Retention and recalling of phrasal verbs in students from the

ELT program of Universidad Industrial de Santander.

Esperanza Revelo

Autonomous Learning Models

Maria Alejandra Cely

Katherin Andrea Trillos

Angelica Paola Delgado

Lina Parra Nuñez

Hernan Dario Pinto

Universidad Industrial de Santander

2014
 INTRODUCTION

As you can see, I’ve memorized this utterly useless fact long enough to pass a test
question. I now intend to forget it forever. You’ve taught me nothing except to
cynically manipulate the system. Congratulations.” This phrase can be found in one
of Bill Waterson’s comic strips of his worldwide-known cartoon, Calvin & Hobbes.
Some may say that it is quite cynic, but sadly, we can safely and almost
immediately relate it to the current educational system. It is a common concern for
every teacher and educational facility to see how knowledge is forgotten as soon
as the student takes a test. There are many theories on why this phenomenon
takes place, many of them attack the educational system blaming it completely for
this situation, however, is it all fault of the policies of education or are there any
other extenuating factors?

Before answering this question, we must narrow it down first focusing on our field,
English as a second language. Throughout our experience as learners of the
English Language Teaching program (ELT) at Universidad Industrial de Santander
(UIS), Colombia, we had encountered cases in which our classmates from fifth
semester and on, do not use the vocabulary they learned at the early stages of the
program. We decided to do cross-sectional research in order to find out the rates of
use, retention and recalling of phrasal verbs in sixth, seventh, and ninth students of
the ELT program at UIS, because we believed that the closer we are to finish our
program the less we use and remember phrasal verbs. Some hypotheses about
the problem are that students avoid the use of phrasal verbs because they do not
yet control them, due to the lack of usage and that students tend to learn things by
heart and save information in their short-term memory, because they feel they
won’t need it any further down the road.
THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

This research study, as it was previously mentioned, will consist in finding out the
rates of use, retention and recalling of phrasal verbs in ELT students. As we have
noticed before, learners tend to have problems in forgetting knowledge easily,
losing a portion of their second language in lexical and grammatical terms after a
long time span without studying, and avoiding the use of structures and vocabulary
that they do not master yet. These problematic that were relevant to carry out this
project can be summarized in the following key concepts that will be defined in
order to give a holistic view of the ELT current situation, and at the same time
support the research project. They are: memory (short and long term), spacing
effect, and avoidance

Memorizing is the process in which we acquire, store, retain and later retrieve
information. Many models of memory have been suggested, one of those was
proposed in 1968 by Atkinson and Schifrin that stated that there are three separate
stages of memory: sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory.
In the Sensory Memory information from the environment is stored for a very brief
period of time, no longer than a half-second for visual information and 3 or 4
seconds for auditory information. According to Freud the Short-term memory refers
to as the conscious mind in which memories are quickly forgotten. The last stage
that is Long-term memory refers to the continuing storage of information. In this
stage the information is fairly easy to recall.

Moreover, according to Monika S. Schmidt (2011), it is the loss of, or changes to

grammatical and other features of a language the result of declining use by
speakers who have changed their linguistic environment and language habits. In
such a situation there may be, for example, simplification in the tense system or in
certain properties of subordinate clauses; some vocabulary items might fall into
disuse and phonetic features may be restructured. Some of their changes can be
affected by features of the speaker’s environment, but also his or her attitudes and
processes of identification.

On the other hand, spacing effect is the phenomena whereby human beings more
easily remember or learn items when they are studied a few times spaced over a
long time span rather than repeatedly studied in a short time span. This
phenomena was first identified in 1885 by the psychologist Hermann Ebbinghaus
who discovered that people forget 80% of the newly learned material within 24
hours. The spacing effect, suggests that if people want to store information in the
long-term memory, they must repeat this with certain intervals. However, for good
results, those intervals between repetitions need to be just long enough to increase
as time progresses to finally store knowledge in the reference memory, making
chances of forgetting it very small.

Finally, according to Kleinman (1977, 1978), Avoidance is a strategy that L2

learners may resort to when, with the knowledge of a target language word or
structure, he/she perceives that it is difficult to produce. Furthermore, María C.
Alonso (1969) adds that Avoidance is the procedural strategy that the speaker
uses when substituting the required form with another, due to a lack of the
necessary linguistic resources. Besides this, she mentions that according to
Tarone, Cohen and Dumas, Avoidance can be classified into six different
categories: avoidance of the topic, semantic avoidance, stopping mid-sentence,
paraphrasing, asking for help and changing language

BRIEFLY DISCUSSION OF THE LITERATURE REVIEW

Reviewing the literature we found some pertinent investigations to be mentioned in

this paper due to they have relevant findings that helped us in developing this
research project. Among the most important ones are: Avoidance of Phrasal Verbs
(2004), Avoidance: Grammatical or Semantic Causes (1989), The Roles of
Phonological Short Term Memory and Working Memory in L2 Grammar and
vocabulary Learning (2012). They are briefly discussed in the order they were
brought up.

The first research study investigates the avoidance of English phrasal verbs by
Chinese learners in relation to their proficiency levels. Eighty-five students
participated in this study and they used different tests to measure the phenomena.
This study claims that learners’ PV avoidance behavior is a manifestation of IL
development and that the semantic nature of the PVs tends to interact with the
translation test. For our research project this investigation was needed in order to
find out what are the causes of avoidance and if they were similar in all L2
learners, also it provides a guideline for our project.

The second project was conducted with 17-years-old intermediate learners who
had received instruction in English for a period of 5 to 6 years. The study was
carried out in two stages. In the first stage, was identified 15 cases of native-
speaker preference for a phrasal verb over a semantically equivalent one-word
verb in the context of a sentence. The second stage was to find out whether and to
what extent these phrasal verbs would also be preferred by Dutch intermediate and
advanced learners of English. The study concluded that For Dutch learners of
English, English phrasal verbs as a morphological verb class do not constitute a
learning problem. Yet, many individual phrasal verbs may be avoided for reasons
of perceived semantic difficulty.

Finally, the third study was to analyze the phonological short-term memory (PSTM)
and the working memory (WM) and their relationship with vocabulary and grammar
learning in an artificial foreign language. The participants were fifty monolingual
native English speakers who were recruited from a large American university in the
Midwest; they were tested on their ability to induce the grammatical forms and to
generalize the forms to novel utterances. The Individual differences Measures
used in this research were: Non-word Repetition, Non-word Recognition and
Listening Span.

The results showed significant independent effects of PSTM and WM on L2

vocabulary learning and on L2 grammar learning, some of which were mediated by
vocabulary and some of which were direct effects. Also it was demonstrated that
both PSTM (phonological short-term memory) and WM (working memory) are
meaningful for various aspects of language-learning ability. For us this research
was valuable because we could make connections between the topics related to
memory and found out how they work in the process of learning a second
language.

METHOD

This research project was carried out with a group of students from the English
Language
Teaching (ELT) program of the Language School at one of the most well-
established public institutions of Colombia, Universidad Industrial de Santander.
The total of participants were twelve, 3 groups of four people from each of the
following semesters: sixth, seventh, and ninth. From each group, two were male
and two were female whose ages ranged between 18 and 26 years old. The
reason why these participants were selected from the previous levels was because
they already approved a subject called Advanced English seen in fourth semester
of this program which covers the topic of phrasal verbs that are relevant for this
investigation.

Furthermore, initially the sampling was intended to be chosen in a non-linear way,

that is to say, with some intervals between semesters, so that researchers would
ensure that participants would have some time without exposure and practice of
the topic in question, in order to prove the hypothesis set at the introduction
section. However, the lack of availability of fifth semester students obliged us to
change the plan and choose the ones in sixth semester. Moreover, the selected
students were mainly our classmates and people we asked from the program who
were willing to participate. For that reason, we used convenience sampling, as its
characteristics consist of having easy access to participants, having fewer rules
controlling how the sample should be collected, and enabling us to get the sample
size relatively fast and inexpensive.

On the other hand, to carry out this research project we used three different kinds
of instruments to collect the information in order to triangulate the results and prove
our initial hypothesis. The instruments used were: a questionnaire, a phrasal verb
proficiency test, and an interview. That is to say, we used quantitative and
qualitative methods to gather data.

Firstly, researchers administered a questionnaire to know about the frequency to

use phrasal verbs, if the participants use them only in class or outside too, about
learning strategies. This questionnaire was valid because it was appropriate for the
population, that is to say, the questionnaire was understandable enough to collect
all the information needed to address the purpose of the study. It was also practical
as participants just had to select one answer from the given options and because
data was much easier to analyze. Additionally to this, the questionnaire was
reliable because it measured what was intended to measure and it brought
resembling results we got in the interview.

Secondly, there was the test. It was used to determine the rates of retention and
recalling of phrasal verb through the use of matching and three types of
language use exercises such as fill in the blanks, true and false, and multiple-
choice which were divided strategically into three parts, A, B, and C so that
student would not find the test long and boring. Furthermore, we used 44 phrasal
verbs that were divided into three categories: easy, medium and difficult. For
each one, we created some conventions which were: easy (1 point), medium (2
points) and difficult (3 points). The grading criteria for each of the points given to
the categories consisted in: 1 for the most commonly used phrasal verbs, 2 for
the phrasal verbs whose meaning is guessed literally by the words formation,
and 3, for the phrasal verbs which are abstract regarding written form and
meaning or that they are not commonly used in everyday language.

On the other hand, according to Brown (2000), there are some principles of
language assessment that are used to design a good test: practicality, reliability
and validity. We evaluated our test based on these principles. In terms of
practicality, the test was not expensive but it was time consuming for both
students and teachers due to the amount of questions and the categories of the
phrasal verbs, but this test needed to be that long in order to obtain reliable
results. Regarding reliability, Brown (2000) stated in his book Language
assessment, principles and classroom practices, that a reliable test is consistent
and dependable. There are four types of reliability and according to this we
measured the test:

1. Students related reliability: the day students presented the test they were
not under pressure, they were available and they were willing to help us with the
research, so in this case there was high reliability.
2. Rater reliability: it was high because we made sure that human errors,
subjectivity and bias were not present into the scoring process.
3. Test administration reliability: the test was present in a classroom with
sufficient amount of illumination and any external conditions such as noise that
would have affected students’ concentration and performance.
4. Test reliability: There was not a confusing layout and students were not
required to complete the test within a time constraint, however, as the test was
long participants became a little fatigued by the time they reached the later
items. For that reason, there was not high test reliability.
Additionally to this, we take into account validity, “the extent to which inferences
made from assessment results are appropriate, meaningful and useful in terms
of the purpose of assessment” (Gronlund, 1998, p, 226). For instances, our test
had a high content-related evidence, commonly known as content validity,
because it used familiar exercises and focused on previously practiced
vocabulary, in this case phrasal verbs, which were already seen and approved in
fourth semester, so there is no way that they could not know the expressions that
appeared in the test.

Finally, the last instrument used was an interview we administered after taking
the test. The questions formulated for this were designed in order to know the
participant’s thoughts about how they perceived the test, if they felt the program
had prepared them well enough for taking a test like this, what the
methodological strategies used by the professor who taught them phrasal verbs
were, and their opinions about the way these phrasal verbs were taught. The
interview was reliable because they answer it without knowing the results of the
test, it was valid because it addressed what we wanted to know for our analysis,
although it was not highly practical as answers comprises a lot of opinion and
data from the participants.

PROCEDURE

Beforehand, we looked for people from the different semesters who told us they
were willing and available to participate in our research. These were some of our
classmates or people we knew our purpose and simply agreed to do it. After this,
we handed them in the consent form of the study in order to participate. The first
instrument used was a questionnaire, which was administered at any place from
the university and in a time the participants were available, as it was only
necessary to select information with their opinions, other administering conditions
are not relevant to bias the information obtained.
The second instrument, phrasal verbs proficiency test, was administered under
very well conditions. To start, there was full illumination in the rooms where
participants presented the test, also, they did not felt any pressure to hand in the
test quickly due to it was not under any time constraint. On the other hand, the test
was administered physically, that is to say, they were given photocopies.
Moreover, the researches were observing participant’s performances in order to
assure that they would not have any external resources such as dictionaries, cell
phones, tablets, textbooks or any kind of help that could bias their performance
and results. Additionally to this, it was administered at different times, due to we
had to take into account the candidates different schedules.

The third instrument, interview was conducted soon after the test taker had finished
the exam. Only eight out of the twelve participants were randomly selected to
answer a five-question interview. It is necessary to affirm that to be in line with the
way the study had been conducted so far, an equal number of males and females
presented the interview. No formal method was used to carry out the
randomization. A mere coin-toss was the selected procedure to make this random
assignment. Moreover, the interview was conducted via email as this suited the
necessities of an easy and fast data -analysis. As for the nature of the interview, its
aim was to shine light upon the perception of the participants regarding five
different aspects.

On the other hand, this study we carried out was based on exploring the initial
hypothesis of our research project which states that the closer students are to
finish their ELT program at Universidad Industrial de Santander, Colombia, the less
they use and remember phrasal verbs. So our premise is that phrasal verbs are not
learnt by heart but purely through short-memory usage given that they are only
learned in order to be used during the “Advanced English” classes. That is why
gradually and systematically, they are forgotten by learners causing that students
in final semesters of the career have almost forgotten them completely.

As for the always feared “experimenter’s bias” some strategies were planned to
avoid falling into it. First of all, the “observer-expectancy effect”, took its toll in the
early stages of the study as researchers, as it was stated on the hypotheses,
expected poor results from the students in more advanced semesters.
Nevertheless, researchers started to manage the possibility that results may be
different from expected due to the fact that only two students that had
demonstrated high-proficiency in English throughout the career volunteered to take
the exam. Finding other subjects with availability or that they were willing to take
the exam proved to be highly difficult. To avoid compromising the research, it was
consensually decided that the sampling needed to increase its number to show
reliable results. A great effort was put into finding extra participants as well as it
was necessary to modify one of the variables first considered to select test-
subjects (The number of students per semester was doubled -from two to four- as
well as fifth semester students were no longer considered in the sample and were
replaced with sixth semester learners), but, after taking the necessary measures,
the number of test-takers was met.
On the other hand, to make possible our research study, we took into account
mainly two different book: Language assessment, principles and classroom
practices. (Brown, 2000) and the book Research Methods in Applied Linguistics
(DÖrney, 2007) the book written by Brown. These books helped us in the design of
the test following the principles of reliability, validity and practicality. On the other
hand DÖrney’s book helped us to understand the mixed methods we used, the
quantitative and qualitative data analysis and the way we should report research
results.

Regarding the possible variables we may encountered in the process, we

considered several different possibilities to overcome them. To avoid
contaminating the sample, the following parameters were set to counteract
independent variables:
  As the phrasal verbs proficiency test was administered to participants taking
into account their schedules, they obviously had to take it at different
times. To assure that every test-taker had the same environmental
conditions when presenting the test, every exam was taken at Ciencias
Humanas building at daylight hours.
 Tests were given in a physical form as its counterpart, virtual, would not
have assured that participants did not recur to outside sources and aid for
its completion.
 In order to make sure that students weren’t given any aid or resource for
checking answers and that they didn’t exceed the time limit, because this
obviously would have negatively affected the reliability of the study, at least
one member of the research team was always present in the room where
the exam was being held.

As for the dependent variables, the following parameters were set to deal with
them:

 The test mark goes from 0 to 5. An “approved” mark was set at 3.5 to be
able to have a fix point which could be used to subdivide tests in an
approved/not-approved subcategory. The participants were not told the topic
they would be tested for, that way, the possibility of compromising the
results by extra-preparation was avoided.

For our research study we used 12 students of the ELT program at Universidad
industrial de Santander. Those students were selected according to the semester
they were currently studying, so there were 4 students of 6th semester, four of 7th
semester and four of 9th semester. The sample was also divided into another
subcategory, gender, so that in each semester were 2 males and 2 females. In this
way we could analyzed if there was a different in the results between women and
men. Finally, we estimated that this size would be appropriate for our research
after having difficulties with the initial size which was the half of the final one. For
that reason, it was necessary to increase the sampling, as it was mentioned
previously, in order not to bias the product with few participants but to show reliable
results.

Every participant was asked to sign a consent form before presenting the test
(found in this research paper attachments). Test subjects were informed of the
identities of the researchers as well as the subsequent procedure of the test if they
decided to be part of the sampling. The confidentiality of the test was clearly and
detailed explained as it was stated that only the researchers and those directly
involved in the research, that is our consultant Esperanza Revelo, would have
access to the results. Anonymity was assured as no test-subject was asked for
their names, but only for their email account which had as one and only purpose of
serving to send them the online questionnaire. Also, It was clearly stated that not
direct benefit would come from taking part in this research study.

DATA ANALYSIS

As it was mentioned in the method section, we used three different kinds of

instruments to collect information. Here, we will start first by analyzing the results of
a questionnaire to get insights of the topic and relevancy to all the participants,
then, the phrasal verb proficiency test by groups, sixth, seventh and ninth semester
participants and by gender, male and female. And finally, the interview which was
carried out via email for practical purposes.

After analyzing the information obtained in the questionnaire, it could be said that
all participants agreed with the fact that learning phrasal verbs and using them not
only in the classroom but also outside it is really important, although they did not
spend enough time exposed to them, neither spent sufficient to practice and
reinforce the vocabulary outside the classroom; so they felt they have forgotten a
little the vocabulary, because of the lack of practice in everyday life or in the
learning context. Moreover, some participants expressed that the preparation given
to them was enough, other definitely disagreed with this idea and, many said that it
could have been better the kind of formation they had in fourth semester, for this
reason we discovered that students need to have an autonomous learning model
for learning and practicing phrasal verbs; we cannot give the whole responsibility to
teachers but rather, students to have an active role in their learning process.
Finally, they were asked about the methods they feel more comfortable and
familiar with to learn better this type of language aspects, therefore many pointed
out that drilling and picture association strategies were preferred.

6th semester
Analyzing the results of the sixth semester students, we can say that male
performed better in the test taking into account the total score which was 3.7 in
average in comparison with women who got 3.5. In general, women and men got
higher scores in the "easy" category with results ranging from 62%. to 87%. On the
other hand, the "medium" category obtained a slightly lower average as the range
oscillated between 54% and 85%. Ultimately, in the difficult phrasal verbs, two of
the four participants, one man and one woman, obtained in the common run a
percentage of 84% over 100% and the other two participants, the male 66% and
the woman 55%. All students performed better in the use of phrasal verbs within a
context than matching the definition with isolated phrasal verbs. Context raging
between 68% and 84%, and matching definitions ranging between 50% and 82%.

7th semester
After analyzing data of samples of seventh semester students, we found that
gender is not a highly influential factor in retention and recalling of phrasal verbs as
it was demonstrated in the final scores given that there was a 0.4 difference
between the results obtained by men (3.2) and women (3.6).
Regarding the type of exercises, students of seventh semester demonstrated a
higher level of proficiency in the language use section. The 75% of this sampling
obtained an average of 86%, the remaining 25% got a significantly lower
percentage: 41%. In the definition matching exercise, there is no a percentage
average as results varied from 25% to 82%.
Based on the latter two statements, we can safely assume that seventh semester
students performed better in the use of phrasal verbs in context.
Talking about phrasal verb difficulty is was analyzed that in the "easy" category
75% of the sampling obtained good results between 79%- 83%. On the other hand,
the remaining part score was a 38%. In the "middle" difficulty category three
quarters of the participants ranged between 79%-85% and the remaining
population got a 35%.
Finally, the "difficult" category scored a lower average as the results obtained by all
the subjects showed a decreased in the general performance given that there was
nearly 10% of difference compared to the "easy" and "medium" categories.
Ultimately, half of the sampling approved the exam with a grade superior to 4.0 and
the rest of participants failed the exam with varied scores ranging from 1.5 to 4.3.
9th semester
Regarding ninth semester students we can say that they obtained the lowest score
in comparison with 6th and 7th semester students. All of the participants failed the
exam with scores ranging between 2.5 and 3.2, being 3.5 the lowest score required
to pass the test. As a conclusion, there is no real difference between the results
obtained by men and female given that both genders scored the same (one
participant scoring 2.5 and the other 3.2).
Moving on to the phrasal verbs category, "easy" results were not in a definite
average as results ranged from 50% to 79%. "Medium" category slightly different
from the latter as participants scores oscillated between 54% to 68%' evidencing
that the higher the difficulty, the lower the proficiency. Statement that is reassured
when observing the results from the "difficult" category where participants’ average
ranged from 45 to 63%. On the other hand, they as well as participants of 6th
semester, did slightly better using phrasal verbs within a context rather than in an
isolated way. The percentages oscillated from 55% to 70% and 48% to 68%
respectively.

As it was previously stated, an interview was conducted soon after the test taker
had finished the exam. Only eight out of the twelve participants were randomly
selected to answer this five-question interview. It is necessary to affirm that to be in
line with the way the study had been conducted so far, an equal number of males
and females presented the interview. No formal method was used to carry out the
randomization. A mere coin-toss was the selected procedure to make this random
assignment.

The interview was conducted via email as this suited the necessities of an easy
and fast data -analysis. As for the nature of the interview, its aim was to shine light
upon the perception of the participants regarding five different aspects:

1. The degree of difficulty of the test. (By usage of a numerical grid)

2. The preparation obtained in phrasal verbs from the ELT program they are
currently coursing.
3. The strategies used by the instructor when teaching phrasal verbs.
4. The appropriateness of the methods with which phrasal verbs were taught.
5. The way phrasal verbs were addressed during the “Advanced English”
lessons.

After carefully reviewing the answers that each participant gave, the following
conclusions were drawn:

 As an average, participants gave the test a 3.5 in the “degree of difficulty”

category. This suggests that students found the examination to be
challenging.
 Six out of the eight interviewees stated that they do not feel that they have
obtained the sufficient preparation in the topic. To some extent, students
 were emphatic at pointing out what they believe are flaws in the design of
the program. Statements such as: “I think the program skimmed through
that topic” and “Even though we know the necessity of having a deep
knowledge of those things, we just pay attention to them in advance
English” could lead to the conclusion that there is an inconformity with the
time given to phrasal verbs in the study plan or in the classroom itself during
Advanced English lessons.
 Regarding the methodological strategies used by instructors to approach
phrasal verbs, an important note must be attached before going any further:

As it was not our intention to meddle with the way instructors deal with their
classes, no names were asked, thus, it is impossible to know for sure if the
students had the same instructor and, subsequently, if all the methods stated were
used by a single individual or if several individuals used different. This caused that
researchers couldn’t determine the general method on which phrasal verbs are
taught during Advanced English classes, if there is one.

Taking the latter statement into account, the following are the type of exercises
recalled by participants: matching, drilling, worksheets, flashcards, language use in
oral activities, and plain memorization. As a conclusion, the activities carried out
during fourth semester to teach this topic cover all types of intelligences and it
could be said that it is being taught taking into account the necessities of all
students.

Following the same trail of thought of the last question, participants were asked to
give their opinions about the used strategies. Contrary to the assumption
expressed by researchers in the last paragraph, the vast majority of takers, seven
out of eight, agreed at stating that they do not feel that phrasal verbs are being
taught with the necessary appropriateness. Reasons varied from not enough time
being dedicated to such a vital aspect of English –as it is only approached in fourth
semester or when the participant reaches Advanced English- to the usage of
memorization exercises regarding the Phrase Builder of the book “Cutting Edge”
merely.

In concordance with the latter finding, when asking participants about the way
phrasal verbs are addressed during the “Advanced English” lessons, the answers
of the majority seemed to agree when stating that they do not feel that enough
emphasis was given to the topic during class. Even though the phrase builder
previously mentioned was sometimes reviewed, it did not constitute a vital part of
their classes nor was considered a key element in their learning process, causing
that they had to complement the activities with extra work on their own.
Nevertheless, it is also noticeable the fact that students assured that not mattering
the lack of practice and recycling, instructors tended to evaluate phrasal verbs
within the “Vocabulary” section of written exams, clearly suggesting that there is no
content validity, which supposes a major flaw in assessment

CONCLUSIONS

The purpose of our research study was to determine the rates of retention and
recalling of phrasal verbs in students from 6th, 7th and 9th semester in order to
prove our initial hypothesis: the closer students are to finish the ELT program, the
less they use and remember phrasal verbs. Students from 9th semester obtained
the lowest scores if we compare them to students from 6th and 7th semester, so
that proved that our hypothesis was right. Short-term memory difficulties are this
research’s main focus as in the preliminaries of the study, it was stated that
students did not use phrasal verbs because they tended to forget them; statement
that was proved to be right not only by the data gathered in the tests themselves,
but also from the ones obtained through the qualitative sampling: the interview and
the questionnaire.
It is necessary to point out that, as in every study, some weaknesses were
discerned. The main one deals with the already-mentioned difficulty researchers
encountered when attempting to find the appropriate participants for the study and,
subsequently, arranging a fixed date on which everybody could take the test. A
direct result of this can be seen in the relatively small population used for the
sampling.

Through our research, the main conclusion we can draw is that of students felt that
they had not received enough preparation for taking the test; mainly due to the fact
that in their advanced English classes only a small number of instructors
emphasized and taught phrasal verbs formally. We then concluded that it is crucial
to find a way to improve retention in students, let it be by changing the
methodology with which they are taught or dedicating a wider time-range to its
practice and recycling.

Even Though drawing generalizations from our findings would be extremely risky
and ballsy, almost bordering recklessness given the reduced sample size, we
hope that the information gathered through this data analysis serve for professors
to consider dedicating a bigger time space to the teaching of this crucial English
aspect, and maybe, adjusting the methodology in order to meet students’ interests
and needs. If extending our courtesy a little bit further is permitted, we would like
that the findings of this study were presented to those in charge of the ELT
program curriculum for them to be able to draw their own conclusions from it and
then take the measures they think convenient, always bearing in mind the ultimate
goal that is, of course, to provide quality education to the teachers of tomorrow,
those that will change society. Being well aware that responsibility is a two-way
street, we would also suggest that students need to further commit themselves
with their learning process and should take the learning of phrasal verbs personal.
It would not be preposterous to present the idea of an autonomous learning model
to foster commitment and awareness in ELT students about the significant
importance that phrasal verbs dominance carries along.
For future research studies of this kind, we recommend that the sample should be
bigger in order to obtain better results and state a generalization with more reliable
results. Also, if researchers want to study and analyze different aspects it is
necessary to dedicate much more time. A longitudinal study can be developed in
order to analyze students’ retention of phrasal verb in each semester, so
researchers have to observe and assess the same students during a long period
of time.

REFERENCES
Brown, D. (2000). ).Language assessment, principles and classroom practices. .
(4th ed.). Longman.

Dorney, Z. (2007). research methods in applied linguistics.. New York: Oxford.

Eales, F., Moor, P., & Cunningham, S. (2007). Cutting edge phrase builder.
Harlow: Pearson Education Limited.

Hulstijin, J. H., & Marchena, E. (1989). Avoidance: Grammatical or Semantic

Causes? Studies in Second Language Acquisition,11, 241-255.

Katherine I. Martin and Nick C. Ellis (2012). The roles of phonological short term
memory and working memory in L2 grammar and vocabulary learning. Studies in
Second Language Acquisition,34, pp 379413. Retrieved from:
http://www.personal.umich.edu/~ncellis/NickEllis/Publications_files/Martin%26Ellis
SSLA2012Offprint.pdf

Liao, Y., & Fukuya, Y. J. (2004) avoidance of phrasal verbs: the case of chinese
learners of english. Retrieved
from: http://www.hawaii.edu/sls/uhwpesl/20(2)/Liao%26Fukuya.pdf

Malec, A., Brysbaert, M., Duyck, W. Working memory and (second) language
processing. Retrieved from:
http://crr.ugent.be/papers/Szmalec%20et%20al%20Working%20Memory%20and%
20Second%20Language%20Processing.pdf

Thalheimer, W. (2010, April). How Much Do People Forget? Retrieved from:

http://willthalheimer.typepad.com/files/how-much-do-people-forget-v12-14-2010-
2.pdf

APPENDIX
 Questionnaire

Read the questions and select the best option for you.

1. Do you think it is important to know and make use of phrasal verbs?

a. Yes b. No c. Not sure d. A little

2. How do you learn phrasal verbs better?

a. Drilling b. Memorization c. Through picture association d.
Other:_____________

3. Have you forgotten the advanced English phrasal verbs?

a. Yes b. No c. Not sure d. A little

4. How often did you study them when you were in fourth semester?
a. Everyday b. Only during classes c. During and outside classes d
Never

5. Was this preparation enough to you?

a. Yes b. No c. Not sure d. It could have been better.

6. How often you study and practice (right now) the advanced English phrasal
verbs on your own?
a. Always b. Sometimes c. Never

7. How often do you use these phrasal verbs outside the classes (in your
everyday life)?
a. Always b. Sometimes c. Never
Gender: __________________ Semester: _________________

GENERAL INFORMATION
This exam was designed by current students of the subject Autonomous Learning models led by Professor
Esperanza Revelo. Its purpose is to determine the rates of use, retention, and recalling of phrasal verbs in
students of 5 , 7 , and 10 semester of the English teaching program at Universidad industrial de Santander.
th th th

Therefore, throughout this paper you will find several phrasal verbs seen in Advanced English classes, which
you will have to show understanding using different types of exercises (matching, fill in the blanks, true or
false, and multiple-choice), in order to know to what extend you have forgotten them. Thanks for your time
and participation in the project!

PART A.1 MATCHING N°1. Match the phrasal verbs in the right with the definitions on the left (put the number
in the line).
1. To complete an official document such
as an application form or a
questionnaire.
2. To go to the airport, station, etc. to say ____Mess around
goodbye to somebody.
3. To take somebody by car to a particular ____Give sth away
place and leave them there.
4. To behave in a silly way when you should ____Come over
be working or paying attention.
5. To appear suddenly and unexpectedly. ____Slow down
6. To publicly protest about something,
especially when this could be dangerous. ____Draw sth up
7. To go more slowly, or to make someone
go more slowly. ____Put off
8. To stop a vehicle you are driving at the
side of the road. ____Pop up
9. To fall or turn over, to cause something
to do this. ____Fill in
10. To sing or play a musical instrument very
loudly. ____Bang on
11. To delay; postpone, take off; discard.
12. To talk about sth for a long time, ____Drop off
especially in a way that is boring to other
people. ____Tip over
13. To tell someone something that another
person has told you. ____Pass sth on
14. To give something to someone without
asking for payment. ____See off
15. To prepare something, usually
something official, in writing. ____Belt out
16. To come to a place, move from one place
to another, or move towards ____Pull over
someone.
____Speak out (+against)

PART A.2 TRUE OR FALSE. Read the sentences below which contain phrasal verbs given in the previous
exercise and write TRUE, for the ones are used in the correct way, or FALSE, for the ones that are used in the
wrong way.

1. Before you register for chatline.com please fill in this online application form with a few personal details. (
____)
2. There were hundreds of people at the airport, who wanted to drop the team off and wish them good luck.
(____)
3. I live down that road on the left, you can see me off at the corner, and I’ll walk the rest of the way. (____)
4. Mike was a real nightmare for his teacher. He was always messing around in class and he would never
concentrate on his work. (___)
5. Manuel isn’t what you’d call a well-known singer, but he draws up on TV every now and then. ( ___)
6. Is everyone so afraid that they are unable to speak out against such an obvious example of prejudice?
(___)
7. Police are asking drivers to put off because of fog on the motorway. (___)
8. There was a strange noise coming from the car engine, so Jake decided to pull over and have a look. (___)
9. I’m concerned that the bottles are going to tip over and we’ll end up soaking wet! (___)
10. The band was belting out all the old favourites. (____)
11. The meeting has been slow down for a week. (____)
12. My parents are always giving away about how much better life was 20 years ago. (____)
13. If he provided us with any information, no one passed it on to me. (____)
14. The shop is banging on a sample pack to every customer. (____)
15. I've popped up a list of candidates that I'd like to interview. (____)
16. Is your family coming over from Greece for the wedding? (____)

PART B.1 MATCHING N°2. Match the phrasal verbs in the right with the definitions on the left (put the number
in the line)
___ Set out
1. To notice something that other people have not
noticed ___ Put out
2. To express your opinions forcefully, especially
without being asked for them. ___ Hand in
3. To behave in a way that is intended to attract
attention or admiration, and that other ___ Start up
people often find annoying
4. If a vehicle or engine starts up, or someone ___ Sound off
starts it up, it starts to work.
5. To talk to someone you are sexually interested ___ Turn up
in to get them interested in you.
6. To extinguish something (a cigarette, fire) ___ Send up
7. To demolish a build that is no longer used.
8. To disappoint somebody who was relying on ___ Pick up on sth
you.
9. To take place as planned. ___ Let down
10. To appear or happen in a way that requires
attention. ___ Pull down
11. To show how silly something or somebody is
by imitating them in a funny way ___ Miss out
12. To give something to a person in authority
13. To not include something ___ Show off
14. To appear, increase
15. To start an activity with a particular aim/to ___ Go ahead
start a journey.
___ Come up

___ Chat up
PART B.2 FILL IN THE BLANKS. Fill in the blanks with the corresponding phrasal verbs given the box.

Go ahead Start up Show off Send up

Chat up Turn up Hand in Miss out

Let down Sound off Come up set out

Pick up on sth Put out Pull down

1. Only one newspaper ___________ on the minister's statement.

2. He's always _________about how he thinks the country should be run.
3. She only bought that sports car to __________ and prove she could afford one.
4. The car wouldn't __________ this morning.
5. I tried to______ Irene last night at the bar, but she shot me down.
6. The neighbors_____the fire______before the firemen arrived.
7. They________the old cinema_______to build a new shopping mall.
8. I’m counting on your help, don’t_____ me_______.
9. The construction of the bypass______________despite the protests from
environmentalists.
10. A lot of important questions__________at the meeting.
11. The film__________all those Hollywood blockbuster movies.
12. _______ your papers____at the end of the exam.
13. Make sure you don’t_______any details_______.
14. She didn't__________for class today.
15.She__________ with the aim of becoming the youngest ever winner of the championship.
PART C.1 MATCHING N°3 Match the phrasal verbs in the right with the definitions on the left (put
the number in the line).

1. To make somebody quieter when

they are very excited or emotional. ___ Chill out
2. To succeed in communicating ideas,
information, etc to other people. ___ Find out
3. To criticize somebody in front of
other. ___ Traipse around
4. To examine something that is broken
and try to find what is wrong with it. ___Walk off with
5. To relax completely instead of feeling
angry, tired or nervous. ___ Calm Down
6. To suddenly begin to have strong
feelings or become violent. ___Stand out against
7. To learn information either by looking
for it or finding it by chance. ___Put down
8. To make an electrical appliance to
stop working by pushing a button. ___ Run round after
9. To publicly oppose something or
someone. ___ Flare up
10. To walk from one place to another,
often feeling tired or bored. ___ Get across
11. To accomplish by work or effort, find
a solution for; solve, formulate or ___ Switch off
develop.
12. To win easily. ___ Look at
13. To do a lot of things for someone
else, especially when they should be ___ Work out
able to do more for themselves.

PART C.2 MULTIPLE-CHOICE. Read the sentences and choose the answer (a, b, or c) that best fills
in the spaces.

1. A cup of tea helped to ________ a. chill out

her __________. b. get across
a. Calm down c. set out
b. get across
c. put down 3. Don ________ his girlfriend ________
in front of other people all the time.
a. puts down
2. How can we ________ our message b. looks at
________ to the public? c. switches off
4. You should get a doctor to 11. Huw ____________ in the gym two
_______________ that cut. or three times a week.
a. find out a. works out
b. traipse around b. traipses around
c. look at c. calms down

5. I like to ____________ in front of 12. She ________________ the top

the television with a glass of wine prize.
and some nibbles. a. walked off with
a. chill out. b. chilled out
b. work out c. ran round after
c. walk off with
13. I seem to spend most of my time
6. He has such a bad temper that he _______________ those kids.
____________ easily. a. running round after
a. flares up b. traipsing around
b. sets out c. getting across
c. calms down

7. We are trying to ____________

what the problem is.
a. chill out
b. switch off
c. find out

8. Don’t forget to ____________ the

light when you leave.
a. switch off
b. Stand out against
c. set out

9. More and more people are

__________________ what is a very
unpopular piece of legislation.
a. Walking off with
b. Running round after
c. Standing out against

10. I spent the day

__________________ the shops, but
found nothing suitable for her.
a. flaring up
b. traipsing around
c. Working out
 Interview
https://docs.google.com/forms/d/1wZ3yVZ3BdFWYR_jo-
c5cbzsMMOahyaGk19ycIQhRTmI/viewform
DESCRIPTION OF THE AUTONOMOUS LEARNING MODEL: PHRASEBOOKIE

Relationship with the findings

Our research was aimed at determining the rates of recalling and retention of phrasal
verbs in 6, 7 and 9th semester students of the English Language Teaching program
(ELT) at Universidad Industrial de Santander (UIS). In order to gather data we
administered a proficiency test and a questionnaire.

After analyzing the information obtained we concluded that students from the latter
semesters did not performed as well as the others. Moreover, we drew the
conclusion that all participants agreed with the fact that learning phrasal verbs and
using them not only in the classroom but also outside it, is really important. As they
did not spend enough time exposed to them, neither had sufficient practice and
reinforcement of the vocabulary in a setting different from the classroom; so they felt
they have forgotten a little the vocabulary, because of the lack of practice in
everyday life or even in the learning context. Then, having this in mind, researchers
decided to create an autonomous learning model that consists on a Facebook
application in which learners can practice phrasal verbs every day and at any time.
This is for students to have an active role in their learning process.

Furthermore, according to the data revealed in the questionnaire, students also said
that they liked methods such as picture association , language use in oral activities,
matching, worksheets, flashcards, etc. Taking into account that each person learns
better in different ways, we will incorporate the multiple intelligences theory Gardner
(1983), in order to provide activities that fulfill students’ needs. We will avoid
exercises of memorization, because we want people to internalize phrasal verbs and
not learn them just for the moment.
Purpose
The purpose of our autonomous learning model is that ELT learners, through the
use of a Facebook application, can recall and internalize vocabulary of phrasal verbs
easily and in a more meaningful way that they can enjoy and have free access to.

Scope of the application

Everybody knows that Facebook as a social network has become a really useful and
free access tool for social life, gaming and even learning. That is why this learning
instrument will be available in all Facebook versions, from computers to
smartphones and Android technology.

Population it is aimed at
This Facebook App was designed mainly to address the needs of the English
Language Teaching program students at UIS. However, any person or student that
has a Facebook account and willingness to learn phrasal verbs can have access to
it.

Technological tools paradigm

Nowadays, it is widely known that technology has a big impact on education. As it is

mentioned in Ken Robinson’s video: “Changing education paradigms”, learners now
have different means to obtain knowledge and they know how to use technology.
The speed of processing information, especially for young learners, is very fast due
to the fact that they absorb everything from the digital means; a problem then arises
when teachers keep using traditional methods for teaching causing students to get
bored easily. Contemporary students are part of the technological world, especially
young learners; so, why not using technology in favor of autonomous learning?
Bearing this question in mind, we decided that our autonomous learning model would
be directly linked with the usage of Tech & Ed as a Facebook App will be the platform
on which it will be developed.
Since Facebook was created, there has been controversy in whether it should be
used for instructional purposes or not. Many articles have been published in defense
or against this, but still we cannot say exactly who has the final word. One of the
articles in favor is the one published on the online college website called ‘99 ways
you Should Be Using Facebook in Your Classroom’, and some of them are for journal
entries, highlight vocabulary, for collaboration, discussion, for classroom
management, etc. Furthermore, another article presents us with an interesting
premise: ‘College students prefer to use Facebook in their courses, because it is
easy to use and it can take the class to a different level, in which students can have
discussions that improve their critical thinking.’

As duality is presented in every aspect of life, so, this topic also has two sides to look
at: the cons of using Facebook in the classroom. An article written by Dmourlam
(2011), mentions that using it is not commendable not only because students might
be negatively affected by it but also because teachers have not had enough
professional preparation in how to use this tool in educational settings. A different
article written by Charlie Osborne (2012) states that students can get exposed to
inappropriate content, also that too much technological input can have a detrimental
effect on social skills that children need to learn, in fact, it can promote cyber bullying
and an increasingly rapid diminishing in attention, as students are tempted to open
sites completely unrelated to the class.

App procedure:

In inspite of these nuisances, our model is in favour of technology, and in fact is our
main working tool as this can have full accessibility to many population. Beforehand,
we need to clarify that to access to this technological instrument, people do not have
to submit any personal information; as it is with their very own Facebook account, all
App information is stored in the person’s same account. When you access to
Facebook, look for the App called “Phrase bookie”. The first step for new users, is to
take or skip taking a Multiple Intelligences test proposed by Howard Gardner, in
order to see how each mind thinks and works, and identify its strongest points when
learning. They take it if they are not sure about it or do not know at all, or they have
the chance to skip it if they already know themselves in this sense.

The second step consists of having the chance to select the amount of vocabulary
pupils want to learn in a certain period of time chosen by them too. Learners can
study from 5 up to 10 or even 40 up to 50 phrasal verbs which is the limit that the
application contains. Additionally to this, learners will have to select what kind of
practice they want to start with, games or activities. Moreover, they are given the list
of phrasal verbs so what they have to do is to choose the ones they want to study
first.

After that, pupils will find the ‘activities’ option. There, they will have to select the
amount of notifications or announcements and the frequency they want to receive
them, in order to practice the activities for the proposed vocabulary (phrasal verbs).
Whenever they finish each set of vocabulary, they again have the opportunity to
make these decisions for the new group of words, and also they will recycle all the
phrasals previously studied when randomly practicing with the notifications.

After this important decision is made, students will have to start with the input part.
They have to click on the option ‘fill in the word map’. As students have previously
selected the amount of vocabulary they want to study, they now will start storing
information of each word by using a word map template (Adapted from: Betsy
Hughes lesson plan).

This word map consists of 8 different parts used to represent the meaning of a
phrasal verb in different ways. The first part contains the phrasal verb, in the second
part, the student is asked to look for the definition in a dictionary, the third part, the
student have to write an example to that phrasal, in the fourth and fifth part, the
student will provide a synonym, and then an antonym, in the sixth part, this person
will write a word that he or she might associate to his/her mother tongue, the seventh
part, the learner will draw a picture, sketch or sign that he or she might find easy to
identify and relate to the phrasal verb, in the last part, the learner will be able to
provide an original example sentence, and finally click on the submit button in order
to store this information in a personal word-bank, to use it later in the practice section.

After filling the word map with the selected amount of vocabulary, students will start
with the practice section. As it was the learners choice, they will receive notification
periodically in which there will appear an activity to complete about the studied
phrasal verbs. This types of tasks are focused on the results obtained in the multiple
intelligences test or their answers about how the students learn better. The rationale
of this is to provide exercises to reinforce vocabulary, and a address it in a more
assertive way.

Furthermore, after practicing the activities sent to the pupil’s Facebook via a
notification, learners can find a final option called ‘My Process’. In this section
students can have access to the stored files they created for each piece of
vocabulary (word map) in order to refresh their memories or to correct mistakes. As
it is an autonomous application, pupils will have the chance to correct those
mistakes and see if their activities are right or wrong by showing them an example
of the activity already made, so they can see if they are on the same page.

Finally, as metacognition plays an important role in self-assessment, this application

wants the learner to take the whole responsibility of their own learning process. This
has strategies that gives them the opportunity to manage their own processes, by
making choices and reflecting on this. This is why after each set of words that have
studied, learners will have to reflect on their performance by filling in a self-
assessment information chart, adapted from one proposed by Ellis and Sinclair
(1989). This is part of the ‘My process’ section, this way, the application will keep a
record of the thoughts made on the learning experiences involving the vocabulary
acquisition.
Relevant aspects about the application:

- It is important to point out that all the vocabulary that is studied will be recycled
during the activities. This practice will include previous vocabulary and the one the
student is currently learning.

- Also, they will have the opportunity to change the schedule they initially chose for
receiving the notification, as well as the amount of vocabulary they want to study,
together with the time they want to spend working on them.

Self-assessment and Metacognitive Process.

Taking this into account, we decided to take advantage and use Facebook to design
an autonomous learning model; meaning that students will have the control over
what they learn, how they want to learn and even decide how much time they want
to spend learning phrasal verbs, which is our main concern. Based on the John
Flavell’s Metacognitive theory proposed in 1976, the App proposal was designed for
students to come up with an action plan for further development and finally,
evaluation.

Therefore it is pertinent to review some concepts in order to support our model.

According to Finch’s Ph.D thesis, in which he gathered several definitions to the term
Autonomy, one of those is: ‘… an ability, a power or capacity to do something”
(Concise Oxford Dictionary) “and not a type of conduct, behaviour. … To say of a
learner that he is autonomous is therefore to say that he is capable of taking charge
of his own learning and nothing more.’ (Holec 1980:4).

Moreover, everything that was mentioned before, result in the learner’s self-
assessment which is undoubtedly linked to self-awareness, as the latter is a key
element to reach to the state on which self-assessment is possible. The state of self-
awareness parallels inner speech, sometimes proven to possibly be the
representation of the cognitive method of processing information about itself. But
according to Jie L, beyond the mere definition of it, there are the benefits of inner
speech, the ones that will be vital in order to carry out a self-assessment: increasing
memory retention and deep processing.

Finally, some suggestions about keeping a record of reflections on learning: learning

logs, portfolios, other self-assessment tools are proposed in the Appendix
of Suggested language learning strategies in (2008), that also brings up some
‘Metacognitive Strategies to Support Vocabulary Development’, such as, managing
learner’s own learning, making choices about vocabulary learning and reflecting on
those choices, making a plan, in advance, about how to approach the learning of
vocabulary and taking responsibility for planning, monitoring and evaluating learning
experiences involving vocabulary acquisition.

These metacognitive strategies are indispensable elements to achieve a successful

L2 acquisition; nevertheless, there might seem that achieving such a thing is easier
for some individuals than for others. According to Salamian (2002) this fact has
motivated some investigation into individual characteristics as predictors of success
on L2 acquisition. Researchers have focused on determining the strategies used in
learning and the individual differences that may affect both strategy and success.

One of the aforementioned differences existing in individuals are the cognitive

learning styles, which vary from subject to subject. There are several cognitive
learning styles theories, but for the sake of this paper, we focused on the Mind styles
model proposed by Anthony F. Gregorc in 1984, and the Multiple Intelligences theory
proposed by Howard Gardner in 1999.

In first instance, “Cognitive styles describe how the individual acquire knowledge
(cognition) and processes information (conceptualization).” These are directly
linked to the mental processes each person conducts when facing a problem-
solving situation. It wasn’t until mid 1960’s that the concept started emerging, and
it developed and grew over the years. Anthony F. Gregorc stated that there are four
combinations of the most dominant perceptual and ordering ability styles in each
person; although none is a spotless style, each person has a unique blending of
natural strengths and abilities.

1. Concrete Sequential (CS)

2. Abstract Random (AR)

3. Abstract Sequential (AS)

4. Concrete Random (CR)

According to this classification the author describes each profile in people:

1.Concrete sequential: this person likes order,logical sequence, following

directions and getting facts.They learn best when, they have a structured
environment, when they can rely on others to complete this task, they are faced
with predictable situations, and when they can apply ideas in pragmatic ways. For
them is hard to work in groups or in an unorganized environment, to follow
incomplete or unclear directions, deal with abstract ideas and activities that
demands to use the imagination.On his theory of a Mind Styles Model Gregorc
(1984) says that “They notice and recall details easily and remember facts, specific
information, formulas, and rules with ease. 'Hands on' is a good way for these
students to learn. For your CS Learners—build on their organizational strengths.
Provide them with details. Break their projects down into specific steps. Set up quite
work environments.

2.Abstract radom: This learner likes to listen to others, bringing harmony to group
situations,establishing healthy relationships with others focusing on the issues at
hand. Their learning process is better when they are in a personalized environment,
when they are given broad or general guidelines, when they are able to maintain
friendly relationships, and when they can participate in group activities. For them is
hard to explain or justify their feelings, compete with others, work with authoritarian
personalities and focusing one thing at a time.

3. Abstract sequential: These people like their point to be heard, they analyze before
making any decision or acting, and they apply logic in solving or finding solutions to
problems. Also, this person learns better when she/he has access to experts or
references, when is placed in stimulating environment, and when is able to work
alone. However, they also have difficulties with some aspects, those are: being
forced to work with people with different views, having too little time to deal with a
task thoroughly, repeating the same task over and over, being given lots of rules
and regulations, thinking in a ‘sentimental’ way, expressing their emotions, being
diplomatic when convincing others, and not monopolizing a conversation.

Other characteristics of this kind person is that she/he gets bored easily and loves
being sit in judgment, her/his creativity is based on synthesis, theories, models, and
matrices. Only 10% of the population share this thinking style.

4. Concrete random: This type of learners enjoy trying out new things, they are also
known as divergent thinkers that head towards creative innovation, according to
Guilford (1965). These people are always trying to find out different ways to carry
out things. In the classroom they need choices about demonstrating their
understanding as well as creating new things. Also , they perform better when, they
learn through experience, when they are able to compete with others and wade the
problems on their own. For them is hard to handle with restrictions and limitations,
formalities, routines, giving detailed explanations and having no options. Choice of
activities, spontaneity and extensions to activities.

In other perspective regarding cognitive styles we found that Herman Witkin was the
one who introduced the terminology ‘cognitive style’ in order to describe the concept
that ‘individuals consistently reveal noticeable preferences for the ways in which they
organize stimuli and build up sense of things for themselves out of their experiences.’
These Cognitive styles include variables such as global-holistic vs. Focused-
detailed, field-dependent vs. Field-independent constructs, which are considered to
be the perceptual factors of the cognitives styles.

GLOBAL-HOLISTIC: People who share this cognitive style are those who have a
preference for seeing the task in the broadest possible, as its name says, in a global
or holistic way. This perspective gaining an overview of the area of study in order to
contextualize details. Moreover, it is possibly more difficult for holists to excerpt the
organizing ideas from a text without specific cues. In the same trail of thought, holists
may also have more difficulty when developing a task and deciding what is
indispensable in the early stages. Hoslists use VISUAL and use personal
experiences to expand their understanding. Drawing mind maps, using imagery and
color are useful memory strategies for people with this cognitive style. Furthermore,
creative tasks such as making up stories are also likely to appeal to holists. However,
they may need to develop lots of strategies that reward their natural tendency to
overgeneralize and avoid important aspects and differences between ideas.

FOCUSED-DETAILED: this is a progressive learning process. Focused-detailed

learners are good at picking up little small differences but are weak at distinguishing
similarities. When this type of learners are performing writing tasks, they need to
make a considerable effort to "brainstorm" for new ways of approaching a subject.
Another common weaknesses for this learners are having difficulties when
evaluating content and lacking in personal interpretation or independent
conclusions.
FIELD INDEPENDENT: these are those people who tend to work on things without
the basis on external environment. They usually like competition and individual
identification. They are also known as analytical learners because they perform
better when learning the theory before doing the assignment. According to Witkin,
Moore, Goodenough, and Cox's, a definition of field independence is "the extent to
which a person perceives part of a field as discrete from the surrounding field as a
whole, rather than embedded in the field; or. . . the extent to which the person
perceives analytically".

FIELD DEPENDENT: Herman Witkin first proposed this concept in 1962, referring
to those who tend to accept or rely on the external environment. They prefer working
with others to set a common goal, which is linked to the fact that they are very
sensitive to others’ feelings, ideas and opinions. Another preference of theirs is that
they pick learning and practicing by experimentation before starting the task. In this
kind of learner, the teacher poses a big influence.

This chart shows the principal characteristics of the two cognitive styles and the
implications of each for L2 learning (Ellis 1993; based on Hawkey: 1982).

Field independence Field dependence

1. Impersonal orientation 1. Personal orientation

i.e. reliance on internal frame of i.e. reliance on external frame of
reference in processing information reference in processing
information

2. Analytic 2. Holistic
i.e. perceives a field in terms of its i.e. perceives field as a whole;
component parts; parts are parts are fused with background
distinguished from background
 3. Independent 3. Dependent
i.e. sense of separate identity i.e. the self view is derived from
others

4. Socially sensitive 4. Not so socially aware

i.e. greater skill in interpersonal/social i.e. less skilled in
relationships interpersonal/social
relationships

On the other hand, the Multiple Intelligences theory helped us to design the kind of
activities we needed to incorporate to the application due to the fact that people learn
in different ways. For this reason, we will start by introducing what intelligences are
about and what kind of activities to increase knowledge better suit to each one of
them.

Gardner (1989) defines intelligence as “the ability to solve problems that have value
in at least one culture, or as something that a student is interested in. He then added
a disclaimer that he has no fixed definition, and his classification is more of an artistic
judgment than fact:Ultimately, it would certainly be desirable to have an algorithm
for the selection of an intelligence, such that any trained researcher could determine
whether a candidate's intelligence met the appropriate criteria. At present, however,
it must be admitted that the selection (or rejection) of a candidate's intelligence is
reminiscent more of an artistic judgment than of a scientific assessment. ”

There are different kind of intelligences:

1. Visual intelligence: People with visual intelligence are artistic. They are very
aware of their surroundings and they are good at remembering images. They have
a great sense of direction. They like to draw, paint and read maps. They learn best
through drawings and visual aids. In their research Gardner and Hatch
(1989) stated that “this area deals with spatial judgment and the ability to visualize
with the mind's eye. Spatial ability is one of the three factors beneath g in the
hierarchical model of intelligence.”

2. Naturalist: People with this type of intelligence are always interest in the
environment. They enjoy being in nature and want to protect it from pollution and
damage. Students with this intelligence can easily recognize and categorize plants,
animals, and rocks. Morris (2004) “This sort of ecological receptiveness is deeply
rooted in a "sensitive, ethical, and holistic understanding" of the world and its
complexities–including the role of humanity within the greater ecosphere.”

3. Tactile or kinesthetic learners: This type of people learn best through moving,
doing, touching and exploring the physical world around them. For they it is difficult
to stay sit for long periods and may become distracted by their need for activity
exploration. These students have a big connection between their bodies and their
minds. They also have a good sense of balance and eye-hand coordination.

4. Logical-Mathematical Intelligence: “This area has to do with logic, abstractions,

reasoning, numbers and critical thinking” Gardner & Hatch (1989). This type
of students enjoy working with numbers. They find easy interpreting data and
analyzing abstract patterns. Their thinking is based on terms of cause and effect.
People with this type of intelligence are excellent at drawing conclusions from
gathered data, these learners are prone to asking endless questions and conducting
experiments.Generally these students are curious about the world around them
hence they start making connections between things.

5. Intrapersonal intelligence: People with an intrapersonal intelligence are the

ones who are specially in touch with their own feelings, values, and ideas, also, they
normally tend to be more reserved however, they are actually quite intuitive about
what they learn and how it relates to themselves. On the other hand, this intelligence
could be called Self Smart. These people have a deep awareness of themselves
and their strengths, weaknesses and limitations and hold high expectations to
improve or challenge themselves. They will probably be the kind of people that keep
a diary for instances. They are the most independent of the learners, they are the
most autonomous ones. Moreover, their learning takes place through reflections on
themselves, on their lives and experiences.

This kind of intelligence deals with metacognitive thinking, that is to say, the way we
think about thinking, and how they feel about their inner states of being. Students
with this intelligence usually need time alone to work and create, that is why,
suggested activities to increase vocabulary are sometimes proposed by themselves.
Following the same trail of thought, the intrapersonal intelligence is the most private
intelligence of all, for that reason, many unique needs to achieve success using this
intelligence are required. On the other hand, these students tend to be goal oriented,
and are very good at solving and reflecting about a problem, also, they see
themselves as in control of their own learning and life.They are usually confident
when saying that their success is due to their efforts, planning, practice, and
perseverance.

6. Musical Intelligence: People with a musical intelligence are the ones who enjoy
learning through the use of songs, patterns, rhythms, instruments and musical
expressions. They love music and enjoy recognizing sounds, timbre, or the quality
of a tone. This people are sometimes called being musical smart, that is to
say, musical students think, feel, and process information primarily through sounds.
Moreover, people gifted with this kind of intelligence have a superior ability to
perceive sounds, compose, an/or perform music. On the other hand, people who
have a predominant musical intelligence constantly hear musical notes, instruments,
and melodies in their heads. Furthermore, some of the useful tools used to teach
people with this kind of learning style are: musical instruments, music, radio, stereo,
CD-ROM, and multimedia.

7. Interpersonal: Taking Gardner’s words “This area has to do with interaction with
others”. People with this type of intelligence are usually extraverted, talkative or too
social in a traditional environment. They learn best through interaction, working
cooperatively in groups and they tend to have many friends. These people care
about others, they find easy to read body language and others’ feelings by their tone
of voice. They are considered good leaders.

8. Verbal/Linguistic Intelligence: People who developed this type of intelligence,

demonstrate high proficiency in the language skills such as speaking, writing,
reading, and listening. These students normally tend to succeed in traditional
classrooms as this is their way they learn. Moreover, these people have the ability
to teach and explain things to others. On the other hand, there are more
characteristics that describe this type of learners. Among the characteristics are:
notice grammatical mistakes with a great ease, likes to use ‘fancy’ words, loves word
games, likes puns and rhymes as the musical intelligence, enjoy learning foreign
languages, are very good listeners and easily remember quotes and famous
sayings.

For each learner’s profile we use different activities that is suitable for the addressed
needs and for each type of intelligence:

1. Learning activities for Visual/spatial learners:

 the use of flashcards ( flashcard games)
 Comics and Cartoons(Take a comic strip and white out the speech bubbles.)
 Word Puzzles (crosswords to word search)
 Drawing – Pictionary

 Whiteboard Games (visual learners love colors)

  Graphic Organizers:(From Venn Diagrams to Sequence Charts, these
graphic helpers really get the point across)

 Videos

 Multimedia (PowerPoint slides also help students retain new concepts

and words). Illustrated reading (books with illustrations. )

2. Learning activities for Naturalist learners:

 Caring for classroom pets.

 Sorting and classifying natural objects, such as leaves and rocks.
 Researching animal habitats.
 Observing natural surroundings.
 Organizing or participating in park/playground clean-ups, recycling drives,
and beautification projects.

3. Learning activities for Bodily-Kinesthetic learners:

 Typing is a great example of kinesthetic learning. Many English learners

improve their spelling skills by typing out and using word processing
programs. Fun games such as acting out 'heads, shoulders, knees and toes'
are also examples of kinesthetic English learning activities.

 Acting out concepts. For example, for the solar system, "student planets"
circle around a "student sun." Students line up appropriately to demonstrate
events in a history timeline.
 Building objects using blocks, cubes, or Legos to represent concepts from
content-area lessons.
 Using electronic motion-simulation games and hands-on construction kits that
interface with computers.
 Dramatic re-enactments of historical or literary events
  Using different body parts to measure objects

4. Learning activities for Logical-Mathematical learners:

 Learning English through the use of logical deduction. Understanding the
rules of grammar and applying them when diagramming sentences is a
perfect example of logical intelligence used in an English teaching setting
 Designing alphabetic and numeric codes.
 Making up analogies.
 Solving mysteries using deductive reasoning

 Predicting outcomes based on circumstances

 Solving number or logic puzzles

 Doing financial planning for an imaginary business

5. Learning activities for Intrapersonal learners:

 Writing reflective papers on content -areas topics.

 Writing essays from the perspective of historical figures.
 Writing a literary autobiography, reflecting on their reading life.
 Writing goals for the future and planning ways to achieve them.
 Using softwares that allow them to work alone.
 Cloze stories using certain vocabulary

6. Learning activities for Musical Learners:

 Exploring instruments
 Listening Bingo
 Singing together and writing poetry or songs.
 Writing their own songs and music about a content-area topic.
 Putting original poems to music and then performing them for the class.
 Setting a poem to music, and then performing it for the class.
  Listening to music from different historical periods
 Listening to CDs that teach concepts.

7. Learning Activities for interpersonal learners:

 Design projects about a certain topic in groups.
 Interviewing people with knowledge about topics of a specific area. Learn
through other’s experience and testimony.
 Make a puppet show.
 Perform in plays.
 Debates.

8. Learning activities for verbal/linguistic learners:

 Writing stories
 Crossword puzzles with vocabulary words.
 Games like Scrabble or Boggle.
 Using digital resources such as electronic libraries, desktop publishing, word
games, and word processing.
 Creating poems or stories.
 Listening to a storyteller.
 Storytelling
 Telling a story to the class.
 Participating in debates or discussions.
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