ov er of a
legitimate gov ernment.
 Destroys the integrity of gov ernments. With the
increasing awareness of the ill-effects of money
laundering and the growing interdependence
among global communities, countries that are
known to be used by money launderers could be
placed in a bad light, adv ersely affecting their
financial institutions and relations within regional
and global economies.
The three common factors identified in laundering
operations are:
a. The need to conceal the origin and true
ownership of the proceeds;
b. The need to maintain control of the proceeds;
c. The need to change the form of the proceeds in
order to shrink the huge v olumes of cash
generated by the initial criminal activ ity, the so-
called “predicate offense” or “unlawful activity”.
IMPUNITY
 without fear of prosecution
 without fear of confiscation
Money laundering is not a single act but is in fact a
process that is accomplished in three basic steps or
stages:
a. Placement ‘Smurfing
b. Layering “Transformation”
c. Integration “Injection”
 The physical disposal of cash proceeds deriv ed
from the unlawful activ ity.
 The aim is to remov e cash from the location of
acquisition to av oid detection.
 Separating illicit proceeds from their source by
creating complex layers of financial transactions
designed to disguise the source of money,
subv ert the audit trail and prov ide anonymity.
 The purpose is to disassociate the illicit proceeds
from the unlawful activ ity by creating
intentionally a complex web of financial
transactions aimed at concealing any audit trail
as well as the source and ownership of funds.
 The final stage in the process at which the money
is integrated into legitimate economic and
financial systems and is assimilated with all the
other assets in the system.
 Integration of laundered money into the
economy is accomplished by making it appear
to have been legally earned. Thus, exceedingly
difficult to distinguish between legal and illegal
wealth.
Laundering of Proceeds
 Mix dirty money with legitimate funds
 Use dirty money for legitimate purposes
 Inv est dirty money in legitimate business/es
The Vienna Convention of 1988 – The United Nations
Conv ention Against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and
Psychotropic Substances
o “To depriv e persons engaged in illicit traffic of the
proceeds of their criminal activ ities and thereby
eliminate their main incentiv e for doing.”
o Taking profit away from the crime!
o Fighting money laundering prev ents the criminal
from enjoying his ill-gotten gains and he will also
be unable to infuse the same back to his criminal
activ ity or organization.
o The Financial Action Task Force (FATF) is the
international body formed by the leading
industrial countries in the world, collectiv ely
known as the Group of Sev en (“G7”), during the
Paris G7 Summit of 1989.
Compendium of Crime Detection and Investigation (CDI)
o The Forty Recommendations
o List of measures that the FATF encourages all
nations to adopt in order to institute and
implement an effectiv e anti-money laundering
program. They constitute the international
standards of anti-money laundering measures
with respect to the criminal justice system, law
enforcement procedures and the regulation of
the financial system.
1. Criminalization of money laundering
2. Establishment of a system of suspicious
transaction reporting
3. Creation of a centralized financial intelligence
unit or “FIU”
4. Remov al or relaxation of bank secrecy laws
5. Institution of a system allowing mutual assistance
and cooperation between countries to
apprehend and prosecute suspected money
launderers
The FATF cracks down on terrorist financing with the
following nine special recommendations :
1. Prov ide the widest possible range of assistance to
other countries’ law enforcement and regulatory
authorities for terrorist financing inv estigations.
2. Impose anti-money laundering requirements on
alternativ e remittance systems.
3. Strengthen customer identification requirements
in international and domestic wire transfers.
4. Ensure that entities, in particular non-profit
organizations cannot be used to finance
terrorism.
 The prov isions of the Anti-Money Laundering Act
of 2001 (AMLA) or R.A. No.9160, as amended,
lays down the Philippine policies and principles to
prev ent banks, insurance companies and the
securities and capital markets and industries from
being utilized by money launderers to “wash”
their so-called “dirty money”.
The two-fold policy of the AMLA are :
1. To protect and preserv e the integrity and
confidentiality of bank accounts;
2. to ensure that the Philippines is not used as a
money laundering site of the proceeds of
unlawful activ ities.
Thus, it is the Philippines’ policy not only to protect
depositors and inv estors but of equal importance is the
inv estigation, apprehension and prosecution of suspected
money launderers.
- Under the AMLA, money laundering is “ a crime
whereby the proceeds of an unlawful activ ity are
transacted, thereby making them appear to
hav e originated from legitimate sources.”
- Money Laundering as a crime is committed in
three (3) different ways under the AMLA
- “Any person knowing that any monetary
instrument or property represents, inv olv es, or
relates to, the proceeds of any unlawful activ ity,
transacts or attempts to transact said monetary
instrument or property.”
- Imprisonment of 7 to 14 years and a fine of not
less than P 3 Million but not more than twice the
v alue of the monetary instrument or property
inv olv ed in the transaction.
- “Any person knowing that any monetary
instrument or property inv olv es the proceeds of
an unlawful activ ity, performs or fails to perform
any act as a result of which he facilitates the
offense of money laundering referred to in
paragraph (a) abov e.”
- Imprisonment of 4 to 7 years and a fine of not less
than P 1 Million but not more than P 3 Million.
- “Any person knowing that any monetary
instrument or property is required under this Act
to be disclosed and filed with the Anti-Money
Laundering Council (AMLC), fails to do so.”
Other penalties include:
- Forfeiture of the monetary instruments or property
inv olved in the money laundering offense in favor
of the Philippine gov ernment.
 - Perpetual or temporary absolute disqualification
from public office, as the case may be, if the
offender be a public official or employee.
- If the offender is a corporation, partnership,
association or any juridical person, the penalty
shall be imposed on the responsible officer who
participated in or allowed by gross negligence
the commission of the crime.
- “Unlawful Activity” refers to any act or omission or
series or combination thereof involv ing or hav ing
DIRECT relation to any of the following:
a. Piracy on the high seas
b. Qualified Theft
c. Swindling
d. Smuggling
e. Offenses under the E-Commerce Act
f. Hijacking, destructiv e arson, murder,
g. Violations of the Securities and
Regulation Code
h. Felonies or offenses of a similar nature
under penal laws of other countries
The Anti-Money Laundering Council (AMLC) is the financial
intelligence unit of the Philippines and is composed of the
following officials :
- The Gov ernor of the Bangko Sentral ng Pilipinas
- The Chairperson of the Securities and Exchange
Commission
- The Commissioner of the Insurance Commission
A COVERED TRANSACTION is a transaction in cash or other
equiv alent monetary instrument involv ing a total amount
in excess of PHP500,000.00 within one (1) banking day.
Republic Act No. 9160
- approv ed on September 29, 2001
- this Act shall be known as the "Anti-Money
Laundering Act of 2001.“
For the prev ention of money laundering, the AMLA
contains specific prov isions on the following areas:
a. Customer identification
b. Keeping of records
c. Recognition and reporting of cov ered and
suspicious transactions
d. Training
Importance of Customer Identification
The inadequacy or absence of “KYC” standards can
subject banks to serious customer and counter (third)
party risks, especially:
1. Reputational risk
2. Operational risk
3. Legal and concentration risk
Reputational Risk
- the potential that adv erse publicity regarding a
bank’s business practices and associations,
whether accurate or not, will cause a loss of
confidence in the integrity of the institution.
Operational Risk
- the risk of direct or indirect loss resulting from
inadequate or failed internal processes, people
and systems or from external ev ents.
Legal Risk
- the possibility that lawsuits, adverse judgments or
contracts that turn out to be unenforceable can
disrupt or adv ersely affect the operations or
condition of a bank.
RA 9194
- approv ed on March 7, 2003
- An Act Amending Republic Act No. 9160,
otherwise known as the Anti-Money Laundering
Act of 2001
ARM SMUGGLING
Smuggling
- also known as trafficking, is the clandestine
transportation of goods or persons past a point
where prohibited, such as out of a building, into
a prison, or across an international border, in
v iolation of the law or other rules
Compendium of Crime Detection and Investigation (CDI)
WHAT ARE FIREARMS?
- includes handguns, rev olv ers, pistols, rifles,
muskets, carbines, shotguns, cannons and all
other deadly weapons from which a bullet, ball,
shot, shall or other missile may be discharged by
means of gunpowder or other explosiv es
- also includes air rifles and air pistols not classified
as toys under the prov isions of Executiv e Order
No. 712 dated 28 July 1981. The barrel of any
firearm shall be considered a complete firearm.
FIREARMS TRAFFICKING
- refers to the act of any person who, through the
use of any fraudulent machinations, shall import
or bring into, or export from, the Philippines, or
assist in so doing, any firearm or parts thereof,
explosiv e or ammunition or machine,
implements, equipments or tools for the
manufacture of firearms.
- shall likewise refer to the act of any person who,
contrary to law, shall:
- receiv e, conceal, buy, sell, or in any
manner facilitate the transportation,
concealment or sale of said firearms or
parts thereof, explosiv e or ammunition
or machine, implements, equipments or
tools for the manufacture of firearms,
ammunition or explosiv es after
importation, knowing the same to hav e
been imported contrary to law.
Why does this illicit activity flourish?
 It is a dangerous but profitable criminal
enterprise.
 However, it threatens not only public safety and
national security but also endangers, and
oftentimes, takes away the liv es of innocent
persons.
 It is one of the transnational organized crimes
that affect not only the Philippines and other
neighboring Asian countries but also the rest of
the world.
 The country lacks anti-firearms
smuggling/trafficking laws.
 No region is immune to illicit trade and trafficking
in small arms and light weapons
 Collaborativ e and cooperativ e measures are
essential to address this transnational threat.
Why should it be addressed?
 It poses a serious threat to national security and a
stumbling block to economic dev elopment.
 Firearms can be tools of v iolence. Letting the
control of the tools of v iolence get out of hand
can be a disaster for any society.
Efforts to curtail the problem
 Improv ement of the traceability of firearms;
 Passage of relev ant laws and prov iding stiffer
penalties thereto;
 Encouraging return of loose firearms through
programs such as amnesty and “balik-baril”
programs; and
 More extensiv e law enforcement.
RELEVANT LAWS
 The Memorandum for the SILG recommending
the phase-out of the use, manufacture or sale of
Palt ik (home-made) Firearms; and
 The PNP Circular on the disposition of Captured,
Confiscated, Surrendered and Deposited
Firearms, Ammunition and Explosiv es.
BASIC FIREARMS LAWS, RULES AND REGULATIONS:
Section 1, Republic Act No. 8294:
 Acts punishable: Unlawful Manufacture, Sale,
Acquisition, Disposition or Possession of Firearms
Ammunition or Instruments Used or Intended to
be Used in the Manufacture of Firearms or
Ammunitions.
 Penalty:Prision correccional in its maximum
period and a fine of not less that Fifteen
Thousand pesos(P15,000.00)
  (low-powered firearm such as rim fire handgun,
.380 or .32 and other firearm of similar firepower,
part of firearm, ammunition or machinery, tool or
instrument used or intended to be used in the
manufacture of any firearm or ammunition:
Prov ided that no other crime was committed)
Section 1, Republic Act No. 8294:
 Acts punishable: Unlawful Manufacture, Sale,
Acquisition, Disposition or Possession of Firearms
Ammunition or Instruments Used or Intended to
be used in the Manufacture of Firearms or
Ammunitions.
 Penalty:Prision mayor in its minimum period and a
fine of Thirty Thousand pesos (30,000.00)
 (high-powered firearm which includes those with
bores bigger in diameter that .38 caliber and 9
millimeter such as caliber 40, 41, 44, 45 and also
lesser calibered firearms but considered powerful
such as caliber 357 and caliber .22 center fire
magnum and other firearms with firing capability
of full automatic and by burst of two or three:
Prov ided howev er, That no other crime was
committed by the person arrested)
INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY THEFT
Intellectual property theft is used interchangeably with
intellectual property piracy which is the unauthorized
copying of goods, or works such as software, for resale by
way of profit or trade; the production and sale by way of
trade of copies of goods which have been made without
the authority of the owner of the intellectual property; the
facilitation of their production, and the distribution of such
goods including importation and retailing; counterfeiting
or pirating of goods facilitated by use of the Internet or
satellite technologies, or piracy or theft of information or
broadcasts, or unauthorized photocopying of books for
education purposes, or of unauthorized end-user piracy of
software beyond the purchaser’s license, or piracy of
domain names or company names, or counterfeiting of
currency; the unauthorized manufacture and distribution
of copies of such goods and works which are intended to
appear to be so similar to the original as to be passed off
as genuine examples. This includes use of famous brands
on clothing not manufactured by or on behalf of the
owner of the trade mark, and exact copies of CDs
containing any material or software, which are traded in a
form intended to be indistinguishable to ordinary
consumers from the genuine product. Intellectual property
right is “the legal ownership by a person or business of a
copyright, design, and patent, trade mark attached to a
particular product or process which protects the owner
against unauthorized copying or imitation. Such property
rights are an important element of product differentiation
and confer temporary monopoly advantages to suppliers”
(Pass, Lowes and Dav ies 1993: 265). The term intellectual
property rights include copyright and related rights,
trademarks and serv ice marks, geographic indications,
industrial designs, patents, layout-designs.
Four categories of intellectual property according to
Nicole Leeper Piquero
- Patents
- Trademarks
- Trade secrets
- Copyright
Republic Act No. 8293
- approv ed on June 6, 1997
- This Act shall take effect on 1 January
1998.
- Intellectual Property Code of the Philippines.
RA 10088
- known as the "Anti-Camcording Act of 2010
- Approv ed on May 13, 2010
DRUG TRAFFICKING
The Drug Trade - From the farmers to the producers, the
smugglers, the street dealers, and the users, the drug trade
is deeply rooted in the global economy. It is protected
and ov erseen by powerful groups known as drug cartels
that make huge profits from this multibillion-dollar industry.
What is drug trafficking?
- another term for dug trade
Compendium of Crime Detection and Investigation (CDI)
- refers to the illegal process through which
narcotics and other illegal drugs are produced,
transported, and sold.
- the illegal cultiv ation, culture, deliv ery,
administration, dispensation, manufacture, sale,
trading, transportation, distribution, importation,
exportation and possession of any dangerous
drug and/or controlled precursor and essential
chemical.
- generally refers to the sale and distribution of
illegal drugs
R.A. 6425 –Dangerous Drug Act of 1972 was repealed by,
R.A. 9165 –Comprehensiv e Dangerous Drug Act of 2002.
ENVIRONMENTAL CRIME
- the deliberate ev asion of environmental laws and
regulations by indiv iduals and companies in the
pursuit of “personal interest and benefit.” Where
these activ ities involv e movements across national
boundaries, or impacts upon the world as a
whole, they can be termed "international
env ironmental crime”
The most common types of env ironmental crime fall under
these major categories:
a. biodiv ersity;
b. natural resources-related crime;
c. wastes;
d. banned substances;
e. other env ironmental offences like biopiracy and
transport of controlled biological or genetically
modified material; Illegal dumping of oil and
other wastes in oceans; v iolations of potential
trade restrictions under the 1998 Rotterdam
Conv ention on the Prior Informed Consent
Procedure for Certain Hazardous Chemicals and
Pesticides in International Trade; Trade in
chemicals in contrav ention to the 2001
Stockholm; Conv ention on Persistent Organic
Pollutants; and fuel smuggling to av oid taxes or
future controls on carbon emissions.
ECONOMIC CRIME
- referred to as commercial crimes and known also
as “white collar” crimes
- coined by Edwin Sutherland
- any act characterized by fraud, concealment, or
a v iolation of trust and are not dependent upon
the application or threat of physical force or
v iolence
PIRACY AND ARMED ROBBERY AGAINST SHIPS
Sea Piracy is described as
1. an act of any person who, on the high seas, shall
attack or seize a v essel or, not being a member
of its complement, nor a passenger, shall seize
the whole or part of the cargo of said v essel, its
equipment, or personal belonging of its
complement or passengers;
2. any attack upon or seizure of any v essel, or the
taking away of the whole or part thereof, or its
cargo, equipment, or the personal belongings of
its complement or passengers, irrespectiv e of the
v alue thereof, by means of v iolence against or
intimidation of persons or force upon things
committed by any person, including a passenger
or member or complement of said v essel, in
Philippine waters, and
3. any person who knowingly and in any manner
aids or protects pirates, such as giv ing them
information about the mov ements of the police
or other peace officers of the gov ernment, or
acquires or receiv es property taken by such
pirates, or any person who abets the commission
of the piracy.
The definition of piracy is contained in article 101 of the
1982 United Nations Conventions on the Sea (UNCLOS)
“ Piracy consist of any of the following acts:
a. any illegal acts of v iolence or detention, or
any act of depredation, committed for priv ate
ends by the crew or the passengers of a priv ate
ship or a priv ate aircraft and directed:
 a. on the high seas, against
another ship or aircraft, or
against persons or property on
board of such ship or aircraft.
b. against a ship, aircraft, person
or property in a place outside
the jurisdiction of any State.
b. Any act of v oluntary participation in the
operation of a ship or an aircraft with knowledge
of facts making it a pirate ship or aicraft;
c. Any act inciting or of intentionally facilitating
an act describe in sub-paragraph (a) or (b)

SMUGGLING OF CULTURAL PROPERTIES

Smuggling of Cultural Property refers to the act of any

person who, through the use of any fraudulent
machinations, shall import or bring into, or export from,
transfer from, the Philippines, or assist in so doing, any
cultural properties.

Cultural properties are old buildings, monuments, shrines,

documents, and objects which may be classified as
antiques, relics, or artifacts, landmarks, anthropological
and historical sites, and specimens of natural history which
are of cultural, historical, anthropological or scientific
v alue and significance to the nation; such as physical,
anthropological, archaeological and ethnographic
materials, meteorites and tektites;
historical objects and manuscripts; household and
agricultural implements; decorativ e articles or personal
adornment; works of art such as paintings, sculptures,
carv ings, jewelry, music, architecture, sketches, drawings,
or illustrations in part or in whole; works of industrial and
commercial art such as furniture, pottery, ceramics,
wrought iron, gold, bronze, silv er, wood or other heraldic
items, metals, coins, medals, badges, insignias, coat of
arms, crests, flags, arms and armor, v ehicles or ships or
boats in part or in whole.

Compendium of Crime Detection and Investigation (CDI)